Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.17 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara Indonésia 0 601 712324 711725 2026-08-28T20:47:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Indonesia infobox}}{{geulis}} '''Républik Indonésia''' ('''RI''') (Aksara Sunda: ᮛᮦᮕᮥᮘᮣᮤᮊ᮪ ᮄᮔ᮪ᮓᮧᮔᮦᮞᮤᮃ) nyaéta hiji nagara di [[Asia Tenggara]], nu diliwatan ku gurat [[khatulistiwa]] jeung aya di antara Buana [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia]] sarta antara [[Samudra Pasifik]] jeung [[Samudra Hindia]]. Indonésia mangrupa nagara [[kapuloan]] nu panggedéna sadunya, diwangun ku 13.487 pulo,<ref>[http://nasional.vivanews.com/news/read/260537-indonesia-daftarkan-13-487-pulau-ke-pbb Indonesia Daftarkan 13.487 Pulau ke PBB]{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands "Indonesia has completed surveys on its 13,000 islands", ][[Antara|ANTARA News Agency]]<span>, 18 August 2010</span> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318145945/http://www.antaranews.com/en/news/1282089150/indonesia-has-completed-surveys-on-its-13-000-islands|date=18 March 2015}}</ref> ku kituna disebut ogé [[Nusantara]] ("pulo luar", Jawa dianggap salaku puseurna).<ref name=Kroef>{{cite journal |title=The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |author=Justus M. van der Kroef |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=166–171 |year=1951 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |doi=10.2307/595186 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410201834/http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 |date=2020-04-10 }}</ref> Kalawan populasi disawang 270 yuta jiwa dina taun 2020,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005–2006 |date=[[1 September]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=[[26 September]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927070525/http://www.bps.go.id/releases/files/kemiskinan-01sep06.pdf |date=2006-09-27 }}</ref> Indonésia minangka nagara nu populasina panglobana kaopat sadunya sarta nagara populasi pangagem [[Islam]] nu panglobana sadunya, sanajan sacara resmi Indonésia lain [[Républik Islam|nagara Islam]]. Wangun pamaréntahan Indonésia nyaéta [[républik]], kalawan [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat]], [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia|Déwan Perwakilan Daérah]], jeung [[Présidén Indonésia|Présidén]] nu dipilih langsung ku rahayatna. Puseur dayeuh nagara Indonésia nyaéta [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta|Jakarta]]. Indonésia boga wates wewengkon jeung [[Malaysia]] di [[Pulo Kalimantan]], [[Papua Nugini]] di [[Pulo Papua]], sarta [[Timor Lésté]] di [[Pulo Timor]]. Indonésia mangrupa anggota [[PBB]] sarta sahiji-hijina anggota PBB nu kungsi kaluar ti organisasi éta. Salian éta, Indonésia ogé anggota ti [[ASEAN]], [[APEC]], [[OSI]] jeung [[G-20]]. == Ngaran == {{seealso|Sajarah ngaran Indonésia}} Kecap "Indonésia" asalna ti [[Basa Latin]]<nowiki/> tina kecap ''dus'' nu hartina "Hindia" sarta kecap [[Basa Yunani]] ''nesos'' nu hartina "pulo".<ref name="EcoSeas1">{{cite book |last=Tomascik |first=T |coauthors=Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. |title=The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd. |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |id=ISBN 962-593-078-7}}</ref> Jadi, lamun ditilik sacara harti kecap ''Indonésia'' hartina [[wewengkon]] Hindia kapuloan, atanapi kapuloan nu aya di Hindia, nu nunjukkeun yén ngaran ieu geus aya saméméh Indonésia jadi nagara daulat.<ref name="indoety">{{cite news |last=Anshory |first=Irfan |title=Asal Usul Nama Indonesia |publisher=Pikiran Rakyat |date=[[16 Agustus]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm |date=2006-12-15 }}</ref> Dina taun 1850, [[George Earl]], [[étnologi|etnolog]] nu asalna ti nagara Inggris, mimiti ngusulkeun sesebutan ''Indunesia'' jeung ''Malayunesia'' pikeun pangeusi "Kapuloan Hindia atawa Kapuloan Melayu".<ref name="JIAEA_1">{{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=119}}</ref> Murid éarl, [[James Richardson Logan]], maké kecap ''Indonésia'' salaku sinonim ti ''Kapuloan India''.<ref name="JIAEA_3">{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=James Richardson |title=The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ethnologyIndian00Loga/page/n15 4], 252–347}}; {{cite journal |last=Earl |first=George S. W. |title=On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations |journal=Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA) |year=1850 |pages=254, 277–278}}</ref> Tapi, panulisan akademik Walanda di média Hindia-Walanda teu maké kecap ''Indonésia'', tapi ''Kapuloan Melayu'' (''Maleische Archipel''); ''Hindia Wétan Walanda'' (''Nederlandsch Oost Indië''), atawa ''Hindia'' (''Indië''); ''Wétan'' (''de Oost''); sarta ''Insulinde'' (istilah ieu diwanohkeun taun 1860 dina novel ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' (1859), yasana [[Multatuli]], ngeunaan kritik kana kolonialisme Walanda).<ref name=Kroef/> Saprak taun 1900, ngaran Indonésia jadi leuwih ilahar dina lingkungan akademik di luareun [[Walanda]] , sarta golongan nasionalis Indonésia maké kecap éta dina widang pulitik.<ref name=Kroef/> [[Adolf Bastian]] ti [[Universitas Humboldt Bérlin|Universitas Bérlin]] ngawanohkeun ngaran ieu dina buku ''Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894''. Pelajar Indonésia munggaran nu maké ngaran ieu nyaéta [[Ki Hajar Dewantara|Suwardi Suryaningrat]] (Ki Hajar Dewantara), nalika anjeunna ngawangun kantor warta di Walanda nu ngaranna ''Indonesisch Pers Bureau'' dina taun 1913.<ref name="indoety"/> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Indonésia}} === Sajarah awal === Titinggal fosil-fosil ''[[Homo erectus]]'', nu ku [[Antropologi|antropolog]] ogé dilandi "[[Manusa Jawa]]", mawa pamadegan yén kapuloan Indonésia geus dieusian antara 2 yuta nepi ka 500.000 taun kaliwat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-anthropology_1988_17/page/43 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=[[15 Agustus]], [[1983]] |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |accessdate= |pmid=6410399 |doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121211948/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988 |date=2008-11-21 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}; {{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J.P. |coauthors=P.Y. Sondaar, |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4, 988–4992 |date=[[9 Desember]] [[1994]] |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225215/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }} cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |coauthors=Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309 |id=}}</ref>. Bangsa [[Austronésia]], nu ayeuna mangrupa mayoritas pangeusi Indonésia, pindah ka Asia Tenggara ti [[Formosa]]. Maranéhna disawang nepi ka Indonésia dina taun 2000&nbsp;SM, sarta ngabalukarkeun Bangsa [[Mélanésia]] nu geus aya saméméhna kagigirkeun ka wewengkon nu jauh di beulah wétan.<ref>Taylor (2003), kaca 5–7</ref> Kaayaan nu cocog pikeun tatanén ngabalukarkeun geu ayana kaahlian [[Sawah|melak paré]] saprak [[abad ka-8 SM]],<ref> {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/9 8]–9 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref>. ku kituna ngabalukarkeun ogé ku lobana désa, kota, jeung karajaan-karajaan leutik tumuwuh jeung mekar dina [[abad ka-1]] M. Salian ti éta, Indonésia nu aya di jalur perdagangan laut internasional jeung antar pulo, geus jadi jalur lalayaran antara India jeung Cina dina sababaraha abad.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia |year=2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/16 15]–18 |id=ISBN 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Sajarah Indonésia saterusna boga loba pangaruh ti kagiatan paniagaan éta.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), hal. 18–20, 60, 133–134</ref> [[Gambar:Borobudur ship.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rélief kapal di Candi [[Borobudur]], <u>+</u>800 M.]] Ti pangaruh agama [[Hindu]] jeung [[Buddha]], sababaraha karajaan ngadeg di pulo [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], jeung [[Jawa]] saprak [[abad ka-4]] nepi ka [[abad ka-14]]. [[Karajaan Kutai|Kutai]], nyaéta karajaan nu pangkolotna di Indonésia nu ngadeg dina abad ka-4 di hulu [[Walungan Mahakam]], [[Kalimantan Wétan]]. Di wewengkon kulon Pulo Jawa, dina abad ka-4 nepi ka ka-7 M aya Karajaan [[Tarumanagara]]. Dina abad ka-7 aya Karajaan Malayu nu puseurna di [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]], Sumatra. [[Karajaan Sriwijaya|Sriwijaya]] ngéléhkeun Malayu sarta jadi karajaan maritim nu pangkuatna di wewengkon [[Nusantara]]. Wewengkon kakawasaanna ngawengku Sumatra, Jawa, samenanjung Melayu, ogé ngawasaan paniagaan di Selat Malaka, Selat Sunda, sarta Laut Cina Kidul.<ref>Taylor (2003), hal. 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), hal. 3</ref> Kadatangan padagang-padagang [[urang Arab|Arab]] jeung [[urang Pérsia|Pérsia]] liwat Gujarat, India, tuluy mawa agama [[Islam]]. [[Samudera Pasai]] nu ngadeg dina taun [[1267]], mangrupa karajaan Islam kahiji di Indonésia. === Panjajahan === Indonésia ogé mangrupa nagara nu kungsi diéréh ku loba nagara. Ieu di handap nyaéta sababaraha nagara nu kungsi ngaéréh atawa ngajajah sakabéh atawa sabagian wewengkon Indonésia. * [[Portugal]] ([[1509]]-[[1595]]) * [[Spanyol]] ([[1521]]-[[1692]]) * [[Walanda]] * [[Perancis]], sacara teu langsung ngawasaan Jawa dina jaman 1806-1811 lantaran Karajaan Walanda taluk ka Prancis. Basa [[Louis Bonaparte]], adina [[Napoleon Bonaparte]], diistrénan di walanda dina taun 1806, ku kituna otomatis jajahan Walanda pindah ka Prancis. périodeu ieu lumangsung dina mangsa pamaréntahan Gubernur Jenderal [[Herman Willem Daendels]] di taun 1808-1811. Dipungkas taun 1811 nalika Inggris ngéléhkeun kakuatan Walanda-Prancis di pulo Jawa. * [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] [[1811]], saprak [[Kapitulasi Tungtang]] ditandatanganan nu salah sahiji eusina nyaéta [[Pulo Jawa]] dibéré ti [[Walanda]] ka [[Britania Raya|Inggris]]. Dina taun [[1814]] dilaksanakeun [[Konvénsi London]] nu eusina pamaréntah [[Walanda]] balik deui nyekel kakawasaan kana wewengkon jajahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia. Dina taun [[1816]], pamaréntahan [[Britania Raya|Inggris]] di Indonésia sacara resmi réngsé. * [[Jepang]] [[1942]] nepi ka [[1945]], ku sabab éléhna [[Jepang]] ti pihak sakutu dina [[Perang Dunya II]]. Nalika urang [[éropa]] daratang di mimiti [[abad ka-16]], maranéhna manggih sababaraha karajaan nu gampang diéléhkeun pikeun ngawasaan perdagangan rempah-rempah. Portugis mimiti nepi di 2 palabuan [[Karajaan Sunda]] nyaéta [[Banten]] jeung [[Padrao Sunda Kalapa|Sunda Kalapa]], tapi bisa ditundung jeung teras pindah ka wétan ngawasaan [[Maluku]]. Dina [[abad ka-17]], [[Walanda]] ngéléhkeun [[Britania Raya]] jeung [[Portugal]] (iwal di [[Timor Portugis]]). Disawang mangsa harita ageman [[Kristen]]<nowiki/>kmimiti sumebar dindonésia salaku salah sahiji tujuan imperialisme lawas nu kawanoh salaku ''3G'', nyaéta ''[[Gold, Glory, and Gospel]]'' atanapi "Emas, Kajayaan, jeung Ageman".<ref>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Louis B. |title=Gold, Glory, and the Gospel: The Adventurous Lives and Times of the Renaissance Explorers |url=https://archive.org/details/goldglorygospel0000unse |publisher=Atheneum |date=1970 |location=New York |pages= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ngawasaan Indonésia salaku wewengkon jajahan nepi ka [[Perang Dunya II]]. KaMimitina [[VOC]], tapi tuluy ku pamaréntah Walanda saprak awal abad ka-19. [[file:Raden Sarief Bastaman Saleh - Johannes Graaf van den Bosch.jpg|left|200px|thumb|[[Johannes van den Bosch]], panaratas ''Cultuurstelsel''.]] Walanda nyieun sistim ''[[Cultuurstelsel]]'' (''Sistem Pamelakan'') dina abad ka-19, nyaéta sistim melak kebon-kebon garedé sarta pelak paksa nu sakabéhna dilaksanakeun di Jawa, nu méré kauntungan pikeun Walanda nu teu bisa dihasilkeun ku VOC. Dina jaman pamaréntahan panjajahan nu leuwih bébas sanggeus [[1870]], sistim ieu dihapus. Sanggeus [[1901]] pihak Walanda ngawanohkeun [[Pulitik étis|Kawijakan étis]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 |publisher=MacMillan |date =1991 |location=London |pages=151 |url= |doi= |id=ISBN 0-33-579690-X}}</ref> nu ngawengku parobahan pulitik nu tangtu sarta invéstasi nu leuwih gedé di Hindia-Walanda. Dina jaman Perang Dunya II, nalika Walanda dijajah ku [[Jérman]], [[Jepang]] ngawasaan Indonésia. Indonésia dieréh deui dina taun [[1942]], Jepang nempo yén para pajuang Indonésia mangrupa batur paniagaan nu kooperatif jeung bisa milu jadi prajurit lamun dibutuhkeun. [[Sukarno]], [[Mohammad Hatta]], [[Mas Mansur, Kiai Haji|KH. Mas Mansur]], jeung [[Ki Hajar Dewantara]] dibéré pangajén ku [[Hirohito|Kaisar Jepang]] dina taun [[1943]]. === Indonésia merdika === {{seealso|Agrési Militér Walanda I|Agrési Militér Walanda II}} [[file:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Sukarno]], présidén kahiji Indonésia.]] Dina Maret [[1945]], Jepang ngawangun hiji komite pikeun kamerdikaan Indonésia. Sanggeus [[Perang Pasifik]] bérés dina taun 1945, dina tekenan organisasi nonoman, Soekarno-Hatta [[Proklamasi Kamerdikaan Indonésia|ngadéklarasikeun]] kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[17 Agustus]] [[1945]]. [[Sukarno]] jadi [[Présidén Indonésia]], sarta [[Mohammad Hatta]] jadi [[Wakil Présidén Indonésia]]. Dina usaha ngawasaan deui Indonésia, Walanda ngirimkeun pasukanna. Usaha-usaha ngalawan pergerakan kamerdikaan Indonésia ieu tuluy dipikawanoh ku Walanda salaku 'aksi kapulisian' (''Politionele Actie''), atanapi ku Indonésia dipikawanoh minangka 'Agrési Militér'.<ref>{{cite book |last=ZWEERS |first=L. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Agressi II: Operatie Kraai. De vergeten beelden van de tweede politionele actie |publisher=SDU uitgevers |date=1995 |location=[[Den Haag]] |pages= |url= |doi= |id= }}</ref> Walanda ahirna ngaku kamerdikaan Indonésia dina [[27 Désémber]] [[1949]] salaku nagara [[féderal]] nu disebut [[Républik Indonésia Sarikat]] sanggeus aya tekenan ti kalangan internasional, utamana [[Amérika Sarikat]]. Mosi Integral [[Natsir]] dina 17 Agustus 1950, ngahudangkeun balikna Negara Kesatuan Républik Indonésia sarta ngabubarkeun Républik Indonésia Sarikat. Dina jaman 1950-an jeung 1960-an, pamaréntahan Sukarno milu sakaligus naratas [[gerakan non-blok]] awalna, tapi tujuanna sangkan leuwih deukeut jeung blok [[sosialisme|sosialis]], saperti [[Républik Rahayat Cina]] jeung [[Yugoslavia]]. Taun 1960-an minangka saksi ayana konfrontasi militér jeung [[Malaysia]] ("''[[Konfrontasi Indonésia-Malaysia|Konfrontasi]]''"),<ref>van der Bijl, Nick. ''Confrontation, The War with Indonesia 1962—1966'', (London, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84415-595-8</ref> sarta kateupuasan kana héséna ékonomi. Salajuna dina 1965 aya kajadian [[G30S]] nu nyababkeun maotna 6 [[jendral]] sarta sababaraha [[perwira]] tengah lianna. Kaluar kakuatan anyar nu dilandi ''[[Orde Baru]]'' (Ordeu Anyar) nu nuduh [[Partéy Komunis Indonésia]] salaku dalang kajadian jeung boga maksud ngaléngsérkeun pamaréntahan nu keur aya sarta ngarobah dasar nagara kana paham [[sosialisme|sosialis]]-[[komunisme|komunis]]. Tuduhan ieu sakaligus dijadikeun alesan pikeun ngaganti pamaréntahan saméméhna dina paréntah Sukarno kana pamaréntahan nu anyar. Jendral [[Soeharto]] jadi Présidén Indonésia dina taun [[1967]] maké alesan pikeun ngamankeun nagara tina bahya [[komunisme]]. Ratusan rébu warga Indonésia nu dianggap milu pihak komunis ditelasan, samentara loba warga Indonésia nu keur aya di luar negri, teu wanieun mulih ka Indonésia, sarta teras dicabut [[kawarganagaraan]]na. Jaman kakawasaan Soeharto dilandi [[Orde Énggal]] sarta jaman pamaréntahan Sukarno disebut [[Orde Lawas]]. Soeharto ngagunakeun ékonomi [[néoliberalisme|néoliberal]] sarta hasil ngadatangkeun raloba [[invéstasi]] luar negri asup ka Indonésia sarta ngahasilkeun pamekaran ékonomi nu gedé, sanajan teu rata. Dina awal rézim Orde Énggal, kawijakan ékomomi Indonésia disusun ku sababaraha urang [[ékonom]] lulusan [[Universitas California, Berkeley]], nu dilandi "[[Mafia Berkeley]]".<ref>Wibowo, Sigit, Sjarifuddin. ''[http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html Ekonomi Indonesia Gagal karena Mafia Berkeley] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616191928/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0606/05/sh02.html |date=2008-06-16 }}'', Harian Umum Sore Sinar Harapan. Copyright © Sinar Harapan 2003. Diaksés: Salasa, 6 Agustus 2008.</ref> Soeharto ahirna dipaksa léngsér ti jabatanna ku aksi [[démonstrasi]] sarta kaayaan ékonomi nagara nu goréng dina taun [[1998]]. Sanggeus léngsérna Suharto, saprak 1998 nepi ka 2001, Indonésia miboga tilu [[Présidén Indonésia|présidén]]: [[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], sareng [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. Dina taun [[2004]], diayakeun [[pamilihan umum Indonésia|pamilihan umum]] hiji poé nu panggedéna sadunya<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Laporan dari [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Center Carter Center] |pages=30 |year=2004 |title=The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=[[29 Juli]] [[2008]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614025148/http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf |date=2007-06-14 }}</ref> sarta [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] kapilih salaku présidén. Sawatara wengkon Indonésia ngusahakeun pikeun misahkeun manéh, saperti [[Organisasi Papua Merdika|Papua Kulon]] jeung [[Républik Maluku Kidul|Maluku Kidul]]. [[Timor Wétan]] resmi misah ti Indonésia dina taun [[1999]] sanggeus 3 taun dina administrasi [[PBB]], jadi nagara [[Timor Lésté]]. Dina Désémber [[2004]] jeung Maret [[2005]], di wewengkon [[Acéh]] sarta [[Pulo Nias|Nias]] ngalaman [[lini]] nu nelasan rébuan jiwa. (Tingali ''[[Lini Samudra Hindia 2004]]'' jeung ''[[Lini Sumatra Maret 2005]]''.) Kajadian ieu disusul ku [[Lini Yogyakarta Méi 2006|lini di Yogyakarta]] jeung [[Lini Jawa Juli 2006|sunami]] di wewengkon [[Basisir Pangandaran]] dina taun [[2006]], sarta [[Caah leutak panas Sidoarjo 2006|caah leutak]] di [[Sidoarjo]] saprak taun 2006. == Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== {{utama|Pulitik Indonésia}} [[File:MPRDPRBuilding.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Gedong MPR-DPR Indonésia]] [[File:IstanaMerdekaFront.jpg|250px|thumb|right|'''Istana Merdeka''', bagian ti Istana Kaprésidénan Jakarta.]] Indonésia miboga pamaréntahan [[républik]] [[démokrasi]] [[sistim présidénsial|présidénsial]] multipartéy. Sistim pulitik Indonésia didasarkeun kana [[Pamisahan kakawasaan|Trias Politika]]: [[législatif]], [[éksekutif]], jeung [[yudikatif]]. Kakawasaan législatif dibogaan ku [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia|Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat]] (MPR). MPR Indonésia pernah jadi [[Majelis Permusyawaratan Rahayat Indonésia#Posisi|lembaga nagara pangluhurna]] sarta mangrupa [[sistim hiji kamar|hiji kamar (unikameral)]], tapi sanggeus [[Améndemén Ka-4 Undang-Undang Dasar Indonésia|améndmén ka-4 UUD Indonésia]] MPR sanés lembaga nu pangluhurna deui, sarta komposisi kaanggotaanna ogé robah. Saprak [[2004]], MPR miboga [[sistim dua kamar|sistim parlemén dua kamar (bikameral)]] nu disusun ku 560 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Indonésia]] (DPR) nu pajabatna ti jalur [[partéy pulitik di Indonésia|partéy pulitik]], sarta ditambih ku 132 anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Daérah Indonésia]] (DPD) nu minangka wakil propinsi ti jalur [[indepénden]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ | title = Perubahan Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 | language = Indonesia | format = pdf | accessdate = 2011-05-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118195924/http://www.bappenas.go.id/get-file-server/node/88/ |date=2012-01-18 }}</ref> Anggota DPR jeung DPD dipilih langsung ku rahayat dina [[pamilihan umum di Indonésia|pamilihan umum législatif]] sarta diangkat pikeun masa jabatan lima taun. Lembaga éksekutif museur kana [[présién Indonésia|présidén]], [[wakil présidén Indonésia|wakil présidén]], jeung [[kabinet Indonésia|kabinét]]. Kabinét di Indonésia mangrupa kabinét présidénsial jadina mentri mibanda tanggung jawab ka présidén. Lembaga yudikatif dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah Agung Indonésia|Mahkamah Agung]], [[Komisi Yudisial Indonésia|Komisi Yudisial]], jeung [[Mahkamah Konstitusi Indonésia|Mahkamah Konstitusi]]. Tapi [[Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa Indonésia|Kamentrian Hukum jeung Hak Asasi Manusa]] tetep aya. == Babagian administratif == {{Utama|Propinsi di Indonésia|Kabupatén di Indonésia|Kotamadya di Indonésia|Kacamatan di Indonésia}} Indonésia ayeuna miboga 38 [[propinsi]], 5 propinsi miboga status husus. Propinsi dibagi kana [[kabupatén di Indonésia|kabupatén]] jeung [[kotamadya di Indonésia|kotamadya]] nu dibagi deui kana [[kacamatan di Indonésia|kacamatan]]. Babagian administratifna lanjut deui nepi ka bagian nu pangleutikna nyaéta Rukun Tatangga (RT) nu mangrupa daérah tingkat ka-6. Unggal propinsi miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Propinsi di Indonésia|DPRD Propinsi]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[gubernur]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kabupatén miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kabupatén di Indonésia|DPRD Kabupatén]] salakeun badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[bupati]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Unggal kotamadya miboga [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Daérah Kotamadya di Indonésia|DPRD Kotamadya]] salaku badan législatif wewengkon sareng [[walikota]] salaku puseur badan éksekutif wewengkon. Sadayana, dipilih langsung ku rahayat langku pamilihan umum. Tapi di Jakarta (Wewengkon Husus Ibu Kota Jakarta) euweuh DPRD Kabupatén atanpai Kotamadya, ku sabab Kabupatén Administrasi jeung Kota Administrasi di Jakarta sanés wewengkon otonom.<ref>[http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara ''Kabupaten - Kementerian Dalam Negeri - Republik Indonesia'' Diaksés 4 Pébruari 2013 (UTC+7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306004821/http://www.kemendagri.go.id/pages/profil-daerah/kabupaten/id/31/name/dki-jakarta/detail/3172/kota-adm-jakarta-utara |date=2016-03-06 }}</ref> Propinsi [[Acéh]], [[Daérah Husus Yogyakarta]], [[Papua Kulon]], jeung [[Papua]] miboga hak husus sarta tingkat otonomi nu leuwih luhur ti propinsi nu lian. Misalna, Acéh boga hak pikeun nagntukeun sistim hukumna sorangan; dina taun 2003, Acéh mimiti maké hukum [[Syariah]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Michelle Ann Miller |title=The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism? |journal=Asian Ethnicity |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |year=2004 |pages=333–351 |doi=10.1080/1463136042000259789 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521082956/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005 |date=2015-05-21 }}</ref> Yogyakarta miboga status daérah husus salaku pangakuan kana pentingna Yogyakarta dina ngarojong Indonésia nalika Révolusi.<ref>[[Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat]] (1999). Bab XIV Other Provisions, Pasal 122; {{PDFlink|[http://id.wikisource.org/wiki/Undang-Undang_Republik_Indonesia_Nomor_5_Tahun_1974 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan di Daerah]|146&nbsp;}}. [[Présidén Indonésia]] (1974). Bab VII Aturan Peralihan, Pasal 91</ref> [[Propinsi Papua]] (baheulana disebut Irian Jaya), miboga status otonomi husus taun 2001.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dursin |first=Richel |coauthors=Kafil Yamin |title=Another Fine Mess in Papua |work=Editorial |pages= |language= |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm |date=2006-01-15 }}; {{cite news |title=Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta |publisher=The Jakarta Post |date=[[18 November]] [[2004]] |url=http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060115090759/http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta |date=2006-01-15 }}</ref> [[DKI Jakarta]] mangrupa wewengkon husus ibu kota nagara. [[Timor Portugis]] digabungkeun ka wewengkon Indonésia minangka propinsi [[Timor Wétan]] dina 1979–1999, nu teras misahkeun manéh liwat réferéndum jadi nagara merdika, [[Timor Lésté]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Burr |first=W. |coauthors=Evans, M.L. |title=Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto |work=National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62 |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Archive National Security Archieve], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_University Universitas George Washington], [[Washington, D.C.]] |date=2001-12-06 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |accessdate=2006-09-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822171438/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ |date=2011-08-22 }}</ref> ==Propinsi== {{Peta Indonesia}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Sumatra]]''' * [[Acéh]] - [[Kota Banda Acéh|Banda Acéh]] * [[Langsa]] - [[Kota Langsa|Kotua Langsa]] * [[Sumatra Kalér]] - [[Kota Médan|Médan]] * [[Sumatra Kulon]] - [[Kota Padang|Padang]] * [[Riau]] - [[Kota Pekanbaru|Pekanbaru]] * [[Kapuloan Riau]] - [[Kota Tanjungpinang|Tanjungpinang]] * [[Jambi]] - [[Kota Jambi|Jambi]] * [[Sumatra Kidul]] - [[Kota Palembang|Palembang]] * [[Kapuloan Bangka Belitung]] - [[Kota Pangkal Pinang|Pangkal Pinang]] * [[Bengkulu]] - [[Kota Bengkulu|Bengkulu]] * [[Lampung]] - [[Kota Bandar Lampung|Bandar Lampung]] '''Pulo [[Jawa]]''' * [[Daérah Husus Ibukota Jakarta]] * [[Banten]] - [[Kota Sérang|Sérang]] * [[Jawa Kulon]] - [[Kota Bandung|Bandung]] * [[Jawa Tengah]] - [[Kota Semarang|Semarang]] * [[Yogyakarta|Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta]] - [[Kota Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] * [[Jawa Wétan]] - [[Kota Surabaya|Surabaya]] '''Kapuloan [[Sunda Alit]]''' * [[Bali]] - [[Kota Denpasar|Denpasar]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon]] - [[Kota Mataram|Mataram]] * [[Nusa Tenggara Wétan]] - [[Kota Kupang|Kupang]] {{col-break}} '''Pulo [[Kalimantan]]''' * [[Kalimantan Kulon]] - [[Kota Pontianak|Pontianak]] * [[Kalimantan Tengah]] - [[Kota Palangka Raya|Palangka Raya]] * [[Kalimantan Kidul]] - [[Kota Banjarmasin|Banjarmasin]] * [[Kalimantan Wétan]] - [[Kota Samarinda|Samarinda]] * [[Kalimantan Kalér]] - [[Tanjung Selor]] '''Pulo [[Sulawesi]]''' * [[Sulawesi Kalér]] - [[Kota Manado|Manado]] * [[Gorontalo]] - [[Kota Gorontalo|Gorontalo]] * [[Sulawesi Tengah]] - [[Kota Palu|Palu]] * [[Sulawesi Kulon]] - [[Kota Mamuju|Mamuju]] * [[Sulawesi Kidul]] - [[Kota Makassar|Makassar]] * [[Sulawesi Tenggara]] - [[Kota Kendari|Kendari]] '''Kapuloan [[Maluku]]''' * [[Maluku]] - [[Kota Ambon|Ambon]] * [[Maluku Kalér]] - [[Sofifi]] '''Pulo [[Papua]]''' * [[Papua Kulon]] - [[Kota Manokwari|Manokwari]] * [[Papua]] - [[Kota Jayapura|Jayapura]] {{col-end}} == Géografi == {{utama|Géografi Indonésia}} [[file:Waterfall Madakaripura B.JPG|150px|thumb|right|[[Curug Madakaripura]] di [[Taman Nasional Bromo-Tengger-Semeru]], [[Lumbang, Probolinggo|Lumbang]], [[Kabupatén Probolinggo|Probolinggo]], [[Jawa Wétan]].]] Indonésia mangrupa [[nagara kapuloan]] di [[Asia Tenggara]]<ref>{{cite book | first=Harm | last=Dotinga | coauthors=Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea | title=International organizations and the law of the sea: documentary yearbook, Vol 14 |pages=960 | publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | year=2000 | isbn=9041113452, 9789041113450}}</ref> nu miboga 17.504 pulo, kalawan kirang-langkung 6.000 pulo heunteu dieusian<ref name="Indonesia Regions">{{cite press release |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5 Estimate |accessdate=[[5 Oktober]] [[2006]] |title=World Economic Outlook Database |month=April |year=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501013111/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005 |date=2018-05-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first =Hendriawan | title =Indonesia Regions | publisher =Indonesia Business Directory | url =http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ | accessdate =2007-04-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228011848/http://www.indonext.com/Regions/ |date=2005-12-28 }}</ref>, nu nyebar di wewengkon [[khatulistiwa]], kira-kira ti 95°BW - 141°45'BW sarta aya di antara 2 buana nyaéta [[Asia]] jeung [[Australia (buana)|Australia]]/[[Oséania]]. == Atikan == {{utama|Atikan di Indonésia}} Dumasar kana undang-undang di Indonésia, pamaréntah puseur jeung daérah miboga anggaran atikan 20% ti anggaran nagara jeung anggaran daérah salian ti upah guru jeung biaya kadinasan. Tapi dina taun [[2007]], dana nu disadiakeun karak 17,2 %<ref>World Bank, (2008), ''Spending for development: making the most of Indonesia's new opportunities : Indonesia public expenditure review'', World Bank Publications, ISBN 978-0-8213-7320-0</ref>. == Ékonomi == {{utama|Ékonomi Indonésia}} [[file:PDRB per kapita Indonesia 2008.svg|450px|thumb|left|Peta nu némbongkeun Produk Doméstik Régional Bruto (PDRB) per kapita propinsi-propinsi di Indonésia dina taun 2008. {| style="width:100%;" |- | valign=top | {{legend|#441650|Langkung ti Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#006680|Rp 50 yuta ++ - Rp 100 yuta}} {{legend|#217867|Rp 40 yuta ++ - Rp 50 yuta}} {{legend|#2ca089|Rp 30 yuta ++ - Rp 40 yuta}} | valign=top | {{legend|#37c8ab|Rp 20 yuta ++ - Rp 30 yuta}} {{legend|#aaeeff|Rp 10 yuta ++ - Rp 20 yuta}} {{legend|#d7eef4|Rp 5 yuta ++ - Rp 10 yuta}} {{legend|#dbdee3|Kirang ti Rp 5 yuta}} |}]] Sistim ékonomi Indonésia awalna dirojong ku ayana ''[[Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia|Oeang Repoeblik Indonesia (ORI)]]'' minangka mata uang kahiji Indonésia, nu sanggeusna ganti jadi [[Rupiah]]. Dina jaman pamaréntahan [[Orde Lawas]], Indonésia heunteu sapinuhna ngagunakeun sistim ékonomi kapitalisme, tapi dicampurkeun jeung sistim nasionalisme ékonomi. Pamaréntah nu masih anyar, raloba milu kana produksi nu boga pangaruh ka masarakat, ditambah ku kaayaan pulitik, nyababkeun ayana kateustabilan ékonomi nagara.<ref name="SCHWARZ">Schwarz, A. (1994). ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s''. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2, halaman 52–57.</ref> [[file:Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) banknotes2009.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Uang [[Rupiah]].]] Pamaréntahan Orde Énggal geura maké disiplin ékonomi pikeun neken [[inflasi]], stabilisasi mata uang, pangaturan [[tambut luar nagri]], sarta ngondang investasi asing.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Dina jaman [[1970-an]], harga [[minyak bumi]] nu naék nyababkeun naékna angka ékspor sarta tingkat tumbuh ékonomi rarata nu luhur saloba 7% antara taun 1968 nepi ka 1981.<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> Parobahan ékonomi salajengna dina jaman 1980-an, saperti dérégulasi kauangan jeung déflasi,<ref name='SCHWARZ'/> teras ngalirkeun invéstasi asing ka Indonésia hususna dina industri-industri nu ngarah ka ékspor antara 1989 nepi ka 1997<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |month=September |year=2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |format= |doi= |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101135702/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Ékonomi Indonésia ngalaman kamunduran dina ahir [[1990-an]] ku sabab [[krisis finansial Asia|krisis ékonomi]] di raloba wewengkon [[Asia]] keur éta,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them |journal=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-09-14 |accessdate=2006-12-26 |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128215856/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp |date=2006-11-28 }}</ref> nu dibarengan ku réngséna pamaréntahan Orde Énggal sarta mundurna Soeharto salaku présidén dina 21 Méi 1998. Pertumbuhan [[PDB|PDB Indonésia]] dina 2004 jeung 2005 leuwih ti 5%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Forecast |work=Country Briefings |publisher=[[The Economist]] |date=2006-10-03 |url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |accessdate= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804014414/http://www.economist.com/countries/Indonesia/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast |date=2008-08-04 }}</ref> Tapi, akibatna heunteu boga pangaruh loba dina tingkat pangangguran, nyaéta 9,75%.<ref>{{cite press release |publisher=Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia |title=Beberapa Indikator Penting Mengenai Indonesia |date=2008-12-02 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |format=PDF |language=[[Basa Indonésia]] |accessdate=2008-03-18 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401200753/http://www.bps.go.id/leaflet/leaflet-desember-07-ind.pdf |date=2008-04-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author=Ridwan Max Sijabat| title=Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape| publisher=[[The Jakarta Post]]| date=2007-23-03| url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070501081947/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp |date=2007-05-01 }}</ref> Perkiraan taun 2006, 17,8% masarakat hirup di handapeun [[gurat kamiskinan]], sarta aya 49,0% masarakat hirup kalawan panghasilan kirang ti AS$ 2 sapoé.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor - Overview |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |year=2006 |accessdate=[[26 Desember]] [[2006]] |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817013648/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf |date=2008-08-17 }}</ref> === Sumber daya alam === Indonésia miboga raloba [[sumber daya alam]] saperti [[minyak bumi]], [[timah]], [[gas alam]], [[nikel]], [[kai]], [[bauksit]], [[taneuh subur]], [[batu bara]], [[emas]], jeung [[pérak]] kalawan babagian lemah [[tatanén]] 10%, [[perkebonan]] 7%, [[tegalan]] 7%, [[leuweung]] 62%, sarta lianna 14% kalawan wewengkon [[irigasi]] 45.970&nbsp;km²<ref name="Indonesia: environment and development">{{cite book | first= | last=World Bank | coauthors= | title=A World Bank country study Country Studies: Indonesia: environment and development | publisher=World Bank Publications | year=1994 | isbn=0821329502, 9780821329504}}</ref> Hasil tatanén nu utama saperti [[béas]], [[entéh]], [[kopi]], [[rempah-rempah]], jeung [[karét]].<ref name='indoCIA'/> Widang [[jasa]] mangrupa panyumbang PDB nu panggedéna, nyaéta 45,3% dina PDB 2005. [[Industri]] 40,7%, sareng [[tatanén]] 14,0%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Statistics and its Development in Indonesia |work=Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18–20 February, 2004 |publisher=Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific |page=19 |format=PDF |url=http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929225211/http://www.unescap.org/stat/sos1/sos1_indonesia.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, widang tatanén miboga pagawé nu leuwih loba ti widan séjénna, nyaéta 44,3% ti 95 yuta jiwa. Widang jasa 36,9%, sarta widang industri 18,8%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indonesia at a Glance |work=Indonesia Development Indicators and Data |publisher=[[Bank Dunia]] |date=2006-08-13 |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/idn_aag.pdf |format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091223050110/http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/IDN_aag.pdf |date=2009-12-23 }}</ref> Sanajan kitu, lembaga [[Transparency International]] nempatkeun Indonésia di paringkat ka-143 ti 180 nagara dina [[Indéks Persépsi Korupsi]] taun 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title =[[Indeks Persepsi Korupsi]] |publisher =[[Transparency International]] |year =2007 |url =http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |accessdate =2007-09-28 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428203145/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 |date=2008-04-28 }}</ref> == Démografi == {{utama|Démografi Indonésia}} [[file:Kepadatan 2010.JPG|thumb|250px|Kapadetan populasi Indonésia dumasar kana Sénsus 2010]] Dumasar kana sénsus populasi taun 2000, Indonésia miboga kirang-langkungna 206 yuta jiwa,<ref name='bps2000'>{{cite press release |title=2000 Population Statistics |publisher=Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau |date=30 Juni 2000 |url=http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725055302/http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |date=2009-07-25 }}</ref> sarta diperkirakeun taun 2006 miboga 222 yuta jiwa.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> 130 yuta (leuwih ti 50%) ngeusian [[Pulo Jawa]] nu mangrupa pulo nu panglobana pangeusina sakaligus pulo tempatna ibu kota [[Jakarta]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Calder |first=Joshua |title=Most Populous Islands |publisher=World Island Information |date=2006-05-03 |url=http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |accessdate=2006-09-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814170852/http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm |date=2006-08-14 }}</ref> Kalobaannana urang Indonésia mangrupa [[Austronésia|Urang Austronésia]], sarta aya ogé kelompok urang [[Mélanésia]], [[Polinésia]], jeung [[Mikronésia]] utamina di Indonésia beulah wétan. Aya ogé urang nu asalna ti luar nagri saperti étnis [[Tionghoa]], [[urang India|India]], jeung [[urang Arab|Arab]]. Indonésia miboga kira-kira 4 yuta populasi urang Tionghoa.<ref name="eiu">{{cite paper |title=Country Profile 2008: Indonesia |pages= |publisher=[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit Economist Intelligence Unit] |date=16 Mei 2008 |doi= |url=http://portal.eiu.com/report_dl.asp?issue_id=1973383782&mode=pdf |format=pdf |id= |accessdate=2008-07-31 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129085351/https://portal.eiu.com/Login.aspx?c=1 |date=2021-01-29 }}</ref> ==Ageman== {{utama|Agama di Indonésia}} [[Islam]] mangrupa [[agama]] mayoritas nu pangagemna saloba kira-kira 85,2% urang Indonésia, nu nyababkeun Indonésia salaku nagara kalawan populasi muslim nu panglobana sadunya.<ref name='indoCIA'>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html|title=Indonesia - The World Factbook}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210041527/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html |date=2008-12-10 }}</ref> Umat lian saperti [[Protéstan|Kristen Protéstan]] (8,9%), [[Katolik|Kristen Katolik]] (3%), [[Hindu]] (1,8%), [[Buddha]] (0,8%), jeung sajabana (0,3%). Pamaréntah Indonésia ogé sacara resmi ngakuan [[agama Konghucu]].<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal |last=Yang |first=Heriyanto |title=The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia |journal=Religion |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=8 |month=August |year=2005 |url=http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-10-02 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910063300/http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf |date=2006-09-10 }}</ref> ==Basa== {{utama|Basa di Indonésia}} Indonésia miboga [[basa Indonésia]] salaku basa kahijian jeung [[basa nasional]]. Indonésia ogé kaasup salah sahiji nagara kareng basa panglobana di dunya.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 Ethnologue Map] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113015058/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_map.asp?name=World&seq=10 |date=2013-01-13 }}</ref> laloba basa, miboga rébuan panyatur tapi kaayaanna kaancam ku sabab generasi ngorana teu nyaturkeunna deui, sarta para panyatur pindah ka basa nasional.<ref name="endanger">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language Endangered language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205000731/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_language |date=2013-02-05 }}</ref> == Kabudayaan == {{utama|Budaya Indonésia}} === Péntas === [[file:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]].]] Indonésia miboga kira-kira 300 kelompok étnis nu boga rupa-rupa warisan budaya nu mekar sairing jaman, nu ogé dipangaruhan ku kabudayaan India, Arab, Cina, Éropa, sarta kaasup ogé budaya sorangan, [[Melayu]]. Saperti kasenian [[wayang]] ti wewengkon [[Jawa]] jeung [[Bali]] nu midangkeun carita-carita mitologi Hindu kawas [[Ramayana]] jeung [[Baratayuda]], ogé carita-carita adaptasi kaayaan modéren. Aya ogé kasenian tarian contona ti [[Sumatra]] saperti tari [[Tari Ratéb Meuseukat|Ratéb Meuseukat]] jeung tari [[Tari Seudati|Seudati]] ti [[Acéh]]. Aya ogé seni [[sisindiran]], [[gurindam]], jeung sajabana ti raloba wewengkon misalna Melayu. === Busana === {{utama|Daptar busana daérah Indonésia}} [[file:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Mojang [[Urang Palémbang|Palémbang]] keur maké [[songkét]], salah sahiji busana tradisional Indonésia.]] Salah sahiji budaya pakéan ti Indonésia nyaéta [[batik]]. Sababaraha wewengkon nu katelah ti industri batikna saperti [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kota Surakarta|Surakarta]], [[Cirebon]], [[Pandeglang]], [[Garut]], [[Kabupatén Tasikmalaya|Tasikmalaya]], jeung [[Kabupatén Pekalongan|Pekalongan]]. Busana lian ti wewengkon Indonésia saperti [[baju kurung]] jeung [[songkét]]na ti [[Sumatra Kulon]] ([[Minangkabau]]), kaén [[ulos]] ti [[Sumatra Kalér]] ([[Batak]]), [[kabaya]], [[baju bodo]] ti [[Sulawesi Kidul]], [[koteka]] ti [[Papua]], jeung sajabana. === Olahraga === {{utama|Olahraga Indonésia}} [[file:Badminton Beijing 2008 Lu Lan vs Yulianti.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Maria Kristin Yulianti]] (beureum), nu meunang medali perunggu dina [[Olimpiade Usum Panas Beijing 2008]].]] Olahraga nu populér di Indonésia utamina [[badminton]] jeung [[maén bal]]. Olahraga tradisional saperti [[takraw]] jeung [[karapan sapi]]. Pasanggiri adu tempur contona ''caci'' di [[Florés]], sarta ''[[pasola]]'' di [[Sumba]]. Olahraga béla diri nu populér di Indonésia misalna saperti [[pencak silat]]. === Musik === {{utama|Musik Indonésia}} Raloba wewengkon Indonésia miboga [[musik tradisional]]na sorangan. Aya ogé musik tradisional campuran saperti [[keroncong]] nu dipangaruhan ku [[Portugal|Portugis]] di wewengkon [[Kampung Tugu|Tugu]], [[Jakarta]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |title=Kampung Tugu, Menyimpan Kenangan Sejarah |work=Kompas |date=28 April 2004 |accessdate=2008-08-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211203446/http://www2.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0404/28/metro/996265.htm |date=2008-12-11 }}</ref>. Msik Indonésia lianna saperti [[dangdut]] nyaéta musik aliran Melayu modéren nu dipangaruhan ku musik India. [[file:Traditional indonesian instruments02.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Degung]]/Gamelan]] [[daptar alat musik Indonésia|Alat musik tradisional Indonésia]] di antarana: {{Col|2}} * [[Angklung]] * Bendé * [[Calung]] * [[Degung]]/[[Gamelan]] * Gandang Tabuik * Gendang Bali * Gondang Batak * Gong Kemada * Gong Lambus * Jidor * [[Tembang Cianjuran|Kacapi Suling]] * Kulcapi Batak * Kendang Jawa * Kenong * [[Kulintang]] * [[Rebab]] * [[Rebana]] * [[Saluang]] * [[Saron]] * [[Sasando]] * [[Serunai]] * Seurune Kale * Suling Lembang * Sulim Batak * Suling Sunda * [[Talempong]] * Tanggetong * Tifa, dan sebagainya </div> === Kulinér === {{utama|Masakan Indonésia}} [[file:SOTO FOOD.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Soto]].]] [[Sangu]] mangrupa kadaharan utama di lolobana wewengkon Indonésia. [[Sambel]], [[saté]], [[baso]], [[soto]], jeung [[sangu goréng]] nyaéta sababaraha contoh kadaharan masarakat Indonésia.<ref>http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025194254/http://www.cnngo.com/explorations/eat/40-foods-indonesians-cant-live-without-327106 |date=2011-10-25 }} 40 of Indonesia's best dishes. Diaksés 5 Désémber 2011.</ref> === Sinema === {{utama|Perpileman Indonésia}} [[file:Tjoet Nja' Dhien.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Poster pilem ''[[Tjoet Nja' Dhien]]'' (1988), pilem ngeunaan pahlawan nasional Indonésia ti Acéh.]] Pilem kahiji nu diproduksi di nusantara nyaéta pilem taun [[1926]] kalawan judul ''[[Loetoeng Kasaroeng]]'' nu dijieun ku sutradara Walanda, G. Kruger jeung L. Heuveldorp, dina jaman [[Hindia Walanda]]. Pilem ieu dijieun ku Pausahaan Pilem Jawa NV di [[Bandung]] sarta diputer kahiji kalina dina 31 Désémber [[1926]] di téater Elite and Majestic, [[Bandung]]. Popularitas industri pilem Indonésia muncak dina jaman 1980-an sarta diputer di raloba bioskop di Indonésia,<ref name="kompasmovies">{{cite news |last=Kristianto |first=JB |title=Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia |publisher=Kompas |date=2 Juli 2005 |url=http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |accessdate=2006-10-05 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113052204/http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0507/02/Bentara/1857854.htm |date=2008-01-13 }}</ref>. Antawis 2000 nepi ka 2005, jumlah pilem Indonésia nu dirilis unggal taunna teras ningkatan.<ref name="kompasmovies"/> Pilem ''[[Laskar Pelangi]]'' (2008) mangrupa pilem kalawan pamasukan anu panglobana sapanjang sajarah pilem di Indonésia nepi ka danget ieu. === Kasusastraan === {{utama|Sastra Indonésia}} Figur penting dina sastra modéren Indonésia saperti panulis Walanda [[Douwes Dekker|Multatuli]] nu méré kritikan kana kalakuan Walanda ka Indonésia dina jaman panjajahan Walanda; [[Muhammad Yamin]] jeung [[Hamka]] nu mangrupa panulis sarta pulitisi pra-kamerdikaan;<ref>Taylor (2003), halaman 299–301</ref> sarta [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], panulis novel Indonésia nu kakoncara salah sahijina nyaéta nulis novel Bumi Manusia.<ref>Vickers (2005) halaman 3 to 7; Friend (2003), halaman 74, 180</ref> Salah sahiji conto panulis puisi Indonésia misalna [[Chairil Anwar]]. Raloba urang Indonésia miboga [[tradisi lisan]] nu kiat, nu ngarojong dina nerangkeun sarta ngamumulé kaayaan budayana.<ref name="UNESCO Jakarta, Indonesia">{{cite web|last= Czermak|first= Karen|authorlink= |coauthors= Philippe DeLanghe, Wei Weng|title= "Preserving Intangible Cultural Heritage in Indonesia"|publisher= SIL International|url= http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf|format= PDF|accessdate= 2007-07-04}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709194435/http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf |date=2007-07-09 }}</ref> == Lingkungan hirup == {{utama|Flora Indonésia|Fauna Indonésia}} [[file:Rafflesia sumatra.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''[[Rafflesia arnoldii]]'' kembang nu panggedéna sadunya.]] [[file:Varanus komodoensis6.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Komodo]], sato réptil langka ti wewengkon [[Nusa Tenggara]].]] Wewengkon Indonésia miboga rupa-rupa mahluk hirup. Ku kituna sababaraha sumber nyebatkeun yén wewengkon lingkungan Indonésia mangrupa "''Mega biodiversity''" atanapi "anéka rupa mahluk hirup nu loba"<ref>http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }} http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311011452/http://www.detiknews.com/read/2009/03/08/144934/1096302/10/pemerintah-siap-dukung-dana-pengembangan-obat-herbal-aids-kanker |date=2009-03-11 }}</ref><ref>http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311005957/http://www.presidensby.info/index.php/fokus/2009/03/08/4070.html |date=2009-03-11 }} Dunia Sebut Indonesia Mega Biodiversity</ref>. Rupa-rupa mahluk hirup Indonésia aya di paringkat ka-3 sadunya sanggeus [[Brasil]] jeung [[Républik Démokratik Kongo]].<ref>http://www.cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007155430/http://cites.org/eng/prog/economics/report_mega_2001.pdf |date=2010-10-07 }} Report on the CITES workshop on mega-biodiversity exporters (with the assistance of the European Commission)</ref> Sanajan kitu, [[Guinness World Records]] dina taun 2008 pernah nyutat rékor Indonésia salaku nagara nu panggancangna ruksak leuweungna sadunya. Unggal taunna, Indonésia dituar leuweungna saluas <u>+</u>1,8 yuta héktar. Karuksakan ieu aya di wewengkon hulu/jero leuweung (hutan) nu ngaruksak ogé wewengkon di hilir (basisir).<ref>http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328164842/http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/berita/0712/29/kesra01.html |date=2008-03-28 }} Sulung Prasetyo. Ekologi Indonésia Masuki Masa Genting, Paragraf 1. Sinar Harapan Online. Diaksés 13 Nopémber 2009</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Hindia Walanda]] * [[Sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gurat wanci sajarah Indonésia]] * [[Gerakan 30 Séptémber|Gerakan 30 Séptémber 1965]] == Rujukan == {{col|3}} {{Reflist}} </div> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Indonesia}} {{wikivoyage|Indonesia}} * {{id}} [http://www.indonesia.go.id Loka resmi pamaréntah Indonésia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203203120/http://indonesia.go.id/ |date=2012-02-03 }} * {{id}} [http://www.antara.co.id Antara - Kantor Warta Indonésia] * {{en}} [http://www.my-indonesia.info/ Pariwisata Indonésia] {{Propinsi di Indonésia}} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = [[file:Nuvola filesystems www.png|23px]]&nbsp;Géografi wewengkon |list = {{LN Indonesia}} {{Asia}} {{Asia Tenggara}} }} {{Template group|state=collapsed |title = Organisasi internasional |list = {{OSI}} {{APEC}} {{G15}} {{G20}} {{ASEAN}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Indonésia| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Nagara anggota ASEAN]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] 2ce0lk9kyqxn8nqj9o7ks8er994wytz Korélasi 0 1327 712396 661261 2026-08-28T22:33:13Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712396 wikitext text/x-wiki ::''Artikel ieu ngeunaan koefisien korelasi antara dua variable acak. Watesan ''korelasi'' bisa ogé hartina [[cross-correlation|korelasi silang]] dua fungsi.'' [[Image:Corr-example.png|thumb|Korelasi linier antara 1000 pasangan angka. Data digambarkeun dina sisi kénca panghandapna tur koefisien korelasina di sisi katuhu luhur. Unggal susunan titik korelasi maksimalna, ditembongkeun dina diagonal (sakabeh korelasi = +1).]] Dina [[probability theory|tiori probabiliti]] jeung [[statistik]], '''korelasi''', disebut ogé '''koefisien korelasi''', nyaéta ukuran numerik ngeunaan kuatna hubungan linier antara dua [[variabel acak]]. Dina pamakéan statistik nu ilahar, ''korelas'' atawa ko-relasi nujul kana pakaitna dua variabel bebéas. Dina hal nu leuwih lega, aya sababaraha koefisien, ukuran tingkat pakait nu dicokot tina data alam atawa data asli. gedéna béda korelasi dipaké keur kaayaan nu béda. Nu panghadéna nyaéta [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|korefisien korelasi produk-momen Pearson]], nu ditangtukeun ku cara ngabagi [[covariance|kovarian]] dua variabel ku hasil kali [[simpangan baku]]na. Korelasi mimiti diwanohkeun ku [[Francis Galton]]. == Koefisien produk-momen Pearson == {{utama|Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient}} === Pasipatan Matematika === Korelasi &rho;<sub>xy</sub> antara dua [[variabel acak]] ''X'' and ''Y'' jeung [[nilai ekspektasi]] &mu;<sub>X</sub> jeung &mu;<sub>Y</sub> sarta [[simpangan baku]] &sigma;<sub>X</sub> jeung &sigma;<sub>Y</sub> dihartikeun: :<math> \rho_{xy}={\mathrm{cov}(X,Y) \over \sigma_X \sigma_Y} ={E((X-\mu_X)(Y-\mu_Y)) \over \sigma_X\sigma_Y}.</math> Anggap &mu;<sub>X</sub>=E(X), &sigma;<sub>X</sub><sup>2</sup>=E(X<sup>2</sup>)-E<sup>2</sup>(X) tur saperti keur Y, bisa ogé dituliskeun jadi: :<math>\rho_{xy}=\frac{E(XY)-E(X)E(Y)}{\sqrt{E(X^2)-E^2(X)}~\sqrt{E(Y^2)-E^2(Y)}}</math> Korélasi bisa dihartikeun lamun simpangan baku kawengku tur salah sahijina lain enol. Rumusan itu dina [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality|kateusaruaan Cauchy-Schwarz]] yén korelasi teu bisa leuwih ti 1 dina [[absolute value|nilai mutlakna]]. Korelasi sarua jeung 1 lamun mibanda hubungan naek sacara liner, &minus;1 lamun mibanda hubungan turun linier, tur sababaraha nilai di antarana keur sakabéh pasualan, nunjukkeun tingkat sakumaha gumantungna variabel sacara linier. Koefisien nu pangdeukeutna boh kana &minus;1 atawa 1, mibanda harti beuki kuat korelasi antara dua variabel eta. Lamun variabel [[statistical independence|mandiri]] mangka korelasina bakal 0, tapi teu salawasna bener sabab koefisien korelasi ngan keur néangan kabébasan linier antara dua variabel. Contona: Anggap variabel acak ''X'' mangrupa sebaran seragam dina interval ti &minus;1 ka 1, sarta ''Y'' = ''X''<sup>2</sup>. Mangka ''Y'' satemenna ditangtukeun ku ''X'', sabab kitu ''X'' tur ''Y'' bisa waé asalna tina dua variabel acak mandiri, tapi korelasi nol; maranéhna taya korelasi. Sanajan kitu, dina kasus basa ''X'' tur ''Y'' [[Bivariate Gaussian distribution|ngahiji normal]], mandiri sarua jeung taya korelasi. === Korelasi sampel === Lamun hiji runtuyan ''n''&nbsp; tina hasil ngukur ''X''&nbsp; tur ''Y''&nbsp; dituliskeun salaku ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; tur ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; nu mana ''i'' = 1, 2, ..., ''n'', mangka [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient|koefisien korelasi produk-momen Pearson]] bisa dipaké keur ngiker korelasi ''X''&nbsp; jeung ''Y''&nbsp;. Koefisien Péarson disebut ogé "koefisien korelasi sampel". Hal ieu husus lamun ''X''&nbsp; tur ''Y''&nbsp; duanana [[sebaran normal|kasebar normal]]. Koefisien korelasi Péarson jadi estimasi nu hadé keur korelasi ''X''&nbsp; jeung ''Y''&nbsp;. Koefisien korelasi Péarson ditulis: :<math> r_{xy}=\frac{\sum (x_i-\bar{x})(y_i-\bar{y})}{(n-1) s_x s_y} </math> nu mana <math>\bar{x}</math> jeung <math>\bar{y}</math> nyaéta [[arithmetic mean|rata-rata]] tina ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; jeung ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;, ''s''<sub>''x''</sub>&nbsp; jeung ''s''<sub>''y''</sub>&nbsp; nyaéta [[simpangan baku]] tina ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; jeung ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; sarta jumlahna ti ''i'' = 1 nepi ka ''n''. Saperti dina korelasi populasi, bisa ditulis salaku :<math> r_{xy}=\frac{n\sum x_iy_i-\sum x_i\sum y_i} {\sqrt{n\sum x_i^2-(\sum x_i)^2}~\sqrt{n\sum y_i^2-(\sum y_i)^2}}. </math> Sakali deui, ieu bener dina korelasi populasi, gedéna nilai mutlak sampel korelasi kudu kurang atawa sarua jeung 1. ngagunakeun rumus di luhur mangrupa hal nu ilahar dipaké dina algoritma tunggal keur ngitung korelasi sampel, hal ieu teu stabil dina itungan sacara numerik (tempo di handap keur nu leuwih jéntré). Kuadrat koefisien korelasi sampel, disebut ogé [[coefficient of determination|koefisien determinasi]], nyaéta bagéan tina varian dina ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; nu diitung ku cara fit linier ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; ka ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;. Ditulis :<math>r_{xy}^2=1-\frac{s_{y|x}^2}{s_y^2},</math> nu mana ''s''<sub>''y''|''x''</sub><sup>2</sup>&nbsp; nyaéta kuadrat kasalahan [[linear regression|régrési liniér]] ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; dina ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; ku [[equation|sasaruan]] ''y = a + bx'': :<math>s_{y|x}^2=\frac{1}{n-1}\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i-a-bx_i)^2,</math> jeung ''s''<sub>''y''</sub><sup>2</sup>&nbsp; nyaéta ngan varian ''y'': :<math>s_y^2=\frac{1}{n-1}\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i-\bar{y})^2.</math> Catetan, lamun koéfisien sampel korélasi simetri dina ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; jeung ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;, bakal meunang niley nu sarua keur fit ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp; ka ''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;: :<math>r_{xy}^2=1-\frac{s_{x|y}^2}{s_x^2}.</math> Ieu sasaruan méré ide keur [[dimension|dimensi]] nu leuwih luhur. Saperti nu dijelaskeun di luhur korélasi koéfsien sampel nyaéta bagéan tian itungan varian ku cara nga-fit-keun [[Euclidean space|linear submanifold]] 1-dimensi kana runtuyan vektor (''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;, ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;) 2 dimensi, mangka bisa dihartikeun koefisien korelasi keur fit dina ''m''-dimensi linéar submanifold kana runtuyan vektor ''n''-dimensi. Contona, lamun nga-fit-keun widang ''z = a + bx + cy''&nbsp; kana runtuyan data (''x<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;, ''y<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;, ''z<sub>i</sub>''&nbsp;) mangka koefisien korelasi ''z''&nbsp; ka ''x''&nbsp; jeung ''y''&nbsp; nyaéta :<math>r^2=1-\frac{s_{z|xy}^2}{s_z^2}.</math> Sebaran koefisien korelasi geus diterangkeun ku [[R. A. Fisher]]<ref>{{Cite journal | author = [[R. A. Fisher]] | title = Frequency distribution of the values of the correlation coefficient in samples from an indefinitely large population | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrika_1915-05_10_4/page/507 | journal = [[Biometrika]] | volume = 10 | pages = 507&ndash;521 | year = 1915 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | author = [[R. A. Fisher]] | title = On the probable error of a coefficient of correlation deduced from a small sample | journal = [[Metron]] | year = 1921 }}</ref> jeung A. K. Gayen.<ref>{{Cite journal | author = A. K. Gayen | title = The frequency distribution of the product moment correlation coefficent in random samples of any size draw from non-normal universes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrika_1951-06_38_part-1-2/page/219 | journal = [[Biometrika]] | year = 1951 | volume = 38 | pages = 219&ndash;247 }}</ref> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} ===Interpretasi korélasi sacara geometri=== Koéfisién korélasi bisa ogé ditempo salaku [[cosine|kosinus]] [[angle|sudut]] antara dua [[Vector (spatial)|vektor]] sampel nu dicokot tina dua variabel acak. Caution: This method only works <!-- when given --> with centered data, i.e., data which have been shifted by the sample méan so as to have an average of zero. Some practitioners prefer an uncentered (non-Péarson-compliant) correlation coefficient. See the example below for a comparison. As an example, suppose five countries are found to have gross national products of 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8 billion dollars, respectively. Suppose these same five countries (in the same order) are found to have 11%, 12%, 13%, 15%, and 18% poverty. Then let '''x''' and '''y''' be ordered 5-element vectors containing the above data: '''x''' = (1, 2, 3, 5, 8) and '''y''' = (0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.15, 0.18). By the usual procedure for finding the angle <!-- &theta; --> between two vectors (see [[dot product]]), the ''uncentered'' correlation coefficient is: <!-- cos theta = (X dot Y) / ||X|| ||Y|| = 2.93 / sqrt(103 * 0.0983) = 0.920814711. --> :<math> \cos \theta = \frac { \mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y} } { \left\| \mathbf{x} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{y} \right\| } = \frac { 2.93 } { \sqrt { 103 } \sqrt { 0.0983 } } = 0.920814711. </math> Note that the above data were deliberately chosen to be perfectly correlated: ''y'' = 0.10 + 0.01 ''x''. The Péarson correlation coefficient must therefore be exactly one. Centering the data (shifting '''x''' by E('''x''') = 3.8 and '''y''' by E('''y''') = 0.138) yields '''x''' = (-2.8, -1.8, -0.8, 1.2, 4.2) and '''y''' = (-0.028, -0.018, -0.008, 0.012, 0.042), from which <!-- cos theta = (X dot Y) / ||X|| ||Y|| = 0.308 / sqrt(30.8 * 0.00308) = 1. --> :<math> \cos \theta = \frac { \mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{y} } { \left\| \mathbf{x} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{y} \right\| } = \frac { 0.308 } { \sqrt { 30.8 } \sqrt { 0.00308 } } = 1, </math> as expected. ===Interpretation of the size of a correlation=== {|class="wikitable" align="right" |- ! Correlation !! Negative !! Positive |- | Small || &minus;0.29 to &minus;0.10 || 0.10 to 0.29 |- | Medium || &minus;0.49 to &minus;0.30 || 0.30 to 0.49 |- | Large || &minus;1.00 to &minus;0.50 || 0.50 to 1.00 |} Several authors have offered guidelines for the interpretation of a correlation coefficient. Cohen (1988),<ref name="Cohen88">Cohen, J. (1988). ''Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences'' (2nd ed.) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-0283-5.</ref> for example, has suggested the following interpretations for correlations in psychological reséarch, in the table on the right. As Cohen himself has observed, however, all such criteria are in some ways arbitrary and should not be observed too strictly. This is because the interpretation of a correlation coefficient depends on the context and purposes. A correlation of 0.9 may be very low if one is verifying a physical law using high-quality instruments, but may be regarded as very high in the social sciences where there may be a gréater contribution from complicating factors. ==Non-parametric correlation coefficients== Péarson's correlation coefficient is a [[parametric statistics|parametric statistic]] and when distributions are not normal it may be less useful than [[non-parametric statistics|non-parametric]] correlation methods, such as [[Chi-square test|Chi-square]], [[Point-biserial correlation coefficient|Point biserial correlation]], [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient|Spearman's &rho;]] and [[Kendall's tau|Kendall's &tau;]]. They are a little less powerful than parametric methods if the assumptions underlying the latter are met, but are less likely to give distorted results when the assumptions fail. ==Other measures of dependence among random variables== To get a méasure for more general dependencies in the data (also nonlinéar) it is better to use the [[correlation ratio]] which is able to detect almost any functional dependency, or [[mutual information]]/[[total correlation]] which is capable of detecting even more general dependencies. The [[polychoric correlation]] is another correlation applied to ordinal data that aims to estimate the correlation between théorised latent variables. ==Copulas and correlation== The information given by a correlation coefficient is not enough to define the dependence structure between random variables; to fully capture it we must consider a [[copula (statistics)|copula]] between them. The correlation coefficient completely defines the dependence structure only in very particular cases, for example when the [[cumulative distribution function]]s are the [[multivariate normal distribution]]s. In the case of elliptic distributions it characterizes the (hyper-)ellipses of equal density, however, it does not completely characterize the dependence structure (for example, the a multivariate t-distribution's degrees of freedom determine the level of tail dependence). ==Correlation matrices== The correlation matrix of ''n'' random variables ''X''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''X''<sub>''n''</sub> is the ''n''&nbsp; &times; &nbsp;''n'' matrix whose ''i'',''j'' entry is corr(''X''<sub>''i''</sub>,&nbsp;''X''<sub>''j''</sub>). If the méasures of correlation used are product-moment coefficients, the correlation matrix is the same as the [[covariance matrix]] of the standardized random variables ''X''<sub>''i''</sub> /SD(''X''<sub>''i''</sub>) for ''i'' = 1,&nbsp;...,&nbsp;''n''. Consequently it is necessarily a [[positive-semidefinite matrix]]. The correlation matrix is symmetric because the correlation between <math>X_i</math> and <math>X_j</math> is the same as the correlation between <math>X_j</math> and <math>X_i</math>. ==Removing correlation== It is always possible to remove the correlation between zero-méan random variables with a linéar transform, even if the relationship between the variables is nonlinéar. Suppose a vector of ''n'' random variables is sampled ''m'' times. Let ''X'' be a matrix where <math>X_{i,j}</math> is the ''j''th variable of sample ''i''. Let <math>Z_{r,c}</math> be an ''r'' by ''c'' matrix with every element 1. Then ''D'' is the data transformed so every random variable has zero méan, and ''T'' is the data transformed so all variables have zero méan, unit variance, and zero correlation with all other variables. :<math>D = X -\frac{1}{m} Z_{m,m} X</math> :<math>T = D (D^T D)^{-\frac{1}{2}}</math> where an exponent of -1/2 represents the [[matrix square root]] of the [[matrix inverse|inverse]] of a matrix. The covariance matrix of ''T'' will be the identity matrix. If a new data sample ''x'' is a row vector of ''n'' elements, then the same transform can be applied to ''x'' to get the transformed vectors ''d'' and ''t'': :<math>d = x - \frac{1}{m} Z_{1,m} X</math> :<math>t = d (D^T D)^{-\frac{1}{2}}.</math> ==Common misconceptions about correlation== ===Correlation and causality=== The conventional dictum that "[[correlation does not imply causation]]" méans that correlation cannot be validly used to infer a causal relationship between the variables. This dictum should not be taken to méan that correlations cannot indicate causal relations. However, the causes underlying the correlation, if any, may be indirect and unknown. Consequently, establishing a correlation between two variables is not a sufficient condition to establish a causal relationship (in either direction). Here is a simple example: hot wéather may cause both crime and ice-créam purchases. Therefore crime is correlated with ice-créam purchases. But crime does not cause ice-créam purchases and ice-créam purchases do not cause crime. A correlation between age and height in children is fairly causally transparent, but a correlation between mood and héalth in péople is less so. Does improved mood léad to improved héalth? Or does good héalth léad to good mood? Or does some other factor underlie both? Or is it pure coincidence? In other words, a correlation can be taken as evidence for a possible causal relationship, but cannot indicate what the causal relationship, if any, might be. ===Correlation and linearity=== [[Image:Anscombe.svg|thumb|325px|right|Four sets of data with the same correlation of 0.81]] While Péarson correlation indicates the strength of a linéar relationship between two variables, its value alone may not be sufficient to evaluate this relationship, especially in the case where the assumption of normality is incorrect. The image on the right shows [[scatterplot]]s of [[Anscombe's quartet]], a set of four different pairs of variables créated by [[Francis Anscombe]].<ref>Anscombe, Francis J. (1973) Graphs in statistical analysis. ''American Statistician'', 27, 17&ndash;21.</ref> The four <math>y</math> variables have the same méan (7.5), standard deviation (4.12), correlation (0.81) and regression line (<math>y = 3 + 0.5x</math>). However, as can be seen on the plots, the distribution of the variables is very different. The first one (top left) seems to be distributed normally, and corresponds to what one would expect when considering two variables correlated and following the assumption of normality. The second one (top right) is not distributed normally; while an obvious relationship between the two variables can be observed, it is not linéar, and the Péarson correlation coefficient is not relevant. In the third case (bottom left), the linéar relationship is perfect, except for one [[outlier]] which exerts enough influence to lower the correlation coefficient from 1 to 0.81. Finally, the fourth example (bottom right) shows another example when one outlier is enough to produce a high correlation coefficient, even though the relationship between the two variables is not linéar. These examples indicate that the correlation coefficient, as a summary statistic, cannot replace the individual examination of the data. ==Computing correlation accurately in a single pass== The following algorithm (in [[pseudocode]]) will estimate correlation with good numerical stability sum_sq_x = 0 sum_sq_y = 0 sum_coproduct = 0 méan_x = x[1] méan_y = y[1] for i in 2 to N: sweep = (i - 1.0) / i delta_x = x[i] - méan_x delta_y = y[i] - méan_y sum_sq_x += delta_x * delta_x * sweep sum_sq_y += delta_y * delta_y * sweep sum_coproduct += delta_x * delta_y * sweep méan_x += delta_x / i méan_y += delta_y / i pop_sd_x = sqrt( sum_sq_x / N ) pop_sd_y = sqrt( sum_sq_y / N ) cov_x_y = sum_coproduct / N correlation = cov_x_y / (pop_sd_x * pop_sd_y) For an enlightening experiment, check the correlation of {900,000,000 + i for i=1...100} with {900,000,000 - i for i=1...100}, perhaps with a few values modified. Poor algorithms will fail. == See also == <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Autocorrelation]] * [[Cross-correlation]] * [[Coefficient of determination]] * [[Fraction of variance unexplained]] * [[Kendall's tau]] * [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]] * [[Point-biserial correlation coefficient]] * [[Partial correlation]] * [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] * [[Statistical arbitrage]] * [[Currency correlation]] </div> ==Notes and references== <references/> ==Bacaan saterusna== * Cohen, J., Cohen P., West, S.G., & Aiken, L.S. (2003). ''Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences.'' (3rd ed.) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://www.mega.nu/ampp/rummel/uc.htm Understanding Correlation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217024443/http://www.mega.nu/ampp/rummel/uc.htm |date=2007-12-17 }} - Introductory material by a U. of Hawaii Prof. * [http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html Statsoft Electronic Textbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227054024/http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/stathome.html |date=2009-02-27 }} * [http://www.vias.org/tmdatanaleng/cc_corr_coeff.html Pearson's Correlation Coefficient] - How to calculate it quickly * [http://www.vias.org/simulations/simusoft_rdistri.html Learning by Simulations] - The distribution of the correlation coefficient * [http://www.statisticalengineering.com/correlation.htm Correlation measures the strength of a ''linear'' relationship between two variables.] [[Kategori:Probability theory]] [[Kategori:Statistika]] c1dq08cq5jzh6qwqsm1n7mxvttbnus3 Bangkong 0 3874 712402 711669 2026-08-28T22:43:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Bangkong | image = Magnificent tree frog (Litoria splendida) crop.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Bangkong Héjo (''Litoria caerulea'') | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Ampibi|Amphibia]] | ordo = Anura | ordo_authority = [[Blasius Merrem|Merrem]], 1820 | subdivision_ranks = Subordo | subdivision = [[Archaeobatrachia]]<br /> [[Mesobatrachia]]<br /> [[Neobatrachia]] <br /> - <br /> [[Daptar famili Anura]] }} '''Bangkong''' mangrupa ngaran umum pikeun [[ampibi]] ordo '''[[Anura]]'''. Bangkong sawawa dicirikeun ku [[suku]] tukangna nu panjang, awakna pondok, [[ramo]] selaputan, sarta [[panon]]na nolol. lolobana bangkong biasa hirup di dua alam, semi-akuatik, tapi lincah di darat ku cara ngaclog jeung nérékél. Biasana ngendog dina balong, [[situ]], [[ranca]], ku sabab larvana, [[buruy]], tumuwuh dina cai. Bangkong sawawa hirupna [[karnivora]], utamana ngahakan [[artropoda]], [[annelida]], jeung [[Gastropoda]]. Paling gampang kanyahoan mun disada, utamana dina [[siklus éstrus|mangsa jalangan]]. Bangkong sumebar ti wewengkon [[tropis]] nepi ka [[subantartika]], tapi lolobana mah aya di [[leuweung hujan tropis]]. Bangkong mangrupa golongan [[vertebrata]] nu panglobana, kabagi kana sahanteuna 5000 [[spésiés]]. Najan kitu, populasina kiwari beuki ngurangan. == Taksonomi == Ordo Anura ngawengku 5.250-an spésiés dina 33 famili, di antarana [[Leptodactylidae]] (1100 spp.), [[Hylidae]] (800 spp.) jeung [[Ranidae]] (750 spp.). Leuwih ti 80% spésiés [[ampibi]] téh kaasup kana golongan bangkong. Tina jihat [[taksonomi]], sakabéh anggota ordo Anura téh disebutna bangkong, sedengkeun sapopoé mah nu disebut bangkong téh leuwih nujul ka "''bangkong korodok''", anggota famili Bufonidae, nu leuwih loba hirup di darat, teu kaasup bancét (nu loba hirup na cai) jeung cakung (hirup na tatangkalan). Bangkong dibagi kana tilu subordo: [[Archaeobatrachia]] (nu ngawengku opat famili bangkong primitip), [[Mesobatrachia]] (nu ngawengku lima famili bangkong évolusionér panengah), jeung [[Neobatrachia]] (golongan panggedéna nu ngandung 24 famili bangkong "modéren"). Néobatrachia salajengna dibagi kana Hyloidéa jeung Ranoidéa{{ref|Ford}}. Klasifikasi ieu dumasar kana fitur morfologis kayaning jumlah vertebrae, struktur ''pectoral girdle'', jeung morfologi buyur. Najan klasifikasi ieu sacara umum ditarima, pancakaki antar familina mah masih diaduregengkeun. Studi [[genetika]] molekulér salajengna dipiharep bisa méré jalan pikeun nangtukeun pancakaki famili-famili bangkong ieu{{ref|Faiv}}. Sababaraha spésiés bangkong bisa ngalaman [[hibrid]]isasi. Misalna, ''Rana esculenta'' mangrupa hibrid ''R. lessonae'' jeung ''R. ridibunda''. == Morfologi jeung fisiologi == Salaku ampibi, morpologi bangkong mah kaasup ahéng. Mun dibandingkeun jeung ampibi lianna, misalna [[salamander]] jeung [[caecilia]], bangkong béda ku sabab teu buntutan mun geus sawawa sarta sukuna leuwih cocog pikeun ngaclog batan leumpang. Pisiologi bangkong sacara umum mah sarupa jeung ampibi séjén (sarta béda ti [[vertebrata]] darat lianna) sabab [[oksigén]] bisa nembus [[kulit]]na nu perméabel pisan. Fitur ahéng ieu jadi pakarang bangkong pikeun "ngarénghap" ngaliwatan kulit. ku sabab oksigén leyur dina lapisan cai dina kulitna sarta lajeng nembus kana [[getih]]na, kulit bangkong téh salawasna kudu baseuh/lembab; balukarna, bangkong jadi gampang karacunan ku lingkunganana, nu bisa baé milu leyur dina cairan na kulitna lajeng asup kana aliran getih. <!-- ===Awakna=== [[Image:Rana_skeleton.png|thumb|Rorongkong ''Rana'']] Many characteristics are not shared by all of the approximately 5,250 described species of frogs. However, some general characteristics distinguish them from other amphibians. Frogs are usually well suited to jumping, with long hind legs with elongated ankle bones. They have a short vertebral column, with no more than ten free vertebrae, followed by a fused tail bone (''urostyle'' or ''coccyx''), typically resulting in a tailless phenotype. Frogs range in size from 10&nbsp;mm (''[[Psyllophryne didactyla]]'' of [[Brazil]] and ''[[Eleutherodactylus iberia]]'' of [[Cuba]]) to 300&nbsp;mm ([[Goliath frog]], ''Conraua goliath'', of [[Cameroon]]). The skin hangs loosely on the body because of the lack of [[loose connective tissue]]. Skin texture varies: it can be smooth, warty or folded. Frogs have three eyelid membranes: one is transparent to protect the eyes underwater, and two vary from translucent to opaque. Frogs have a [[tympanum]] on each side of the head, which is involved in hearing and, in some species, is covered by skin. ===Feet and legs=== The structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species, depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground, in water or in trees. Frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators, and numerous adaptations help them do so. [[Image:L tyleri.jpg|thumb|190px|left|[[Tyler's Tree Frog]] (''Litoria tyleri'') illustrates large toe pads and webbed feet.]] Many frogs, especially those that live in water, have webbed toes. The degree to which the toes are webbed is directly proportional to the amount of time the species lives in the water. For example, the completely aquatic [[African dwarf frog]] (''Hymenochirus sp.'') has fully webbed toes, whereas the toes of [[White's tree frog]], an arboreal species, are only a half or a quarter webbed. [[Tree frogs|Arboreal frogs]] have "toe pads" to help grip vertical surfaces. These pads, located on the ends of the toes, do not work by suction. Rather, the surface of the pad consists of interlocking cells, with a small gap between adjacent cells. When the frog applies pressure to the toe pads, the interlocking cells grip irregularities on the substrate. The small gaps between the cells drain away all but a thin layer of moisture on the pad, and maintain a grip through [[capillarity]]. This allows the frog to grip smooth surfaces, and does not function when the pads are excessively wet.{{ref|Emerson}} In many arboreal frogs, a small "intercalary structure" in each toe increases the surface area touching the substrate. Furthermore, since hopping through trees can be dangerous, many arboreal frogs have hip joints that allow both hopping and walking. Some frogs that live high in trees even possess an elaborate degree of webbing between their toes, as do aquatic frogs. But in these arboreal frogs, the webs allow the frogs to "parachute" or control their glide from one position in the canopy to another.{{ref|Harvey}} Ground-dwelling frogs generally lack the adaptations of aquatic and arboreal frogs. Most have smaller toe pads, if any, and little webbing. Some burrowing frogs have a toe extension—a metatarsal tubercle—that helps them to burrow. The hind legs of ground dwellers are more muscular than those of aqueous and tree-dwelling frogs. ===Skin=== [[Image:Crinia signifera.jpg|thumb|190px|right|[[Common Eastern Froglet]] (''Crinia signifera'') camouflaged against leaf litter.]] Many frogs are able to absorb water directly through the skin, especially around the pelvic area. However, the permeability of a frog's skin can also result in water loss. Some [[tree frogs]] reduce water loss with a waterproof layer of skin. Others have adapted behaviours that conserve water, including engaging in [[nocturnal]] activity and resting in a water-conserving position. This position involves the frog lying with its toes and fingers tucked under its body and chin, respectively, with no gap between the body and substrate. These adaptations only reduce water loss enough for a predominately arboreal existence, and are not suitable for arid conditions. [[Camouflage]] is a common defensive mechanism in frogs. Most camouflaged frogs are [[nocturnal]], which adds to their ability to hide. Nocturnal frogs usually find the ideal camouflaged position during the day to sleep. Some frogs have the ability to change colour. However, this is usually restricted to shades of one or two colours. For example, [[White's tree frog]] (''Litoria caerulea'') varies in shades of green and brown. Features such as warts and skin folds are usually found on ground-dwelling frogs, where a smooth skin would not disguise them effectively. Arboreal frogs usually have smooth skin, enabling them to disguise themselves as leaves. Certain frogs change colour between night and day, as light and moisture stimulate the pigment cells and cause them to expand or contract. <br style="clear:both;" /> ===Poison=== [[Image:Dendrobates pumilio.jpg|thumb|190px|right|[[Poison Dart Frog]] (''Dendrobates pumilio'') contains numerous alkaloids which deter predators.]] Many frogs contain mild [[toxin]]s that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some [[Poison Dart Frog]]s, are especially toxic. The chemical makeup of toxins in frogs varies from irritants to [[hallucinogen]]s, [[Seizure|convulsant]]s, [[neurotoxin|nerve poisons]], and [[vasoconstrictor]]s (which narrow the blood vessels). Many predators of frogs have adapted to tolerate high levels of these poisons. Others, including humans, may be severely affected. Some frogs obtain poisons from the ants and other arthropods they eat;{{ref|Saporito}} others, such as the Australian [[Corroboree Frog]]s (''Pseudophryne corroboree'' and ''Pseudophryne pengilleyi''), can manufacture an [[alkaloid]] not derived from their diet.{{ref|Smith}} Some native people of South America extract poison from the poison dart frogs and apply it to their [[dart]]s for hunting,{{ref|Myers}} although few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose. It was previously a misconception that the poison was placed on arrows rather than darts. The common name of these frogs was thus changed from "Poison Arrow Frog" to "Poison Dart Frog" in the early 1980s. Poisonous frogs tend to advertise their toxicity with bright colours, an adaptive strategy known as [[aposematism]]. There are at least two non-poisonous species of frogs in tropical America (''Eleutherodactylus gaigei'' and ''Lithodytes lineatus'') that mimic the colouration of dart poison frogs' coloration for self-protection.{{ref|Savage}}{{ref|Duellman}} Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a "natural pharmacy". The alkaloid [[epibatidine]], a painkiller 200 times more potent than [[morphine]], is found in some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skin of frogs may offer resistance to [[HIV]] infection.{{ref|van}} Arrow and dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs.{{ref|Phillipe}} ===Respiration and circulation=== The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels near the surface of the skin. When a frog is underwater, oxygen is transmitted through the skin directly into the bloodstream. On land, adult frogs use their lungs to breathe. Their lungs are similar to those of humans, but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are no [[rib]]s or [[diaphragm]] to support breathing. Frogs breathe by taking air in through the nostrils (causing the throat to puff out), and compressing the floor of the mouth, which forces the air into the lungs. Frogs are known for their three-chambered [[heart]], which they share with all [[tetrapod]]s except [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. In the three-chambered heart, oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the [[respiration|respiring]] tissues enter by separate [[atrium|atria]], and are directed via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel—[[aorta]] for oxygenated blood and [[pulmonary vein]] for deoxygenated blood. This special structure is essential to keeping the mixing of the two types of blood to a minimum, which enables frogs to have higher metabolic rates, and be more active than otherwise.--> == Biologi == Daur hirup bangkong, sakumaha ilaharna ampibi, diwangun ku opat hambalan: endog, buyur, métamorfosis, jeung sawawa. Nalika geus manggih pitempateun melak endog, bangkong [[jalu]] biasana disada pikeun ngirut [[bikang]]na kangkan datang ka éta tempat. Aya sababaraha spésiés bangkong nu sok ngajaga endogna, malah nepi ka geus jadi buyur. === Ti endog nepi ka sawawa === [[Gambar:Frogspawn_closeup.jpg|150px|thumb|Endog bangkong]] [[Gambar:Tadpoles_10_days.jpg|150px|thumb||10 poé: buruy]] [[Gambar:Frog-Zhe.jpg||150px|thumb|8–12 minggu: Buruy sukuan = bangkong buntutan]] [[Gambar:Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg||150px|thumb|12–16 minggu: sawawa]] Daur hirup bangkong dimimitian tina endog. Lolobana mah ieu endog téh dipelak dina cai, sakalina bisa ngandung rébuan endog. Mangsa ngendog téh biasana mah bareng, antukna mun dihakan [[prédator]] gé, sahanteuna bakal nyésa, da kaburu wareg; buyurna ogé loba kénéh nu ngadodoho, tapi sahanteuna geus bisa ngojay pikeun nyalametkeun manéh. Aya ogé bangkong nu ngendog dina dangdaunnan luhureun cai, naplok, antukna mun geus megar, buyurna langsung murag kana cai. Spésiés bangkong séjénna, nu ngendog di darat, bisa ngarasakeun geleserna prédator (misalna oray), sarta megar saméméh waktuna pikeun ngejat tina pamangsa{{Ref|Warkentin}}. ''Bufo marinus'' mah béda deui, ieu bangkong ngaluarkeun endog nu ngandung racun. Najan hambalan endog ieu rupa-rupa gumantung spésiés jeung lingkunganana, endog bangkong cai mah ilaharna megar dina jangka saminggu. Samegarna tina endog, buruy téh hirup na cai, tanpa suku, tapi boga buntut nu dipaké pikeun ngojay. Buruy mah [[hérbivora]], utamana ngahakan [[ganggang]], kaasup [[diatom]] nu disaring tina cai ngaliwatan [[insang]]na, tapi aya ogé nu karnivora, ngahakan [[serangga]] atawa buruy jeung lauk nu leuwih leutik. Buruy kudu bajoang antara silih hakan jeung dimangsa prédator lianna. Buruy aya ogé nu ngandung racun. Lilana jadi buruy téh rupa-rupa, ti saminggu nepi ka sataun, sabab métamorfosisna kapegat ku usum tiris. Dina panungtung hambalan, buruy ngalaman [[métamorfosis]], transisi ka bentuk sawawa. Métamorfosis ngawengku parobahan morpologi jeung pisiologi, nyaéta tumuwuhna suku tukang, suku hareup, leungitna [[insang]], sarta mekarna [[bayah]]. Peujitna mondokan sabab ngised tina hérbivora jadi karnivora, panonna ngised sacara rostral jeung dorsal, antukna tetempoanana jadi binokulér. Parobahan posisi [[panon]] bangkong nunjukkeun parobahan tina mangsa jadi pamangsa. Salajengna, hambalan ahir kamekaran bangkong ngawengku [[apoptosis]] (program paéh sél) jeung ngelokna buntut. Sanggeus métamorposis, bangkong ngora aya nu nyebar di habitat darat ninggalkeun cai, aya ogé nu tetep cicing di habitat cai. Ampir sakabéh spésiés bangkong [[karnivora]], ngahakan invertebrata kayaning [[artropoda]], [[annelida]], jeung [[gastropoda]]. Sababaraha spésiés nu badag kadang ngahakan [[mamalia]] leutik, [[lauk]], jeung bangkong nu leuwih leutik. Aya nu ngamangsa maké [[létah]]na nu cepel pikeun néwak mangsa nu gesit, aya ogé nu maké 'leungeun'na pikeun nyamualkeun mangsa kana sungutna. Lian ti ngamangsa, aya ogé bangkong nu kahakanan utamana tutuwuhan{{ref|Silva}}. Bangkong mangrupa mangsa [[manuk]], lauk badag, [[oray]], [[careuh]], jeung sato lianna. Manusa ogé aya nu beuki bangkong (ukur sababaraha spésiés bangkong, baca bab [[#Tatanén|tatanén]] di handap). === Baranahan === Nalika nincak sawawa, biasana mah bangkong téh sok balik deui ka tempat megarna, antukna bisa jadi migrasi taunan rébuan bangkong. [[Gambar:Bufo bufo couple during migration(2005).jpg|thumb|left|190px|Bangkong korodok (''Bufo bufo'') keur [[ampléksus]]]] Mun geus aya di tempat kawin, bangkong jalu disada pikeun ngirut bikangna. <!-- The male and female frogs then undergo [[amplexus]]. This involves the male mounting the female and gripping her tightly. Fertilization is [[External fertilization|external]]: the [[Ovum|egg]] and [[sperm]] meet outside of the body. The female releases her eggs, which the male frog covers with a sperm solution. The eggs then swell and develop a protective coating. The eggs are typically brown or black, with a clear, [[gelatin]]-like covering. Most temperate species of frogs reproduce between late autumn and early spring. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], most common frog populations produce frogspawn in February, although there is wide variation in timing. Water temperatures at this time of year are relatively low, typically between four and 10 degrees [[Celsius]]. Reproducing in these conditions helps the developing tadpoles because dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water are highest at cold temperatures. More importantly, reproducing early in the season ensures that appropriate food is available to the developing frogs at the right time. [[Image:Haeckel Batrachia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Colour plate from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s 1904 ''Kunstformen der Natur'', depicting frog species that include two examples of parental care.]] ===Parental care=== Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, it is estimated that up to 20% of amphibian species may care for their young in one way or another, and there is a great diversity of parental behaviours.{{ref|Crump}} Some species of poison dart frog lay eggs on the forest floor and protect them, guarding the eggs from predation and keeping them moist. The frog will urinate on them if they become too dry. After hatching, a parent (the gender depends upon the species) will move them, on its back, to a water-holding [[bromeliad]]. The parent then feeds them by laying unfertilized eggs in the bromeliad until the young have metamorphosed. Other frogs carry the eggs and tadpoles on their hind legs or back (e.g. the [[midwife toad]]s, ''Alytes spp.''). Some frogs even protect their offspring inside their own bodies. The male Australian pouched frog (''Assa darlingtoni'') has pouches along its side in which the tadpoles reside until metamorphosis. The female [[Gastric-brooding Frog]]s (genus ''Rheobatrachus'') from [[Australia]] swallows its tadpoles, which then develop in the stomach. To do this, the Gastric-brooding Frog must stop secreting [[stomach acid]] and suppress [[peristalsis]] (contractions of the stomach). [[Darwin's Frog]] (''Rhinoderma darwinii'') from [[Chile]] puts the tadpoles in its vocal sac for development. ===Call=== The call of a frog is unique to its species. Frogs call by passing air through the [[larynx]] in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that distend during the amplification of the call. Some frogs lack vocal sacs, such as those from the genera ''Heleioporus'' and ''Neobatrachus'', but these species can still produce a loud call. Their buccal cavity is enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a [[resonance chamber]] that amplifies their call. Species of frog without vocal sacs and that do not have a loud call tend to inhabit areas close to flowing water. The noise of flowing water overpowers any call, so they must communicate by other means. The main reason for calling is to allow males to attract a mate. Males call either individually or in a group called a chorus. Females of many frog species, for example ''Polypedates leucomystax'', produce calls reciprocal to the males', which act as the catalyst for the enhancement of reproductive activity in a breeding colony.{{ref|roy97}} A male frog emits a release call when mounted by another male. Tropical species also have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a rain shower. Many species also have a territorial call that is used to chase away other males. All of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed. A distress call, emitted by some frogs when they are in danger, is produced with the mouth open, resulting in a higher-pitched call. The effectiveness of the call is unknown; however, it is suspected that the call intrigues the predator until another animal is attracted, distracting them enough for its escape. Many species of frog have deep calls, or croaks. The [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] spelling is often "crrrrk" in Britain and "ribbit" in the US. This difference is due to the different species within each region (e.g., [[Common frog]] (''Rana temporaria'') in Britain and [[Leopard frog]] (''Rana pipiens'') in the US). The croak of the [[bullfrog|American bullfrog]] (''Rana catesbiana'') is sometimes spelt "jug o' rum".--> == Sebaran jeung status konservasi == [[Gambar:Bufo_periglenes1.jpg|thumb|left|190px|[[Bangkong emas]] (''Bufo periglenes'') - panungtung katempo taun 1989]] Bangkong téh aya di mana-mana, iwal di [[Antartika]] jeung pulo-pulo tengah sagara; panglobana mah di wewengkon tropis, sabab cocog jeung kaayaan kulitna nu butuh loba cai. Aya éta ogé bangkong nu hirup dina keusik nu carang caina, tapi ieu mah geus adaptasi sacara husus. Genus Australia ''[[Cyclorana]]'' jeung Amérika ''[[Pternohyla]]'' bakal ngubur manéh dina taneuh, nyieun kepongpong nu teu tembus cai, sarta hibernasi salila halodo. Mun geus hujan, sakadang bangkong kakara kaluar, terus néang situ/balong pikeun kawin/baranahan. Kamekaran endog jeung buyurna gancang pisan dibanding bangkong lianna, antukna pas halodo deui téh geus sawawa. Aya sababaraha bangkong nu bisa hirup di nu tiis, kayaning [[Bangkong Kai]] nu hirup di wewengkon Kutub, nu ngubur manéh dina taneuh nalika usum tiris dina kaayaan méh sakujur awakna beku. <!-- [[Decline in amphibian populations|Frog populations have declined]] dramatically since the 1950s, with more than one third of species believed to be threatened with extinction and more than 120 species suspected to have become extinct since the 1980s.{{ref|Stuart}} Among these species are the [[Golden toad]] of Costa Rica, and the [[Gastric-brooding Frog]]s of Australia. Habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline, as are pollutants, climate change, the introduction of non-indigenous predators/competitors, and emerging infectious diseases including [[chytridiomycosis]]. Many environmental scientists feel that amphibians, including frogs, are excellent biological [[indicator species|indicators]] of broader ecosystem health because of their intermediate position in food webs, permeable skins, and typically biphasic life (aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults){{ref|Phillips}}. ==Evolution== The earliest amphibian discovered is [[Elginerpeton]], in Late Devonian rocks of [[Scotland]] dating to approximately 368 million years ago. The earliest well-known amphibian, [[Ichthyostega]], was found in Late [[Devonian]] deposits in [[Greenland]], dating back about 363 million years. The later [[Paleozoic]] saw a great diversity of amphibians, ranging from small, legless swimming forms ([[Aïstopoda]]) to bizarre "horned" forms ([[Nectridea]]). These first amphibians are thought to have evolved from bony fish of the class [[Osteichthyes]], which were widespread during the period that amphibia emerged. There is, however, substantial debate over what type of bony fish was the precursor to amphibians. Suggestions include the lungfish and the [[Actinopterygii]] as the forerunners to modern amphibia. The earliest known (proto)frog is '''''Triadobatrachus massinoti''''', from the early [[Triassic]] of [[Madagascar]]. It is about 250 million years old, and had not yet evolved the full combination of features currently associated with frogs. The skull is frog-like, being broad with large eye sockets, but the fossil has a number of other features diverging from modern amphibia. These include a different [[ilium]], a longer body with more [[vertebrae]], and separate vertebrae in its tail (whereas in modern frogs, the tail vertebrae are fused, and known as the ''urostyle'' or ''coccyx''). The [[tibia]] and [[fibula]] bones are unfused and separate, making it probable that Triadobatrachus was not an efficient leaper. Another fossil frog, discovered in [[Arizona]] and called '''''Prosalirus bitis''''', was uncovered in 1985, and dates from roughly the same time as ''Triadobatrachus''. Like ''Triadobatrachus'', ''Prosalirus'' did not have greatly enlarged legs, but had the typical three-pronged [[pelvic]] structure. Unlike ''Triadobatrachus'', ''Prosalirus'' had already lost nearly all of its tail. The earliest true frog is '''''Vieraella herbsti''''', from the early [[Jurassic]] (188–213 Mya). It is known only from the [[dorsal]] and [[ventral]] impressions of a single animal and was estimated to be 33&nbsp;mm in snout-vent length. '''''Notobatrachus degiustoi''''' from the middle Jurassic is slightly younger, about 155–170 million years old. It is likely that the evolution of modern Anura was completed by the Jurassic period. The main evolutionary changes involved the shortening of the body and the loss of the tail. Frog fossils have been found on all continents, including [[Antarctica]]. ==Uses in agriculture and research== Frogs are raised commercially for several purposes. Dead frogs are sometimes used for [[dissection]]s in high school and university anatomy classes, often after being injected with coloured plastics to enhance the contrast between the [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s. This practice has declined in recent years with the increasing awareness of animal rights issues. Frogs are used as a food source; [[frog legs]] are a delicacy in [[China]], [[France]], and in many parts of the [[American South]], especially [[Louisiana]]. Frogs have served as important model organisms in the study of [[embryology]] because frog eggs lack shells characteristic of most other vertebrates, and therefore facilitate observations of early development. The [[African clawed frog]], ''[[Xenopus laevis]]'' is an important laboratory organism. ''Xenopus'' was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy assays in the first half of the 20th century. When [[human chorionic gonadotropin]], a [[hormone]] found in substantial quantities in the [[urine]] of pregnant women, is injected into a female ''X. laevis'', it induces them to lay [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s. Although alternative pregnancy assays have been developed, biologists continue to use ''Xenopus'' as a [[model organism]] in [[developmental biology]] because it is easy to raise in captivity and has a large and easily manipulatable embryo. In 1952 [[Robert Briggs]] and [[Thomas J. King]] cloned a frog by [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], the same technique that was later used to create [[Dolly the Sheep]], their experiment was the first time successful nuclear transplantation had been accomplished in metazoans.{{ref|briggs}} Recently, ''X. laevis'' is increasingly being displaced by its smaller relative ''X. tropicalis'', which reaches its reproductive age in five months rather than one to two years (as in ''X. laevis''),{{ref|gentime}} facilitating faster studies across generations. The [[genome project|genome sequence]] of ''X. tropicalis'' will probably be completed by 2015 at the latest{{ref|xenopus}}.--> [[File:Bufo melanostictus Bali.jpg|150px|left|Bufo melanostictus Bali]] == Rujukan nu disebut == <div style="font-size: 90%"> # {{note|Emerson}}{{cite journal|last=Emerson| first=S.B.| coauthors=Diehl, D.| year=1980| title=Toe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs| journal=Biol. J. Linn. Soc.| volume=13| issue=3| pages=199-216}} # {{note|Harvey}}{{cite journal|lsat=Harvey|first=M. B| coauthors=A. J. Pemberton, and E. N. Smith| year=2002| title=New and poorly known parachuting frogs (Rhacophoridae : ''Rhacophorus'') from Sumatra and Java| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=16| pages=46-92}} # {{note|Saporito}}{{cite journal|last=Saporito| first=R.A.| coauthors= H.M. Garraffo, M.A. Donnelly, A.L. Edwards, J.T. Longino, and J.W. Daly| year=2004| title=Formicine ants: An arthropod source for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Science| volume=101| pages=8045-8050}} # {{note|Smith}}{{cite journal| last=Smith| first=B. P.| coauthors=Tyler M. J., Kaneko T., Garraffo H. M., Spande T. F., Daly J. W.| year=2002| title=Evidence for biosynthesis of pseudophrynamine alkaloids by an Australian myobatrachid frog (pseudophryne) and for sequestration of dietary pumiliotoxins| journal=J Nat Prod| volume=65| issue=4| pages=439-47}} # {{note|Myers}}{{cite journal| last=Myers| first=C.W.| coauthors= J.W. Daly| year=1983| title=Dart-poison frogs| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1983-01_248_1/page/120| journal=Scientific American| volume=248| pages=120-133}} # {{note|Savage}}{{cite book| last=Savage| first=J. M.| year=2002| title=The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica| url=https://archive.org/details/amphibiansreptil0000sava| publisher=University of Chicago Press, Chicago}} # {{note|Duellman}}{{cite journal| last=Duellman| first= W. E.| year=1978| title=The Biology of an Equatorial Herpetofauna in Amazonian Ecuador| journal=University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Miscellaneous Publication| volume=65| pages=1-352}} # {{note|van}}{{cite journal|last=VanCompernolle| first=S. E.| coauthors=R. J. Taylor, K. Oswald-Richter, J. Jiang, B. E. Youree, J. H. Bowie, M. J. Tyler, M. Conlon, D. Wade, C. Aiken, and T. S. Dermody| year=2005| title=Antimicrobial peptides from amphibian skin potently inhibit Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection and transfer of virus from dendritic cells to T cells|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-virology_2005-09_79_18/page/11598| journal=Journal of Virology| volume=79| pages=11598-11606}} # {{Note|Warkentin}}{{cite journal| last=Warkentin| first=K.M.| year=1995| title=Adaptive plasticity in hatching age: a response to predation risk trade-offs| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume=92| pages=3507-3510}} # {{note|Silva}}{{cite journal| last=Silva| first=H. R.| coauthors=Britto-Pereira M. C., & Caramaschi U.| year=1989| title=Frugivory and Seed Dispersal by ''Hyla truncata'', a Neotropical Treefrog| journal=Copeia| volume=1989(3)| pages=781–783}} # {{note|Phillipe}}{{cite journal| last=Phillipe| first=G.| coauthors=Angenot L.| year=2005| title=Recent developments in the field of arrow and dart poisons| journal=J Ethnopharmacol| volume=100(1-2)| pages=85-91}} # {{Note|Crump}}{{cite journal|last=Crump| first=M.L.| year=1996| title=Parental care among the Amphibia| journal=Advances in the Study of Behavior| volume=25| pages=109-144}} # {{note|Stuart}}{{cite journal| last=Stuart| first=S.N.| coauthors= J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, B.E. Young, A.S.L. Rodrigues, D.L. Fischman, and R.W. Waller| year=2004| title=Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-12-03_306_5702/page/1783| journal=Science| volume=306| pages=1783-1786}} # {{note|Phillips}}{{cite book| last=Phillips| first=Kathryn| title=Tracking the Vanishing Frogs| publisher=New York: Penguin Books| year=1994| id=ISBN 0-14-024646-0}} # {{note|roy97}}{{cite journal|last=Roy| first=Debjani| year=1997| title=Communication signals and sexual selection in amphibians| journal=Current Science| volume=72| pages= 923-927}} # {{note|Ford}}{{cite journal|last=Ford| first=L.S.| coauthors=D.C. Cannatella| year=1993| title=The major clades of frogs| journal=Herpetological Monographs| volume=7| pages=94-117}} # {{note|Faiv}}{{cite journal|last=Faivovich| first=J.| coauthors=C.F.B. Haddad, P.C.A. Garcia, D.R. Frost, J.A. Campbell, and W.C. Wheeler| title=Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision| journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History| volume=294| pages=1-240}} # {{note|briggs}}http://newton.nap.edu/html/biomems/rbriggs.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901100507/http://newton.nap.edu/html/biomems/rbriggs.html |date=2006-09-01 }} # {{note|gentime}}{{cite web | url=http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/rfa-files/RFA-HD-01-008.html | title=Developing the potential of ''Xenopus tropicalis'' as a genetic model | accessdate=2006-03-09 | format=HTML}} # {{note|xenopus}}{{cite web | title=Joint Genome Institute - ''Xenopus tropicalis'' Home | url=http://genome.jgi-psf.org/Xentr4/Xentr4.home.html | accessdate=2006-03-03 | format=HTML}} </div> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Frog|Frog]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (27 Maret 2006) * {{cite book|last=Cogger|first=H.G.|coauthors=R.G. Zweifel, and D. Kirschner| year=2004| title=Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians Second Edition| publisher=Fog City Press| id=ISBN 1-877019-69-0}} * Estes, R., and O. A. Reig. (1973). "The early fossil record of frogs: a review of the evidence." pp.&nbsp;11–63 In J. L. Vial (Ed.), ''Evolutionary Biology of the Anurans: Contemporary Research on Major Problems''. University of Missouri Press, Columbia. * {{cite book|last=Holman|first=J. A| year=2004| title=Fossil Frogs and Toads of North America| publisher=Indiana University Press| id=ISBN 0-253-34280-5}} * {{cite book| last=Tyler| first=M. J.| year=1994| title=Australian Frogs A Natural History| publisher=Reed Books| id=ISBN 0-7301-0468-0}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Frog}} {{wikispecies|Anura}} * [http://www-itg.lbl.gov/ITG.hm.pg.docs/Whole.Frog/Whole.Frog.html The Whole Frog Project] - Bangkong: bédah jeung anatomi maya * ''[http://raysweb.net/specialplaces/pages/frogsdecline.html Disappearance of toads, frogs has some scientists worried]'' - ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 20 April 1992 * [http://www.xenbase.org/ Xenbase] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904220935/http://xenbase.org/ |date=2009-09-04 }} - Sumberdaya Ramat ''Xenopus laevis'' jeung ''tropicalis'' * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Salientia Tree of Life (Salientia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613194138/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Salientia |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://amphibiaweb.org Amphibia Web] * [http://markus.nolf.org/blog.php?p=160 Time-lapse video showing the egg's development until hatching] * [http://froggy.lbl.gov/movies/whole.frog/frog.Qtime.jpg.1.0.mov Whole Frog] Vidéo Quicktime ngeunaan anatomi bangkong * [http://froggy.lbl.gov/virtual/ Try an on-line "virtual frog dissection" here.] * [http://www.midwestfrogs.com Frog calls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813082330/http://www.midwestfrogs.com/ |date=2015-08-13 }} - short vidéo clips of calling frogs and interviews with scientists about frog issues, including declining and malformed frog causes * [http://www.dartden.com Dart Den] - Dart frog resource and forums * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/wildbritain/springwatch/ Record UK Frogspawn sightings here] - Springwatch 2006 * [http://www.nwf.org/frogwatchUSA/ Frogwatch USA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629072456/http://www.nwf.org/frogwatchusa/ |date=2009-06-29 }} volunteer frog and toad monitoring program by National Wildlife Federation and USGS, includes links to frog calls of the United States * [http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/browse_imgs/amphibian_sci_1.html Amphibian photo gallery by scientific name] - féatures many unusual frogs {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Anura]] 0cc6af7js2j0v0z4zqtolf2v4r1kcb7 Baktéri 0 4895 712399 705180 2026-08-28T22:35:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712399 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgrey | name = Bacterium | image = E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' | domain = '''Bacteria''' | subdivision_ranks = Subgrup | subdivision = [[Actinobacteria]]<br /> [[Aquificae]]<br /> [[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]]<br /> [[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]]<br /> [[Chloroflexi]]<br /> [[Chrysiogenetes]]<br /> [[Cyanobacteria]]<br /> [[Deferribacteraceae|Deferribacteres]]<br /> [[Deinococcus-Thermus]]<br /> [[Dictyoglomi]]<br /> [[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]]<br /> [[Firmicutes]]<br /> [[Fusobacteria]]<br /> [[Gemmatimonadetes]]<br /> [[Nitrospirae]]<br /> [[Planctomycetes]]<br /> [[Proteobacteria]]<br /> [[Spirochaete]]s<br /> [[Thermodesulfobacteria]]<br /> [[Thermomicrobia]]<br /> [[Thermotogae]] }} '''Baktéri''' nyaéta golongan panglobana di antara [[organisme]]. Istilah baktéri ('''bacteria''') geus macem-macem dipaké keur sakabéh [[prokariot]] atawa lolobana golongannana, atawa disebut ogé '''eubacteria''', gumantung kana pamikiran ngeunaan hubungannana. Di dieu, ''bacteria'' digunakeun hususna pikeun nunjuk kana ''eubacteria''. Golongan gedé baktéri séjénna nyaéta [[Archaea]]. Studi ngeunaan baktéri disebut ''[[wikt:baktériologi|baktériologi]]'', bagian tina [[mikrobiologi]]. Baktéri nyaéta mahluk anu kacida lobana di antara sakabéh organisme. Baktéri aya di mana-mana, dina [[taneuh]], [[cai]], jeung mangrupa pasangan [[simbiosis]] pikeun mahluk hirup séjénna. Loba [[patogén]] anu mangrupa baktéri. lolobanana mibanda ukuran pangpanjangna ukur 0.5-5.0 [[1 E-6 m|μm]], sanajan baktéri gedé saperti ''[[Thiomargarita namibiensis]]'' jeung ''[[Epulopiscium fishelsoni]]'' bisa nambahan ukuran nepi ka 0.5&nbsp;mm oge. Baktéri umumna miboga [[dinding sél]], saperti [[tutuwuhan]] jeung [[Sél(biologi)|sél]] [[fungi]], tapi ''dinding'' sél baktéri normalna dijieun tina [[peptidoglycan]] tur lain [[sélulose]] (saperti dina [[tutuwuhan]]) atawa [[sitin]] (saperti dina fungi), jeung henteu [[homologi (biologi)|homolog]] jeung ''dinding'' sél [[eukariot]]ik. Lolobana gerak ngagunakeun [[flagella]], anu béda strukturna dibandingkeun jeung flagella golongan séjén. == Sajarah == Baktéri munggaran ditalungtik ku [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] dina taun 1674 ngagunakeun mikroskop lensa tunggal hasil rancangan anjeunna sorangan. Ngaran ''bacterium'' diwanohkeun ku [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]] dina 1828, diturunkeun tina [[Basa Yunani]] βακτηριον nu hartina "tongkat leutik". Sabab susahna ngajelaskeun baktéri individual jeung pentingna pamanggih anjeunna pikeun widang tatamba, biokimia, jeung géokimia, sajarah [[baktériologi]] umumna dijelaskeun minangka sajarah [[mikrobiologi]]. == Struktur Sél == [[Gambar:Prokaryote cell diagram.svg|thumb|320px|left|Struktur sél [[prokariot]]]] {{utama|Struktur Sél Baktéri}} Minangka [[prokariot]] (organisme tanpa nukleus sél) sakabéh baktéri miboga struktur sél anu sederhana tanpa [[nukleus sél]] jeung [[organél]] saperti [[mitokondria]] jeung [[kloroplas]]. <!--Most bacteria are relatively small and possess distinctive cell and colony morphologies (shapes) as described below. The most important bacterial structural characteristic is the [[cell wall]]. Bacteria can be divided into two groups (Gram positive and Gram negative) based on differences in cell wall structure as revealed by [[Gram stain]]ing. Gram positive bacteria possess a cell wall containing a thick [[peptidoglycan]] (called Murein in older sources) layer and [[teichoic acid]]s while Gram negative bacteria have an outer, [[lipopolysaccharide]]-containing membrane and a thin [[peptidoglycan]] layer located in the periplasm (the region between the outer and cytoplasmic membranes). Many bacteria contain other extracellular structures such as [[flagella]] and [[fimbriae]] which are used for [[motility]] (movement), attachment, and [[conjugation]] respectively. Some bacteria also contain capsules or [[slime layer]]s that also facilitate bacterial attachment to surfaces and [[biofilm]] formation. Bacteria contain relatively few intracellular structures compared to [[eukaryote]]s but do contain a tightly supercoiled [[chromosome]], [[ribosome]]s, and several other species-specific structures such as intracellular membranes, nutrient storage structures, gas vesicles, and [[magnetosome]]s. Some bacteria are capable of forming [[endospore]]s which allows them to survive extreme environmental and chemical stresses. This property is restricted to specific Gram positive organisms such as ''[[Bacillus]]'' and ''[[Clostridium]]''. ==Métabolisme== ''Main article: [[Metabolisme Microbial]]'' In contrast to higher organisms, bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types. In fact, it is widely accepted that [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] metabolism is largely a derivative of bacterial metabolism with [[mitochondria]] having descended from a lineage within the [[Proteobacteria|α-Proteobacteria]] and [[chloroplast]]s from the [[Cyanobacteria]] by ancient [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] events. Bacterial metabolism can be divided broadly on the basis of the kind of energy used for growth, [[electron donor]]s and [[electron acceptor]]s and by the source of carbon used. Most bacteria are [[heterotroph]]ic; using [[organic compound|organic carbon]] compounds as both carbon and energy sources. In [[aerobe|aerobic]] organisms, [[oxygen]] is used as the [[terminal electron acceptor]]. In [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] organisms other inorganic compounds, such as [[nitrate]], [[sulfate]] or [[carbon dioxide]] as [[terminal electron acceptor]]s leading to the environmentally important processes of [[denitrification]], sulfate reduction and [[acetogenesis]], respectively. Non-respiratory anaerobes use [[fermentation]] to generate energy and reducing power, secreting metabolic by-products (such as [[ethanol]] in brewing) as waste. [[Facultative anaerobe]]s can switch between [[fermentation]] and different [[terminal electron acceptor]]s depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves. As an alternative to [[heterotroph]]y many bacteria are [[autotrophic]], fixing [[carbon dioxide]] into cell mass. Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on [[phototroph]]y or [[chemotroph]]y, i. e. the use of either light or exergonic chemical reactions for fueling life processes. [[Lithotroph]]ic bacteria use inorganic [[electron donor]]s for respiration ([[chemolthotroph]]s) or biosynthesis and [[carbon dioxide]] fixation ([[photolithotroph]]s), opposed by [[organotrophs]] which need organic compounds as electron donors for biosynthetic reactions (and mostly as well as carbon sources). Common inorganic [[electron donor]]s are [[hydrogen]], [[ammonia]] (leading to [[nitrification]]), [[ferrous iron|iron]] and several reduced [[sulfur]] compounds. In both [[aerobe|aerobic]] [[phototroph]]y and [[chemolithotroph]]y [[oxygen]] is used as a [[terminal electron acceptor]], while under [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] conditions inorganic compounds (see above) are used instead. Most [[photolithotroph]]ic and [[chemolithotroph]]ic organisms are [[autotroph]]ic, meaning that they obtain cellular carbon by fixation of [[carbon dioxide]], whereas [[photoorganotroph]]ic and [[chemoorganotroph]]ic organisms are [[heterotrophic]]. In addition to carbon, some organisms also fix [[nitrogen]] gas ([[nitrogen fixation]]). This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above but is not universal. The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of organisms has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy, although these traits often do not correspond with genetic techniques (see groups and identification below). ==Tuwuh jeung Réproduksi== Sakabéh baktéri baranahan ku cara [[réproduksi aséksual]] (''binary fission'') nu hasilna mangrupa [[''pembagian'' sél]]. Two identical [[Cloning|clone]] '''daughter cells''' are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that facilitate the dispersal of the newly-formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by ''[[Myxococcus]]'' and arial hyphae formation by ''[[Streptomyces]]''. [[Image:Agar_plate_with_colonies.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lapisan ager padet nu ngandung koloni baktéri]] In the laboratory, bacteria are usually grown using two methods, solid and liquid. Solid growth media such as [[agar plates]] are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain. When quantitation of growth or large volumes of cells are required liquid growth media are generally used. Growth in liquid media, with stirring, most often occurs as an even cell suspension making the cultures easier to divide and transfer compared to solid media, although the isolation of individual cells from liquid media is extremely difficult. In both liquid and solid media there exist a finite amount of nutrients, which allows for the study of the [[bacterial growth|bacterial cell cycle]]. These limitations can be avoided by the use of a [[chemostat]], which maintains a bacterial culture under steady-state conditions by the continuous addition of nutrients and the removal of waste products and cells. Large [[chemostat]]s are often used for industrial-scale microbial processes. Most techniques commonly used to grow bacteria are designed to optimise the amount of cells produced, the amount of time needed to produce them, and the cost to produce them. In a bacterium's natural environment nutrients are limited, meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely. This constant limitation of nutrients has led the evolution of many different growth strategies in different types of organisms (see [[R/K selection theory]]). Some possess the ability to grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available, such as the formation of algal (and cyanobacterial) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer. Other organisms have devised more specialized strategies to make them more successful in a harsh environment, such as the production of [[antibiotics]] by ''[[Streptomyces]]''; often at the expense of a slower growth rate. In a natural environment, many organisms live in communities (e.g. [[biofilm]]s) which may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection of environmental stresses. Often these relationships are essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ([[syntrophy]]). These evolutionary tactics to overcome nutrient limitation must be accounted for in an industrial/laboratory bacterial growth experiment. For instance bacteria that tend to agglutinate may need more vigorous stirring to break apart any large bacterial masses. The main growth attribute that must be understood for controlled growth is that bacteria have defined growth phases. A controlled bacterial growth will follow three distinct phases. Nearly all cultures start from taking a relatively old stock of bacteria and diluting them in to fresh media; these cells need to adapt to the nutrient rich environment. The first phase of growth is the [[lag phase]]. The lag phase is a period of slow growth. The slow growth is most often attributed the need for cells to adapt to fast growth. The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates; enzymes needed to metabolise a variety of substrates are produced. The second phase of growth is the [[logarithmic phase]] (log phase), also known as the exponential phase. The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth. The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the ''growth rate'' (''k''). The time it takes the cells to double during the log phase is known as the ''generation time'' (''g''). During the log phase, nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until they are all gone. The final phase of growth is the [[stationary phase]]. This phase of growth is caused by depleted nutrients. The cells begin to shut down their metabolic activity, as well as break-down their own non-essential proteins. The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to dormancy. The cells turn off all none essential functions, such as [[bacterial conjugation]]. ==Variasi Genetik== Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit an identical copy of their parent's genes (i.e. are [[clone|clonal]]). All bacteria, however, have the ability to evolve and change their genetic material, either through [[mutation]] or [[genetic recombination]]. [[Mutation]] occurs as a result of errors made during the replication of a gene and is most often gradual. It occurs naturally and as a result of the presence of [[mutagen]]s. Some bacteria can increase the rate of mutation during DNA replication as a response to stress. Asexual reproduction does not afford an organism many opportunities to evolve its genome. Certain types of bacteria are also capable of exchanging genetic information through [[bacterial conjugation]]. In conjugation, one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through a mating bridge. The genetic material transferred may be either [[chromosome|chromosomal]] or from a [[plasmid]]. Conjugation increases the genetic variability of bacterial populations and facilitates the emergences of antibiotic resistance. This is often thought of as a primitive form of sexual reproduction; however, since gametes (n) are not uniting to form a zygote (2n), this cannot be considered sexual reproduction. The ability to transfer DNA is not ubiquitous in the bacterial kingdom, so all bacteria also rely on none transfer methods to diversify their DNA. The most abundant genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from [[mutation|random mutation]]. One of the most common ways that bacteria undergo genetic recombination is [[transduction]]. In the process of transduction, a [[bacteriophage|virus]] alters the [[DNA]] of a bacterium by injecting its own into the [[cell]]. The bacteria's chromosome can then be altered by the viral DNA, if it is able to survive the reproduction of the virus. If the genetic material of the virus was corrupted, not allowing the cell to create the virus parts, the bacteria would then most likely survive to reproduce and pass the altered chromosome to a daughter cell. Many bacteria can also take-up exogenous environmental DNA; this method may be a prime method for antibiotic resistance to be passed between different species, even different genera. Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated, bacteria have historically been the workhorses for the fields of [[molecular biology]], [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. By making mutations in bacteria and examining the resulting phenotypes, scientists have been able to determine the function of many different genes and enzymes. Lessons learned from bacteria can then be applied to more complex organisms which are often more difficult to study. == Gerakan == [[image:flagella.png|thumb|100px|left| A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous;]] ''Motile'' bacteria can move about, using [[flagellum|flagella]], [[bacterial gliding]], or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the [[spirochaete]]s, have structures similar to flagella, called [[axial filament]]s, between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive [[helix|helical]] body that twists about as it moves. Bacterial flagella are arranged in many different ways. Bacteria can have a single polar flagellum at one end of a cell, clusters of many flagella at one end or flagella scattered all over the cell, as with ''[[peritrichous]]''. Many bacteria (such as ''E.coli'') have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and introduces an important element of [[random]]ness in their forward movement. (See external links below for link to videos.) Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]], behaviors called ''taxes'' - for instance, [[chemotaxis]], [[phototaxis]], [[mechanotaxis]], and [[magnetotaxis]]. In one peculiar group, the [[myxobacteria]], individual bacteria attract to form swarms and may differentiate to form fruiting bodies. The [[myxobacteria]] move only when on solid surfaces, unlike ''E. coli'' which is motile in liquid or solid media. ==Golongan jeung Idéntifikasi== [[Image:Bacterial morphology diagram.svg|right|thumb|300px|Baktéri dina macem-macem ukuran]] Historically, bacteria as originally studied by [[botany|botanists]] were classified in the same way as plants, that is, mainly by shape. Bacteria come in a variety of different cell morphologies (shapes), including bacillus (rod-shape), [[coccus]] (spherical), spirillum (helical), and vibrio (curved bacillus). However, because of their small size bacteria are relatively uniform in shape and therefore classification based on morphology was unsuccessful. The first formal classification scheme was developed following the development of the [[Gram stain]] by [[Hans Christian Gram]] which separates bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls. This scheme included: * ''Gracilicutes'' - Gram negative staining bacteria with a second cell membrane * ''Firmicutes'' - Gram positive staining bacteria with a thick [[peptidoglycan]] wall * ''Mollicutes'' - Gram negative staining bacteria with no cell wall or second membrane * ''Mendosicutes'' - atypically staining strains now known to belong to the [[Archaea]] Further developments (essentially) based on this scheme included comparisons of bacteria based on differences in cellular metabolism as determined by a wide variety of specific tests. Bacteria were also classified based on differences in cellular chemical compounds such as [[fatty acid]]s, pigments, and [[quinone]]s for example. While these schemes allowed for the differentiation between bacterial strains, it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species. It was not until the utilization of genome-based techniques such as %[[guanine]]+[[cytosine]] [[GC-content|ratio]] determination, genome-genome hybridization and gene sequencing (in particular the [[rDNA|rRNA gene]]) that microbial taxonomy developed (or at least is developing) into a stable, accurate classification system. It should be noted, however, that due to the existence numerous historical classification schemes and our current poor understanding of microbial diversity, bacterial taxonomy remains a changing and expanding field. <!-- == Benefits and dangers == Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the [[natural environment|environment]] and [[animal]]s, including [[human]]s. The role of bacteria in disease and infection is important. Some bacteria act as [[pathogen]]s and cause [[tetanus]], [[typhoid fever]], [[pneumonia]], [[syphilis]], [[cholera]], [[food-borne illness]], [[leprosy]], and [[tuberculosis]](TB). [[Sepsis]], a systemic infectious syndrome characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', or many gram-negative bacteria. Some bacterial infections can spread throughout the host's body and become ''systemic''. In [[plant]]s, bacteria cause [[leaf spot]], [[fireblight]], and [[wilting|wilts]]. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water, and [[insect-borne]] microorganisms. The hosts infected with the pathogens may be treated with [[antibiotic]]s, which can be classified as [[bacteriocide|bacteriocidal]] and [[bacteriostatic]], which at concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. [[Antiseptic]] measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for example, by swabbing skin with alcohol prior to piercing the skin with the needle of a syringe. [[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilization]] of surgical and dental instruments is done to make them ''sterile'' or pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by bacteria. ''Sanitizers'' and [[disinfectants]] are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of infection. In soil, microorganisms which reside in the [[rhizosphere]] (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) help in the transformation of molecular dinitrogen gas as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous compounds in a process known as [[nitrogen fixation]]. This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as [[symbiont]]s [[Bacteria in the human body|in humans]] and other organisms. For example, the presence of the [[gut flora]] in the large intestine can help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes. The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of microorganisms play important roles in the [[mineralization]] of specific classes of organic compounds. For example, the decomposition of [[cellulose]], which is one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues, is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong to the genus ''[[Cytophaga]]''. This ability has also been utilized by humans in industry, waste processing, and [[bioremediation]]. Bacteria capable of digesting the [[hydrocarbons]] in [[petroleum]] are often used to clean up [[oil spill]]s. Some beaches in [[Prince William Sound]] were fertilized in an attempt to facilitate the growth of such bacteria after the infamous 1989 [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria, often in combination with [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s, are used in the preparation of [[fermentation|fermented]] foods such as [[cheese]], [[pickle]]s, [[soy sauce]], [[sauerkraut]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], and [[yogurt]]. Using [[biotechnology]] techniques, bacteria can be [[bioengineer]]ed for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as [[insulin]], or for the [[bioremediation]] of [[toxic waste]]s. Friendly bacteria: a common reference to those bacteria that offer some benefit to human hosts, such as ''Lactobacillus'' species, which convert milk protein to lactic acid in the gut. The presence of such bacterial colonies also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria. Other bacteria that are helpful inside the body are many strains of E. coli, which is harmless and provides humans with Vitamin K. ==Tempo ogé== *[[Bacterial growth]] *[[Bacteriocin]] *[[Economic importance of bacteria]] *[[Magnetotactic bacteria]] *[[Microorganism]] *[[Nanobacterium]] *[[Transgenic bacteria]] ==Sumber== * Some text in this entry was merged with the ''[[Nupedia]]'' article entitled ''Bacteria'', written by Nagina Parmar; reviewed and approved by the Biology group (editor: Gaytha Langlois, lead reviewer: Gaytha Langlois, lead copyeditors: Ruth Ifcher and Jan Hogle) * {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}--> == Bacaan salajengna == * Alcamo, I. Edward. ''Fundamentals of Microbiology''. 5th ed. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cumming, 1997. * Atlas, Ronald M. ''Principles of Microbiology''. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 1995. * Holt, John.G. Bergey's ''Manual of Determinative Bacteriology''. 9th ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins, 1994. * {{cite journal | author=Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR | title=Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity | journal=J Bacteriol | year=1998 | pages=4765-74 | volume=180 | issue=18 | id=PMID 9733676 | url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676}} * {{cite journal | author=Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. | title=A Response Regulator Model in a Simple Sensory System | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1977-06-03_196_7294/page/1055 | journal=Science | year=1977 | volume=196 | pages=1055-1063 | id=PMID 870969}} * Stanier, R.Y., J. L. Ingraham, M. L. Wheelis, and P. R. Painter. ''General Microbiology''. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986. == Tumbu Luar == * [http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083605/http://www3.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm |date=2007-09-29 }} * [http://www.zytologie-online.net/bakterien.php Bacterial Growth and Cell Wall (Ger)] * [http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html Microminds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706205152/http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html |date=2006-07-06 }} * [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm The largest bacteria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211094146/http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm |date=2012-12-11 }} * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth Tree of Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021015145/http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth |date=2014-10-21 }} * [http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html Videos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105182817/http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html |date=2015-11-05 }} of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other fine vidéos. * [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html Planet of the Bacteria by Stephen Jay Gould] * [http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/MajorGroupsOfProkaryotes Major Groups of Prokaryotes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060814122554/http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/MajorGroupsOfProkaryotes |date=2006-08-14 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20021118194416/http://www.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/FSF_columns/fsf.15 Bitter Resistance by Bruce Sterling] * [http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ On-line text book on bacteriology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913123627/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/ |date=2008-09-13 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Baktéri|*]] [[Kategori:Baktériologi]] akl487phbneuia4pib27vf6iasvgmyz Transistor 0 8729 712316 711740 2026-08-28T20:39:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dablink|Transistor ogé mangrupa ngaran nu ilahar keun [[radio transistor]] taun 1960-an.}} [[Gambar:Transistors.agr.jpg|thumb|200px|Rupa-rupa transistor]] '''Transistor''' nyaéta [[parangkat sémikonduktor]] nu miboga tilu terminal, bisa digunakeun keur [[panguat éléktronik amplifier|nguatkeun]], [[nyaklar]], nytabilkeun voltase, [[modulasi]] sinyal, sarta loba deui kagunaan séjénna. Transistor mangrupa blok wangunan dasar tina [[integrated circuit]] (IC) analog atawa digital -- [[sirkuit]] nu dipaké ngoperasikeun [[komputer]], [[telepon sélulér]], jeung [[éléktronika]] modéren séjénna. == Pangwanoh == Kecap ''transistor'' mangrupa kecap pondokna tina ''transfer varistor''. Dingaranan kitu sabab hiji sinyal asupan digunakeun keur ngarobah [[résistansi]] dina jalur sinyal kaluaran ([[varistor]] nyaéta ''variable [[resistor]]''). Transistor kabagi jadi dua kategori utama: [[bipolar junction transistor]] (BJT) jeung [[field effect transistor]] (FET). Panerapan arus dina BJT jeung tegangan dina FET antara asupan jeung terminal ''common'' bakal nambah [[konduktivitas listrik|konduktivitas]] antara terminal ''common'' jeung kaluaran, antukna arus pangaturannana ngalir di antarana. Keur leuwih jéntré ngeunaan operasi dua tipe transistor ieu, tempo [[field effect transistor]] jeung [[bipolar junction transistor]]. Dina [[sirkuit analog]], transistor dipaké dina [[Panguat elektronik|panguat]], (panguat arus saarah, panguat sora, panguat frékuénsiradio), jeung [[Regulator linier|Sumber daya nu diregulasi]] linier. Transistor ogé dipaké dina [[sirkuit digital]] nu mana fungsina minangka sakelar. Sirkuit digital ngawengku [[lawang logika]], [[random access memory]] (RAM), [[mikroprosesor]], jeung [[pamroses sinyal digital]] ''(digital signal processors)'' (DSP). {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} == Pentingna transistor == The transistor is considered by many to be one of the gréatest inventions in modérn history, ranking in importance with the [[printing press]], [[automobile]] and [[telephone]]. It is the key active component in practically all modérn [[electronics]]. Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be [[mass production|mass produced]] using a highly automated process ([[Semiconductor fabrication|fabrication]]) that achieves vanishingly low per-transistor costs. Although millions of individual (known as ''discrete'') transistors are still used, the vast majority of transistors are fabricated into [[integrated circuits]] (also called ''microchips'' or simply ''chips'') along with [[diodes]], [[resistors]], [[capacitors]] and other [[electronic components]] to produce complete electronic circuits. A [[logic gate]] comprises about twenty transistors wheréas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2006, can use as many as 1.7 billion transistors (MOSFETs) [http://www3.intel.com/cd/ids/developer/asmo-na/eng/201969.htm?page=6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025133936/http://www3.intel.com/cd/ids/developer/asmo-na/eng/201969.htm?page=6 |date=2006-10-25 }}. The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it a universal device for non-mechanical tasks, such as digital computing. Transistorized circuits have replaced [[electromechanical]] devices for the control of appliances and machinery as well. It is often less expensive and more effective to use a standard [[microcontroller]] and write a [[computer program]] to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function. Because of the low cost of transistors and hence digital computers, there is a trend to [[Digitizing|digitize]] information. With digital computers offering the ability to quickly find, sort and process [[digital]] information, more and more effort has been put into making information digital. As a result, today, much media data is delivered in digital form, finally being converted and presented in analog form by computers. Aréas influenced by the [[Digital Revolution]] include [[television]], [[radio]], and [[newspaper]]s. == Sajarah == {{dablink|Tempo [[Parangkat sémikonduktor#Sajarah perkembangan parangkat sémikonduktor|parangkat sémikonduktor]] keur sajarah nu leuwih écés.}} The first patents for the transistor principle were registered in Germany in [[1928]] by [[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]]. In [[1934]] German physicist Dr. [[Oskar Heil]] patented the field-effect transistor. It is not cléar whether either design was ever built, and this is generally considered unlikely. On [[22 December]] [[1947]] [[William Shockley]], [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] succeeded in building the first practical [[point-contact transistor]] at [[Bell Labs]]. This work followed from their war-time efforts to produce extremely pure [[germanium]] "crystal" mixer diodes, used in [[radar]] units as a [[frequency mixer]] element in [[microwave]] radar receivers. éarly tube-based technology did not switch fast enough for this role, léading the Bell téam to use solid state [[diode]]s instéad. With this knowledge in hand they turned to the design of a [[triode]], but found this was not at all éasy. Bardeen eventually developed a new branch of [[surface physics]] to account for the "odd" behaviour they saw, and Bardeen and Brattain eventually succeeded in building a working device. [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] needed a generic name for the new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Solid Triode", "Surface States Triode", "Crystal Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "transistor," coined by [[John R. Pierce]], won an internal ballot. The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memoranda calling for votes: {{quotation|Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words "[[transconductance]]" or "transfer", and "[[varistor]]". The device logically belongs in the varistor family, and has the transconductance or transfer impedance of a device having gain, so that this combination is descriptive.|Bell Telephone Laboratories — [http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/namememo.gif Technical Memorandum (May 28, 1948)]}} Bell put the transistor into production at [[Western Electric]] in [[Allentown, Pennsylvania]]. They also licensed it to a number of other electronics companies, including [[Texas Instruments]], who produced a limited run of [[transistor radio]]s as a sales tool. Another company liked the idéa and also decided to take out a license, introducing their own radio under the brand name [[Sony]]. éarly transistors were "unstable" and only suitable for low-power, low-frequency applications, but as transistor design developed, these problems were slowly overcome. Over the next two decades, transistors gradually replaced the éarlier [[vacuum tube]]s in most applications and later made possible many new devices such as [[integrated circuit]]s and [[personal computer]]s. Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain were honored with the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Bardeen would go on to win a second Nobel in physics, one of only two péople to receive more than one in the same discipline, for his work on the exploration of [[superconductivity]]. In August 1948 German physicists Herbert F. Mataré (1912– ) and Heinrich Walker (ca. 1912–1981), working at [[Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse]] in [[Paris]], [[France]] applied for a patent on an amplifier based on the minority carrier injection process which they called the "transistron." Since Bell Labs did not maké a public announcement of the transistor until June 1948, the transistron was considered to be independently developed. Mataré had first observed transconductance effects during the manufacture of germanium duodiodes for German radar equipment during [[World War II|WWII]]. Transistrons were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and military, and in 1953 a solid-state radio receiver with four transistrons was demonstrated at the [[Düsseldorf]] Radio Fair. <gallery> Image:Transistor curve tracer.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' Image:Transistor curve tracer detail1.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (detail 1) Image:Transistor curve tracer detail2.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (detail 2) Image:Transistor curve tracer parts.jpg|''Transistor-curve tracer'' (parts) </gallery> == Tipe == {{float_begin|side=right}} |- align = "center" | [[Gambar:BJT symbol PNP.svg|50px]] || PNP || [[Gambar:JFET P-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]] || P-channel |- align = "center" | [[Gambar:BJT symbol NPN.svg|50px]] || NPN || [[Gambar:JFET N-Channel Labelled.svg|80px]] || N-channel |- align = "center" | BJT || || JFET || {{float_end|caption=BJT and JFET symbols}} Transistors are categorized by: * Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide * Structure: [[Bipolar junction transistor|BJT]], [[JFET]], IGFET ([[MOSFET]]), [[IGBT]], "other types" * Polarity: [[NPN]], [[PNP (transistor polarity)|PNP]], N-channel, P-channel * Maximum power rating: low, medium, high * Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, [[radio frequency]] (RF), [[microwave]] (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term <math>f_\mathrm{T}</math>, an abbreviation for "frequency of transition." The frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain). * Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair * Physical packaging: through hole metal, through hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: ''silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch''. === Bipolar junction transistor === The '''[[bipolar junction transistor]]''' (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The three terminals are named ''emitter'', ''base'' and ''collector''. Two [[p-n junction]]s exist inside a BJT: the ''base/collector junction'' and ''base/emitter junction''. The BJT is commonly described as a current-operated device because the emitter/collector current is controlled by the current flowing between base and emitter terminals. Unlike the FET, the BJT is a low input-impedance device. The BJT has a higher [[transconductance]] than the FET. Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as current. Devices designed for this purpose are called [[phototransistor]]s. === Field-effect transistor === The '''[[field-effect transistor]]''' (FET), sometimes called a ''unipolar transistor'', uses either electrons (N-channel FET) or holes (P-channel FET) for conduction. The three main terminals of the FET are named ''source'', ''gate'' and ''drain''. On some FETs a fourth connection to the body (substrate) is provided, but normally the body is connected internally to the source. A [[voltage]] applied between the gate and source controls the current flowing between the source and drain. In FETs the source/ drain current flows through a conducting channel néar the ''gate''. This channel connects the ''source'' region to the ''drain'' region. The channel conductivity is varied by the electric field generated by the voltage applied between the gate/source terminals. In this way the current flowing between the source and drain is controlled. Like bipolar transistors, FETs can be made to conduct with light (photons) as well as voltage. Devices designed for this purpose are called phototransistors. FETs are divided into two families: '''junction FET''' ([[JFET]]) and '''insulated gate FET''' (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as '''metal-oxide-semiconductor FET''' ([[MOSFET]]), from their original construction as a layer of metal (the gate), a layer of oxide (the insulation), and a layer of semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a PN [[diode]] with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the N-channel JFET the solid state equivalent of the vacuum tube [[triode]] which, similarly, forms a diode between its [[grid]] and [[cathode]]. Also, both devices operate in the ''depletion mode'', they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage. MESFETs are JFETs, in which the [[p-n junction#Reverse-bias|reverse biased]] PN junction is replaced by a semiconductor-metal [[Walter H. Schottky|Schottky]]-junction. These, and the HEMFETs (high electron mobility FETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz). FETs are further divided into '''depletion-mode''' and '''enhancement-mode''' types. Mode refers to the polarity of the gate voltage with respect to the source at the threshold of conduction. For N-channel depletion-mode FETs the gate is negative with respect to the source while for N-channel enhancement-mode FETs the gate is positive, at the threshold of conduction. For both modes, if the gate voltage is made more positive the source/drain current will incréase. For P-channel devices the polarities are reversed. Néarly all JFETs are depletion-mode types and most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types. === Tipe transistor séjénna === * [[Unijunction transistor]]s can be used as simple pulse generators. They comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at éach end (terminals ''Base1'' and ''Base2''). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (''Emitter''). * '''Dual gate FETs''' have a single channel with two gates in [[cascode]]; a configuration that is optimized for '''high frequency amplifiers''', '''mixers''', and [[oscillators]]. * '''Transistor arrays''' are used for general purpose applications, '''function generation''' and low-level, '''low-noise amplifiers'''. They include two or more transistors on a common '''substrate''' to ensure close paraméter matching and thermal tracking, characteristics that are especially important for '''long tailed pair''' amplifiers. * [[Darlington transistor]]s comprise a medium power BJT connected to a power BJT. This provides a high current gain equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. * [[IGBT transistor|Insulated gate bipolar transistors]] ([[IGBT transistor|IGBTs]]) use a medium power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for héavy-duty industrial applications. The [[Asea Brown Boveri]] (ABB) '''5SNA2400E170100''' [https://web.archive.org/web/20051022052727/http://library.abb.com/GLOBAL/SCOT/scot256.nsf/VerityDisplay/71B8625C035676C2C1256F9000471D3C/$File/5SNA%202400E170100_5SYA%201555-02Aug%2004.pdf] illustrates just how far power semiconductor technology has advanced. Intended for three-phase power supplies, this device houses three NPN IGBTs in a case méasuring 38 by 140 by 190&nbsp;mm and weighing 1.5&nbsp;kg. éach IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes. * [[Single-electron transistor]]s (SET) consist of a gate island between two tunnelling junctions. The tunnelling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor. [http://www.mitre.org/tech/nanotech/single_electron_transistor.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924050715/http://www.mitre.org/tech/nanotech/single_electron_transistor.html |date=2006-09-24 }}[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/11/9/7/1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060831021019/http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/11/9/7/1. |date=2006-08-31 }} * Complete list of transistor types [http://t-transistor.com T-Transistor.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312035950/http://t-transistor.com/ |date=2007-03-12 }} === Bahan sémikonduktor === The first BJTs were made from [[germanium]] (Ge) and some high power types still are. [[Silicon]] ([[Si]]) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high performance versions now employ the '''compound semiconductor''' material [[gallium arsenide]] ([[GaAs]]) and the '''semiconductor alloy''' [[silicon germanium]] ([[SiGe]]). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as '''elemental'''. Characteristics of the most common semiconductor materials used to maké transistors are given in the table below: {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" |+Semiconductor material characteristics !Semiconductor <br /> material !Junction forward <br /> voltage <br /> V @ 25&nbsp;°C !Electron mobility <br /> m/s @ 25&nbsp;°C !Hole mobility <br /> m/s @ 25&nbsp;°C !Max. junction temp. <br /> °C |- !Ge |0.27 || 0.39 || 0.19 || 70 to 100 |- !Si | 0.71 || 0.14 || 0.05 || 150 to 200 |- !GaAs | 1.03 || 0.85 || 0.05 || 150 to 200 |- !Al-Si junction | 0.3 || — || — || 150 to 200 |} The ''junction forward voltage'' is the voltage applied to the emitter-base junction of a BJT in order to maké the base conduct a specified current. The current incréases exponentialally as the junction forward voltage is incréased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this méans that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decréases with temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is approximately −2.1 mV/°C. The ''[[electron mobility]]'' and ''[[hole mobility]]'' columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the semiconductor material with an [[electric field]] of 1 volt per méter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide: its maximum temperature is limited, it has relatively high [[Reverse leakage current|leakage current]], it cannot withstand high voltages and it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits. Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar [[NPN]] transistor tends to be faster than an equivalent [[PNP (transistor polarity)|PNP]] transistor type. GaAs has the fastest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this réason that GaAs is used in high frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the '''high electron mobility transistor''' ([[HEMT]]), has a [[Heterojunction|heterostructure]] (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has double the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12&nbsp;GHz. '''Max. junction temperature''' values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged. '''Al-Si junction''' refers to the high-speed (aluminum-silicon) semiconductor-metal barrier diode, commonly known as a [[Schottky diode]]. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a '''parasitic''' reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. === Kemasan === [[Gambar:Transistor-photo.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Through-hole transistors (tape measure marked in [[centimetre]]s)]] Transistors come in many different packages ([[:Category:Chip carriers|chip carriers]]) (see images). The two main categories are ''[[Through-hole technology|through-hole]]'' (or ''leaded''), and ''surface-mount'', also known as '''surface mount device''' ([[Surface-mount technology|SMD]]). The '''ball grid array''' ([[Ball grid array|BGA]]) is the latest surface mount package (currently only for large '''transistor arrays'''). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of léads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high frequency characteristics but lower power rating. Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic or plastic. The package often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors have large packages that can be clamped to [[heat sink]]s for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected to the metal can/metal plate. At the other extreme, some surface-mount '''microwave''' transistors are as small as grains of sand. Often a given transistor type is available in different packages. Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: different transistor types can assign different functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally indicated by a suffix letter to the part number- i.e. BC212L and BC212K). == Panggunaan == In the éarly days of transistor circuit design, the [[bipolar junction transistor]], or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for digital and analog circuits because of their éase of manufacture and speed. However, the [[MOSFET]] has several desirable properties for digital circuits, and since major advancements in digital circuits have pushed MOSFET design to state-of-the-art. MOSFETs are now commonly used for both analog and digital functions. [[Gambar:BJT_Switch.png|thumb|100px|BJT Transistor used as an electronic switch]] [[Gambar:BJT_Amplifier.png|thumb|100px|Amplifier-Circuit Diagram]] <!-- [[Image:BJT_Amplifier_Waveform.png|thumb|100px|Amplifier-Waveforms]] --> === Saklar === Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including [[Switched-mode power supply|switched-mode power supplies]] and low power applications such as [[logic gates]]. === Panguat === From [[mobile phone]]s to [[television]]s, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for [[sound reproduction]], [[Transmitter|radio transmission]], and [[signal processing]]. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually incréased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Transistors are commonly used in modérn musical instrument amplifiers, where circuits up to a few hundred [[watt]]s are common and relatively chéap. Transistors have largely replaced valves in instrument amplifiers. Some musical instrument amplifier manufacturers mix transistors and vacuum tubes in the same circuit, to utilize the inherent benefits of both devices. === Komputer === The "first generation" of electronic computers used vacuum tubes, which generated large amounts of héat and were bulky, and unreliable. The development of the transistor was key to computer miniaturization and reliability. The "second generation" of computers, through the late [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] féatured boards filled with individual transistors and magnetic memory cores. Subsequently, transistors, other components, and their necessary wiring were integrated into a single, mass-manufactured component: the [[integrated circuit]]. Transistors incorporated into integrated circuits have replaced most discrete transistors in modérn [[digital]] computers. == Kauntungan transistor dibandingkeun jeung solobong vakum == Before the development of transistors, [[vacuum tube]]s (or in the UK '''thermionic valves''' or just '''valves''') were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are: * Smaller size (despite continuing miniaturization of vacuum tubes) * Highly automated manufacture * Lower cost (in volume production) * Lower possible operating voltages (but vacuum tubes can operate at higher voltages) * No warm-up period (most vacuum tubes need 10 to 60 seconds to function correctly) * Lower power dissipation (no héater power, very low saturation voltage) * Higher reliability and gréater physical ruggedness (although vacuum tubes are electrically more rugged. Also the vacuum tube is much more resistant to '''nucléar electromagnetic pulses''' ([[EMP|NEMP]]) and '''electrostatic discharge''' ([[Electrostatic discharge|ESD]])) * Much longer life (vacuum tube cathodes are eventually exhausted and the vacuum can become contaminated) * Complementary devices available (allowing circuits with '''complementary-symmetry''': vacuum tubes with a polarity equivalent to PNP BJTs or P type FETs are not available) * Ability to control large currents (power transistors are available to control hundreds of amperes, vacuum tubes to control even one ampere are large and costly) * Much less [[microphonic]] (vibration can modulate vacuum tube characteristics, though this may contribute to the sound of [[guitar amplifiers]]) " ''Nature abhors a vacuum tube'' " Myron Glass (see [[John R. Pierce]]), [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]], circa 1948. == Gallery == A wide range of transistors has been available since the [[1960s]] and manufacturers continually introduce improved types. A few examples from the main families are noted below. Unless otherwise stated, all types are made from silicon semiconductor. Complementary pairs are shown as NPN/PNP or N/P channel. Links go to manufacturer datasheets, which are in [[PDF]] format. (On some datasheets the accuracy of the stated transistor category is a matter of debate.) * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3903-D.PDF 2N3904]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3906-D.PDF 2N3906], [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF BC182] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723095810/http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC182-D.PDF |date=2008-07-23 }}/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC212-D.PDF BC212] and [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC546-D.PDF BC546]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/BC556B-D.PDF BC556]: Ubiquitous, BJT, general-purpose, low-power, complementary pairs. They have plastic cases and cost roughly ten cents U.S. in small quantities, making them popular with hobbyists. * [[AF107]]: Germanium, 0.5 watt, 250&nbsp;MHz PNP BJT. * BFP183: Low power, 8&nbsp;GHz microwave NPN BJT. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080528164459/http://www.national.com/ds/LM/LM194.pdf LM394]: "supermatch pair", with two NPN BJTs on a single substrate. * [http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9288.pdf 2N2219A]/[http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/9037.pdf 2N2905A]: BJT, general purpose, medium power, complementary pair. With metal cases they are rated at about one watt. * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF 2N3055]/[http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/2N3055-D.PDF MJ2955]: For yéars, the venerable NPN 2N3055 has been the "standard" power transistor. Its complement, the PNP MJ2955 arrived later. These 1&nbsp;MHz, 15 A, 60 V, 115 W BJTs are used in audio power amplifiers, power supplies, and control. * 2SC3281/2SA1302: Made by [[Toshiba]], these BJTs have low-distortion characteristics and are used in high-power audio amplifiers. They have been widely counterfeited [http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218091102/http://sound.westhost.com/counterfeit.htm |date=2008-12-18 }}. * [http://www.st.com/stonline/books/pdf/docs/4491.pdf BU508]: NPN, 1500 V power BJT. Designed for [[television]] horizontal deflection, its high voltage capability also makes it suitable for use in ignition systems. * [http://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MJ11012-D.PDF MJ11012/MJ11015]: 30 A, 120 V, 200 W, high power Darlington complementary pair BJTs. Used in audio amplifiers, control, and power switching. * [http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5457.pdf 2N5457]/[http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/2N%2F2N5460.pdf 2N5460]: [[JFET]] (depletion mode), general purpose, low power, complementary pair. * BSP296/BSP171: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), medium power, néar complementary pair. Used for logic level conversion and driving power transistors in amplifiers. * [http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf IRF3710] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061012014719/http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf3710.pdf |date=2006-10-12 }}/[http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf IRF5210] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218131500/http://www.irf.com/product-info/datasheets/data/irf5210.pdf |date=2008-12-18 }}: [[IGFET]] (enhancement mode), 40 A, 100 V, 200 W, néar complementary pair. For high-power amplifiers and power switches, especially in automobiles. == Pabrik transistor == * [http://www.advancedpower.com/ APT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024753/http://www.advancedpower.com/ |date=2006-10-16 }} * [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] * [[Infineon Technologies]] * [http://www.irf.com/ IRF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108221347/http://www.irf.com/ |date=2015-01-08 }} * [http://www.ixys.com/ IXYS Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724180930/http://www.ixys.com/ |date=2013-07-24 }} * [http://www.onsemi.com/ ON Semiconductor] * [http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/semi/ Panasonic Semiconductors] * [[Powerex]] * [http://www.rohm.com/products/index.html Rohm] * [http://www.sanyo.com/semiconductors/transistors/ Sanyo Transistors] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015193244/http://www.sanyo.com/semiconductors/transistors/ |date=2006-10-15 }} * [http://www.semikron.com/ Semikron] * [[STMicroelectronics]] * [http://www.semicon.toshiba.co.jp/eng/index.html Toshiba Semiconductor] * [http://www.zetex.com/ Zetex Semiconductors] == Tempo ogé == * [[Transistor avalans]] * [[Band gap]] * [[Bipolar junction transistor]] * [[Compound transistor]] * [[Transistor Darlington]] * [[Field effect transistor]] * [[FREDFET]] * [[IGBT]] * [[NPN]] * [[PNP (polaritas transistor)|PNP]] * [[Sémikonduktor]] * [[Transkonduktansi]] * [[Transrésistansi]] * [[Transistor count]] * [[Modél transistor]] * [[Transistor tilu lawang]] * [[Solobong vakum]] * [[Hukum Moore]] * [[Very-large-scale integration]] == Référénsi == === Patén === * {{US patent|2524035}} — J. Bardeen et. al. * {{US patent|2569347}} — W. Shockley === Buku === * {{cite book | author = Amos S W & James M R | title = Principles of Transistor Circuits | publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-7506-4427-3 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Paul Horowitz|Horowitz, Paul]] & Hill, Winfield | title = The Art of Electronics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0-521-37095-7 }} * {{cite book | author = Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian | title = Crystal Fire | publisher = W.W Norton & Company Limited | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-393-31851-6 }} The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age * {{cite book | author = Warnes, Lionel | title = Analogue and Digital Electronics | url = https://archive.org/details/analoguedigitale0000warn | publisher = Macmillan Press Ltd | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0-333-65820-5 }} * {{cite book | author = Williams, Tim | title = EMC for Product Designers | edition = 3rd edition | publisher = Butterworth Heinemann | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-7506-4930-5 }} === Séjénna === * {{cite conference | author = Armand Van Dormael | title = The French Transistor | booktitle = Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Conference on the History of Electronics, Bletchley Park, June 2004 | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/Che2004/VanDormael.pdf }} * {{cite news | title = Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment | date = [[24 February]] [[2003]] | publisher = The New York Times | url = http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm }} * {{cite journal | author = Michael Riordan | year = 2005 | month = November | title = How Europe Missed the Transistor | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_ieee-spectrum_2005-11_42_11/page/n57 | journal = IEEE Spectrum | volume = 42 | issue = 11 | pages = 52–57 | id = {{ISSN|0018-9235}} }} * {{cite book | author = C. D. Renmore | year = 1980 | title = Silicon Chips and You | url = https://archive.org/details/siliconchipsyoum00renm }} == Tumbu luar == {{Wikibook|Transistors}} * [http://www.audiouk.com/info/transistor.htm ''AudioUK's Milestones]''. Photograph of first working transistor * [http://www.pbs.org/transistor/ ''Transistorized]''. Historical and technical information from the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] * [http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/exhibit/exhibit.php?id=159270&lid=1 ''IEEE Virtual Museum, Let's Get Small: The Shrinking World of Microelectronics'']. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits. * [http://www.lucent.com/minds/transistor/ ''The Transistor Legacy Then and Now] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061013151451/http://www.lucent.com/minds/transistor/ |date=2006-10-13 }}''. From [[Lucent Technologies]] ([[Bell Telephone Laboratories]]/[[AT&T]]) * [http://www.aps.org/apsnews/1100/110004.cfm ''This Month in Physics History: [[November 17]] to [[December 23]] [[1947]]: Invention of the First Transistor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060422095529/http://www.aps.org/apsnews/1100/110004.cfm |date=2006-04-22 }}''. From the [[American Physical Society]] * [http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html ''50 Years of the Transistor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html |date=2007-07-14 }}''. From [[Science Friday]], [[December 12]] [[1997]] * [http://www.ck722museum.com/ ''The CK722 Museum]''. Website devoted to the "classic" hobbyist germanium transistor * [http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/index.html ''Bob's Virtual Transistor Museum & History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121085317/http://users.arczip.com/rmcgarra2/index.html |date=2008-01-21 }}''. Treasure trove of transistor history * [http://people.msoe.edu/~reyer/regency/ ''1954 to 2004, the TR-1's Golden Anniversary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616144326/http://people.msoe.edu/~reyer/regency/index5.html |date=2009-06-16 }}''. In depth coverage of the Regency radio. * [http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/belllabs_transistor.html The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors]. * [http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html ''Jerry Russell's Transistor Cross Reference Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216152926/http://www.ee.washington.edu/circuit_archive/parts/cross.html |date=2007-02-16 }}''. * [http://home.wanadoo.nl/electro1/avr/outlines.htm Pictures of TO and SOT packages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060915003200/http://home.wanadoo.nl/electro1/avr/outlines.htm |date=2006-09-15 }} * [http://amasci.com/amateur/transis.html How transistors work] * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=000D5D9F-A849-1330-A54583414B7F0000 Transistor Flow Control] - Scientific American Magazine (October 2005) [[Kategori:Transistor]] [[Kategori:Éléktronika]] d5vmfktvht1yz1hwklsfkzjvokc82lb Galaksi 0 11267 712352 711554 2026-08-28T21:30:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712352 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses}} [[Gambar:NGC 4414 (NASA-med).jpg|right|thumb|280px|'''[[NGC 4414]]''', galaksi spiral tipikal dina [[konstélasi]] [[Coma Berenices]], diaméterna kurang leuwih 56,000 taun cahaya sarta jarakna kurang leuwih 60 yuta taun cahaya.]] '''Galaksi''' nyaéta hiji sistem nu kabeungkeut ku [[gravitasi]] nu kacida gedéna, diwangun ku [[béntang|perbéntangan]], [[média antarbéntang|gas jeung kekebul antarbéntang]], [[plasma (fisika)|plasma]], sarta (meureun) [[bahan poék]] anu teu katingali (''unseen dark matter'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Galaxy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/galaxy |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> Galaksi umumna ngandung sapuluh juta nepi ka samiliar ($10^7$ nepi ka $10^{12}$) béntang, anu sakabéhna ngorbit kana hiji [[puseur gravitasi]] anu sarua. Salian ti béntang tunggal jeung média antarbéntang anu ipis, sabagian badag galaksi ogé ngandung réa [[Sistem béntang#Sistem béntang ganda|sistem béntang ganda]] sarta [[gugus béntang]] (''star clusters''), kitu ogé rupa-rupa jenis [[nebula]]. Lolobana galaksi miboga diaméter ti sababaraha rébu nepi ka ratusan rébu [[taun cahaya]], sarta biasana papisah antara hiji jeung nu lianna ku jarak anu jauhna nepi ka jutaan taun cahaya.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Galaxy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/galaxy |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> == Étimologi == Kecap ''galaxy'' asalna tina istilah basa [[Basa Yunani|Yunani]] pikeun galaksi urang sorangan, nyaéta '''galaxias''' (''γαλαξίας'') atawa ''kyklos galaktikos'' anu hartina "lingkaran susu", dumasar kana rupa éta sistem dina langit peuting. Dina [[Mitologi Yunani]], Déwa [[Zeus]] neundeun anakna ti saurang awéwé manusa biasa, nyaéta orok [[Hércules]], dina dada Déwi [[Hera]] nalika anjeunna nuju kulem, supados éta orok tiasa ngaleueut cisusu déwa sarta janten mahluk abadi. Nalika keur nyusuan, Hera nyaring sarta sadar yén anjeunna nuju nyusuan orok anu teu dipikawanoh: anjeunna tuluy nyuntrungkeun éta orok, nepi ka ciritan cisusuna nyemprot sarta ngabentuk gugusan cahaya di langit peuting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Waller |first=W.H. |title=The Milky Way: An Insider's Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/milkywayinsiders0000wall |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780691122243}}</ref> Nalika para astronom boga spekulasi yén sawatara objék anu saméméhna digolongkeun salaku nebula spiral téh sabenerna mangrupa kumpulan béntang anu kacida legana, hal ieu disebut "[[téori alam semesta pulo]]" (''island universe theory''). Nanging, istilah ieu téh tétéla kurang merenah (''misnomer''), jalaran istilah [[alam semesta]] mah hartina téh ngawengku sagala rupa anu aya. Ku kituna, istilah ieu lila-lila ditinggalkeun, sarta diganti ku istilah galaksi anu dilarapkeun sacara umum pikeun sakabéh éta kumpulan béntang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.aip.org/exhibits/cosmology/ideas/island.htm |title=The Island Universe Theory |publisher=American Institute of Physics |access-date=2026-05-04}}</ref> == Sajarah observasi == Ieu pedaran ngeunaan sajarah panalungtikan galaksi urang sorangan sarta galaksi séjénna téh sawaréh badag dicutat tina buku karya James Binney jeung Michael Merrifield anu judulna: ''Galactic astronomy''.<ref>James Binney and Michael Merrifield: ''Galactic astronomy'', Princeton University Press, 1998</ref> Dina taun 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] ngagunakeun teleskop pikeun nalungtik jalur caang di langit peuting anu katelah [[Bima Sakti]] (''Milky Way''), sarta manggihan yén éta téh tétéla diwangun ku sajumlah badag béntang anu remeng-remeng.<ref>{{cite book |last=Galilei |first=Galileo |title=Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger) |year=1610 |publisher=University of Chicago Press (1989 translation)}}</ref> Dina hiji risalah taun 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]], dumasar kana karya saméméhna ti [[Thomas Wright]], miboga spékulasi (anu tétéla bener) yén Galaksi téh mangrupa hiji sistem anu muter sarta diwangun ku sajumlah badag béntang, anu kabeungkeut ku [[Gaya gravitasi|gaya gravitasi]] sarupa jeung [[tata surya]] tapi dina skala anu jauh leuwih badag.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |title=Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens) |year=1755}}</ref> Piringan béntang anu dihasilkeun bakal katémbong salaku jalur caang di langit tina jihat sawangan urang anu aya di jero éta piringan. Kant ogé nyieun duga-duga yén sawatara [[nebula]] anu katémbong di langit peuting téh bisa jadi mangrupa galaksi anu kapisah. [[Gambar:M51Sketch.jpg|thumb|right|Sketch of the [[Whirlpool Galaxy]] by [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] in 1845]] Towards Dina ahir abad ka-18, [[Charles Messier]] nyusun hiji [[Objék Messier|katalog]] anu ngandung 109 nebula anu pangcaangna, anu saterusna dituluykeun ku katalog anu leuwih badag ngawengku lima rébu nebula ku [[William Herschel]]. Dina taun 1845, [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] ngawangun hiji [[teleskop]] anyar sarta mampuh ngabédakeun antara nebula elips jeung nebula spiral. Anjeunna ogé hasil ngaidentipikasi sumber titik individu (béntang) dina sawatara ieu nebula, anu nguatkeun duga-duga Kant saméméhna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.messier.seds.org/xtra/history/rosse.html |title=William Parsons, Lord Rosse |publisher=Students for the Exploration and Development of Space |access-date=2026-05-04 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Nanging, nebula-nebula éta téh can sapinuhna ditarima salaku galaksi anu kapisah nepi ka tuntasna pasualan ieu ku [[Edwin Hubble]] dina awal taun 1920-an ngagunakeun [[teleskop]] anyar. Anjeunna mampuh nétélakeun yén bagian luar sawatara nebula spiral téh mangrupa kumpulan béntang individu sarta ngaidentipikasi sawatara [[Variabel Cepheid]], anu ngamungkinkeun anjeunna naksir jarakna: tétéla éta nebula téh jauh pisan sarta lain bagian tina Bima Sakti.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=1929 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=168–173}}</ref> Dina taun 1936, Hubble nyusun sistem klasifikasi pikeun galaksi anu masih dipaké nepi ka kiwari, nyaéta [[Klasifikasi galaksi|Urutan Hubble]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=The Realm of the Nebulae |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1936}}</ref>. Usaha munggaran pikeun ngajelaskeun rupa Bima Sakti sarta posisi [[Panonpoé|Sol]] di jerona dilakukeun ku [[William Herschel]] dina taun 1785 ku cara ngetang kalayan taliti jumlah béntang di rupa-rupa wewengkon langit. Ngagunakeun pamarekan anu leuwih rapih, [[Jacobus Kapteyn|Kapteyn]] dina taun 1920 ngahasilkeun gambaran galaksi nu mangrupa elipsoid leutik (diaméter ~15 kiloparsec) kalayan Sol aya di deukeut puseurna. Métode séjén anu dilakukeun ku [[Harlow Shapley]] dumasar kana katalog [[gugus bal]] (''globular clusters'') ngahasilkeun gambaran anu kacida bédana: piringan datar kalayan diaméter ~70 kiloparsec sarta Sol jauh ti puseur galaksi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shapley |first=H. |title=Studies based on the colors and magnitudes in stellar clusters. Twelfth paper: Remarks on the arrangement of the sidereal system |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1919-06_49_5/page/311 |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1919 |volume=49 |pages=311–336}}</ref> Duanana analisis éta téh gagal margi teu merhatikeun [[Ekstingsi (astronomi)|nyerepna cahaya]] ku kekebul antarbéntang anu aya dina [[widang galaksi]]. Sanggeus [[Robert Julius Trumpler]] hasil ngukur pangaruh ieu dina taun 1930 ku cara nalungtik [[gugus muka]] (''open clusters''), kakara mecenghul gambaran galaksi urang anu ayeuna sakumaha anu parantos dijelaskeun di luhur.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Trumpler |first=R. J. |title=Absorption of Light in the Galactic System |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |year=1930 |volume=42 |issue=248 |pages=214–227}}</ref>emerged. Dina taun 1944, [[Hendrik van de Hulst]] mangkirakeun ayana radiasi [[gelombang mikro]] dina [[garis hidrogén|panjang gelombang 21 cm]], anu dihasilkeun tina gas [[hidrogén]] atomik antarbéntang; ieu radiasi kakara bisa ditalungtik dina taun 1951. Ieu radiasi téh kacida ngabantuna pikeun nalungtik Galaksi urang kalayan leuwih jero, jalaran henteu kapangaruhan ku panyerepan kekebul sarta [[panyimpangan Doppler]]-na bisa dipaké pikeun méréta gerak gas dina Galaksi. Ieu observasi ngabalukarkeun mecenghulna duga-duga ngeunaan ayana struktur [[galaksi spiral miboga palang|palang (bar)]] anu muter di puseur Galaksi. Kalayan bantuan téleskop radio anu leuwih canggih, gas hidrogén ogé bisa dipaluruh di galaksi séjén. Dina taun 1970-an, tina panalungtikan [[Vera Rubin]] ngeunaan [[kurva rotasi|laju rotasi]] gas dina galaksi, kapanggih yén sakabéh massa anu kaciri (tina béntang jeung gas) tétéla teu saluyu jeung laju muterna gas. Ieu [[masalah rotasi galaksi]] téh dianggap bisa dipedar ku ayana sajumlah badag [[bahan poék]] (''dark matter'') anu teu katingali.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rubin |first=V. C. |last2=Ford |first2=W. K. J. |title=Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission Regions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1970-01_159_1/page/n382 |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1970 |volume=159 |pages=379}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200808/history.cfm |title=Vera Rubin and Dark Matter |publisher=American Physical Society |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref>. Ti mimiti taun 1990-an, [[Teleskop Luar Angkasa Hubble]] ngahasilkeun observasi anu jauh leuwih hadé. Di antarana, Hubble hasil mastikeun yén bahan poék anu leungit dina galaksi urang téh tétéla lain ngan saukur diwangun ku béntang-béntang leutik anu remeng-remeng. ''[[Hubble Deep Field]]'', hiji paparan cahaya anu kacida lilana dina bagian langit anu kaciri kosong, méré bukti yén aya kira-kira saratus tujuh puluh lima miliar galaksi di alam semesta.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/1996/news-1996-01.html |title=Hubble's Deepest View of the Universe Unveils Bewildering Galaxies across Billions of Years |publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> Kamajuan téknologi dina néwak spéktrum anu teu kaciri ku mata manusa ([[téleskop radio]], kaméra infra-beureum, [[téleskop sinar-X]]), ngamungkinkeun dipaluruhna galaksi-galaksi séjén anu teu kaciri ku Hubble. Utamana, survéy galaksi dina [[zona pamiceunan]] (''zone of avoidance'', nyaéta wewengkon langit anu kahalangan ku Bima Sakti) parantos némbongkeun sajumlah galaksi anyar.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kraan-Korteweg |first=R. C. |last2=Lahav |first2=O. |title=The Universe behind the Milky Way |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1998-10_279_4/page/50 |journal=Scientific American |year=1998 |volume=279 |issue=4 |pages=50–57}}</ref>. == Rupa-rupa galaksi == {{utama|Klasifikasi galaksi}} [[Gambar:Hubble sequence photo.png|thumb|300px|Rupa-rupa galaxi]] Galaksi sacara umum kabagi kana tilu jenis utama: [[Galaksi elips|elips]], [[Galaksi spiral|spiral]], sarta [[Galaksi teu miboga aturan|teu miboga aturan (irregular)]]. Pedaran anu leuwih jangkep ngeunaan rupa-rupa galaksi dumasar kana wangunna dijébréngkeun dina [[Klasifikasi galaksi|Urutan Hubble]]. Jalaran Urutan Hubble mah sagemblengna dumasar kana rupa fisik (morfologi), ieu klasifikasi téh bisa jadi teu némbongkeun sawatara ciri penting séjénna, sapertos laju [[pembentukan béntang]] (dina [[Galaksi starburst]]) atanapi aktivitas dina puseur galaksi (dina [[Galaksi aktif]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hubble |first=E. P. |title=The Realm of the Nebulae |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1936}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/galaxies1.html |title=Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref>. Galaksi urang sorangan, [[Bima Sakti]], anu sakapeung mah ngan saukur disebut ''Galaksi'' (ngagunakeun aksara badag), mangrupa hiji galaksi [[galaksi spiral miboga palang|spiral miboga palang]] anu bentukna siga piringan badag, diaméterna kira-kira [[1 E20 m|30 kiloparsec]] atawa saratus rébu taun cahaya, sarta kandelna tilu rébu taun cahaya. Ieu galaksi ngandung kira-kira $3 \times 10^{11}$ (tilu ratus miliar) béntang sarta miboga total massa kira-kira $6 \times 10^{11}$ (genep ratus miliar) kali lipat tina massa [[Panonpoé|Sol]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/milky-way/faq/ |title=The Milky Way Galaxy |publisher=NASA Science |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dina galaksi spiral, leungeun-leungeun spiralna miboga wangun anu ampir sarua jeung [[spiral logaritmik]], hiji pola anu sacara téori mangrupa hasil tina ayana gangguan dina massa béntang anu muter sacara sagemblengna. Siga béntang-béntangna, leungeun spiral ogé muter ngurilingan puseur galaksi, nanging muterna téh kalayan [[laju sudut]] (''angular velocity'') anu tetep. Hal ieu hartina béntang-béntang téh bisa asup jeung kaluar tina éta leungeun spiral. Leungeun spiral dianggap salaku wewengkon anu miboga kapadetan luhur atawa disebut [[gelombang kapadetan]] (''density waves''). Nalika béntang-béntang asup ka jero hiji leungeun spiral, gerakna jadi laun, sahingga nyieun kapadetan anu leuwih luhur; hal ieu sarupa jeung "gelombang" kamacétan dina jalan tol anu pinuh ku mobil. Éta leungeun spiral téh katémbong pisan margi kapadetan anu luhur ngagampangkeun [[pembentukan béntang]], sahingga di dinya loba béntang-béntang ngora anu kacida caangna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hosting.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/diff_rot.htm |title=Spiral Structure |publisher=Cornell University |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sanajan galaksi elips jeung spiral anu badag téh katémbongna dominan, sabagian badag galaksi di alam semesta tétéla mangrupa [[galaksi kerdil]]. Ieu galaksi-galaksi leutik téh ukuranana kira-kira saratus kali leuwih leutik batan Bima Sakti, sarta ngan ngandung sababaraha miliar béntang. Réa galaksi kerdil anu ngorbit ka hiji galaksi anu leuwih badag; Bima Sakti sorangan miboga sahenteuna dua belas galaksi satelit saperti kitu. Galaksi kerdil ogé bisa digolongkeun salaku elips, spiral, atawa teu miboga aturan (''irregular''). Jalaran galaksi kerdil elips miboga rupa anu rada béda jeung galaksi elips badag, maranéhna mindeng disebut ogé salaku [[galaksi sferoidal kerdil]] (''dwarf spheroidal galaxies'').<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/galaxies2.html |title=Types of Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> === Galaksi aktif === {{utama|Nukleus galaksi aktif}} Sabagian galaksi anu tiasa ditalungtik ku urang téh digolongkeun salaku galaksi aktif. Hartina, sabagian badag énergi anu dikaluarkeun ku éta galaksi téh asalna tina sumber séjén, lain tina béntang, kekebul, atawa [[média antarbéntang]]. Modél standar pikeun [[nukleus galaksi aktif]] kawas kieu téh dumasar kana énergi anu dihasilkeun tina ayana matéri anu ragrag kana [[liang hideung supermasif]] di wewengkon puseurna.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/active_galaxies1.html |title=Active Galaxies |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> Galaksi anu ngaluarkeun radiasi énergi luhur dina wangun [[sinar-X]] digolongkeun salaku [[Galaksi Seyfert]], [[kuasar]], sarta [[blazar]]. Galaksi aktif anu ngaluarkeun frékuénsi radio tina [[jét rélativistik]] anu muncrat tina puseurna digolongkeun salaku [[Galaksi radio]]. Hiji modél hasil ngahijikeun (''unified model'') tina rupa-rupa galaksi aktif ieu ngécéskeun yén bédana téh sabenerna mah ngan saukur dumasar kana jihat sawangan (sudut pandang) urang anu niténanana.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Urry |first=C. M. |last2=Padovani |first2=P. |title=Unified Schemes for Radio-Loud Active Galactic Nuclei |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |year=1995 |volume=107 |pages=803}}</ref> == Struktur skala gedé == Kacida saeutikna galaksi anu hirup nyalira; galaksi kawas kitu téh katelah salaku ''galaksi lapangan'' (''field galaxies''). Kalolobaan galaksi mah kabeungkeut ku gaya gravitasi ka sajumlah galaksi séjénna. Struktur anu ngandung nepi ka 50 galaksi disebut [[Gugus jeung kelompok galaksi|kelompok galaksi]] (''groups of galaxies''), sarta struktur anu leuwih badag anu ngandung mangrébu-rébu galaksi dina wewengkon anu legana sababaraha [[megaparsec]] disebut [[Gugus jeung kelompok galaksi|gugus galaksi]] (''clusters''). Gugus galaksi mindeng didominasi ku hiji galaksi [[galaksi elips|elips]] raksasa tunggal, anu lila-kalila sacara gravitasi ngancurkeun galaksi-galaksi satelitna sarta nambahan massa éta galaksi kana dirina sorangan. [[Supergugus]] (''superclusters'') mangrupa kumpulan raksasa anu ngandung puluhan rébu galaksi, anu aya dina wangun gugus, kelompok, atawa sakapeung mah nyalira; dina skala supergugus, galaksi-galaksi téh disusun janten [[Tembok Gedé (astronomi)|lambaran]] sarta [[filamén (astronomi)|filamén]] anu ngurilingan [[lowong (astronomi)|lowongan]] (''voids'') kosong anu kacida legana. Di luhureun skala ieu, alam semesta téh katémbong [[isotropi|isotropik]] sarta [[homogén (astronomi)|homogén]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/clusters1.html |title=Galaxy Groups and Clusters |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |access-date=2026-05-05 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Galaksi urang téh mangrupa anggota tina [[Kelompok Lokal]], anu didominasi ku Bima Sakti babarengan jeung [[Galaksi Andromeda]]; sacara gembleng, Kelompok Lokal téh ngandung kira-kira tilu puluh galaksi dina rohangan anu legana kira-kira [[1 E22 m|hiji megaparsec]]. Kelompok Lokal ieu mangrupa bagian tina [[Supergugus Virgo]], anu didominasi ku [[Gugus Virgo]] (anu mana galaksi urang mah lain mangrupa anggotana).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/universe/galaxies/ |title=Galaxies |publisher=NASA Science |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> == Formasi jeung évolusi galaksi == {{utama|Formasi jeung évolusi galaksi}} Panalungtikan ngeunaan formasi jeung évolusi galaksi téh mangrupa usaha pikeun ngajawab patarosan ngeunaan kumaha galaksi kawangun sarta kumaha jalanna évolusi éta galaksi sapanjang sajarah alam semesta. Sababaraha tiori dina widang ieu ayeuna parantos ditarima sacara lega ku para ahli, nanging ieu widang téh masih kénéh janten widang panalungtikan anu kacida aktifna dina dunya astrofisika. === Formasi === Prosés kawangunna galaksi mangrupa salasahiji patarosan utama dina widang astronomi. Tiori-tiori anu aya bisa dibagi kana dua kategori: ''top-down'' (ti luhur ka handap) jeung ''bottom-up'' (ti handap ka luhur). Dina tiori ''top-down'', saperti modél Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage (ELS), [[protogalaksi]] kawangun tina runtuhna matéri skala badag sacara babarengan anu lilana kira-kira saratus juta taun.<ref>Eggen, O. J.; Lynden-Bell, D.; Sandage, A. R. Evidence from the motions of old stars that the Galaxy collapsed. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 136, p. 748, 1962</ref> Dina tiori ''bottom-up'', saperti modél Searle-Zinn (SZ), [[gugus bal]] (''globular clusters'') kawangun ti heula, saterusna sajumlah objék ieu ngahiji (akresi) pikeun ngawangun galaksi anu leuwih badag. Tiori modéren ayeuna kudu diropéa pikeun ngasupkeun pangaruh tina ayana halo [[bahan poék]] anu kacida badagna. Ieu di handap mangrupa gambaran ringkes ngeunaan modél formasi galaksi: Teu lila sanggeus mangsa rékombinasi, matéri [[baryon]] mimiti ngumpul sarta mengket di sabudeureun halo bahan poék anu tiis. Béntang-béntang halo anu miboga laju luhur sarta enol [[Logam (astronomi)|kandungan logam]] (disebut [[Béntang Populasi III]]) mangrupa béntang anu pangheulana kawangun nalika protogalaksi mimiti mengker. Ieu béntang-béntang raksasa téh gancang pisan jadi [[supernova]], anu saterusna ngaleupaskeun unsur-unsur beurat ka [[média antarbéntang]]. Dina jero samiliar taun saterusna, [[gugus bal]], [[liang hideung supermasif]] di puseur galaksi, sarta [[puseur galaksi]] (''bulge'') anu diwangun ku [[Béntang Populasi II]] nu miskin logam mimiti kawangun. Dina waktu dua miliar taun, sésa matéri séjénna mimiti matuh sarta ngabentuk [[piringan galaksi]]. Galaksi bakal terus nyerep matéri anu asup tina [[awan laju luhur]] sarta [[galaksi kerdil]] sapanjang hirupna; siklus lahir jeung paéhna béntang bakal nambahan jumlah unsur beurat, anu tungtungna ngamungkinkeun kawangunna [[planét]]. [[Gambar:Pr3 400galaxypix.jpg|225px|thumb|Galaxy Abell 1835 IR1916 is seen as a tiny dot in this photo of distant galaxies. Image courtesy of [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]].|pra=Special:FilePath/Pr3_400galaxypix.jpg]] Galaksi pangkolotna anu kungsi kapanggih nepi ka ayeuna, nyaéta [[IOK-1]], dipaluruh dina Séptémber 2006 ku Masanori Iye ti Observatorium Astronomi Nasional Jepang ngagunakeun Téleskop Subaru di Hawaii. Pancaran radiasi Lyman-alpha ti ieu galaksi miboga [[géséran beureum]] (''redshift'') 6,96, anu hartina umurna geus tilu belas miliar taun. Sanajan sawatara élmuwan kungsi ngaklaim ayana objék séjén (saperti Abell 1835 IR1916) anu dianggap leuwih kolot, umur jeung komposisi IOK-1 mah geus bisa dibuktikeun kalayan leuwih kapercaya.<ref>McMahon, R. (2006). ''Journey to the birth of the Universe''. [[NATURE]]: vol. 443, issue of September 14, 2006.</ref> Ayana protogalaksi anu kacida kolotna kieu méré gambaran yén éta galaksi téh pastina tumuwuh dina mangsa anu disebut "Zaman Kadalapan" (''Dark Ages'', saméméh generasi béntang munggaran aya) tina kateupapakan [[anisotropi]] anu aya dina éra [[rékombinasi]], kira-kira tilu ratus rébu taun sanggeus [[Big Bang]]. Kateupapakan dina skala anu merenah kieu hasil ditalungtik ngagunakeun [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP) dina taun 2003. Bukti séjén pikeun modél formasi galaksi ieu asalna tina kapanggihna [[Béntang Populasi III]] anu kacida kunona. Béntang raksasa, [[HE0107-5240]], anu kapanggih dina taun 2002 ku para panalungtik di [[Universitas Hamburg]], dipercaya salaku béntang pangkolotna anu kungsi dipaluruh di Bima Sakti, jalaran béda jeung béntang anu leuwih ngora, ieu béntang téh bener-bener beresih tina kandungan logam (''metal-free''). Sanggeus éta, béntang-béntang séjén anu sarua kolotna (saperti HE 1327) ogé parantos hasil dipaluruh. === Évolusi === Sajumlah panalungtikan némbongkeun yén [[Galaksi Bima Sakti]] nuju usik ngadeukeutan [[Galaksi Andromeda]] kalayan laju kira-kira 130 km/s, sarta dumasar kana gerak gurat sisi (lateral), duanana bisa waé tabrakan dina jangka waktu lima nepi ka genep miliar taun ka hareup. Tabrakan galaksi saperti kitu téh mangrupa hal anu lumrah lumangsung. Jalaran jarak antar béntang anu kacida jauhna, sabagian badag sistem béntang dina galaksi anu tabrakan moal loba kapangaruhan. Nanging, tarikan gravitasi kana [[gas antarbéntang]] sarta kekebul anu ngabentuk leungeun spiral bakal ngahasilkeun untuyan béntang anu panjang, sarupa jeung anu katémbong dina NGC 250 atawa [[Galaksi Anténa]]. Sanajan Bima Sakti tacan kungsi tabrakan jeung galaksi anu sagedé Andromeda, bukti-bukti ngeunaan tabrakan Bima Sakti jeung [[galaksi kerdil]] anu leuwih leutik di mangsa katukang téh beuki loba kapanggih. [[Galaksi spiral]], saperti Bima Sakti, ngan bisa ngahasilkeun generasi béntang anyar salila maranéhna miboga [[awan molekul]] [[hidrogén]] antarbéntang anu padet dina leungeun spiralna. [[Galaksi elips]] mah tétéla geus teu miboga ieu gas, sahingga teu bisa deui ngabentuk béntang anyar. Nanging, pasokan bahan pikeun ngabentuk béntang téh aya watesna; nalika béntang-béntang ngarobah hidrogén jadi unsur anu leuwih beurat, mangka jumlah béntang anu kawangun bakal beuki saeutik. Saatos lekasanana mangsa pembentukan béntang dina waktu kurang ti saratus miliar taun, "zaman béntang" bakal bérés dina waktu sakitar sapuluh triliun nepi ka saratus triliun taun ($10^{13}$–$10^{14}$ taun), nalika béntang pangleutikna anu umurna pangpanjangna, nyaéta [[katai beureum]], mimiti pareum. Dina tungtung zaman béntang, galaksi-galaksi ngan bakal diwangun ku [[objék kompak]]: [[katai cokelat]], [[katai hideung]], [[katai bodas]] anu mendingan, [[béntang neutron]], sarta [[liang hideung]]. Ahirna, balukar tina [[waktu rélaksasi|rélaksasi gravitasi]], sakabéh béntang bakal ragrag kana [[liang hideung supermasif]] di puseur galaksi, atawa dialungkeun ka jero rohangan antargalaksi anu kacida jerona balukar tina tabrakan-tabrakan. == Biologi galaktik == {{utama|Kahirupan di saluareun bumi}} [[Biologi]] sakumaha anu dipikanyaho ku urang ayeuna, dianggap ngan bisa aya di sabudeureun béntang [[Klasifikasi béntang|tipe-G]] generasi katilu anu aya di wewengkon tengah leungeun spiral [[galaksi spiral]], saperti [[Panonpoé]]. [[Galaksi elips]], anu dihasilkeun tina loba pisan [[tabrakan galaksi]], gancang pisan kaleungitan awan [[média antarbéntang|gas hidrogén antarbéntangna]], sahingga teu bisa deui ngabentuk generasi béntang anyar. [[Galaksi teu miboga aturan]] miboga saeutik pisan béntang kolot, sahingga katingalna miboga konséntrasi unsur beurat anu saeutik, padahal éta unsur téh kacida diperlukeunana pikeun biologi kawas di Bumi. Malah di jero galaksi spiral ogé, biologi téh sigana diwatesanan ngan di wewengkon tengah leungeun spiral hungkul; jalaran dina [[sferoid galaksi]] (halo) atawa bagian luar leungeun spiral mah unsur beurat téh kacida saeutikna. Sabalikna, dina awan gas di sabudeureun puseur galaksi, konséntrasi unsur beuratna luhur teuing, sarta interaksi antarbéntang mindeng teuing kajadian, sahingga hésé pikeun planét sagedé Bumi kawangun dina orbit bunder anu stabil di sabudeureun béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lineweaver |first=C. H. |last2=Fenner |first2=Y. |last3=Gibson |first3=B. K. |title=The Galactic Habitable Zone and the Age of Distribution of Complex Life in the Milky Way |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2004-01-02_303_5654/page/59 |journal=Science |year=2004 |volume=303 |issue=5654 |pages=59–62}}</ref> == Tempo ogé == * [[Active galaxy]] * [[Barred spiral galaxy]] * [[Dwarf galaxy]] * [[Dwarf elliptical galaxy]] * [[Dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] * [[Elliptical galaxy]] * [[Galaxy classification]] * [[Galaxy formation and evolution]] * [[Groups and clusters of galaxies]] * [[Interacting galaxy]] * [[Irregular galaxy]] * [[Lenticular galaxy]] * [[List of galaxies]] * [[List of nearest galaxies]] * [[Radio galaxy]] * [[Ring galaxy]] * [[Spiral galaxy]] * [[Starburst galaxy]] * [[Seyfert galaxy]] * [[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large scale structure]] == Référénsi == <references /> * Terence Dickinson: ''The Universe and Beyond (Fourth Edition)'', Firefly Books Ltd. 2004, 2004 {{commons|Category:Galaksi}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.seds.org/messier/galaxy.html Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages] * [http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/ An Atlas of The Universe] * [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies Galaxies - Information and amateur observations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912191650/http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies/ |date=2015-09-12 }} * [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060411094750/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm |date=2006-04-11 }} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm The Oldest Star found in the Galaxy] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060629.shtml Galaxies - discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme] [[Kategori:Galaksi| ]] [[Kategori:Struktur kosmos skala gedé]] cu3mcluf2zuzl8eimkaqljx7i8uvu9h Komét 0 14648 712359 711600 2026-08-28T21:44:45Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712359 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg|thumb|250px|Komét Hale-Bopp]] '''Komét''' (simbol: [[File:Comet symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|☄]]) nyaéta banda leutik dina [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]] nu ngorbit kana [[panonpoé]] sarta (kadang-kadang) mintonkeun [[koma (komét)|koma]] (atawa atmosfir) jeung/atawa buntut&nbsp;— duanana utamana disababkeun ku ayana pangaruh radiasi panonpoé kana [[inti komét|inti]] komét, nu mana manéna sorangan mangrupa banda leutik nu diwangun ku [[batu]], [[kebul]], jeung [[és]]. Orbit komét robah kalayan konstan: asalna di saluareun [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]], sarta miboga kacenderungan kacida dipangaruhannana (atawa dikacokeun) ku planét gedé nu rélatif deukeut. Sababaraha di antarana pindah kana orbit ''sungrazing'' nu ngaruksak komét nalika manéhna deukeuteun paponpoé, sedengkeun lianna mah kapiceun ka saluareun [[Surya Mandala|sistim suryamandala]] salilalana. lolobana komét dipercaya asalana tina halimun (''[[Oort cloud]]'') dina jarak nu jauh ti Srangéngé nu ngandung ''debris'' <!--(ruruntuk, talawéngkar?--> nu tinggaleun tina [[kondénsasi]] [[solar nebula|nébula srangéngé]]; sisi luar nébula ieu cukup [[suhu|tiis]] sahingga [[cai]] ogé aya dina [[fase (bahan)|kaayaan]] nu mangrupa [[padetan]] (lain [[gas]]). [[Asteroid]] asalna ngaliwatan prosés nu béda, tapi komét nu geus kacida kolotna, nu geus leungiteun sakabéh bahan ''[[volatile]]''-na, bisa ogé jadi sarupaning asteroid. Kecap ''komét'' asalna tina [[basa Inggris]] nu ngaliwatan [[basa Latén]] ''cometes''. Tina kecap [[basa Yunani]] ''komē'' mah, hartina téh "buuk na hulu," [[Aristotélés]] mimiti maké kecap turunan ''komētēs'' keur ngagambarkeun komét miangka "béntang buukan." == Pasipatan fisik == {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Long-period comets are believed to originate in a distant cloud known as the [[Oort cloud]] (after the astronomer [[Jan Hendrik Oort]] who hypothesised its existence).<ref>{{cite web| publisher= NASA Astrophysics Data System| title= Oort, J. H. ''The structure of the cloud of comets surrounding the Solar System and a hypothesis concerning its origin''. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands, Vol XI, No. 408, pg 91-110. 1950. |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1950BAN....11...91O | accessdate=2006-07-05}}</ref> They are sometimes perturbed from their distant orbits by gravitational interactions, falling into extremely elliptical orbits that can bring them very close to the [[Sun]]. One théory says that as a comet approaches the [[inner solar system]], [[solar radiation]] causes part of its outer layers, composed of ice and other materials, to melt and evaporate, but this has not been proven. The stréams of [[Cosmic dust|dust]] and gas this reléases form a very large, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the ''[[coma (cometary)|coma]]'', and the force exerted on the coma by the Sun's [[radiation pressure]] and [[solar wind]] cause an enormous ''tail'' to form, which points away from the sun. The stréams of dust and gas éach form their own distinct tail, éach pointed in slightly different directions. The tail made of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always pointing directly away from the Sun, as this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than dust is, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory. While the solid body of comets (called the ''[[Comet nucleus|nucleus]]'') is generally less than 50&nbsp;km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and the ion tails have been observed to extend 150 million km (1 [[Astronomical unit]]) or more. Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from the [[Earth]] when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly, and the gases glowing from [[ion]]isation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a [[telescope]], but a few éach decade become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appéar out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of déaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that their appéarances have been noticed by humans for millennia. One very famous old recording of a comet is the appéarance of Halley's Comet on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which records the [[Norman conquest]] of [[England]] in AD 1066.<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Reading Museum Service| year=2004| title=Britain's Bayeux Tapestry, scene 1| url=http://www.bayeuxtapestry.org.uk/| accessdate=2005-03-22}}</ref> Surprisingly, cometary nuclei are among the [[dark]]est objects known to exist in the solar system. The [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] probe found that [[Comet Halley]]'s nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the light that falls on it, and [[Deep Space 1]] discovered that [[Comet Borrelly]]'s surface reflects only 2.4% to 3% of the light that falls on it; by comparison, [[asphalt]] reflects 7% of the light that falls on it. It is thought that complex [[organic compound]]s are the dark surface material. Solar héating drives off volatile compounds léaving behind héavy long-chain organics that tend to be very dark, like [[tar]] or crude [[Petroleum|oil]]. The very darkness of cometary surfaces allows them to absorb the héat necessary to drive their outgassing. In 1996, comets were found to emit [[X-rays]].<ref>{{cite web| title=First X-Rays from a Comet Discovered| url=http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725040521/http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html |date=2012-07-25 }}</ref> These X-rays surprised reséarchers, because their emission by comets had not previously been predicted. The X-rays are thought to be generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged [[ions]] fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules. In these collisions, the ions will capture one or more electrons léading to emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits| title=Probing space weather with comets| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213232726/http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits |date=2006-02-13 }}</ref> == Sipat orbit == [[Gambar:Comet_Kohoutek_orbit_p391.jpg|thumb|376px|right|Orbits of [[Comet Kohoutek]] and [[Earth]], illustrating the high [[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the orbit and more rapid motion when closer to the [[Sun]].]] [[Gambar:Comets_by_aphelion.png|thumb|200px|right|Histogram of the aphelia of the 2005 comets, showing the giant planet comet families. The abscissa is the natural logarithm of the aphelion expressed in AUs.]] Comets are classified according to their [[orbital period]]s. ''Short period comets'' have orbits of less than 200 yéars, while ''Long period comets'' have longer orbits but remain gravitationally bound to the Sun, and [[main-belt comets]] orbit within the [[asteroid belt]]. ''Single-apparition comets'' have [[parabolic]] or [[hyperbolic]] orbits which will cause them to permanently exit the solar system after one pass by the Sun. modérn observations have revéaled a few genuinely hyperbolic orbits, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars néar the Sun (a few tens of kilometres per second). If such objects entered the solar system, they would have positive total énérgies, and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic orbits. A rough calculation shows that there might be 4 hyperbolic comets per century, within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude. On the other extreme, the short period [[Comet Encke]] has an orbit which never places it farther from the Sun than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the [[Kuiper belt]], wheréas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the [[Oort cloud]]. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain why comets get perturbed into highly elliptical orbits, including close approaches to other [[star]]s as the Sun follows its orbit through the [[Milky Way]] [[Galaxy]]; the Sun's hypothetical companion star [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]; or an unknown [[Planet X]]{{citation needed}}<!-- This is a controversial topic. -->. Because of their low masses, and their elliptical orbits which frequently take them close to the giant planets, cometary orbits are often perturbed. Short period comets display a strong tendency for their [[Apsis|aphelia]] to coincide with a [[giant planet]]'s orbital radius, with the Jupiter family of comets being the largest, as the [[histogram]] shows. It is cléar that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the gréatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, in addition to being the swiftest of the giant planets. A number of periodic comets discovered in éarlier decades or previous centuries are now "lost." Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appéarances. However, occasionally a "new" comet will be discovered and upon calculation of its orbit it turns out to be an old "lost" comet. An example is Comet [[11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR]], discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter. It was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by [[LINEAR]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite web| first=Gary W.| last=Kronk| year=2001–2005| title=Cometography| url=http://cometography.com| accessdate=2006-03-05}}, '11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR'</ref> == Comet nomenclature == The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. Prior to the éarly 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the yéar in which they appéared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "[[C/1680 V1|Great Comet of 1680]]" (Kirch's Comet), the "[[C/1882 R1|Great September Comet of 1882]]," and the "[[Great Daylight Comet of 1910|Daylight Comet of 1910]]" ("Great January Comet of 1910"). After [[Edmund Halley]] demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759, that comet became known as [[Comet Halley]]. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, [[Comet Encke]]<ref name="Kronk, '2P/Encke'">Kronk, '2P/Encke'</ref> and [[Comet Biela]],<ref name="Kronk, '3D/Biela'">Kronk, '3D/Biela'</ref> were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appéared only once continued to be referred to by the yéar of their apparition. In the éarly 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet is named after up to three independent discoverers. In recent yéars, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large téams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument. For example, [[C/1983 H1|Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock]] was discovered independently by the [[IRAS]] satellite and amateur astronomers [[Genichi Araki]] and [[George Alcock]]. In the past, when multiple comets were discovered by the same individual, group of individuals, or téam, the comets' names were distinguished by adding a numeral to the discoverers' names; thus Comets [[P/1990 V1|Shoemaker-Levy 1]]–[[D/1993 F2|9]]. Today, the large numbers of comets discovered by some instruments (in August 2005, [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] discovered its 1000th comet<ref>{{cite web| publisher=Solar and Heliospheric Observatory| year=2005| title=The SOHO 1000th Comet Contest| url=http://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/comet1000/| accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref>) has rendered this system impractical, and no attempt is made to ensure that éach comet has a unique name. Instéad, the comets' systematic designations are used to avoid confusion. Until 1994, comets were first given a [[provisional designation]] consisting of the yéar of their discovery followed by a lowercase letter indicating its order of discovery in that yéar (for example, [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1969i]] was the 9th comet discovered in 1969). Once the comet had been observed through perihelion and its orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation of the yéar of its [[perihelion]], followed by a [[Roman numeral]] indicating its order of perihelion passage in that yéar, so that Comet Bennett 1969i became [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1970 II]] (it was the second comet to pass perihelion in 1970)<ref name="arnett">{{cite web| first=Bill| last=Arnett| year=2000| title=Astronomical Names| url=http://www.nineplanets.org/names.html| accessdate=2006-03-05}}</ref> Incréasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure awkward, and in 1994 the [[International Astronomical Union]] approved a new naming system. Comets are now designated by the yéar of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery and a number indicating the order of discovery (a system similar to that alréady used for [[asteroid]]s), so that the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006&nbsp;D4. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated, D/ indicating a comet which has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object that was mistakenly identified as a comet, but is actually a [[minor planet]]. After their second observed perihelion passage, periodic comets are also assigned a number indicating the order of their discovery.<ref name="CSBN">{{cite web| publisher=Committee on Small Body Nomenclature| year=1994| title=Cometary Designation System| url=http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html| accessdate=2006-03-05|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/19990117090623/cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html|archivedate=1999-01-17}}</ref> So Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic designation [[1P/1682 Q1]]. [[Comet Hale-Bopp]]'s designation is C/1995 O1. There are only four objects that are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids: [[2060 Chiron]] ([[95P/Chiron]]), [[133P/Elst-Pizarro]] ([[7968 Elst-Pizarro]]), [[60558 Echeclus]] ([[174P/Echeclus]]) and [[4015 Wilson-Harrington]] ([[107P/Wilson-Harrington]]). == History of comet study == === Early observations and thought === Historically, comets were thought to be unlucky, or even interpreted as attacks by héavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants. Some authorities interpret references to "falling stars" in [[Gilgamesh]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and the Book of [[Enoch]] as references to comets, or possibly [[bolide]]s. In the first book of his ''[[Meteorology]]'', [[Aristotle]] propounded the view of comets that would hold sway in Western thought for néarly two thousand yéars. He rejected the idéas of several éarlier philosophers that comets were [[planet]]s, or at léast a phenomenon related to the planets, on the grounds that while the planets confined their motion to the circle of the [[Zodiac]], comets could appéar in any part of the sky.<ref>{{cite book| last=Aristotle| year=350 B.C.| title=Meteorologia| url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061102/http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html |date=2011-06-29 }}, l. 1. c. 6.</ref> Instéad, he described comets as a phenomenon of the upper [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], where hot, dry exhalations gathered and occasionally burst into flame. Aristotle held this mechanism responsible for not only comets, but also [[meteor]]s, the [[aurora borealis]], and even the [[Milky Way]].<ref>Aristotle, l. 1. c. 7.</ref> A few later classical philosophers did dispute this view of comets. [[Seneca the Younger]], in his ''[[Natural Questions]]'', observed that comets moved regularly through the sky and were undisturbed by the [[wind]], behavior more typical of celestial than atmospheric phenomena. While he conceded that the other planets do not appéar outside the Zodiac, he saw no réason that a planet-like object could not move through any part of the sky, humanity's knowledge of celestial things being very limited.<ref>{{cite book | author=Carl Sagan & Ann Druyan | title=Comet | url=https://archive.org/details/cometsaga00saga | location=New York | publisher=Random House | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0-394-54908-2| pages= [https://archive.org/details/cometsaga00saga/page/25 23]–24}}</ref> However, the Aristoteléan viewpoint proved more influential, and it was not until the 16th century that it was demonstrated that comets must exist outside the éarth's atmosphere. In 1577, a bright comet was visible for several months. The [[Denmark|Danish]] astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] used méasurements of the comet's position taken by himself and other, géographically separated, observers to determine that the comet had no méasuréable [[parallax]]. Within the precision of the méasurements, this implied the comet must be at léast four times more distant from the éarth than the moon.<ref name="ESO part I">{{cite book| publisher=European Southern Observatory| year=2003| title=A Brief History of Comets, part I| url=http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305084811/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html |date=2005-03-05 }}</ref> === Orbital studies === [[Gambar:Newton_Comet1680.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The orbit of the comet of 1680, fit to a [[parabola]], as shown in [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''.]] Although comets had now been demonstrated to be in the héavens, the question of how they moved through the héavens would be debated for most of the next century. Even after [[Johannes Kepler]] had determined in 1609 that the planets moved about the sun in [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, he was reluctant to believe that the [[Kepler's laws|laws that governed the motions of the planets]] should also influence the motion of other bodies—he believed that comets travel among the planets along straight lines. [[Galileo Galilei]], although a staunch [[Copernicus|Copernicanist]], rejected Tycho's parallax méasurements and held to the Aristoteléan notion of comets moving on straight lines through the upper atmosphere.<ref name="Prasar part II">{{cite book| first=Vigyan| last=Prasar| year=2001| title=Development of Cometary Thought, Part II| url=http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414162435/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-14 }}</ref> The first suggestion that Kepler's laws of planetary motion should also apply to the comets was made by [[William Lower]] in 1610.<ref name="ESO part I"/> In the following decades, other astronomers, including [[Pierre Petit]], [[Giovanni Borelli]], [[Adrien Auzout]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Johann Baptist Cysat]], and [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]], all argued for comets curving about the sun on elliptical or parabolic paths, while others, such as [[Christian Huygens]] and [[Johannes Hevelius]], supported comets' linéar motion.<ref name="Prasar part II"/> The matter was resolved by the [[C/1680 V1|bright comet]] that was discovered by [[Gottfried Kirch]] on [[November 14]], [[1680]]. Astronomers throughout Europe tracked its position for several months. In 1681, the [[Saxony|Saxon]] pastor [[Georg Samuel Doerfel]] set forth his proofs that comets are héavenly bodies moving in [[parabola]]s of which the sun is the focus. Then [[Isaac Newton]], in his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of his [[inverse square law]] of [[gravity|universal gravitation]] must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the [[conic section]]s, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.<ref>{{cite book| first=I.S.| last=Newton| year=1687| title=Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica| location=London | publisher=Josephi Streater}}, Lib. 3, Prop. 41.</ref> In 1705, [[Edmond Halley]] applied Newton's method to twenty-four cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar [[orbital element]]s, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appéarances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appéar again in 1758-9.<ref name="Halley">{{cite journal | author=Edmundo Halleio | title=Astronomiæ Cometicæ Synopsis | journal=Philosophical Transactions | year=1705 | volume=24 | pages=1882–1899 }}</ref> (éarlier, Robert Hooke had identified the comet of 1664 with that of 1618,<ref>{{cite book| first=Samuel| last=Pepys| year=1893| title=The Diary of Samuel Pepys, M.A., F.R.S.| location=London|publisher=George Bell & Sons}}, 1 March 1664/5</ref> while Jéan-Dominique Cassini had suspected the identity of the comets of 1577, 1665, and 1680.<ref>Sagan, pp. 42–43</ref> Both were incorrect.) Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a téam of three [[France|French]] mathematicians: [[Alexis Clairaut]], [[Joseph Lalande]], and [[Nicole-Reine Lepaute]], who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy.<ref>Sagan, p. 83</ref> When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as [[Comet Halley]] or Halley's Comet (its official designation is '''1P/Halley'''). Its next appéarance is due in 2061. Among the comets with short enough periods to have been observed several times in the historical record, Comet Halley is unique in consistently being bright enough to be visible to the naked eye. Since the confirmation of Comet Halley's periodicity, many other periodic comets have been discovered through the [[telescope]]. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit was [[Comet Encke]] (official designation '''2P/Encke'''). Over the period 1819-1821 the [[Germany|German]] mathematician and physicist [[Johann Franz Encke]] computed orbits for a series of cometary apparitions observed in 1786, 1795, 1805, and 1818, concluded they were same comet, and successfully predicted its return in 1822.<ref name="Kronk, '2P/Encke'"/> By 1900, seventeen comets had been observed at more than one perihelion passage and recognized as periodic comets. As of April 2006, 175 comets have achieved this distinction, though several have since been destroyed or lost. In [[ephemerides]], comets are often denoted by the symbol {{unicode|☄}}. {{Cleanup-date|June 2006}} === Studies of physical characteristics === [[Gambar:Cometorbit.png|thumb|300px|Comets have highly [[elliptical orbits]]. Note the two distinct tails.]][[Isaac Newton]] described comets as compact, solid, fixed, and durable bodies: in other words, a kind of planet, which move in very oblique orbits, every way, with the gréatest freedom, persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets; and their tail as a very thin, slender vapour, emitted by the héad, or [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]] of the comet, ignited or héated by the sun. Comets also seemed to Newton absolutely requisite for the conservation of the water and moisture of the planets; from their condensed vapours and exhalations all that moisture which is spent on vegetations and putrefactions, and turned into dry éarth, might be resupplied and recruited; for all vegetables were thought to incréase wholly from fluids, and turn by putrefaction into éarth. Hence the quantity of dry éarth must continually incréase, and the moisture of the globe decréase, and at last be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual supply. Newton suspected that the spirit which makes the finest, subtilest, and best part of our air, and which is absolutely requisite for the life and being of all things, came principally from the comets. Another use which he conjectured comets might be designed to serve, is that of recruiting the sun with fresh fuel, and repairing the consumption of his light by the stréams continually sent forth in every direction from that luminary — :"From his huge vapouring train perhaps to shake :Reviving moisture on the numerous orbs, :Thro' which his long ellipsis winds; perhaps :To lend new fuel to declining suns, :To light up worlds, and feed th' ethereal fire." ::: —[[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], "The Seasons" (1730; 1748). As éarly as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]] hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays néar perihelion.<ref>Sagan, p. 77</ref> In 1836, the German mathematician [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], after observing stréams of vapor in the 1835 apparition of Comet Halley, proposed that the [[jet force]]s of evaporating material could be gréat enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit and argued that the non-gravitational movements of [[Comet Encke]] resulted from this mechanism.<ref>Sagan, p. 117</ref> However, another comet-related discovery overshadowed these idéas for néarly a century. Over the period 1864–1866 the [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] computed the orbit of the [[Perseids|Perseid]] [[meteor]]s, and based on orbital similarities, correctly hypothesized that the Perseids were fragments of [[Comet Swift-Tuttle]]. The link between comets and metéor showers was dramatically underscored when in 1872, a major metéor shower occurred from the orbit of [[Comet Biela]], which had been observed to split into two pieces during its 1846 apparition, and never seen again after 1852.<ref name="Kronk, '3D/Biela'"/> A "gravel bank" modél of comet structure arose, according to which comets consist of loose piles of small rocky objects, coated with an icy layer. By the middle of the twentieth century, this modél suffered from a number of shortcomings: in particular, it failed to explain how a body that contained only a little ice could continue to put on a brilliant display of evaporating vapor after several perihelion passages. In 1950, [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock.<ref name=Whipple>{{cite journal | author=F.L. Whipple | title=A Comet Model I. The Acceleration of Comet Encke | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1950-03_111_2/page/375 | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=1950 | volume=111|pages=375–394 }}</ref> This "dirty snowball" modél soon became accepted. It was confirmed when an armada of [[spacecraft]] (including the [[European Space Agency]]'s ''[[Giotto mission|Giotto]]'' probe and the [[Soviet Union]]'s ''[[Vega 1]]'' and ''[[Vega 2]]'') flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 to photograph the nucleus and observed the jets of evaporating material. The American probe ''[[Deep Space 1]]'' flew past the nucleus of [[Comet Borrelly]] on [[September 21]] [[2001]] and confirmed that the characteristics of Comet Halley are common on other comets as well. [[Gambar:Comet_wild_2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Wild 2]] exhibits jets on lit side and dark side, stark relief, and is dry.]] The [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] spacecraft, launched in February 1999, collected particles from the coma of [[81P/Wild|Comet Wild 2]] in January 2004, and returned the samples to éarth in a capsule in January 2006. Claudia Alexander, a program scientist for Rosetta from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has modéled comets for yéars, reported to space.com about her astonishment at the number of jets, their appéarance on the dark side of the comet as well as on the light side, their ability to lift large chunks of rock from the surface of the comet and the fact that comet Wild 2 is not a loosely-cemented rubble pile.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html| title=Strange Comet Unlike Anything Known| first=Robert Roy| last=Britt| publisher=Space.com| accessdate=2006-03-05|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040622054240/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html|archivedate=2004-06-22}}</ref> Forthcoming space missions will add gréater detail to our understanding of what comets are made of. In July 2005, the [[Deep Impact (space mission)|''Deep Impact'']] probe blasted a crater on [[9P/Tempel|Comet Tempel 1]] to study its interior. And in 2014, the Européan [[Rosetta space probe|''Rosetta'']] probe will orbit comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko|Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] and place a small lander on its surface. Rosetta observed the Deep Impact event, and with its set of very sensitive instruments for cometary investigations, it used its capabilities to observe Tempel 1 before, during and after the impact. At a distance of about 80 million kilometres from the comet, Rosetta was the only spacecraft other then Deep Impact itself to view the comet. === Debat ngeunaan kandungan komét === <!--[[Image:Comet_borrelly.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Borrelly]] exhibits jets, yet is hot and dry.]]--> As late as 2002, there is conflict on how much ice is in a comet. NASA's Deep Space 1 téam, working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab, obtained high-resolution images of the surface of comet Borrelly. They announced that comet Borrelly exhibits distinct jets, yet has a hot, dry surface. The assumption that comets contain water and other ices led Dr. Laurence Soderblom of the U.S. Géological Survey to say, "The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice." However, he goes on to suggest that the ice is probably hidden below the crust as "either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html| title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface| year=2002| publisher=JPL| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012140123/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |date=2012-10-12 }}</ref> The recent [[Deep Impact (space mission)|Deep Impact]] probe has also yielded results suggesting that the majority of a comet's water ice is below the surface, and that these resevoirs feed the jets of vaporised water that form the coma of Tempel 1.[http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-072.html] == Komét nu kasohor == === Komét gedé === While hundreds of tiny comets pass through the inner solar system every yéar, only a very few comets are noticed by the general public. About every decade or so, a comet will become bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer — such comets are often designated [[Great Comet]]s. In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens. More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, the éarth passed through the comet's tail, and erronéous newspaper reports inspired a féar that [[cyanogen]] in the tail might poison millions, while the appéarance of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult. To most péople, however, a gréat comet is simply a béautiful spectacle. See images of Hale-Bopp at the [http://www.kopernik.org/images/archive/halebopp.htm Comet Hale-Bopp Images webpage]. Predicting whether a comet will become a gréat comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions. Broadly spéaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the éarth when at its brightest, it will have a chance of becoming a gréat comet. However, [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular, but failed to do so. [[Comet West]], which appéared three yéars later, had much lower expectations (perhaps because scientists were much warier of glowing predictions after the Kohoutek fiasco), but became an extremely impressive comet.<ref>Kronk, 'C/1975 V1 (West)'</ref> The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appéarance of any gréat comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — [[Comet Hyakutake]] in 1996, followed by Hale-Bopp, which réached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two yéars éarlier. As yet, the 21st century has not seen the arrival of any gréat comets. === Komét nu teu ilahar === Of the thousands of known comets, some are very unusual. Comet Encke orbits from inside the orbit of Jupiter to inside the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] while Comet [[29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann]] orbits in a néarly circular orbit entirely between Jupiter and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].<ref>Kronk, '29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1'</ref> [[2060 Chiron]], whose unstable orbit keeps it between Saturn and [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed.<ref>Kronk, '95P/Chiron'</ref> Similarly, [[137P/Shoemaker-Levy|Comet Shoemaker-Levy 2]] was originally designated asteroid [[1990 UL3|1990 UL<sub>3</sub>]].<ref>Kronk, '137P/Shoemaker-Levy 2'</ref> Some [[near-earth asteroid]]s are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing. Some comets have been observed to bréak up. [[3D/Biela|Comet Biela]] was one significant example, bréaking into two during its 1846 perihelion passage. The two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again after that. Instéad, spectacular metéor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible. A lesser metéor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and is caused by the éarth crossing Biela's orbit.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html| title=The Andromedids ("Bielids")| publisher=Gary W. Kronk's Comets & Meteor Showers| accessdate=2006-03-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051218182304/http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html |date=2005-12-18 }}</ref> Several other comets have been seen to bréak up during their perihelion passage, including gréat comets West and [[Comet Ikeya-Seki]]. Some comets, such as the [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], orbit in groups and are thought to be pieces of a single object that has previously broken apart. Another very significant cometary disruption was that of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], which was discovered in 1993. At the time of its discovery, the comet was in orbit around Jupiter, having been captured by the planet during a very close approach in 1992. This close approach had alréady broken the comet into hundreds of pieces, and over a period of 6 days in July 1994, these pieces slammed into Jupiter's atmosphere — the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the solar system.<ref>Kronk, 'D/1993 F2 Shoemaker-Levy 9'</ref> However, it has been suggested that the likely object responsible for the [[Tunguska event]] in 1908 was a fragment of Comet Encke. Less likely is the attribution to an Encke fragment of having caused the formation of the [[Giordano Bruno (crater)]] on the Moon in 1178. === Komét nu kiwari bisa ditempo === [[Komét SWAN]], nu ditandaan ogé minangka C/2006M4, kapanggih ku [[solar and heliospheric observatory|SWAN/SOHO]] tanggal 20 Juni 2006, [http://cometography.com/lcomets/2006m4.html as of October 6] katempo maké toropong di langit wanci janari leutik dina konstélasi [[Canes Venatici]]. Périhéliumna mah 28 Séptémber. Komét ieu meta kacida gancangna ka [[Aquila]] tur jadi targé nu gampang pikeun ditoropong di langit wanci munggaran peuting salila bulan Oktober. Kiwari mah geus ''pudar'' alatan nambahna jarak ti Bumi ka Srangéngé. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar komét périodis]] * [[Daptar komét non-périodis]] * [[Kajadian tubrukan]] * [[Skala Torino]] keur ngagolongkeun bahya tubrukan * [[Komét dina fiksi]] == Référénsi == <div class="references-small"> <references/> # Européan Southern Observatory. (2003). "A Brief History of Comets." Available online: [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html Part I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305084811/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html |date=2005-03-05 }}, [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html Part II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303052804/http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html |date=2007-03-03 }}. # Vigyan Prasar (2001). "Development of Cometary Thought." Available online: [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm Part I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050416165441/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-16 }}, [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm Part II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050414162435/http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm |date=2005-04-14 }}. </div> == Tumbu luar == {{Commons2|Comets}} * [http://www.cometography.com/ Cometography.com] * [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/comet.html David Jewitt overview of the comets] * [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ ESSAY ON COMETS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050402090716/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ |date=2005-04-02 }}, which gained the first of Dr. Fellowes's prizes, proposed to those who had attended the University of Edinburgh within the last twelve yéars. By David Milne. Publisher: Edinburgh, Printed for A. Black; 1828. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409074551/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf |date=2008-04-09 }} format)'' * [http://www.newscientistspace.com/channel/solar-system/comets-asteroids Everything you wanted to know about comets and asteroids] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/Headlines.html Listing of newly discovered comets] * {{dmoz|Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Asteroids,_Comets_and_Meteors/Comets/|Comets}} * [http://www.aerith.net/index.html Seiichi Yoshida's Comet Information website] * [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/icq/icq.html Source of useful comet-related material on the Web] {{PlanetLeutik}} {{Tatasurya}} [[Kategori:Komét|*]] [[Kategori:Planét leutik]] <!-- The below are interlanguage links. --> 7mvw7o6vxyoamcroyqi90ybxs9jacc6 Sél punca 0 16969 712425 698125 2026-08-28T23:15:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Mouse embryonic stem cells.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Sél sirung [[émbriogenesis mamalia|émbrionik]] [[Mus musculus|beurit]] maké panyiri fluoreséns.]] '''Sél punca''' atawa '''Sél sirung''' hartina [[sél (biologi)|sél]] mimiti nu ilaharna aya di sakabéh [[organisme]] multisél nu mibanda kamampuh nganyarkeun manéh ku cara meulah diri sarta bisa [[diferensiasi sélulér|dididefensiasi]] jadi rupa-rupa tipe sél. Panalungtikan dina widang sél sirung manusa dimimitian ku papanggihan élmuwan [[Kanada]], [[Ernest McCulloch|Ernest A. McCulloch]] jeung [[James Till|James E. Till]] taun [[1960]]-an.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Becker AJ, McCulloch EA, Till JE | title = Cytological demonstration of the clonal nature of spleen colonies derived from transplanted mouse marrow cells | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1963-02-02_197_4866/page/452 | journal = Nature | volume = 197 | pages = 452-4 | year = 1963 | id = PMID 13970094 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Siminovitch L, McCulloch EA, Till JE | title = The distribution of colony-forming cells among spleen colonies | journal = Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology | volume = 62| pages = 327-36 | year = 1963 | id = PMID 14086156 }}</ref> Sél sirung mamalia sacara umum dibagi kana dua kategori: '''[[sél sirung émbrionik]]''' (diturunkeun tina [[blastosis]]) jeung '''[[sél sirung sawawa]]''' (tina jaringan mamalia sawawa). Dina émbrio nu keur mekar, sél sirung bisa ngalaman diferensiasi jadi sagala rupa jaringan émbrio. Dina organisme sawawa, sél sirung jeung sél turunanana meta minangka sistim omé pikeun sél-sél dina awak. ku sabab bisa tumuwuh sarta [[diferensiasi sélulér|dirobah]] jadi jaringan husus modél otot atawa saraf, sél sirung ditalungtik kabisana pikeun [[terapi sél|natambaan]] kasakit genetik. Kandidat utamana mah nyaéta [[garis sél]] émbrionik, sél sirung émbrionik otolog nu dihasilkeun tina [[kloning terapeutik]], sarta sél sirung tina [[getih ari]] atawa [[sungsum tulang]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Tuch B | title = Stem cells--a clinical update. | journal = Aust Fam Physician | volume = 35 | issue = 9 | pages = 719-21 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16969445}}</ref> == Pasipatan sél sirung == === Pasipatan panangtu === Ambahan harti sél sirung anu lega diwatesan ku dua pasipatan: * '''''Nganyarkeun manéh''''' (''self-renewal'') - bisa ngalaman sababaraha kali [[daur sél|daur]] meulah sél bari teu ngalaman diferensiasi. * '''''Poténsi tanpa wates''''' (''unlimited potency'') - bisa ngalaman diferensiasi jadi tipe sél sawawa naon baé. ==== Pedaran poténsi ==== [[Gambar:Stem cells diagram.png|400px|thumb|right|Sél sirung émbrionik pluripotén minangka sél massa jero dina blastosis. Sél sirung bisa jadi jaringan naon baé dina awak, iwal [[bali (anatomi)|bali]]. Ukur sél morula nu totipotén nu bisa jadi sagala rupa sél kaasup bali.]] ''Poténsi'' ngécéskeun poténsial diferensiasi (poténsi pikeun ngalaman diferensiasi jadi rupa-rupa tipe sél) sél sirungna. * Sél sirung '''[[totipoténsi|totipotén]]''' dihasilkeun tina ngahijina [[sél endog]] jeung [[spérma]]. Sél nu dihasilkeun tina sababaraha beulahan awal endog nu geus dibuahan ogé masih totipotén. Sél-sél ieu bisa ngalaman diferensiasi jadi tipe-tipe sél émbrionik jeung ékstraémbrionik. * Sél sirung '''[[pluripotén]]''' diturunkeun tina sél totipotén nu bisa ngalaman diferensiasi jadi sél-sél nu diturunkeun tina tilu ''[[germ layer]]''. * Sél sirung '''[[multipotén]]''' ukur bisa ngahasilkeun sél anu sakulawarga deukeut kénéh (misalna sél sirung [[hématopoiesis|hématopoietik]] ngalaman diferensiasi jadi sél getih beureum, sél getih bodas, platélét, jsb.). * Sél '''[[unipoténsi|unipotén]]''' ukur bisa ngahasilkeun hiji tipe sél, tapi masih boga pasipatan nganyarkeun manéh nu ngabédakeun éta sél ti sél non-sirung. <!-- ==Sél sirung émbrionik== {{utama|Sél sirung émbrionik}} '''Embryonic stem cell lines''' (ES cell lines) are cultures of cells derived from the epiblast tissue of the inner cell mass (ICM) of a [[blastocyst]]. A blastocyst is an early stage [[embryo]] - approximately 4 to 5 days old in humans and consisting of 50-150 cells. ES cells are [[pluripotent]], and give rise during development to all derivatives of the three primary [[germ layer]]s: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult [[human body|body]] when given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not contribute to the extra-embryonic membranes or the [[placenta]]. When given no stimuli for differentiation, ES cells will continue to divide ''in vitro'' and each [[daughter cell]] will remain pluripotent. The pluripotency of ES cells has been rigorously demonstrated ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'', thus they can be indeed classified as stem cells. Because of their unique combined abilities of unlimited expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells are a potential source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease. To date, no approved medical treatments have been derived from embryonic stem cell research. This is not surprising considering that many nations currently have moratoria on either ES cell research or the production of new ES cell lines. == Adult stem cells == {{main|Adult stem cell}} [[Image:Stem cells2.png|thumb|160px|'''Stem cell division and differentiation.''' A - stem cell; B - progenitor cell; C - differentiated cell; 1 - symmetric stem cell division; 2 - asymmetric stem cell division; 3 - progenitor division; 4 - terminal differentiation]] '''Adult stem cells''' are undifferentiated cells found throughout the body that divide to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged [[biological tissue|tissues]]. Also known as '''[[somatic]]''' (from Greek Σωματικóς, ''of the body'') stem cells, they can be found in children, as well as adults. A great deal of adult stem cell research has focused on clarifying their capacity to divide or ''self-renew'' indefinitely and their differentiation potential.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gardner RL | title = Stem cells: potency, plasticity and public perception | journal = Journal of Anatomy | volume = 200 | issue = 3 | pages = 277-82 | year = 2002 | id = PMID 12033732 }}</ref> Many adult stem cells may be better classified as progenitor cells, due to their limited capacity for cellular differentiation. Nevertheless, specific multipotent or even unipotent adult progenitors may have potential utility in regenerative medicine. The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as [[Stem cell controversy|controversial]] as [[embryonic stem cells]], because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an [[embryo]]. In contrast with the embryonic stem cell research, more US government funding has been provided for adult stem cell research. Adult stem cells can be isolated from a tissue sample obtained from an adult. They have mainly been studied in [[human]]s and [[model organism]]s such as [[mouse|mice]] and [[rat]]s. ==Lineage== To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see ''Stem cell division and differentiation'' diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell properties. Asymmetric division, on the other hand, produces only one stem cell and a [[progenitor cell]] with limited self-renewal potential. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before terminally [[cell differentiation|differentiating]] into a mature cell. It is possible that the molecular distinction between symmetric and asymmetric divisions lies in differential segregation of cell membrane proteins (such as [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]) between the daughter cells, however, there is no evidence for this mechanism. An alternative theory is that stem cells remain undifferentiated from environmental cues in their particular niche. Stem cells differentiate when they leave that niche or no longer receive those signals. Studies in Drosophila germarium have identified the signals dpp and adherins junctions that prevent germarium stem cells from differentiating<ref>{{cite journal | author = Xie T, Spradling A | title = decapentaplegic is essential for the maintenance and division of germline stem cells in the Drosophila ovary. | url = https://archive.org/details/cell_1998-07-24_94_2/page/251 | journal = Cell | volume = 94 | issue = 2 | pages = 251-60 | year = 1998 | id = PMID 9695953}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Song X, Zhu C, Doan C, Xie T | title = Germline stem cells anchored by adherens junctions in the Drosophila ovary niches. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-06-07_296_5574/page/1855 | journal = Science | volume = 296 | issue = 5574 | pages = 1855-7 | year = 2002 | id = PMID 12052957}}</ref>. The signals that lead to reprogramming of cells to a embryonic-like state are also being investigated. These signal pathways include several [[transcription factor]]s including the [[oncogene]] [[MYC|c-Myc]]. Initial studies indicate that transformation of mice cells with a combination of these anti-differentiation signals can reverse differentiation and may allow adult cells to become pluripotent.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Takahashi K, Yamanaka S | title = Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors | url = https://archive.org/details/cell_2006-08-25_126_4/page/663 | journal = Cell | volume = 126 | issue = 4 | pages = 663-76 | year = 2006 | id = PMID 16904174}}</ref> However, need to transform these cells with an oncogene may prevent the use of this approach in therapy. ==Treatments== {{main|Stem cell treatments}} Medical researchers believe that stem cell research has the potential to change the face of human disease. A number of current treatments already exist, although the majority of them are not commonly used because they tend to be experimental and not very cost-effective. Medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat [[cancer]], [[parkinson's disease]], [[spinal cord injuries]], and [[muscle]] damage, amongst a number of other diseases, impairments and conditions. However, there still exists a great deal of social and scientific uncertainty surrounding stem cell research, which could possibly be overcome through public debate and future research. Stem cells, however, are already used extensively in research, and some scientists do not see cell therapy as the first goal of the research, but see the investigation of stem cells as a goal worthy in itself. <ref>{{cite web | author = Wade N | title = Some Scientists See Shift in Stem Cell Hopes | publisher = New York Times | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/14/washington/14stem.html | date=2006-08-14 | accessdate=2006-12-28}}</ref>. ==Kontroversi panalungtikan sél sirung== Panalungtikan sél sirung téh ti anggalna mula teu weléh dirungrum ku kontroversi, utamana mah dina téhnis nyipta jeung migunakeun sél sirungna. Kontroversi panalungtikan [[sél sirung émbrionik]] téh utamana kusabab [[téhnologi]] ayeuna merlukeun ngaruksak [[émbrio|émbrio manusa]] jeung/atawa [[terapi kloning]]. Opponents of the research argue that this practice is a [[slippery slope]] to [[reproductive cloning]] and tantamount to the [[instrumentalization]] of a [[human being]]. Contrarily, medical researchers in the field argue that it is necessary to pursue embryonic stem cell research because the resultant technologies are expected to have significant medical potential, and that the embryos used for research are only those meant for destruction anyway (as a product of [[invitro fertilisation]]). This in turn, conflicts with opponents holding an [[anti-abortion]] stance, who argue that an embryo is a human being and therefore entitled to dignity even if legally slated for destruction. The ensuing debate has prompted authorities around the world to seek regulatory frameworks and highlighted the fact that stem cell research represents a [[social]] and [[ethical]] challenge.--> == Hambalan penting dina panalungtikan sél sirung == * '''1960-an''' - [[Joseph Altman]] jeung Gopal Das némbongkeun bukti [[neurogenesis]] sawawa, kagiatan sél sirung dina uteuk; laporan aranjeunna patukang tonggong jeung dogma "euweuh neuron anyar"-na [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|Cajal]], antukna harita mah teu dianggap * '''1963''' - [[Ernest McCulloch|McCulloch]] jeung [[James Till|Till]] ngagambarkeun ayana sél nu nganyarkeun manéh dina sungsum tulang beurit * '''1968''' - [[cangkok]] [[sungsum tulang]] antara dua adi-lanceuk kabukti bisa natambaan [[Severe combined immunodeficiency|SCID]] * '''1978''' - [[Sél sirung Hématopoietik]] kapanggih dina [[getih ari]] manusa * '''1981''' - [[Sél sirung émbrionik]] beurit diturunkeun tina [[massa sél jero]] * '''1992''' - Sél sirung saraf/neural dibudidayakeun ''[[in vitro]]'' minangka neurosfir * '''1995''' - [[Présidén]] [[Bill Clinton]] nyatujuan [[Amandemén Dickey]] nu nyaram ayana anggaran federal pikeun kagiatan panalungtikan anu maké émbrio manusa. * '''1997''' - Leukemia kapanggih asalna tina sél sirung hématopoietik, bukti munggaran ayana [[sél sirung kangker]] * '''1998''' - [[James Thomson (biolog sél)|James Thomson]] saparakanca ngembangkeun [[garis sél sirung]] émbrionik munggaran di Universitas Wisconsin-Madison. * '''2000-an''' - Sababaraha laporan ngeunaan plastisitas [[sél sirung sawawa]] dipublikasi. * '''2003''' - Dr. Songtao Shi ti NIH manggihan sumber anyar sél sirung sawawa tina huntu susu<ref>{{cite journal | author=Shostak S | title=(Re)defining stem cells | journal=Bioessays | year=2006 | pages=301-8 | volume=28 | issue=3 | id=PMID 16479584}}</ref> * '''02 Nopémber 2004''' - [[California]] nyatujuan [[Proposisi 71]] nu nyadiakeun anggaran nagara $3 miliar pikeun panalungtikan sél sirung émbrionik manusa. * '''2004-2005''' - Panalungtik [[Koréa]] [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] ngaku geus ngembangkeun sababaraha garis [[sél sirung émbrionik]] manusa tina [[oosit]] manusa nu can dibuahan. ka dieunakeun kabuktian garis sél éta palsu. * '''2005''' - Para panalungtik ti [[Universitas Kingston]], [[Inggris]] ngaku geus manggihan sReséarchers atl sirung kategori tilu, nu dilandih ''cord-blood-derived embryoniclike stem cells'' (CBEs, sél sirung mirip émbrionik), diturunkeun tina getih ari-ari. Kelompok ieu nyebutkeun yén sél-sél ieu bisa didiferensiasi jadi rupa-rupa tipe sél nu leuwih lengkep batan sél sirung sawawa. * '''2001-2006''' - [[Présidén]] [[George W. Bush]] ngadukung Kongres pikeun nyadiakeun anggaran féderal pikeun panalungtikan sél sirung émbrionik nu kabéhna ampir $100 juta. <!--At the same time, he also enacts laws that restrict federally funded stem cell research on embryonic stem cells to the already derived but dwindling cell lines. Bush also endorsed funding for a total of $250 million dollars for research on adult and animal stem cells. * '''5 May, 2006''' - [[Rick Santorum]] introduces bill number [[S. 2754]], or the [[Alternative Pluripotent Stem Cell Therapies Enhancement Act.]] into the [[Senate]] * '''18 July, 2006''' - The U.S. Senate passes the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act [[H.R. 810]], and votes down Senator Santorum's S.2754. * '''19 July, 2006''' - [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] vetoes H.R. 810 ([[Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act]]), a bill that would have reversed the Clinton-era law which made it illegal for Federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo. *'''August 2006''' - Cell Journal publishes Kazutoshi Takahashi and Shinya Yamanaka, [http://www.cell.com/content/article/fulltext?uid=PIIS0092867406009767 Induction of Pluripotent Stem Cells from Mouse Embryonic and Adult Fibroblast Cultures by Defined Factors] * '''07 November, 2006''' - The people of the state of [[Missouri]] vote to protect the possibility of Stem Cell research in their state. * '''07 January, 2007''' - Scientists at [[Wake Forest University]] led by Dr. [[Anthony Atala]] and [[Harvard University]] report discovery of a new type of stem cell in [[amniotic fluid]].[http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v25/n1/abs/nbt1274.html] This may potentially provide an alternative to embryonic stem cells for use in research and therapy. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2007/01/07/amniotic_fluid_yields_stem_cells_harvard_researchers_report/]--> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Stem cell|Stem cell]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (per 16 Januari 2007) <references/> == Tumbu kaluar == * Umum ** [http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/ Stem Cell Basics] ** [http://dels.nas.edu/bls/stemcells/booklet.shtml Understanding Stem Cells: A View of the Science and Issues from the National Academies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409081447/http://dels.nas.edu/bls/stemcells/booklet.shtml |date=2010-04-09 }} ** [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000DFA43-04B1-10AA-84B183414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (June 2004 Issue) The Stem Cell Challenge] ** [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000B1BED-0C0A-1498-8C0A83414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (July 2006 Issue) Stem Cells: The Real Culprits in Cancer?] ** [http://stemcells.nih.gov/ National Institutes of Health] * Kalawarta ilmiah ** [http://www.stemcells.com STEM CELLS®] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509155849/http://www.stemcells.com/ |date=2008-05-09 }} ** [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/14653249.asp Cytotherapy] ** [http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=9 Cloning and Stem Cells] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006141053/http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=9 |date=2007-10-06 }} ** [http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=125 Stem Cells and Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007104024/http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=125 |date=2007-10-07 }} ** [http://www.futuremedicine.com/loi/rme Regenerative Medicine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014075627/http://www.futuremedicine.com/loi/rme |date=2011-10-14 }} ** [http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v25/n1/abs/nbt1274.html Isolation of amniotic stem cell lines with potential for therapy] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sél sirung]] [[Kategori:Biotéhnologi]] [[Kategori:Biologi sél]] [[Kategori:Kloning]] t9bal0jj4q95ztic0rxytdff75tp8zw Aérojél 0 20049 712418 675387 2026-08-28T23:04:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712418 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Brick of aerogel.jpg|200px|jmpl|ka|[[Bata]] 2,5 kg nu numpang luhureun sapotong aérojél nu beuratna ukur 2,38 gram.]] '''Aérojél''' téh bahan [[padetan|padet]] nu dénsitasna handap, dijieun tina [[jél]] anu komponén cairna geus diganti ku [[gas]]. Hasilna mangrupa padetan anu dénsitasna kacida handapna kalawan pasipatan anu penting, utamana salaku insulator. Ieu bahan kadang sok disebut '''haseup beku''' (''frozen smoke''), '''haseup padet''' (''solid smoke''), atawa '''haseup bulao''' (''blue smoke''), dumasar kana watekna anu semi-transparan sarta pendaran cahya dina éta bahan. Tapi, mun dicabak, ieu bahan téh karasa kawas [[Styrofoam]] tina [[polistiréna]]. Aérojél munggaran dijieun ku [[Steven Kistler]] taun [[1931]], hasil tumpangan jeung [[Charles Learned]] ngeunaan saha nu bisa ngaganti cairan dina selé (jéli) tanpa jadi ngariut.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kistler S. S. | title = Coherent expanded aerogels and jellies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1931-05-16_127_3211/page/741 | journal = [[Nature]] | year = 1931 | volume = 127 | issue = 3211 | pages = 741 | doi = }} </ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Kistler S. S. | title = Coherent Expanded-Aerogels | journal = [[Journal of Physical Chemistry]] | year = 1932 | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 52 - 64 | doi = 10.1021/j150331a003 }}</ref> [[Silika jél]] téh minangka hasil anu munggaran. Salajengna, aérojél bisa dijieun tina rupa-rupa bahan; Kistler nyieun aérojél tina [[silika]], [[alumina]], [[Kromium (III) oksida|kromia]], jeung [[timbal oksida]]. Aérojél [[karbon]] mimiti dikembangkeun taun [[1990-an]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Pekala R. W. | title = Organic aerogels from the polycondensation of resorcinol with formaldehyde | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-materials-science_1989-09_24_9/page/3221 | journal = [[Journal of Material Science]] | year = 1989 | volume = 24 | issue = 9 | pages = 3221-3227 | doi = 10.1007/BF01139044 }} </ref> == Pasipatan == Mun dicabak, aérojél karasa kawas busa nu hampang tapi kaku, antara Styrofoam jeung [[Oasis (hortikultur)|busa floral héjo]] nu sok dipaké nata [[kembang]]. Aérojél téh bahan garing nu dararna [[nanofoam]], teu pisan-pisan mirip jél (dingaranan kitu sotéh pédah baé diturunkeun tina jél). Mun dipencét laun, aérojél moal dekok. Tapi lamun dipencétna tarik mah dekokna bisa permanén. Mun dipencét leuwih tarik, ieu aérojél bakal ruksak, kawas rengat dina kaca—hiji pasipatan anu katelah ''[[friabilitas]]''. Najan kitu, aérojél téh wangunna kuat pisan, alatan mikrostruktur [[déndrit (logam)|déndritik]], nu ngagundukkeun partikel-partikel buleud ukuran 2-5&nbsp;nm. Gundukan ieu ngawangun tilu-diménsi ranté [[fraktal]] anu loba ngandung [[porositas|pori]] leuwih leutik ti 100&nbsp;nm. Ukuran jeung dénsitas rata-rata porina bisa ditangtukeun waktu éta aérojél dijieun. Aérojél [[insulasi panas|insulator panas]] anu kacida jétuna, sabab ampir teu bisa ditembus ku tilu cara alih panas ([[konvéksi]], [[konduksi panas|konduksi]], jeung [[radiasi panas|radiasi]]). Ieu bahan alus pisan salaku inhibitor konvéktif, sabab udara teu bisa asup kana kisina. Aérojél silika hususna alus pisan salaku insulator konduktif, sabab silika sorangan goréng pisan dina ngonduksikeun panas—béda jeung aérojél logam nu sipat insulatorna teu pati alus. Aérojél karbon alus pikeun insulator radiatif, sabab karbon bisa nyerep [[radiasi infrabeureum]] nu ngalihkeun panas. Aérojél nu paling insulatif taya lian ti gabungan dua bahan ieu: aérojél silika nu ditambahan ku karbon. ku sabab watekna nu [[higroskopik]], aérojél téh garing sarta [[désikan]] anu kuat. Jalma nu nyepeng aérojél hadéna mah maké sarung leungeun, ngarah kulit leungeunna teu garing. ku sabab kandunganana lolobana udara, aérojél katémbong semi-transparan. Kelir anu némbongan taya lian alatan [[pendaran Rayleigh]] (''Rayleigh scattering'') [[cahya katémbong]] [[panjang gelombang|parondok]] ku wangun déndritik ukuran nano. ku sabab [[hidrofilik]], aérojél gampang pisan nyerep lembab nu balukarna jadi robah bentuk, kontraksi nepi ka ruksakna. Karuksakan ieu bisa dihulag ku olahan [[kimia]]wi, antukna jadi [[hidrofobik]]. [[Gambar:Aerogel matches.jpg|ki|jmpl|200px|Démo pasipatan insulasi aérojél.]] == Tipeu == === Aérojél silika === Aérojél silika téh minangka tipeu aérojél paling galib dipaké sarta ditalungtik. Ieu téh mangrupa zat nu bahan dasarna [[silika]], diturunkeun tina [[jél silika]]. Padetan anu dénsitasna paling handap nyaéta nanofoam silika (1&nbsp;mg/cm<sup>3</sup>)<ref name=terms>[http://www.llnl.gov/IPandC/technology/profile/aerogel/Terms/index.php Aerogels Terms]. LLNL.</ref>, ronjatan tina 1,9&nbsp;mg/cm<sup>3</sup><ref>"[http://www.llnl.gov/str/October03/NewsOctober03.html Lab's aerogel sets world record]". ''LLNL Science & Technology Review''. Oktober 2003.</ref>, padahal dénsitas [[udara]] baé 1,2&nbsp;mg/cm<sup>3</sup>. <!-- Aérojél silika bisa nyerep radiasi [[infrabeureum]]. It allows the construction of materials that let light into buildings but trap heat for solar heating. It has extremely low [[thermal conductivity]] (0.03 [[watt|W]]·[[metre|m]]/[[metre|m]]<sup>2</sup>·[[kelvin|K]] down to 0.004 W·m/m<sup>2</sup>·K),<ref>Thermal conductivity from the [http://hbcpnetbase.com/ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics], 85th Ed. section 12, p. 227</ref><ref name=terms/> which gives it remarkable insulative properties. Its [[melting point]] is 1,473 K (1,200 °C or 2,192 °F). Silica aerogel holds 15 entries in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' for material properties, including best insulator and lowest-density solid. Silica aerogel can protect the human hand from the heat of a blowtorch at point blank range. === Carbon aerogels === [[Image:Aerogel nasa.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aerogel held by JPL scientist [[Peter Tsou]]]] [[Carbon]] aerogels are composed of particles with sizes in the [[nanometer]] range, [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] together. They have very high [[porosity]] (over 50%, with pore diameter under 100 nm) and surface areas ranging between 400–1000 m²/g. They are often manufactured as composite paper: non-woven paper made of [[carbon fiber]]s, impregnated with [[resorcinol]]-[[formaldehyde]] aerogel, and [[pyrolisis|pyrolyzed]]. Depending on the density, carbon aerogels may be electrically conductive, making composite aerogel paper useful for electrodes in [[capacitor]]s or deionization electrodes. Due to their extremely high surface area, carbon aerogels are used to create [[supercapacitor]]s, with values ranging up to thousands of [[farad]]s based on a capacitance of 104 F/g and 77 F/cm³. Carbon aerogels are also extremely "black" in the infrared spectrum, reflecting only 0.3% of radiation between 250 nm and 14.3 µm, making them efficient for solar energy collectors. The term "aerogel" has been incorrectly used to describe airy masses of [[carbon nanotube]]s produced through certain [[chemical vapor deposition]] techniques—such materials can be spun into fibers with strength greater than [[kevlar]] and unique electrical properties. These materials are not aerogels, however, since they do not have a monolithic internal structure and do not have the regular pore structure characteristic of aerogels. === Alumina aerogels === Aerogels made with [[alumina|aluminium oxide]] are known as [[alumina]] aerogels. These aerogels are used as catalysts, especially when "metal-doped" with another metal. Nickel-alumina aerogel is the most common combination. Alumina aerogels are also examined by [[NASA]] for capturing of hypervelocity particles; a formulation doped with [[gadolinium]] and [[terbium]] could [[fluoresce]] at the particle impact site, with amount of fluorescence dependent on impact velocity. === Other aerogels === [[SEAgel]] is a material similar to organic aerogel, made of [[agar]]. == Mangpaat == [[Image:Stardust Dust Collector with aerogel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kebul béntang (spacecraft)|Stardust]] dust collector with aerogel blocks. (NASA)]] There are a variety of tasks for which aerogels are used. Commercially, aerogels have been used in granular form to add [[Thermal insulation|insulation]] to [[Window#Skylight|skylights]]. After several trips on the [[Vomit Comet]], one [http://zerogaerogel.com research team] has shown that producing aerogel in a [[weightlessness|weightless]] environment can produce particles with a more uniform size and reduce the Rayleigh scattering effect in silica aerogel, thus making the aerogel less blue and more transparent. Transparent silica aerogel would be very suitable as a thermal insulation material for windows, significantly limiting thermal losses of buildings. Its high surface area leads to many applications, such as a chemical absorber for cleaning up spills (see [[adsorption]]). This feature also gives it great potential as a [[catalyst]] or a catalyst carrier. Aerogel particles are also used as [[thickening agent]]s in some [[paint]]s and [[cosmetics]]. Aerogels are being tested for use in targets for the [[National Ignition Facility]]. Aerogel performance may be augmented for a specific application by the addition of [[dopants]], reinforcing structures, and hybridizing compounds. Using this approach, the breadth of applications for the material class may be greatly increased. Commercial manufacture of aerogel 'blankets' began around the year 2000. An aerogel blanket is a [[composite material|composite]] of silica aerogel and fibrous reinforcement that turns the brittle aerogel into a durable, flexible material. The mechanical and thermal properties of the product may be varied based upon the choice of reinforcing fibers, the aerogel matrix, and opacification additives included in the composite. One manufacturer of this aerogel composite may be found in the link below. [[NASA]] used aerogel to trap [[space dust]] particles aboard the [[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]] spacecraft. The particles vaporize on impact with solids and pass through gases, but can be trapped in aerogels. NASA also used aerogel for [[thermal insulation]] of the [[Mars Rover]] and [[space suit]]s.<ref>[http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/sc_rover_temp_aerogel.html Preventing heat escape through insulation called "aerogel"], ''NASA CPL''</ref><ref>[http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/fall2006/backpage.html Down-to-Earth Uses for Space Materials], ''The Aerospace Corporation''</ref> Aerogels are also used in [[particle physics]] as radiators in [[Cherenkov effect]] detectors. ACC system of the Belle detector, used in the [[Belle Experiment]] at [[KEKB (accelerator)|KEKB]], is a recent example of such use. The suitability of aerogels is determined by their low [[index of refraction]], filling the gap between gases and liquids, and their transparency and solid state, making them easier to use than [[cryogenic]] liquids or compressed gases. Their low mass is also advantageous for space missions. [[Resorcinol]]-[[formaldehyde]] aerogels (polymers chemically similar to [[phenol formaldehyde resin]]s) are mostly used as precursors for manufacture of carbon aerogels, or when an organic insulator with large surface is desired. They come as high-density material, with surface area about 600 m²/g. Metal-aerogel nanocomposites can be prepared by impregnating the hydrogel with solution containing ions of the suitable [[noble metal|noble]] or [[transition metal|transition]] metals. The impregnated hydrogel is then irradiated with [[gamma ray]]s, leading to precipitation of nanoparticles of the metal. Such composites can be used as eg. [[catalyst]]s, sensors, [[electromagnetic shielding]], and in waste disposal. A prospective use of platinum-on-carbon catalysts is in [[fuel cell]]s. Aerogel can be used as drug delivery system due to its biocompatibility. Due to its high surface area and porous structure, drugs can be adsorbed from supercritical CO2. The release rate of the drugs can be tailored based on the properties of aerogel.<ref> {{cite journal | author = Smirnova I., Suttiruengwong S., Arlt W. | title = Feasibility study of hydrophilic and hydrophobic silica aerogels as drug delivery systems | journal = Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids | year = 2004 | volume = 350 | issue = | pages = 54-60 | doi = 10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2004.06.031 }} </ref><ref>From the [http://www.tvt.cbi.uni-erlangen.de/eng/research/thermo_pharma/thermo_pharmazie_e.htm Research group Pharmaceutical Thermodynamics] of Friedrich - Alexander - University Erlangen - Nuremberg</ref> Carbon aerogels are used in the construction of small electrochemical double layer [[supercapacitors]]. Due to the high surface area of the aerogel, these capacitors can be 2000 to 5000 times smaller than similarly rated electrolytic capacitors.<ref>[http://powerelectronics.com/portable_power_management/batteries/power_aerogel_capacitors_support/ Aerogel Capacitors Support Pulse, Hold-Up, and Main Power Applications]</ref> Dunlop tennis has recently incorporated Aerogel into the mold of its new series of racquets. == Production == Silica aerogel is made by drying a [[hydrogel]] composed of [[colloid]]al [[silica]] in an extreme environment. Specifically, the process starts with a liquid alcohol like [[ethanol]] which is mixed with a [[silicon alkoxide]] [[wiktionary:Precursor|precursor]] to form a [[silicon dioxide]] [[sol gel]] ([[silica gel]]). Then, through a process called [[supercritical drying]], the alcohol is removed from the [[gel]]. This is typically done by exchanging the ethanol for liquid acetone, allowing a better miscibility gradient, and then onto liquid [[carbon dioxide]] and then bringing the carbon dioxide above its [[critical point (chemistry)|critical point]]. A variant on this process involves the direct injection of [[supercritical carbon dioxide]] into the pressure vessel containing the aerogel. The end result removes all liquid from the gel and replaces it with gas, without allowing the gel structure to collapse or lose volume. Aerogel composites have been made using a variety of continuous and discontinuous reinforcements. The high aspect ratio of fibers such as [[fiberglass]] have been used to reinforce aerogel [[composite]]s with significantly improved mechanical properties. [[Resorcinol]]-[[formaldehyde]] aerogel (RF aerogel) is made in a way similar to production of silica aerogel. Carbon aerogel is made from a resorcinol-formaldehyde aerogel by its [[pyrolysis]] in [[inert gas]] atmosphere, leaving a matrix of [[carbon]]. It is commercially available as solid shapes, powders, or composite paper. --> == Catetan == {{refs}} == Rujukan == Ti misi NASA di [http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/tech/aerogel.html AEROGEL.] * {{cite journal | author = J. Fricke, A. Emmerling | title =Aerogels—Preparation, properties, applications | journal= Structure & Bonding | year= 1992 | volume = 77 | issue = | pages= 37-87 | doi = 10.1007/BFb0036965}} * {{cite journal | author = N. Hüsing, U. Schubert | title =Aerogels - Airy Materials: Chemistry, Structure, and Properties | journal= [[Angewandte Chemie International Edition]] | year= 1998 | volume = 37 | issue = 1/2 | pages= 22-196 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(19980202)37:1/2<22::AID-ANIE22>3.0.CO;2-I}} * {{cite journal | author = Pierre A. C., Pajonk G. M. | title = Chemistry of aerogels and their applications | journal = [[Chemical Reviews]] | year = 2002 | volume = 102 | issue = 11 | pages = 4243 - 4266 | doi = 10.1021/cr0101306 }} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commonscat|Aerogel}} * [http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/photo/aerogel.html NASA photos of aerogel] * [http://fourier.mech.virginia.edu/~microhx/thermalproperties.html Copy of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory page on the Thermal Properties of Silica Aerogels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013223511/http://fourier.mech.virginia.edu/~microhx/thermalproperties.html |date=2007-10-13 }} * [http://lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/aerogel-insulation.html Another LBL article covering the development of aerogels] * [http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/overview/faq.html#aerogel Aerogel FAQ at NASA JPL] * [http://connectexpress.com/~ips/aerogel/faq.html Aerogel FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080324135004/http://connectexpress.com/~ips/aerogel/faq.html |date=2008-03-24 }} * [http://aerogem.com Aerogel Jewelry by Aerogem—Includes Aerogel Photo Gallery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624150858/http://www.aerogem.com/ |date=2007-06-24 }} * "[http://wired.com/news/technology/1,70268-1.html A Solid That's Light As Air] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202160358/http://www.wired.com/news/technology/1,70268-1.html |date=2008-12-02 }}" karya Dylan Tweney. ''Wired'', [[23 Pébruari]] [[2006]] * [http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/help/tutorials/housefuture.htm Aerogel insulates the The House of the Future?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107234626/http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/help/tutorials/housefuture.htm |date=2009-11-07 }} * [http://aerogel.com/ American company researching and producing flexible aerogel blankets for insulation] * [http://airglass.se/ Swedish company researching aerogel glass for windows] * [http://insulatingglass.blogspot.com/ Blog concerned with research, development and manufacture of double glazing insulating glass units with aerogel components] * [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Cities/Scientists_develop_aerogel/rssarticleshow/2030524.cms Indian scientists develop an ultra light-weight aerogel material, which has the capacity to bear or support a weight five lakh times more than its own body weight. ] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Insulator]] [[Kategori:Busa]] [[Kategori:Jél]] 9hbwf8z8ys8r883cmvn78rzo8xk0rpr Peroksisom 0 20270 712406 613204 2026-08-28T22:51:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712406 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Peroxisome.svg|lang=nl|300px|right|thumb|Wangun dasar peroksisom]] '''Peroksisom''' mangrupa [[organél]] [[sél (biologi)|sél]] [[eukariota]] nu pancénna pikeun méré sihan sél tina zat-zat racun; ku kituna ieu sél sumebar di salukiah jero sél. Mémbranna mangrupa hiji [[lapis ganda lipid]] nu misahkeun eusi 'beuteung'na ti [[sitosol]] (cairan jero sél) nu ngandung rupa-rupa protéin mémbran nu boga pancén penting pisan, kayaning ngimpor protéin jeung mantuan proliferasi. Teu kawas [[lisosom]] nu dibentuk dina [[jalur sékrétori]], peroksisom mah bisa ngaréplikasi diri ku cara ngagedéan, terus meulah manéh, najan anu munggaran mah sigana dibentuk langsung. Peroksisom kapanggih ku ahli sitologi Bélgia [[Christian de Duve]] taun [[1965]]. <!-- == Occurrence and evolution== Peroxisomes are found in all eukaryotic cells. Peroxisomes contain enzymes for certain oxidative reactions. [[Prokaryotes]] lack peroxisomes, so they are more vulnerable to toxic substances like [[hydrogen peroxide]]. Peroxisomes help in the decomposition of biohazardous chemicals. The enzymatic content of peroxisomes varies across species, but the presence of certain proteins common to many species has been used to suggest an [[Endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] origin; that is, peroxisomes evolved from bacteria that invaded larger cells as parasites, and very gradually evolved a symbiotic relationship.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lazarow|first= P.B. |coauthors= ''Fujiki''| | title= Biogenesis of peroxisomes| journal=Ann. Rev. Cell Biol. | issue=1 | year=1985 | pages=489-530}}</ref> However, this view has been challenged by recent discoveries. For example, peroxisome-less mutants can restore peroxisomes upon introduction of the wild-type gene, and peroxisomes have been observed to be formed from the [[endoplasmic reticulum]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Hoepfner|first= D. |coauthors= ''et.al.''| | title=Contribution of the Endoplasmic Reticulum to peroxisome formation| url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2005-07-15_122_1/page/85| journal=Cell | volume=122 | issue=1 | year=2005 | pages=85–95}}</ref> An evolutionary analysis of the peroxisomal [[proteome]] found homologies between the peroxisomal import machinery and the [[ERAD]] pathway in the [[endoplasmic reticulum]], along with a number of metabolic enzymes that were likely recruited from the [[mitochondria]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=T. |last=Gabaldón |coauthors= ''et.al.''| title=Origin and evolution of the peroxisomal proteome | journal=Biology Direct | volume=1| issue=1 | year=2006 | pages=8}}</ref> These results indicate that the peroxisome does not have an endosymbiotic origin; instead, it likely originates from the E.R., and its proteins were recruited from pools existing within the primitive eukaryote. --> == Pancén == Peroksisom ngandung [[énzim]]-énzim oksidatif, kayaning [[katalase]], [[oksidase asam D-amino]], jeung [[oksidase asam urat]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=del Río L, Sandalio L, Palma J, Bueno P, Corpas F |title=Metabolism of oxygen radicals in peroxisomes and cellular implications |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_free-radical-biology-medicine_1992-11_13_5/page/557 |journal=Free Radic Biol Med |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=557-80 |year=1992 |pmid=1334030}}</ref> Sababaraha énzim, ku ngagunakeun oksigén molekulér, bisa nyingkahkeun atom hidrogén ti substrat anu tangtu (dilabélan R) dina hiji [[réaksi oksidatif]], antukna ngagasilkeun [[hidrogén peroksida]] (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) anu toksik: :<math>\mathrm{RH}_\mathrm{2} + \mathrm{O}_\mathrm{2} \rightarrow \mathrm{R }+ \mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}_2</math> Katalase, énzim séjén di peroksisom, lajeng ngarobah H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> ieu pikeun ngoksidasi substrat séjén, kayaning [[fénol]], [[asam format]], [[formaldehid]], jeung [[alkohol]], ngagunakeun réaksi peroksidasi: :<math>\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}_2 + \mathrm{R'H}_2 \rightarrow \mathrm{R'} + 2\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}</math>, nu ngaleungitkeun hidrogén peroksida nu ngabahyakeun. Ieu réaksi penting pisan dina sél-sél ati jeung ginjal, nyaéta pikeun ngancurkeun rupa-rupa sanyawa toksik (detoksifikasi) nu asup kana getih. Ku cara di luhur, kira 25% [[étanol]] anu diinum ku urang dioksidasi jadi [[asetaldehida]]. Mun H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> ngagunduk di jero sél, katalase ngarobah ieu molekul jadi cai maké ngaliwatan réaksi :<math>2\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}_2 \rightarrow 2\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O} + \mathrm{O}_2</math> Pancén utama peroksisom nyaéta pikeun ngarecah molekul-molekul [[asam lemak]] dina prosés nu katelah [[oksidasi-béta]]. Dina ieu prosés, asam lemak direcah sarta dirobah jadi [[Koénzim A|Asetil-KoA]], nu lajeng dipulangkeun deui ka [[sitosol]] pikeun guna séjénna. Dina sél-sél sato, oksidasi-béta bisa ogé lumangsung di [[mitokondria]], sedengkeun dina kapang jeung tutuwuhan mah hususon di peroksisom. <!-- The first reactions in the formation of [[plasmalogen]] in animal cells also occurs in peroxisomes. Plasmalogen is the most abundant phospholipid in [[myelin]]. Deficiency of plasmalogens causes profound abnormalities in the myelination of [[neuron|nerve cells]], which is one of the reasons that many peroxisomal disorders lead to neurological disease. Peroxisomes also play a role in the production of [[bile]] acids. == Protein import == Proteins are selectively imported into peroxisomes. Since the organelles contain no DNA or ribosomes and thus have no means of producing proteins, all of their proteins must be imported across the membrane. It is believed that proteins do not transit through the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] to get to the peroxisome. A specific protein signal (PTS or [[peroxisomal targeting signal]]) of three amino acids at the ''[[C-terminus]]'' of many peroxisomal proteins signals the membrane of the peroxisome to import them into the organelle. Other peroxisomal proteins contain a signal at the ''[[N-terminus]]''. There are at least 32 known peroxisomal proteins, called [[peroxins]], which participate in the process of importing proteins by means of ''[[ATP hydrolysis]]''. Proteins do not have to unfold to be imported into the peroxisome. The protein receptors, the peroxins ''[[Pex5]]'' and ''[[Pex7]]'', accompany their cargoes (containing a PTS1 or a PTS2, respectively) all the way into the peroxisome where they release the cargo and then return to the cytosol - a step named "recycling". Overall, the import cycle is referred to as the "extended shuttle mechanism". Evidence now indicates that ATP hydrolysis is required for the recycling of receptors to the cytosol. Also, [[ubiquitination]] appears to be crucial for the export of PEX5 from the peroxisome, to the cytosol. Little is know about the import of PEX7, although it has helper proteins that have been shown to be ubiquitinated. --> == Kakurangan == [[Cacad peroksisom]] bisa ngabalukarkeun gangguan kana [[métabolisme lipid]], di antarana [[sindrom Zellweger]]. == Rujukan == <references/> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commonscat|Peroxisomes}} <!--{{wikiversity3|Topic:Cell Biology|Peroxisomes|The Department of Cell Biology}}--> * [http://www.peroxisomeDB.org Peroxisome-Database] <!-- {{NCBI-scienceprimer}} {{organelles}} --> {{pondok}} {{organél}} [[Kategori:Métabolisme]] [[Kategori:Organél]] 928xggtxellg13c5r5cbxdb325ydyz3 Leuncangeun 0 23839 712400 672379 2026-08-28T22:37:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Disease | Name = Leuncangeun | Image = Tinea pedis interdigitalis.jpg | Caption = Sesela ramo nu bareulah alatan leuncangeun | DiseasesDB = 13122 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|B|35|3|b|35}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|110.4}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000875 | eMedicineSubj = derm | eMedicineTopic = 470 | MeshID = | }} '''Leuncangeun''' atawa '''tinéa pedis'''<ref name=tinea>Istilah "tinea pedis" nujul kana panyakit tur lain kana organisme (fungi) nu nyababkeunnana. Sababaraha [[fungi]] lianna, nu disebut [[dérmatofita]], bisa nyababkeun tinea pedis. Leuwih-leuwih, spesies fungi nu nyababkeun leuncangeun bisa nyababkeun oge, contona, ''jock itch'' ([[tinea cruris]]).</ref> nyaéta inféksi [[fungi]] [[parasitis]] nu narajang [[épidermis]] suku. Ilaharna disababkeun ku [[mold]]<ref name=mold>[[Mold]] nyaéta [[fungi]] mikroskopis nu tuwuh dina jaringan [[hifa]], nu patukang tonggong jeung fungi mikroskopis nu tuwuh dina sel tunggal, nu disebut [[yeast]].</ref> (tapi dina sababaraha kasus, yéast) nu tuwuh dina pabeungeutan kulit sarta tuluy tuwuh kana jaringan kulit hirupna sorangan, nu nyababkeun infeksi. Ilaharna aya dina antara ramo suku, tapi kadang aya jadi pola "moccasin" tambahan dina handap jeung sisi suku. Tinéa pedis diperkirakeun mangrupa panyakit kulit nu ilahar kadua di AS, sanggeus [[éwateun]]<ref name=Weinstein2002>{{cite journal | last =Weinstein | first = Andrew | authorlink = | coauthors = Brian Berman | title =Treatment of common superficial tinea infections | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2002-05-15_65_10/page/2095 | journal =American Family Physician | volume =65 | issue =10 | pages =2095-2102 | date =[[May 15]], [[2002]] | website = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }} [http://www.aafp.org American Family Physician journal website]</ref>. Nepi ka 15% pangeusi AS meureun boga tinéa pedis<ref name=BellSyer2002>{{cite journal | last =Bell-Syer | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = Hart R, Crawford F, Torgerson DJ, Tyrrell W, Russell I: | title =Oral treatments for fungal infections of the skin of the foot. | journal =Cochrane database of systematic reviews | volume = | issue = | pages =CD003584 | date =2002 | website = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }}</ref>. {{stub}} ==Catetan suku== <references/> ==Tumbu luar== * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/athletesfoot.html NIH Medline Athlete's Foot page] * [http://www.shirleys-wellness-cafe.com/urine_martha.htm Page about Urine Therapy (UT)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909205811/http://www.shirleys-wellness-cafe.com/urine_martha.htm |date=2007-09-09 }} * [http://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/16005-1.asp eMedicine Health Athlete's Foot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051108114951/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/16005-1.asp |date=2005-11-08 }} * [http://www.emedicine.com/derm/byname/eumycetoma-(fungal-mycetoma).htm eMedicine and Mycetoma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060305034206/http://www.emedicine.com/derm/byname/eumycetoma-(fungal-mycetoma).htm |date=2006-03-05 }} [[Kategori:Panyakit kulit]] [[Kategori:Podiatri]] [[Kategori:Panyakit fungi]] [[Kategori:Panyakit suku]] g1fsli3x6txygogumw5i8kw7mcaw9v5 Antioksidan 0 23953 712317 675901 2026-08-28T20:42:03Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712317 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Glutathione-3D-vdW.png|thumb|right|350px|Modél eusi-rohang [[métabolomika|métabolit]] [[glutation]] antioksidan. Nu kelir konéng nunjukkeun atom [[walirang]] [[rédoks|aktif-rédoks]] anu mawa aktivitas antioksidan, sedengkeun nu kelir beureum, bulao, bodas, jeung hawuk ngawakilan atom [[oksigén]], [[nitrogén]], [[hidrogén]], jeung [[karbon]].]] '''Antioksidan''' hartina [[molekul]] nu bisa ngalaunkeun atawa nyegah [[rédoks|oksidasi]] molekul séjén. Oksidasi téh [[réaksi kimia]] anu mindahkeun [[éléktron]] ti hiji zat ka [[oksidan]]. Réaksi oksidasi bisa ngahasilkeun [[radikal bébas]] nu mitambeyan [[réaksi runtuy]] nu ngaruksak [[sél (biologi)|sél]]. Antioksidan megatkeun ieu réaksi runtuy ku cara nyingkahkeun zat radikal antara, sarta nginhibisi oksidasi séjén ku cara ngoksidasi manéh. Ku kituna, antioksidan téh biasana mah [[réduktor]] sarupaning [[tiol]] atawa [[polifénol]]. Sanajan réaksi oksidasi penting pisan pikeun kahirupan, tetep aya kagorénganana. Pikeun ngungkulan kagoréngan ieu, [[tutuwuhan]] jeung [[sasatoan]] miara sistem kompléks rupa-rupa tipeu antioksidan, kayaning [[glutation]], [[vitamin C]], jeung [[vitamin E]], ogé [[énzim]] sarupaning [[katalase]], [[superoksida dismutase]], jeung rupa-rupa [[peroksidase]]. Kurangna kadar antioksidan, atawa énzim antioksidanna [[inhibitor énzim|kacegah]], bisa ngabalukarkeun [[strés oksidatif]] nu bisa ngaruksak atawa malah maéhan sél. ku sabab strés oksidatif loba patalina jeung [[patogenesis]] kasakit manusa, antioksidan loba ditalungtik dina [[farmakologi]], utamana pikeun natambaan [[struk]] jeung [[kasakit neurodegeneratif]]. Antioksidan ogé sok ditambahkeun dina katuangan pikeun miara kaséhatan jeung nyegah sarupaning kasakit [[kangker]] jeung [[kasakit jantung koronér]]. Najan studi-studi nunjukkeun kauntungan pikeun kaséhatan, [[uji coba klinis]] teu manggihan kauntungan tina formulasi anu diuji, malah mun kaleuleuwihi mah bisa bahya. Di sagigireun mangpaatna pikeun kaséhatan, antioksidan loba gunana di dunya industri, misalna baé [[pangawét|ngawétkeun]] katuangan jeung kosmétik sarta nyegah dégradasi [[karét]] jeung [[béngsin]]. == Métabolit == Dumasar kaleyuranana, antioksidan dibagi dua rupa: leyur dina [[cai]] ([[hidrofil]]ik) atawa dina [[lipid]] ([[hidrofob]]ik). Sacara umum, antioksidan nu leyur-cai meta jeung oksidan dina [[sitoplasma]] sél jeung [[plasma getih]], sedengkeun antioksidan nu leyur-lipid nyegah [[mémbran sél]] tina panarajang [[peroksidasi]] lipid<ref name=Sies/>. Sanyawaan ieu bisa disintésis di jero awak atawa diserep tina katuangan<ref name=Vertuani/>. Rupa-rupa antioksidan aya dina kadar nu béda-béda dina cairan awak jeung jaringan. Misalna waé [[glutation]] atawa [[ubiquinon]] lolobana aya di jero sél, sedengkeun [[asam urat]] ampir rata di sakuliah awak (tempo tabél di handap). Kapentingan jeung interaksi antara rupa-rupa antioksidan téh pajeulit, boga [[sinérgi]] jeung silih pangaruhan katergantungan antara hiji métabolit jeung nu séjénna sarta sistem-sistem énzimna<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chaudiére J, Ferrari-Iliou R |title=Intracellular antioxidants: from chemical to biochemical mechanisms |journal=Food Chem Toxicol |volume=37 |issue=9–10 |pages=949 – 62 |year= |pmid=10541450}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sies H |title=Strategies of antioxidant defense |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=215 |issue=2 |pages=213 – 9 |year=1993 |pmid=7688300}}</ref>. Peta hiji antioksidan bisa jadi gumantung kana fungsi anggota séjén dina sistem antioksidan<ref name=Vertuani/>. Ku kituna, panyalindungan anu disadiakeun ku hiji antioksidan téh gumantung kana kadarna, réaktivitasna ka sajenis spésiés oksigén réaktif, sarta status antioksidan séjén anu aub dina réaksina<ref name=Vertuani/>. Sababaraha senyawaan nyumbang panyalindungan atioksidan ku cara [[kelat|ngelat]] [[logam transisi]] antukna teu bisa [[katalis|ngatalisan]] produksi radikal bébas dina sél. <!--Particularly important is the ability to sequester iron, which is the function of [[iron-binding proteins]] such as [[transferrin]] and [[ferritin]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Imlay J |title=Pathways of oxidative damage |journal=Annu Rev Microbiol |volume=57 |issue= |pages=395–418 |year= |pmid=14527285}}</ref> [[Selenium]] and [[zinc]] are commonly referred to as antioxidant nutrients, but these [[chemical element]]s have no antioxidant action themselves and are instead required for the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, as is discussed below. {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" !Antioxidant metabolite !Solubility !Concentration in human serum (μM)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ames B, Cathcart R, Schwiers E, Hochstein P |title=Uric acid provides an antioxidant defense in humans against oxidant- and radical-caused aging and cancer: a hypothesis |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=349151&blobtype=pdf| journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=78 |issue=11 |pages=6858 – 62 |year=1981 |pmid=6947260}}</ref> !Concentration in liver tissue (μmol/kg) |- |align="center" |[[Ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) |align="center" |Water |align="center" |50 – 60<ref>{{cite journal |author=Khaw K, Woodhouse P |title=Interrelation of vitamin C, infection, haemostatic factors, and cardiovascular disease |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/310/6994/1559 |journal=BMJ |volume=310 |issue=6994 |pages=1559 – 63 |year=1995 |pmid=7787643}}</ref> |align="center" |260 (human)<ref name=Evelson>{{cite journal |author=Evelson P, Travacio M, Repetto M, Escobar J, Llesuy S, Lissi E |title=Evaluation of total reactive antioxidant potential (TRAP) of tissue homogenates and their cytosols |journal=Arch Biochem Biophys |volume=388 |issue=2 |pages=261 – 6 |year=2001 |pmid=11368163}}</ref> |- |align="center" |[[Glutathione]] |align="center" |Water |align="center" |325 – 650<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chen C, Qu L, Li B, Xing L, Jia G, Wang T, Gao Y, Zhang P, Li M, Chen W, Chai Z |title=Increased oxidative DNA damage, as assessed by urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine concentrations, and serum redox status in persons exposed to mercury |url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/content/full/51/4/759 |journal=Clin Chem |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=759 – 67 |year=2005 |pmid=15695327}}</ref> |align="center" |6,400 (human)<ref name=Evelson/> |- |align="center" |[[Lipoic acid]] |align="center" |Water |align="center" |0.1 – 0.7<ref>{{cite journal |author=Teichert J, Preiss R |title=HPLC-methods for determination of lipoic acid and its reduced form in human plasma |journal=Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=511 – 2 |year=1992 |pmid=1490813}}</ref> |align="center" |4 – 5 (rat)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akiba S, Matsugo S, Packer L, Konishi T |title=Assay of protein-bound lipoic acid in tissues by a new enzymatic method |journal=Anal Biochem |volume=258 |issue=2 |pages=299 – 304 |year=1998 |pmid=9570844}}</ref> |- |align="center" |[[Uric acid]] |align="center" |Water |align="center" |200 – 400<ref>{{cite journal |author=Glantzounis G, Tsimoyiannis E, Kappas A, Galaris D |title=Uric acid and oxidative stress |journal=Curr Pharm Des |volume=11 |issue=32 |pages=4145 – 51 |year=2005 |pmid=16375736}}</ref> |align="center" |1,600 (human)<ref name=Evelson/> |- |align="center" |[[Carotene]]s |align="center" |Lipid |align="center" |[[carotene|β-carotene]]: 0.5 – 1<ref>{{cite journal |author=El-Sohemy A, Baylin A, Kabagambe E, Ascherio A, Spiegelman D, Campos H |title=Individual carotenoid concentrations in adipose tissue and plasma as biomarkers of dietary intake |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2002-07_76_1/page/172 |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=172 – 9 |year=2002 |pmid=12081831}}</ref> [[retinol]] (vitamin A): 1 – 3<ref name=Sowell>{{cite journal |author=Sowell A, Huff D, Yeager P, Caudill S, Gunter E |title=Retinol, alpha-tocopherol, lutein/zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, alpha-carotene, trans-beta-carotene, and four retinyl esters in serum determined simultaneously by reversed-phase HPLC with multiwavelength detection |url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/40/3/411.pdf?ijkey=12d7f1fb0a06f27c93b282ad4ea3435c0fb78f7e |journal=Clin Chem |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=411 – 6 |year=1994 |pmid=8131277}}</ref> |align="center" |5 (human, total carotenoids)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stahl W, Schwarz W, Sundquist A, Sies H |title=cis-trans isomers of lycopene and beta-carotene in human serum and tissues |journal=Arch Biochem Biophys |volume=294 |issue=1 |pages=173 – 7 |year=1992 |pmid=1550343}}</ref> |- |align="center" |[[tocopherol|α-tocopherol]] (vitamin E) |align="center" |Lipid |align="center" |10 – 40<ref name=Sowell/> |align="center" |50 (human)<ref name=Evelson/> |- |align="center" |[[Coenzyme Q|Ubiquinol]] (coenzyme Q) |align="center" |Lipid |align="center" |5<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zita C, Overvad K, Mortensen S, Sindberg C, Moesgaard S, Hunter D |title=Serum coenzyme Q10 concentrations in healthy men supplemented with 30 mg or 100 mg coenzyme Q10 for two months in a randomised controlled study |journal=Biofactors |volume=18 |issue=1 – 4 |pages=185 – 93 |year=2003 |pmid=14695934}}</ref> |align="center" |200 (human)<ref name=Turunen>{{cite journal |author=Turunen M, Olsson J, Dallner G |title=Metabolism and function of coenzyme Q |journal=Biochim Biophys Acta |volume=1660 |issue=1 – 2 |pages=171 – 99 |year=2004 |pmid=14757233}}</ref> |} ===Ascorbic acid=== [[Ascorbic acid]] or "[[vitamin C]]" is a [[monosaccharide]] antioxidant found in both animals and plants. As it cannot be synthesised in humans and must be obtained from the diet, it is a [[vitamin]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smirnoff N |title=L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis |journal=Vitam Horm |volume=61 |issue= |pages=241 – 66 |year= |pmid=11153268}}</ref> Most other [[animal]]s are able to produce this compound in their bodies and do not require it in their diets.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Linster CL, Van Schaftingen E |title=Vitamin C. Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals |journal=FEBS J. |volume=274 |issue=1 |pages=1-22 |year=2007 |pmid=17222174}}</ref> In cells, it is maintained in its reduced form by reaction with glutathione, which can be catalysed by [[protein disulfide isomerase]] and [[glutaredoxin]]s.<ref name=MeisterA>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biological-chemistry_1994-04-01_269_13/page/9397 |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=269 |issue=13 |pages=9397 – 400 |year=1994 |pmid=8144521}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Wells W, Xu D, Yang Y, Rocque P |title=Mammalian thioltransferase (glutaredoxin) and protein disulfide isomerase have dehydroascorbate reductase activity |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/265/26/15361 |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=265 |issue=26 |pages=15361 – 4 |year=1990 |pmid=2394726}}</ref> Ascorbic acid is a [[reducing agent]] and can reduce and thereby neutralize reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Padayatty S, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee J, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta S, Levine M |title=Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/22/1/18 |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18 – 35 |year=2003 |pmid=12569111}}</ref> In addition to its direct antioxidant effects, ascorbic acid is also a [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]] for the antioxidant enzyme [[ascorbate peroxidase]], a function that is particularly important in stress resistance in plants.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shigeoka S, Ishikawa T, Tamoi M, Miyagawa Y, Takeda T, Yabuta Y, Yoshimura K |title=Regulation and function of ascorbate peroxidase isoenzymes |url=http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/53/372/1305 |journal=J Exp Bot |volume=53 |issue=372 |pages=1305 – 19 |year=2002 |pmid=11997377}}</ref> ===Glutathione=== [[Image:Lipid peroxidation.svg|thumb|350px|right|The [[Radical (chemistry)|free radical]] mechanism of [[lipid peroxidation]].]] [[Glutathione]] is a [[cysteine]]-containing [[peptide]] found in most forms of aerobic life.<ref name=MeisterB>{{cite journal |author=Meister A, Anderson M |title=Glutathione |journal=Annu Rev Biochem |volume=52 |issue= |pages=711 – 60 |year= |pmid=6137189}}</ref> It is not required in the diet and is instead synthesized in cells from its constituent [[amino acid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione metabolism and its selective modification |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/263/33/17205.pdf |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=263 |issue=33 |pages=17205 – 8 |year=1988 |pmid=3053703}}</ref> Glutathione has antioxidant properties since the [[thiol]] group in its cysteine moiety is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced. In cells, glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme [[glutathione reductase]] and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems as well as reacting directly with oxidants.<ref name=MeisterA/> Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell's redox state, glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants.<ref name=MeisterB/> ===Melatonin=== [[Melatonin]] is a powerful antioxidant that can easily cross [[cell membrane]]s and the [[blood-brain barrier]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Reiter RJ, Carneiro RC, Oh CS |title=Melatonin in relation to cellular antioxidative defense mechanisms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hormone-and-metabolic-research_1997-08_29_8/page/363 |journal=Horm. Metab. Res. |volume=29 |issue=8 |pages=363-72 |year=1997 |pmid=9288572}}</ref> Unlike other antioxidants, melatonin does not undergo [[redox cycling]], which is the ability of a [[molecule]] to undergo repeated [[reduction (chemistry)|reduction]] and [[oxidation]]. Redox cycling may allow other antioxidants (such as [[vitamin C]]) to act as [[pro-oxidant]]s and promote [[free radical]] formation. Melatonin, once oxidized, cannot be reduced to its former state because it forms several stable end-products upon reacting with free radicals. Therefore, it has been referred to as a terminal (or suicidal) antioxidant.<ref name="Tan2000">{{cite journal |author=Tan DX, Manchester LC, Reiter RJ, Qi WB, Karbownik M, Calvo JR |title=Significance of melatonin in antioxidative defense system: reactions and products |journal=Biological signals and receptors |volume=9 |issue=3–4 |pages=137-59 |year=2000 |pmid=10899700}}</ref> ===Tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E)=== Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of eight related [[tocopherol]]s and [[tocotrienol]]s, which are fat-soluble antioxidant vitamins.<ref name=Herrera>{{cite journal |author=Herrera E, Barbas C |title=Vitamin E: action, metabolism and perspectives |journal=J Physiol Biochem |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=43 – 56 |year=2001 |pmid=11579997}}</ref> Of these, α-tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest [[bioavailability]], with the body preferentially absorbing and metabolising this form.<ref name=Brigelius>{{cite journal |author=Brigelius-Flohé R, Traber M |title=Vitamin E: function and metabolism |url=http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/full/13/10/1145 |journal=FASEB J |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=1145 – 55 |year=1999 |pmid=10385606}}</ref> The α-tocopherol form is the most important lipid-soluble antioxidant and protects cell membranes against oxidation by reacting with the lipid radicals produced in the [[lipid peroxidation]] [[chain reaction]].<ref name=Herrera/> This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the propagation reaction from continuing. The oxidised α-tocopheroxyl radicals produced in this process may be recycled back to the active reduced form through reduction by ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wang X, Quinn P |title=Vitamin E and its function in membranes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_progress-in-lipid-research_1999-07_38_4/page/309 |journal=Prog Lipid Res |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=309 – 36 |year=1999 |pmid=10793887}}</ref> The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are less well-studied, although γ-tocopherol is a [[nucleophile]] that may react with [[electrophile|electrophilic]] mutagens,<ref name=Brigelius/> and tocotrienols may have a specialised role in neuroprotection.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sen C, Khanna S, Roy S |title=Tocotrienols: Vitamin E beyond tocopherols |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1790869&blobtype=pdf |journal=Life Sci |volume=78 |issue=18 |pages=2088 – 98 |year=2006 |pmid=16458936}}</ref> --> == Baca ogé == * [[Téori radikal bébas]] * [[Nutrisi]] * [[Fitokimia]] == Bacaan salajengna == * Lane, Nick. 2003. ''Oxygen: The Molecule That Made the World''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860783-0 * Barry Halliwell & John M.C. Gutteridge. 2007. ''Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856869-X * Jan Pokorny, Nelly Yanishlieva, jeung Michael H. Gordon. 2001. ''Antioxidants in Food: Practical Applications''. CRC Press Inc. ISBN 0-8493-1222-1 == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.senescence.info/causes.html Damage-Based Theories of Aging] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205145419/http://www.senescence.info/causes.html |date=2011-12-05 }} Includes a description of the free radical théory of aging and a discussion of the role of antioxidants in aging. * [http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn000322.html Foods that are rich in antioxidants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080802003714/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn000322.html |date=2008-08-02 }} * [http://ods.od.nih.gov/index.aspx U.S. National Institute Health, Office on Dietary Supplements] * [http://www.ific.org/publications/factsheets/antioxidantfs.cfm List of antioxidants, food sources, and Potential Benefits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012024720/http://www.ific.org/publications/factsheets/antioxidantfs.cfm |date=2007-10-12 }} * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/antioxidants.html MedlinePlus: Antioxidants.] * [http://www.naturalantioxidants.org Analysis of total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and bioavailability from foods.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011237/http://naturalantioxidants.org/ |date=2021-03-01 }} == Rujukan == * Wikipédia basa Inggris. ''[[:en:Antioxidant|Antioxidant]]''. Dicutat 21 Séptémber 2007. {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] [[Kategori:Fisiologi]] 1xanu8fxvmhl5ym33frvho5nocxg9ge Vitamin C 0 25308 712445 711804 2026-08-28T23:40:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712445 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:L-Ascorbic acid.svg|thumb|2-okso-L-tréo-héksono-1,4- lakton-2,3-énédiol<br> atawa (''R'')-3,4-dihidroksi-5-((''S'')- 1,2-dihidroksiétil)furan-2(5''H'')-on atawa nu kawentar vitamin C]] '''Vitamin C''' atawa '''<small>L</small>-askorbat''' téh hiji [[zat gizi ésénsial]] pikeun [[simian|primata luhur]] jeung sababaraha [[spésiés]] lianna. Askorbat perlu pikeun sababaraha rupa [[métabolismeu|réaksi métabolismeu]] dina sakabéh awak [[sato]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] sarta [[biosintésis|dihasilkeun ku awak]] ampir sakabéh organismeu, iwal manusa jeung sababaraha [[primata]]. Ieu vitamin kawentar ku balukar tina kakuranganana: [[barusuh]] (skorbut)<ref name="UKFSA">{{cite web |url=http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=Food Standards Agency (UK) }}</ref><ref name="UMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |title=Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date=April 2002 |author= |publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231142109/http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |date=2005-12-31 }}</ref><ref name="OSU">{{cite web |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/|title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-07 |date=2006-01-31 |first=Jane, Ph.D. |last= Higdon|publisher=Oregon State University, Micronutrient Information Center}}</ref>. [[Farmakofor]] vitamin C téh [[ion]] askorbatna. Pikeun mahluk hirup, askorbat téh [[antioksidan]] anu naméngan awak tina [[setrés oksidatif]]<ref name="Padayatty">{{cite journal |author=Padayatty S, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee J, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta S, Levine M |title=Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18-35 |year=2003 |pmid=12569111 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929003945/http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> sarta salaku [[kofaktor]] dina sababaraha réaksi [[énzim]]atik penting<ref name="UKFSA Risk" />. == Peran biologis == [[Gambar:L-ascorbic-acid-3D-balls.png|thumb|Modél 3D Vitamin C]] Vitamin C téh [[Énantiomér|<small>L</small>-énantiomér]] askorbat; énantiomér sabalikna, <small>D</small>-énantiomér, teu boga mangpaat fisiologis anu penting. Duanana mangrupa [[kiral (kimia)|kiral]] pikeun [[wangun molekul]] anu sarua. Nalika [[rédoks|ngaréduksi]], <small>L</small>-askorbat nu [[réduktor]] kuat téh bakal robah jadi bentuk kaoksidasi, [[asam dehidroaskorbat|<small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat]]<ref name="UKFSA Risk">{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |title=Vitamin C – Risk Assessment |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=UK Food Standards Agency }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129082537/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |date=2007-11-29 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat lajeng bisa diréduksi balik jadi <small>L</small>-askorbat aktif ku énzim jeung glutation<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=269 |issue=13 |pages=9397-400 |year=1994 |pmid=8144521 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914171031/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |date=2009-09-14 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-askorbat téh [[asam gula]] [[asam lemah|lemah]] anu wangunna patali jeung [[glukosa]] nu sacara alami diciptakeun ngahiji jeung [[ion hidrogén]] ngabentuk [[assam askorbat]], atawa ngahiji jeung ion [[logam]] ngabentuk [[askorbat mineral]]. === Mangpaat === Pikeun manusa, vitamin C jétu pisan salaku [[antioksidan]], ngurangan [[setrés oksidatif]], salaku substrat [[peroksidaseu askorbat]]<ref name="OSU" />, ogé salaku [[kofaktor]] énzim dina [[biosintésis]] bahan-bahan biokimia penting. Vitamin C boga peran salaku [[donor éléktron]] pikeun dalapan énzim<ref>Levine M, Rumsey SC, Wang Y, Park JB, Daruwala R. Vitamin C. In Stipanuk MH (ed): "Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Human Nutrition." Philadelphia: W B Saunders, kc. 541–567, 2000.</ref>: * Tilu énzim dina [[hidroksilasi]] [[kolagén]]<ref>Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI: Collagens: molecular biology, diseases, and potentials for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem 64:403–434, 1995.</ref><ref>Peterkofsky B: Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 1135S–1140S, 1991.</ref><ref>Kivirikko KI, Myllyla R: Post-translational processing of procollagens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 460: 187–201, 1985.</ref>. Ieu réaksi nambahkeun [[Hidroksida|gugus hidroksil]] kana asam amino [[prolin]] atawa [[lisin]] dina molekul molekul (ngaliwatan [[hidroksilaseu prolil]] jeung [[hidroksilaseu lisil]]), antukna molekul kolagénna bisa ngabentuk wangun tripel héliks; ku kituna vitamin C jadi éséntial pikeun kamekarkeun jeung mulasara [[jaringan tatu]], [[saluran getih]], jeung kartilage<ref>McGee, William, M.D., M.H.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine and Surgery, Tufts University School of Medicine; [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Ascorbic acid]</ref>. * Dua énzim pikeun sintésis [[karnitin]]<ref>Rebouche CJ: Ascorbic acid and carnitine biosynthesis. Am J Clin Nutr 54:1147S–1152S, 1991.</ref><ref>Dunn WA, Rettura G, Seifter E, Englard S. Carnitine biosynthesis from gamma-butyrobetaine and from exogenous protein-bound 6-N-trimethyl-L-lysine by the perfused guinea pig liver. Effect of ascorbate deficiency on the in situ activity of gammabutyrobetaine hydroxylase. J Biol Chem 259:10764–10770, 1984.</ref>. Karnitin penting dina ngakut [[asam lemak]] ka [[mitokondria]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Adenosin trifosfat|ATP]]. * Anu tilu sésana nyaéta ** [[hidroksilaseu béta dopamin]] dina biosintésis [[norépinéfrin]] tina [[dopamin]]<ref>Levine M, Dhariwal KR, Washko P, Welch R, Wang YH, Cantilena CC, Yu R: Ascorbic acid and reaction kinetics in situ: a new approach to vitamin requirements. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) Spec No:169–172, 1992.</ref><ref>Kaufman S: Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. J Psychiatr Res 11: 303–316, 1974.</ref>. ** énzim nu nambahkeun gugus [[amida]] ka [[hormon péptida]], antukna leuwih stabil<ref>Eipper BA, Milgram SL, Husten EJ, Yun HY, Mains RE: Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase: a multifunctional protein with catalytic, processing, and routing domains. Protein Sci 2:489–497, 1993.</ref><ref>Eipper BA, Stoffers DA, Mains RE: The biosynthesis of neuropeptides: peptide alpha-amidation. Annu Rev Neurosci 15:57–85, 1992.</ref>. ** énzim nu ngamodulasi métabolismeu [[tirosin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Englard S, Seifter S |title=The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_1986_6/page/365 |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=6 |issue= |pages=365-406 |year=1986 |pmid=3015170 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.002053}}</ref><ref>Lindblad B, Lindstedt G, Lindstedt S: The mechanism of enzymic formation of homogentisate from p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. J Am Chem Soc 92:7446–7449, 1970.</ref>. [[Jaringan biologis]] anu ngagundukkeun vitamin C leuwih ti 100 kali kadarna dina plasma getih nyaéta [[kelenjar adrénal]], [[pituitari]], [[timus]], [[corpus luteum]], jeung [[rétina]]<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v8/n5/full/nm0502-445.html New view at C] Matthias A. Hediger , ''Nature Medicine'' 8, 445 - 446 (2002) doi:10.1038/nm0502-445 <blockquote>"''Plasma vitamin C concentrations are maintained between 10 and 160 μM, and any excess of the vitamin is excreted by the kidney. In contrast, the vitamin is concentrated to at least 100 times the plasma level in specific tissues such as the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thymus, retina, corpus luteum, and a variety of neuronal cell types.''"</blockquote></ref>. Nu ngagundukkeun antara 10 n.k. 50 kalina nyaéta [[otak]], [[limpa]], [[bayah]], [[téstis]], [[kelenjar limfe]], [[ati]], [[tiroid]], [[mémbran mukosa|mukosa]] [[usus leutik]], [[leukosit]], [[pangkréas]], [[ginjal]], jeung [[kelenjar ciduh]].<!-- === Biosynthesis === [[Image:Ascorbic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|200px|left|Model of a vitamin C [[molecule]]. Black is [[carbon]], red is [[oxygen]], and white is [[hydrogen]]]] The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four [[enzyme]]-driven steps, which convert [[glucose]] to vitamin C.<ref name="UKFSA Risk" /> The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in [[mammals]] and [[perching birds]]) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bánhegyi G, Mándl J |title=The hepatic glycogenoreticular system |journal=Pathol Oncol Res |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=107-10 |year=2001 |pmid=11458272}}</ref> In [[reptiles]] and [[birds]] the biosynthesis is carried out in the [[kidney]]s. Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are [[simian]]s, [[guinea pig]]s, the [[red-vented bulbul]],and [[Megabat|fruit-eating bats]].<ref name=" UKFSA Risk"/> Most notably, humans have no capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, [[Pseudogene]] ΨGULO, is defective.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ascorbic Acid: Subcellular Biochemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/subcellularbioch0025unse | author = Harris, J. Robin | publisher = Springer | isbn = 0306451484 | year = 1996 | pages = p. 35}}</ref> The [[mutation]] has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources, with many of these species' natural diets consisting largely of fruit. Most [[simian]]s consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.<ref>Milton, K. (1999) "Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us?" Nutrition. 1999 Jun;15(6):488-98.</ref> This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances (see [[Vitamin C#Evolutionary_rationales|Vitamin C as a macronutrient - Evolutionary rationales]]). It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down [[uric acid]]. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong [[reducing agent]]s. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Proctor P |title=Similar functions of uric acid and ascorbate in man? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1970-11-28_228_5274/page/868 |journal=Nature |volume=228 |issue=5274 |pages=868 |year=1970 |pmid=5477017|doi=10.1038/228868a0}}</ref> Ascorbic acid can be [[oxidised]] (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme [[ascorbic acid oxidase]]. An adult [[goat]], a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/197x/stone-i-orthomol_psych-1979-v8-n2-p58.htm |title=Eight Decades of Scurvy. The Case History of a Misleading Dietary Hypothesis |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last=Stone |first=Irwin |authorlink=Irwin Stone |coauthors= |date=July 16, 1978 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=''Biochemical research in the 1950’s showed that the lesion in scurvy is the absence of the enzyme, L-Gulonolactone oxidase (GLO) in the human liver (Burns, 1959). This enzyme is the last enzyme in a series of four which converts blood sugar, glucose, into ascorbate in the mammalian liver. This liver metabolite, ascorbate, is produced in an unstressed goat for instance, at the rate of about 13,000 mg per day per 150 pounds body weight (Chatterjee, 1973). A mammalian feedback mechanism increases this daily ascorbate production many fold under stress (Subramanian et al., 1973)}}</ref> Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to also use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.<ref>{{cite journal| author = C. Long, et al. | title = Ascorbic acid dynamics in the seriously ill and injured. | journal = Journal of Surgical Research | volume = 109 | issue = 2 | pages= 144–148| doi = 10.1016/S0022-4804(02)00083-5 }} <blockquote>"''Our results show that plasma ascorbic acid levels following trauma and during infection are extremely low and are not normalized with 300 or even 1000 mg/day supplemented TPN.''"</blockquote></ref> Some [[microorganism]]s such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]].<ref name="yeastAA">{{cite web |url=http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/publications/annualreports/02Indiv/20Ascorb.pdf |title=Ascorbic acid biosynthesis in higher plants and micro-organisms |accessdate=2007-02-20||author=R.D. Hancock & R. Viola |publisher=Scottish Crop Research Institute}} <blockquote>"''Our results demonstrate that yeast cells are capable of direct fermentation of <small>L</small>-galactose to <small>L</small>-AA. However, given that <small>L</small>-galactose is an extremely rare and expensive sugar a process using <small>L</small>-galactose as a starting material could never be economical. In order to overcome this problem, we are currently developing new yeast strains with extended metabolic competence for the synthesis of <small>L</small>-galactose directly from inexpensive substrates.''"</blockquote> </ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=|title=Biosynthesis of <small>L</small>-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae |accessdate=2007-02-19 |journal=FEMS Microbiol Lett.|volume=186|issue=2|pages=245-50|author=Hancock RD, Galpin JR, Viola R.|pmid=10802179}}</ref> === Deficiency === [[Scurvy]] is an [[avitaminosis]] resulting from lack of vitamin C, as without this vitamin, the synthesised [[collagen]] is too unstable to meet its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all [[mucous membrane]]s. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, [[suppuration|suppurating wounds]] and loss of [[teeth]] and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-09 |date=[[2007-01-02]] |first=William |last =McGee |publisher=National Institutes of Health }}</ref> and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. === Discovery of ascorbic acid === [[Image:GyorgyiNIH.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for the discovery of vitamin C]] In 1912, the [[Polish-American]] biochemist [[Casimir Funk]], while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of [[vitamins]] to refer to the nutrients which are essential to health. Then, from 1928 to 1933, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] research team of [[Joseph L Svirbely]] and [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] and, independently, the [[United States|American]] [[Charles Glen King]], first isolated vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid. For this, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pitt.edu/history/1932.html |title=Pitt History - 1932: Charles Glen King |accessdate=2007-02-21 |quote=In recognition of this medical breakthrough, some scientists believe that King deserved a Nobel Prize. |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh]] }}</ref> In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] attempted to prove his theory of how the [[Eskimo]]s are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir [[Walter Norman Haworth]] and Sir [[Edmund Hirst]] and, independently, the Polish chemist [[Tadeus Reichstein]], succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for this work, but the process for vitamin C retained Reichstein's name. In 1934 [[Hoffmann–La Roche]] became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of [[Redoxon]]. In 1957 the American [[J.J. Burns]] showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their [[liver]] to produce the active [[enzyme]] [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.<ref>Burns, J. J., and Evans, C., J. Biol. Chem., 200, 125 (1953).</ref><ref>Burns, J. J., Peyser, P., and Maltz, A., Science, 124, 1148 (1956).</ref> American biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the <small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. == Daily requirements == The [[North America]]n [[Dietary Reference Intake]] recommends 90 [[orders of magnitude (mass)|milligram]]s per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).<ref name="US RDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/296/webtablevitamins.pdf |title=US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date= |author= |publisher= }}</ref> Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.<ref name="Primates"/><ref name="paulingevolution"/> There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.<ref name="PR Newswire">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/07-06-2004/0002204911 |title=Linus Pauling Vindicated; Researchers Claim RDA For Vitamin C is Flawed |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[6 July]], [[2004]] |publisher=PR Newswire }}</ref> It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.<ref name="US RDA" /> High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in [[diarrhea]]. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically [[orthomolecular medicine]])<ref name="Cathcart">{{cite web |url=http://www.orthomed.com/titrate.htm |title=Vitamin C, Titrating To Bowel Tolerance, [[Anascorbemia]], and Acute Induced Scurvy |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=1994 |first=Robert |last= Cathcart |authorlink=Robert Cathcart |publisher=Orthomed }}</ref> claim the onset of [[diarrhea]] to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. Both Cathcart<ref name="Cathcart"/> and Cameron have hypothesized that very [[sick]] [[patients]] with [[cancer]] or [[influenza]] do not display any evidence of [[diarrhea]] at all until ascorbate intake reaches levels as high as 200 [[grams]] (nearly half a pound). == Vitamin C as a macronutrient == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C, promoting a great deal of added benefits. Drawing on a wide, <ref name="seanet">[http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ Ascorbate web] An historical compendium of 20th-Century medical & scientific literature attesting to the efficacy of Ascorbate</ref> but still inconclusive, body of evidence as to the benefits beyond those dosages recommended in the Dietary Reference Intakes, many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current [[Dietary Reference Intake]]. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, [[Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron]], [[Steve Hickey]], [[Irwin Stone]] and the twice [[Nobel Prize]] laureate [[Linus Pauling]] and the more controversial [[Matthias Rath]]. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.<ref name="PR Newswire"/><ref>{{cite journal |author = Forman, Robert |year=1981 |title=Medical Resistance To Innovation |journal=Medical Hypotheses |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=1009-1017 |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/198x/forman-r-med_hypotheses-1981-v7-n8-p1009.htm |accessdate=2007-02-23 }}</ref> The [[biological halflife]] for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. == Therapeutic uses == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} Since its discovery vitamin C has been considered by some enthusiastic proponents a "[[panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]", although this led to suspicions by others of it being over-hyped.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/kansa/vk/hemila/dovitami.pdf |title=Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=January 2006 |author=Hemilä, Harri |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] | format = PDF}}</ref> Other proponents of high dose vitamin C consider that if it is given "in the right form, with the proper technique, in frequent enough doses, in high enough doses, along with certain additional agents and for a long enough period of time,"<ref>{{cite book | last = Levy | first= Thomas E. | authorlink = Thomas E. Levy | title = Curing the Incurable: Vitamin C, Infectious Diseases, and Toxins | url = https://archive.org/details/curingincurablev0000levy_z9x7 | edition = | publisher = Livon Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 1-4010-6963-0 | pages = p. 36}}</ref> it can prevent and, in many cases, cure, a wide range of common and/or lethal diseases, notably the [[common cold]] and [[heart disease]],<ref>Rath MW, Pauling LC. {{US patent|5278189}} Prevention and treatment of occlusive cardiovascular disease with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein(a). USPTO. 11 Jan 1994.</ref> although the NIH considers there to be "fair scientific evidence against this use."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | work = MedLine Plus | publisher = National Institute of Health | date = [[2006-08-01]] | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitaminc.html | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }}</ref> Some proponents issued controversial statements involving it being a cure for [[AIDS]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200605220885.html |title=Nigeria: Vitamin C Can Suppress HIV/Aids Virus |accessdate=2006-06-16 |date=[[2006-05-22]] |author= |publisher=allAfrica.com }}</ref> [[H5N1|bird flu]], and [[SARS]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemilä H |title=Vitamin C and SARS coronavirus |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1049-50 |year=2003 |pmid=14613951 |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/52/6/1049}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/aids/story/0,7369,1483821,00.html |title=Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa | accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=[[2005-05-14]] |author= Boseley, Sarah | publisher = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/THE_FOUNDATION/openletter_20060407.htm |title=Open letter from Dr. Matthias Rath MD to German Chancellor Merkel |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=2005 |author=Rath, Matthias |publisher=Dr. Rath Health Foundation }}</ref> Probably the most controversial issue, the putative role of ascorbate in the management of AIDS, is still unresolved, more than 16 years after the landmark study published in the [[Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences]] (USA) showing that non toxic doses of ascorbate suppress [[HIV]] replication ''in vitro''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R, Pauling L |title=Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=87 |issue=18 |pages=7245-9 |year=1990 |pmid=1698293}}</ref> Other studies expanded on those results, but still, no large scale trials have yet been conducted.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Comparative study of the anti-HIV activities of ascorbate and thiol-containing reducing agents in chronically HIV-infected cells |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume=54 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1231S-1235S |year=1991 |pmid=1720598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=NF-kappa B-independent suppression of HIV expression by ascorbic acid |journal=AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=235-9 |year=1997 |pmid=9115810}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Ascorbate effect on cytokine stimulation of HIV production |journal=Nutrition |volume=11 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=684-7 |year= |pmid=8748252}}</ref> In an animal model of lead intoxication, vitamin C demonstrated "protective effects" on lead-induced nerve and muscle abnormalities<ref name="pmid12818354">{{cite journal |author=Hasan MY, Alshuaib WB, Singh S, Fahim MA |title=Effects of ascorbic acid on lead induced alterations of synaptic transmission and contractile features in murine dorsiflexor muscle |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_life-sciences_2003-07-11_73_8/page/1017 |journal=Life Sci. |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=1017-25 |year=2003 |pmid=12818354 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> In smokers, blood lead levels declined by an average of 81% when supplemented with 1000 mg of vitamin C, while 200 mg were ineffective, suggesting that vitamin C [[Dietary supplement|supplement]]s may be an "economical and convenient" approach to reduce lead levels in the blood.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dawson E, Evans D, Harris W, Teter M, McGanity W |title=The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=166-70 |year=1999 |pmid=10204833}}</ref> The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] published a study which concluded, based on an analysis of blood lead levels in the subjects of the Third ''National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey'', that the independent, inverse relationship between lead levels and vitamin C in the blood, if causal, would "have public health implications for control of lead toxicity".<ref name="pmid10386552">{{cite journal |author=Simon JA, Hudes ES |title=Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels |journal=JAMA |volume=281 |issue=24 |pages=2289-93 |year=1999 |pmid=10386552 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> Vitamin C has limited popularity as a treatment for [[autism spectrum]] symptoms. A 1993 study of 18 children with ASD found some symptoms reduced after treatment with vitamin C,<ref name="pmid8255984">{{cite journal |author=Dolske MC, Spollen J, McKay S, Lancashire E, Tolbert L |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> but these results have not been replicated.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year= 2005 |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |pages= 131–42 |title= Novel treatments for autistic spectrum disorders |author= Levy SE, Hyman SL |doi= 10.1002/mrdd.20062 |pmid= 15977319}}</ref> Small clinical trials have found that vitamin C might improve the [[sperm count]], sperm motility, and sperm morphology in infertile men<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akmal M, Qadri J, Al-Waili N, Thangal S, Haq A, Saloom K |title=Improvement in human semen quality after oral supplementation of vitamin C |journal=J Med Food |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=440-2 |year=2006 |pmid=17004914}}</ref>, or improve immune function related to the prevention and treatment of [[Senescence-associated diseases|age-associated diseases]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=de la Fuente M, Ferrández M, Burgos M, Soler A, Prieto A, Miquel J |title=Immune function in aged women is improved by ingestion of vitamins C and E |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-physiology-and-pharmacology_1998-04_76_4/page/373 |journal=Can J Physiol Pharmacol |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=373-80 |year=1998 |pmid=9795745}}</ref> However, to date, no large clinical trials have verified these findings. A preliminary study published in the Annals of Surgery found that the early administration of antioxidant supplementation using α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid reduces the incidence of organ failure and shortens ICU length of stay in this cohort of critically ill surgical patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nathens A, Neff M, Jurkovich G, Klotz P, Farver K, Ruzinski J, Radella F, Garcia I, Maier R |title=Randomized, prospective trial of antioxidant supplementation in critically ill surgical patients |journal=Ann Surg |volume=236 |issue=6 |pages=814-22 |year=2002 |pmid=12454520 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1422648}}</ref> More research on this topic is pending. Dehydroascorbic acid, the main form of oxidized Vitamin C in the body, was shown to reduce neurological deficits and mortality following [[stroke]], due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, while "the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) or vitamin C does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier".<ref name="ascorBBB"> {{cite journal |author=Huang J, Agus DB, Winfree CJ, Kiss S, Mack WJ, McTaggart RA, Choudhri TF, Kim LJ, Mocco J, Pinsky DJ, Fox WD, Israel RJ, Boyd TA, Golde DW, Connolly ES Jr. |title=Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/20/11720 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=20 |pages=11720-11724 |year=2001 |pmid=11573006}}</ref> In this study published by the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in 2001, the authors concluded that such "a pharmacological strategy to increase cerebral levels of ascorbate in stroke has tremendous potential to represent the timely translation of basic research into a relevant therapy for thromboembolic stroke in humans". No such "relevant therapies" are available yet and no clinical trials have been planned. In January 2007 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved a Phase I toxicity trial to determine the safe dosage of intravenous vitamin C as a possible cancer treatment for "patients who have exhausted all other conventional treatment options."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87833644.html |title=FDA OKs vitamin C trial for cancer |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=January 12, 2007 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=[[Physorg.com]] |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=Federal approval of a clinical trial on intravenous vitamin C as a cancer treatment lends credence to alternative cancer care, U.S. researchers said.}}</ref> Additional studies over several years would be needed to demonstrate whether it is effective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00441207?order=1 |title=Study of High-Dose Intravenous (IV) Vitamin C Treatment in Patients With Solid Tumors |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=The primary purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and tolerability of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) given by injection into the vein. The second and third purpose of conducting this study is to observe any evidence of tumor response to the vitamin C and compare the level of fatigue (weakness), pain control, ability to do things, and quality of life, before and after vitamin C is given. (Phase I)|}}</ref> In February 2007, an uncontrolled study of 39 terminal cancer patients showed that, on subjective questionnaires, patients reported an improvement in health, cancer symptoms, and daily function after administration of high-dose intravenous vitamin C.<ref name="pmid17297243">{{cite journal |author=Yeom CH, Jung GC, Song KJ |title=Changes of terminal cancer patients' health-related quality of life after high dose vitamin C administration |journal=J. Korean Med. Sci. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=7-11 |year=2007 |pmid=17297243 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> The authors concluded that "''Although there is still controversy regarding anticancer effects of vitamin C, the use of vitamin C is considered a safe and effective therapy to improve the quality of life of terminal cancer patients''". == Adverse effects == While being harmless in most typical quantities, as with all substances to which the human body is exposed, vitamin C can still cause harm under certain conditions. === Common side-effects === Relatively large doses of vitamin C may cause [[indigestion]], particularly when taken on an empty stomach. When taken in large doses, vitamin C causes [[diarrhea]]. In one trial, doses up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je20.htm |title=Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents |accessdate=2007-04-13 |date=4 July 1973 |author= |publisher=World Health Organization }}</ref> === Possible side-effects === As vitamin C enhances iron absorption<ref name="pmid12450906">{{cite journal | author = Fleming DJ, Tucker KL, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Wilson PW, Wood RJ | title = Dietary factors associated with the risk of high iron stores in the elderly Framingham Heart Study cohort | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 76 | issue = 6 | pages = 1375-84 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12450906 | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/6/1375?ijkey=6566b8c0d5c56a4d01b961794eb78aff12b1c135&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha}}</ref>, [[iron poisoning]] can become an issue to people with rare [[iron overload disorder]]s, such as [[haemochromatosis]]. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme [[glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] (G6PD), can cause sufferers to develop [[hemolytic anemia]] after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.<ref name="pmid11124756">{{cite journal | author = Cook JD, Reddy MB | title = Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2001-01_73_1/page/93 | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 93-8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11124756 | url http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/1/93?ijkey=eecc6c6024033b1dedbf32dd717cc5e08fd61f93&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha= }}</ref> For decades, large doses of vitamin C have been speculated to trigger [[oxalate]] formation and increase absorption of dietary oxalate, possibly causing [[kidney stone]]s.<ref name="pmid15987848">{{cite journal | author = Massey LK, Liebman M, Kynast-Gales SA | title = Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2005-07_135_7/page/1673 | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 135 | issue = 7 | pages = 1673-7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15987848 | doi = }}</ref> However, this speculation may not be justified since there is no clear relationship between excess [[ascorbic acid]] intake and [[kidney stone]] formation. <ref name="pmid14498993">{{cite journal | author = Naidu KA | title = Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 2 | issue 7 | year = 2003 | pages = | pmid = 14498993 | doi = }}</ref> During the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of [[progesterone]] from the [[corpus luteum]].<ref name="pmid4467736">{{cite journal | author = Ovcharov R, Todorov S | title = [The effect of vitamin C on the estrus cycle and embryogenesis of rats] | language = Bulgarian | journal = Akusherstvo i ginekologii͡a | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 191-5 | year = 1974 | pmid = 4467736 | doi = }}</ref> Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) is theorized to induce an early miscarriage. In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors point out that this relationship may not necessarily be a causal one.<ref name="pmid988001">{{cite journal | author = Vobecky JS, Vobecky J, Shapcott D, Cloutier D, Lafond R, Blanchard R | title = Vitamins C and E in spontaneous abortion | journal = International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift für Vitamin- und Ernährungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 291-6 | year = 1976 | pmid = 988001 | doi = }}</ref> === Chance of overdose === As discussed previously, vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]] (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram when taken orally.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html |title=Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid |accessdate= 2007-02-21 |date= [[2005-10-09]] | publisher= [[Oxford University]] }}</ref> The LD<sub>50</sub> in humans remains unknown, owing to [[medical ethics]] that preclude experiments which would put patients at risk of harm. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the LD<sub>50</sub> is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans and no data to contradict this has been found. == Natural and artificial dietary sources == [[Image:Rosa canina hips.jpg|right|thumb|[[Rose hips]] are a particularly rich source of vitamin C]] The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the [[camu camu]] fruit and the [[Kakadu plum]] contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken [[nutritional supplement]] and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals. Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson JX |title=Regulation of vitamin C transport |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=25 |issue= |pages=105-25 |year=2005 |pmid=16011461 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092647}}</ref> === Plant sources === While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on: the precise variety of the plant, the soil condition, the climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked, the storage conditions, and the method of preparation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uk.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Nutrition/Vitamin_mineral_content_is_stable/forside.htm |title=The vitamin and mineral content is stable |accessdate=2007-03-07 |publisher=Danish Veterinary and Food Administration }}</ref> === Animal sources === [[Image:Goat.jpg|thumb|300px|Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.]] The overwhelming majority of species of animals and plants synthesise their own vitamin C, making some, but not all, animal products, sources of dietary vitamin C. Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in [[Breastfeeding#Benefits|mother's milk]] and, in lower amounts, in [[Milk#Nutritional benefits|raw cow's milk]], with [[pasteurized milk]] containing only trace amounts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saanendoah.com/compare.html |title= Comparing Milk: Human, Cow, Goat & Commercial Infant Formula |accessdate=2007-02-28 |date=8 January 2007 |first=Stephanie, Ph. D | last= Clark |publisher=[[Washington State University]] }}</ref> All excess Vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system. === Food preparation === Vitamin C [[chemical decomposition|chemically decomposes]] under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Normally, boiling water at 100°C is not hot enough to cause any significant destruction of the nutrient, which only decomposes at 190°C, <ref name="Oxford"/> despite popular opinion. However, [[pressure cooking]], roasting, frying and [[grilling]] food is more likely to reach the [[decomposition temperature]] of vitamin C. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which [[catalyse]] the decomposition.<ref name="Oxford"/> Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is [[leaching]], where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C doesn't leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows [[broccoli]] seems to retain more than any other.<ref name=Combs>Combs GF. The Vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001:245–272</ref> Research has also shown that fresh-cut fruit don't lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/123/115022.htm |title=Fresh-Cut Fruit May Keep Its Vitamins |accessdate=2007-02-25 |date=2 June 2006 |first=Miranda |last=Hitti |publisher=WebMD }}</ref> === Vitamin C supplements === [[Image:RedoxonVitaminC.jpg|thumb|right|Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The [[Redoxon]] brand, launched in 1934 by [[Hoffmann-La Roche]], was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin C.]] Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.<ref> [http://www.thedietchannel.com/Vitamin-C.htm The Diet Channel] Vitamin C might be the most widely known and most popular vitamin purchased as a supplement.</ref> It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing [[bioflavonoids]] such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). === Artificial modes of synthesis === Vitamin C is produced from [[glucose]] by two main routes. The [[Tadeusz Reichstein|Reichstein process]], developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] process, originally developed in [[China]] in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/2001/fulltext/456a4.2.pdf |title=The production of vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=2001 |publisher=Competition Commission }}</ref> Research is underway at the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]] in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesise vitamin C in a single fermentation step from [[galactose]], a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.<ref name="yeastAA" /> World production of synthesised vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. Main producers today are [[BASF]]/[[Takeda Chemical Industries|Takeda]], [[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[Merck KGaA|Merck]] and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the [[People's Republic of China]]. China is slowly becoming the major world supplier as its prices undercut those of the US and European manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?n=63349-dsm-vitamin-c |title=DSM makes last stand against Chinese vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[2005-10-20]] |first=Dominique |last=Patton |publisher=nutraingredients }}</ref> --> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Vitamin C|Vitamin C]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris (5 Dés. 2007). {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == ;Jurnal * {{cite journal |author=Dolske, M.C., et al. |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi=}} * {{cite journal |author=Green VA, Pituch KA, Itchon J, Choi A, O'Reilly M, Sigafoos J |title=Internet survey of treatments used by parents of children with autism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-developmental-disabilities_january-february-2006_27_1/page/70 |journal=Research in developmental disabilities |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=70-84 |year=2006 |pmid=15919178 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.002}} ;Pustaka *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C and the Common Cold |year=1970 |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Company |location= |isbn=071670160X}} *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu'' |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminccommonco0000paul |year=1976 |publisher=W H Freeman & Co |location= |isbn=0716703610}} *{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |authorlink=Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron |coauthors=[[Linus Pauling]], |title=Cancer and Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/cancervitaminc00came |year=1979|publisher=Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine|location= |isbn=0393500004}} *{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Saul |authorlink=Saul Kent |coauthors= |title=Life Extension Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeextensionrev00kent |year=1980 |publisher=Morrow |location= |isbn= }} *{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Durk |authorlink=Durk Pearson|coauthors=Sandy Shaw|title=[[Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach]] |year=1982 |publisher=Warner Books |location= |isbn=0446387355 }} see Part IV, Chapter 7: Vitamin C *{{cite book |last=Pelton |first=Ross |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mind Food and Smart Pills: How to Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging |url=https://archive.org/details/mindfoodsmartpil0000pelt |year=1986 |publisher=T & R Pub |location= |isbn=0936809000 }} see Chapter 3: Vitamin C, The Champion Free Radical Scavenger *{{cite book |last=Clemetson |first=C.A.B |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminc0001clem |year=1989 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-4841-2 }} Monograph - Volumes I, II, III. *{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Thomas E. |authorlink=Thomas E. Levy |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C Infectious Diseases, & Toxins |year=2002 |publisher=Xlibris |location= |isbn=1401069630}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ AscorbateWeb] — a collection of twentieth century medical & scientific literature on vitamin C in the tréatment and prevention of human diséase at séanet.com * [http://autism.healingthresholds.com/therapy/vitamin-c Healing Thresholds — Research on Vitamin C in the treatment of autism.] at héalingthresholds.com * {{US patent|5278189}} — "Prevention and treatment of occlusive [[cardiovascular disease]] with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein (a)", Inventors: Matthias W. Rath and Linus C. Pauling * [http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ vitamin C] at [[Food Standards Agency|United Kingdom Food Standards Agency]] * {{cite journal |author=Naidu KA |title=Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview |journal=Nutrition journal |volume=2 |issue= |pages=7 |year=2003 |pmid=14498993 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-2-7 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/2/1/7}} * [http://www.acu-cell.com/vitc.html Vitamin C Requirements: Optimal Health Benefits vs Overdose] — a moderate dose advocacy site * [http://www.doctoryourself.com/vitciv.html For Doctors: Preparation of Vitamin C IV's] — by Andrew W. Saul, PhD. at doctoryourself.com * [http://www.orthomed.com/bird.htm Information regarding treatment of the Bird Flu with massive doses of ascorbate.] — by Robert Cathcart, M.D. at orthomed.com {{Vitamin}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] [[Kategori:Asam organik]] [[Kategori:Vitamin]] [[Kategori:Koénzim]] oy814q8j62hud9gn6xq3znykh9vgfxx Diabétes mélitus 0 26422 712330 711813 2026-08-28T20:56:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_Disease | Name = Diabétes méllitus | Image = Blue circle for diabetes.svg | Caption = Lambang buleudan bulao [[Perserikatan Bangsa-bangsa|PBB]] pikeun diabétes.<ref>{{cite web |title=IDF Chooses Blue Circle to Represent UN Resolution Campaign |url=http://www.unitefordiabetes.org/news/campaign/idf_chooses_blue_circle_to_represent_un_resolution_campaign/index.html |date=17 March 2006 |publisher=Unite for Diabetes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926030232/http://www.unitefordiabetes.org/news/campaign/idf_chooses_blue_circle_to_represent_un_resolution_campaign/index.html |date=26 September 2008 }}</ref> | ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|10||e|10}}–{{ICD10|E|14||e|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|250}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 001214 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 546 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|134}} | MeshName = Diabetes | MeshNumber = C18.452.394.750 }} '''Diabétes mélitus''' ('''''diabetes mellitus'''''; {{IPAEng|ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz}} at. {{IPA|/ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/}}, {{IPA|/məˈlaɪtəs/}} at. {{IPA|/ˈmɛlətəs/}}), atawa 'nénéh'na '''diabétes''', '''diabét''', '''DM''', atawa ceuk urang mah '''kencing manis''' atawa '''kasakit gula''', hartina [[sindrom]] anu cirina mangrupa gangguan [[métabolismeu]] jeung luhurna kadar [[gula getih]] ([[hiperglikemia]]) alatan kurangna [[hormon]] [[insulin]] atawa [[résistansi insulin]] anu dibarung ku kurangna sékrési insulin<ref name="diag">{{cite book | last = L M Tierney, S J McPhee | first = M A Papadakis | title = Current medical Diagnosis & Treatment. International edition | publisher = Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill | date = 2002 | pages = 1203-1215 | location = New York | isbn = 0-07-137688-7 }}</ref>. Gejala nu utamana nyaéta loba kiih ([[poliuria]]), hanaang waé sarta cacai nu asup kaleuleuwihi ([[polidipsia]]), jeung tetempoan rarang-rorong kurang atra. Mun teu pati parna, gejala-gejala kitu téh bisa waé teu karasa ku nu ngalamanana. [[World Health Organization|WHO]] nyebutkeun tilu wangun diabétes: ''[[diabétes mélitus tipeu 1]]'', ''[[diabétes mélitus tipe 2|tipeu 2]]'', jeung ''[[diabétes reuneuh]]'' (narajang ukur nalika [[reuneuh|kakandungan]])<ref name ="WHO1999-DefDiagClass">{{cite web | author=[[World Health Organisation]] Department of Noncommunicable Disease Surveillance | title=Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications | year=1999 | url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf | format=PDF }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030308005119/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1999/WHO_NCD_NCS_99.2.pdf |date=2003-03-08 }}</ref>, balukarna tina rupa-rupa faktor jeung béda-béda sebaranana dina unggal populasi. Najan ieu kasakit téh alatan gagalna [[sél béta]] dina [[pangkréas]] ngahasilkeun insulin nu cukup pikeun ngahalangan hiperglikemia, tapi anu jadi sababna mah béda-béda<ref name=Rother>{{cite journal |last=Rother |first=KI |year=2007 |title=Diabetes Treatment — Bridging the Divide |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=356 |issue=15 |pages=1499-1501 |id= |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/356/15/1499 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903054037/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/356/15/1499 |date=2009-09-03 }}</ref>. Diabétes tipeu 1 biasana alatan karuksakan sél béta [[kasakit otoimun|otoimun]]. Diabétes tipeu 2 dicirikeun ku résistansi insulin dina jaringan tujul, antukna insulin nu dipikabutuh kadarna kudu leuwih luhur anu teu bisa kahontal ku sél béta. Diabétes anu keuna ka nu keur kakandungan sarupa jeung tipeu 2, alatan ayana hormon-hormon dina mangsa kakandungan (pikeun wanoja-wanoja anu sacara génétik gampang kakeunaan) anu ngabalukarkeun résistansi insulin. == Tanda & gejala == [[File:Main symptoms of diabetes.png|thumb|300px|Gejala umum diabétes]] Gejala umum diabétes anu teu ditambaan nyaéta awak ngabegangan, [[poliuria]] (kerep kiih), [[polidipsia]] (gampang hanaang), jeung [[polifagia]] (gampang lapar).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cooke DW, Plotnick L | title = Type 1 diabetes mellitus in pediatrics | journal = Pediatr Rev | volume = 29 | issue = 11 | pages = 374–84; quiz 385 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18977856 | doi = 10.1542/pir.29-11-374 }}</ref> Pikeun DM tipeu 1, gejala-gejalana bisa katangén pisan dina jangka waktu sababaraha minggu. Anapon dina DM tipeu 2, gejala-gejalana lila pisan atawa bisa jadi teu katémbong karasa ku nu ngalamanana. == Tipe == Panyakit diabétes melitus kabagi jadi dua, nyaéta tipe 1 jeung tipe 2. Diabetes tipe 1 mangrupa panyakit kawedelan awak, waktu antibodi hiji jalma ngaruksak [[Sél (biologi)|sél]]-sél [[Pankreas|pankréas]] anu ngahasilkeun [[insulin]] dina awak jalma. Jalma anu keuna ku panyakit diabetes tipe 1 awakna rada begang, henteu ngahasilkeun insulin, jeung merlukeun suntikan insulin sababaraha kali dina waktu sapoé. Loba di antarana pasién anu kakeunaan alatan ku turunan [[Génétika|gén]] anu tangtu bakal méré kode unsur-unsur dina sistem imun. Sabalikna, diabetes tipe 2 ngalibetkeun ngaronjatna résistansi sél-sél awak kana insulin anu dihasilkeun ku awak sorangan, nepi ka sél-sél gagal nyandak [[glukosa]] dina laju normal. Salila pankreas tiasa ngaréspon ku ngaleupaskeun leuwih loba insulin, résistansi sél-sél ieu bisa diungkulan nepi gula [[getih]] tetep dina wates anu normal. Tapi pamustunganana pankréas bakal kacapéan, nu ngabalukarkeun moal bisa deui ngahasilkeun hormon insulin anu cukup, jadi kadar glukosa naék nu ngabalukarkeun pasién kaserang diabetes. Pasien diabetes tipe 2 biasana deukeut kana obesitas dina awakna.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The World Until Yesterday|last=Diamond|first=Jared|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2017|isbn=9786024241926|pages=538}}</ref> == Patofisiologi == [[File:Glucose-insulin-release.svg|thumb|Mékanismeu sékrési insulin dina sél béta pangkréas normal - produksi insulin kurang leuwih matuh dina sél béta. Leupasna dirangsang ku asupna kadaharan, utamana kadaharan anu ngandung [[glukosa]] anu bisa diserep.]] [[Insulin]] téh hormon utama anu ngatur diserepna [[glukosa]] tina getih kana sél-sél anu aya dina jero awak, utamana [[ati (organ)|haté]], [[otot]], jeung [[jaringan adiposa]]. Ku kituna, kakurangan insulin atawa insénsitivitas [[reséptor (biokimia)|reseptor]]na boga peran penting dina sakabéh bentuk DM.<ref>{{cite web|title=Insulin Basics|url=http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/medication/insulin/insulin-basics.html|publisher=American Diabetes Association|accessdate=24 April 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214180514/http://www.diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-and-care/medication/insulin/insulin-basics.html |date=14 February 2014 }}</ref> Awak urang narima glukosa tina tilu sumber utama nyaéta peujit tina hasil nyerna kadaharan, [[glikogén]] dina ati, jeung [[glukonéogenesis]].<ref name="GreenspanEndo">{{cite book|last=Shoback|first=edited by David G. Gardner, Dolores|title=Greenspan's basic & clinical endocrinology|url=https://archive.org/details/greenspansbasicc0000unse|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=9780071622431|edition=9th ed.}}</ref> Insulin penting pikeun ngatur kasaimbangan kadar glukosa dina jero awak. Insulin bisa ngahalangan dibongkarna glukosa tina glikogén jeung glukonéogenesis, ngarangsang diakutna glukosa kana sél lemak jeung otot, sarta ngarangsang direundeunna glukosa dina wangun [[glikogén]].<ref name="GreenspanEndo" /> [[Insulin]] dileupaskeun kana sirkulasi getih ku [[sél béta]] (sél-β) anu aya dina [[islét Langerhans]] dina pangkréas salaku réspons kana naékna kadar glukosa dina sirkulasi, nyaéta sanggeus urang barang tuang. Insulin dipaké ku k.l. dua per tilu sél awak pikeun nyerep glukosa tina sirkulasi keur kawangunna énérgi, konversi jadi molekul anu dipikabutuh, atawa pikeun cadangan tanaga awak. Lamun kadar glukosa dina sirkulasi turun, kadar insulin anu dileupaskeun ku sél-β ogé nuturkeun turun. Ieu prosés diatur ku [[glukagon]], hormon anu fungsina sabalikna tina insulin.<ref name=GanongsPhys>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=Kim E. Barrett, ... [et|title=Ganong's review of medical physiology.|url=https://archive.org/details/ganongsreviewofm0000unse|date=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=0071780033|edition=24th ed.}}</ref> ==Tamba== DM kaasup [[panyakit kronis]] anu can kapanggih ubarna. Nambaanana ogé museur kana ngajaga sangkan kadar gula getih tetep aya dina wates anu normal (euglikémia) ulah nepi ngabalukarkeun hipoglikémia. Carana ku ngajaga dahareun, olahraga, jeung ubar husus (utamana insulin dina kasus DM tipeu 1). Kadar gula getih anu dijaga penting pisan pikeun ngurangan DM anu beuki parna.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, Genuth SM, Lachin JM, Orchard TJ, Raskin P, Zinman B | title = Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 353 | issue = 25 | pages = 2643–53 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16371630 | pmc = 2637991 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa052187 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group | title = The effect of intensive diabetes therapy on the development and progression of neuropathy. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1995-04-15_122_8/page/n54 | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 122 | issue = 8 | pages = 561–8 | date = April 1995 | pmid = 7887548 | doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-122-8-199504150-00001 }}</ref> Lian ti éta, perlu ogé niténan kabiasaan anu bisa nambahan parnana ka nu ngalaman DM, nyaéta dipahing nga[[roko]], [[hiperkoléstérolémia]], [[obésitas]], [[hiperténsi]], jeung kurang ngalakukeun [[olahraga]].<ref name=NICE66>{{NICE|66|Type 2 diabetes|2008}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Diabétes| ]] [[Kategori:Gizi]] [[Kategori:Panyakit éndokrin]] 03vrt3opje3lxy8xuwa275y6zaeyj4b Karbon dioksida 0 27200 712310 684677 2026-08-28T20:32:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712310 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Karbon dioksida''' ([[rumus kimia]]: '''{{kim|CO|2}}''') nyaéta [[sanyawa kimia]] nu diwangun ku dua [[atom]] [[oksigén]] nu [[beungkeut kovalén|kabeungkeut kovalén]] ku hiji atom [[karbon]]. Dina kaayaan baku, ieu sanyawaan aya dina wujud gas. Di [[atmosfir]], kadarna kira-kira 383 [[ppm]] dumasar eusi<ref>{{cite journal|title=Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> records from sites in the SIO air sampling network.|first=Keeling, CD|last=Whorf, T.P.|year=2005|work=Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A.|url=http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm}} Periodeu rékam: 1958-2004</ref>. Karbon dioksida téh kaasup salah sahiji [[gas rumah kaca]], ku sabab nembuskeun [[spéktrum katempo|cahya katempo]] tapi nyerep [[infrabeureum]]. Karbon dioksida dihasilkeun ku [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], [[fungi]], jeung [[mikroorganismeu]] dina prosés [[réspirasi]] sarta dipaké ku tutuwuhan dina [[fotosintésis]] pikeun ngahasilkeun gula. Ku kituna, ieu sanyawa téh kaasup komponén utama [[daur karbon]]. Lian ti prosés kimia séjénna, karbon dioksida ogé dihasilkeun tina durukan [[suluh fosil]] atawa matéri tutuwuhan. Karbon dioksida [[anorganik]] dikaluarkeun ku [[gunung berapi]] jeung prosés [[géotermal]] sarupaning [[cipanas]]. Karbon dioksida teu boga wujud cair dina tekanan handapeun 5,1 [[atmosfir (unit)|atm]], tapi padet dina suhu kurang ti -78&nbsp;°C. Dina bentuk padetna, karbon dioksida ilahar disebut ''dry ice'' ([[és garing]]). {{kim|CO|2}} téh [[oksida asam]]: leyuranana ngarobah [[uji litmus (kimia)|kertas litmus]] tina [[bulao]] jadi [[kayas]]. dbhasjkdgashdgasgdasgdasdhasg asghdgashdgashdgjhasgdasd Karbon dioksida cair ukur bisa kabentuk dina kaayaan [[tekanan]] leuwih ti 5,1 atm; [[titik tripel]] karbon dioksida kira 518 [[kPa]] dina suhu -56,6&nbsp;°C (tempo diagram), sedengkeun [[Titik kritis (térmodinamika)|titik kritisna]] 7,38 MPa dina suhu 31,1&nbsp;°C<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C124389&Units=SI&Mask=4#Thermo-Phase|title=Phase change data for Carbon dioxide|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology|accessdate=2008-01-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322083546/https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C124389&Units=SI&Mask=4#Thermo-Phase |date=2023-03-22 }}</ref>. [[Gambar:Carbon-dioxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png|thumb|left|220px|Wangun kristal és garing]] Bentuk padet karbon dioksida lianna bisa kabentuk dina kaayaan husus, bentukna amorf kawas kaca<ref>{{cite journal | last=Santoro | first=M. | coauthors=et al | year=2006 | title=Amorphous silica-like carbon dioxide | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-06-15_441_7095/page/857| journal=Nature | issn=0028-0836 | volume=441 | issue=7095 | pages=857-860 | doi=10.1038/nature04879}}</ref>, disebut [[karbonia amorf]] ({{kim|CO|2}} nu geus dipanaskeun ditiiskeun dina tekanan 40–48 [[GPa]] atawa kira 400.000 atm. Papanggihan ieu kabuktian ku téori yén karbon dioksida bisa aya dina bentuk gelas sarupa jeung famili unsurna, sarupaning [[silikon]] ([[silika|gelas silika]]) jeung [[germanium]], ngan karbonia mah teu stabil dina kaayaan biasa. == Mangpaat == [[Gambar:Soda bubbles macro.jpg|thumb|250px|Pelendung karbon dioksida dina inuman.]] Karbon dioksida dipaké di industri pangan, industri oli, jeung industri kimia. Industri milih ieu gas ku sabab murah jeung teu kaduruk.<!-- Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminum capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for [[Air gun|airguns]], [[paintball]] markers, for inflating bicycle tires, and for making [[carbonated water|seltzer]]. Rapid vaporization of liquid carbon dioxide is used for blasting in coal mines. High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests, such as the [[Common Clothes Moth]]. Carbon dioxide is used to produce [[carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s and [[soda water]]. Traditionally, the carbonation in beer and sparkling wine comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks artificially. A candy called [[Pop Rocks]] is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas at about 40 bar (600 psi). When placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop. [[Leavening agent]]s produce carbon dioxide to cause dough to rise. [[Baker's yeast]] produces carbon dioxide by fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as [[baking powder]] and [[baking soda]] release carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed to [[acid]]s. [[Image:Carbon Dioxide Laser At The Laser Effects Test Facility.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A [[carbon dioxide laser]].]] Carbon dioxide is the most commonly used compressed gas for pneumatic systems in portable pressure tools and [[Robot combat|combat robots]]. Carbon dioxide extinguishes flames, and some [[Fire extinguisher#Carbon dioxide|fire extinguishers]], especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide also finds use as an atmosphere for [[welding]], although in the welding arc, it reacts to [[oxidation|oxidize]] most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are [[brittle]]r than those made in more inert atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expensive than more inert gases such as [[argon]] or [[helium]]. Liquid carbon dioxide is a good [[solvent]] for many [[lipophilic]] [[organic chemistry|organic compounds]], and is used to remove [[caffeine]] from [[coffee]]. First, the green coffee beans are soaked in water. The beans are placed in the top of a column seventy feet (21 meters) high. The carbon dioxide fluid at about 93 degrees Celsius enters at the bottom of the column. The caffeine diffuses out of the beans and into the carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide has begun to attract attention in the [[pharmaceutical]] and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as [[organochloride]]s. It's used by some [[dry cleaning|dry cleaners]] for this reason. (See [[green chemistry]].) Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct [[photosynthesis]], and greenhouses may enrich their atmospheres with additional {{chem|CO|2}} to boost plant growth, since its low present-day atmosphere concentration is just above the "suffocation" level for green plants. A [[photosynthesis]]-related drop in carbon dioxide concentration in a greenhouse compartment can kill green plants. At high concentrations, carbon dioxide is toxic to animal life, so raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) for several hours can eliminate pests such as [[whitefly|whiteflies]] and [[spider mite]]s in a greenhouse. It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power generation be bubbled into ponds to grow algae that could then be converted into [[biodiesel]] fuel.<ref name='csmon'>{{cite news | first=Mark | last=Clayton | coauthors= | title=Algae - like a breath mint for smokestacks | date=[[2006-01-11]] | publisher= | url =http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0111/p01s03-sten.html | work =[[Christian Science Monitor]] | pages = | accessdate = 2007-10-11 | language = }}</ref> In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide is added to pure [[oxygen]] for stimulation of breathing after [[apnea]] and to stabilize the {{chem|O|2|/CO|2}} balance in blood. A common type of industrial gas [[laser]] is the [[carbon dioxide laser]]. Carbon dioxide can also be combined with [[limonene]] oxide from orange peels or other [[epoxides]] to create polymers and plastics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan05/Orangeplastic.deb.html |title=Sweet and environmentally beneficial discovery: Plastics made from orange peel and a greenhouse gas |accessdate=2007-09-09 |last=Davidson |first=Sarah |coauthors= |date=Jan. 17, 2005 |work= |publisher=Cornell News}}</ref> Carbon dioxide is used in [[enhanced oil recovery]] where it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usually under [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] conditions. It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground [[crude oil]], significantly reduces its viscosity, enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the earth to the removal well.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Austell |first=J Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |month= |title=CO2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery Needs - Enhanced Fiscal Incentives |journal=Exploration & Production: The Oil & Gas Review - |volume= |issue= |pages= |id= |url=http://www.touchoilandgas.com/enhanced-recovery-needs-enhanced-a423-1.html |accessdate= 2007-09-28 |quote= }}</ref> In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points. In the chemical industry, carbon dioxide is used for the production of [[urea]], [[carbonate]]s and [[bicarbonate]]s, and [[sodium salicylate]]. Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important [[refrigerant]]s, especially in the food industry, where they are employed during the transportation and storage of ice cream and other frozen foods. Solid carbon dioxide is called "dry ice" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical. Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 / R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the discovery of [[Dichlorodifluoromethane|R-12]] and is likely to enjoy a renaissance due to environmental concerns. Its physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity. Due to its operation at pressures of up to 130 bars, {{chem|CO|2}} systems require highly resistant components that have been already developed to serial production in many sectors. In car air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions, R744 operates more efficiently than systems using [[R-134a]]. Its environmental advantages ([[Global warming potential|GWP]] of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, hot water heat pumps, among others. Some applications: Coca-Cola has fielded {{chem|CO|2}}-based beverage coolers and the [[US Army]] is interested in {{chem|CO|2}} refrigeration and heating technology.<ref name='ccref1'> {{cite web|url=http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/presscenter/nr_20060605_corporate_hfc-free.html |title=THE COCA-COLA COMPANY ANNOUNCES ADOPTION OF HFC-FREE INSULATION IN REFRIGERATION UNITS TO COMBAT GLOBAL WARMING |accessdate=2007-10-11 |date=2006-06-05 |publisher=The Coca-Cola Company }}</ref><ref name='usforces'>{{cite news | title = Modine reinforces its CO<sub>2</sub> research efforts | url = http://www.r744.com/news/news_ida145.php | date = 2007-06-28 | publisher = R744.com}}</ref> By the end of 2007, the global car industry is expected to decide on the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning. {{kim|CO|2}} is one discussed option.(see [[The Cool War]]) --> == Baca ogé == <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Réaksi Bosch]] * [[Daur karbon]] * [[Karbon monoksida]] * [[Jagat nyongkab]] * [[Réaksi Sabatier]] </div> == Rujukan == {{reflist|1}} == Tumbu kaluar == * {{PubChemLink|280}} * [http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html {{kim|CO|2}} Carbon Dioxide Properties, Uses, Applications] * [http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2_phase_diagram.gif Pressure-Temperature phase diagram for carbon dioxide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216015146/http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2_phase_diagram.gif |date=2008-02-16 }} * [http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=2 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216134911/http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=2 |date=2008-02-16 }} Tempo Karbon dioksida wangun 3D * [http://www.dryiceinfo.com/science.htm Dry Ice information] * [http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/ Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide] ''(NOAA)'' * [http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/phasesdgm.html Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222025440/http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/phasesdgm.html |date=2008-02-22 }} * [http://chemmovies.unl.edu/chemistry/smallscale/SS071.html Experiment 071 -- Triple Point Phase Transition for Carbon Dioxide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205202741/http://chemmovies.unl.edu/chemistry/smallscale/SS071.html |date=2008-02-05 }} * [http://www.r744.com/knowledge/faq_a.php {{kim|CO|2}} as a natural refrigerant - FAQs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006101017/http://www.r744.com/knowledge/faq_a.php |date=2007-10-06 }} * [http://www.understandingnano.com/nanotechnology-carbon-dioxide.html Methods to reduce carbon dioxide emmisions from power plants] [[Kategori:Kimia]] blv2j21a4xfyii3i437n2hcbdr4q35t Daur karbon 0 27221 712353 650285 2026-08-28T21:31:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712353 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Carbon cycle-cute diagram.svg|thumb|400px||Diagram daur karbon. Angka hideung nunjukkeun jumlah karbon anu disimpen (milyar ton, "GtC" wancahan tina ''GigaTons of Carbon''; gambar taun 2004). Angka bungur nunjukkeun jumlah karbon nu pindah ti hiji reservior ka nu lianna per taun. Sédimén dina ieu diagram henteu ngawengku ~70 juta GtC batu jeung kerogén karbonat.]] '''Daur''' atawa '''siklus karbon''' nujul ka [[daur biogéokimia]] silih tukeurna [[karbon]] di antara [[biosfir]], [[géosfir]], [[hidrosfir]], jeung [[atmosfir Bumi]]. Ieu daur biasana dianggap salaku opat sumber utama karbon. Reserviorna nyaéta atmosfir, biosfir darat (biasana ngawengku sistem cidarat jeung bahan organik teu hirup sarupaning karbon taneuh), [[jaladri]] (nu ngawengku [[karbon anorganik total|karbon anorganik puyar]] jeung biota laut), sarta [[sédimén]] (ngawengku [[suluh fosil]]). Gerak karbon taunan, silih tukeur karbon antarreservoir, lumangsung alatan ayana rupa-rupa kajadian [[réaksi kimia|kimiawi]], fisik, [[géologi]]s, jeung [[métabolismeu|biologis]]. 'Balong' karbon pangbadagna nu deukeut ka beungeut Bumi aya di sagara, najan nu di [[sagara jero]] mah hésé silih tukeurna jeung atmosfir. '''Anggaran karbon sajagat''' (''global carbon budget'') hartina kasaimbangan silih tukeur (asup jeung kaluar) karbon antara reservoir-reservoir atawa antara hiji jalur siklus. Uji anggaran karbon hiji balong atawa reservoir bisa ngukur naha éta balong téh sumber atawa pamiceunan [[karbon dioksida]]. == Di atmosfir == Di atmosfir Bumi, karbon utamana aya dina wangun gas karbon dioksida ({{kim|CO|2}}). Najan kadarna di atmosfir saeutik pisan (kira 0,04% dina [[Mol (unit)|molar]]), karbon boga pancén penting pikeun ngadukung kahirupan. Gas lianna di atmosfir nu ngandung karbon di antarana [[métana]] jeung [[klorofluorokarbon]]. Kandungan gas rumah kaca nu beuki nérékél dina jangka sababaraha dékadeu, sacara téoritis milu nyumbang ka [[jagat nyongkab]]<ref>[http://www.ipcc.ch/ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)] which represents wide consensus of international scientific opinion.</ref>. Karbon diala ti atmosfir maké sababaraha cara: * Mun panonpoé moncorong, [[tutuwuhan]] ngayakeun [[fotosintésis]] pikeun ngarobah karbon dioksida jadi [[karbohidrat]], sakaligus ngaleupaskeun [[oksigén]]. * Dina beungeut sagara nepi ka kutub, [[cilaut]] leuwih tiis sahingga leuwih loba ngandung [[asam karbonat]] ({{kim|CO|2}} leuwih gampang leyur). <!--This is coupled to the ocean's [[thermohaline circulation]] which transports dense surface water into the ocean's interior (see the entry on the [[solubility pump]]). * In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity, organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues, or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests. These are, respectively, oxidized ([[soft-tissue pump]]) and redissolved ([[carbonate pump]]) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed, resulting in a downward flow of carbon (see entry on the [[biological pump]]). * The [[weathering]] of silicate rock. Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions. The [[bicarbonate]] ions produced are carried to the ocean, where they are used to make marine carbonates. Unlike dissolved CO<sub>2</sub> in equilibrium or tissues which decay, weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere. Carbon can be released back into the atmosphere in many different ways: * Through the [[respiration]] performed by plants and animals. This is an [[exothermic reaction]] and it involves the breaking down of glucose (or other organic molecules) into carbon dioxide and water. * Through the [[bacterial decay|decay]] of animal and plant matter. [[Fungi]] and [[bacterium|bacteria]] break down the carbon compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is present, or [[methane]] if not. * Through [[combustion]] of organic material which [[oxidizes]] the carbon it contains, producing carbon dioxide (and other things, like water vapor). Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]], [[petroleum]] products, and [[natural gas]] releases carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for millions of years. Burning agrofuels also releases carbon dioxide. * Production of [[cement]]. Carbon dioxide is released when [[limestone]] (calcium carbonate) is heated to produce [[calcium oxide|lime]] (calcium oxide), a component of cement. * At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. * [[Volcano|Volcanic eruptions]] and [[metamorphism]] release gases into the atmosphere. [[Volcanic gas]]es are primarily [[water vapor]], carbon dioxide and [[sulfur dioxide]]. The carbon dioxide released is roughly equal to the amount removed by silicate weathering; so the two processes, which are the chemical reverse of each other, sum to roughly zero, and do not affect the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide on time scales of less than about 100,000 yr. ==In the biosphere == Around 1,900 [[gigaton]]s of carbon are present in the biosphere. Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth. It plays an important role in the [[Cytoskeleton|structure]], [[biochemistry]], and [[nutrition]] of all living [[Cell (biology)|cells]]. * [[Autotroph]]s are organisms that produce their own [[organic compound]]s using carbon dioxide from the air or water in which they live. To do this they require an external source of energy. Almost all autotrophs use solar radiation to provide this, and their production process is called [[photosynthesis]]. A small number of autotrophs exploit chemical energy sources in a process called [[chemosynthesis]]. The most important autotrophs for the carbon cycle are [[tree]]s in forests on land and [[phytoplankton]] in the Earth's oceans. Photosynthesis follows the reaction 6CO<sub>2</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>O → C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + 6O<sub>2</sub> * Carbon is transferred within the biosphere as [[heterotroph]]s feed on other organisms or their parts (e.g., fruits). This includes the uptake of dead organic material ([[detritus]]) by fungi and bacteria for [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] or [[decay]]. * Most carbon leaves the biosphere through [[Cellular respiration|respiration]]. When oxygen is present, [[aerobic respiration]] occurs, which releases carbon dioxide into the surrounding air or water, following the reaction C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + 6O<sub>2</sub> → 6CO<sub>2</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>O. Otherwise, [[anaerobic respiration]] occurs and releases methane into the surrounding environment, which eventually makes its way into the atmosphere or hydrosphere (e.g., as marsh gas or [[flatulence]]). * Burning of biomass (e.g. forest fires, wood used for heating, anything else organic) can also transfer substantial amounts of carbon to the atmosphere * Carbon may also be circulated within the biosphere when dead organic matter (such as [[peat]]) becomes incorporated in the geosphere. [[Animal shell]]s of [[calcium carbonate]], in particular, may eventually become [[limestone]] through the process of [[sediment]]ation. * Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean. For example, a recent discovery is that [[larvacea]]n [[mucus]] houses (commonly known as "sinkers") are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by [[sediment trap]]s.<ref>{{cite press release|title="Sinkers" provide missing piece in deep-sea puzzle|publisher=Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI)|date=[[2005-06-09]]|url=http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2005/sinkers-release.pdf|accessdate=2007-10-07}}</ref> Because of their size and composition, these houses are rarely collected in such traps, so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them. Carbon storage in the biosphere is influenced by a number of processes on different time-scales: while [[primary production|net primary productivity]] follows a [[wiktionary:diurnal|diurnal]] and seasonal cycle, carbon can be stored up to several hundreds of years in trees and up to thousands of years in soils. Changes in those long term carbon pools (e.g. through de- or afforestation or through temperature-related changes in soil respiration) may thus affect global climate change. == In the ocean == [[Image:TIC oceans.png|thumb|right|200px|"Present day" (1990s) sea surface [[Total inorganic carbon|dissolved inorganic carbon]] concentration (from the [[Global Ocean Data Analysis Project|GLODAP]] [[climatology]])]] The [[ocean]]s contain around 36,000 [[gigatonne]]s of carbon, mostly in the form of [[bicarbonate]] [[ion]]. Inorganic carbon, that is carbon compounds with no carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds, is important in its reactions within water. This carbon exchange becomes important in controlling [[pH]] in the ocean and can also vary as a source or sink for carbon. Carbon is readily exchanged between the atmosphere and ocean. In regions of oceanic upwelling, carbon is released to the atmosphere. Conversely, regions of downwelling transfer carbon (CO<sub>2</sub>) from the atmosphere to the ocean. When CO<sub>2</sub> enters the ocean, carbonic acid is formed: ::CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O {{unicode|⇌}} H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> This reaction has a forward and reverse rate, that is it achieves a [[chemical equilibrium]]. Another reaction important in controlling oceanic pH levels is the release of hydrogen ions and bicarbonate. This reaction controls large changes in pH: ::H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> {{unicode|⇌}} H<sup>+</sup> + HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> In the oceans, bicarbonate can combine with [[calcium]] to form [[limestone]] ([[calcium carbonate]], CaCO<sub>3</sub>, with [[silica]]), which precipitates to the [[Seabed|ocean floor]]. Limestone is the largest reservoir of carbon in the carbon cycle. The calcium comes from the weathering of [[Silicate minerals|calcium-silicate rocks]], which causes the [[silicon]] in the rocks to combine with [[oxygen]] to form [[sand]] or [[quartz]] ([[silicon dioxide]]), leaving calcium ions available to form limestone<ref>{{cite web | last = Notes | first = Lecture | title = The Carbon Cycle | work = Department of Atmospheric Sciences | publisher = University of Washington | url = http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2001Q1/211/notes_for_013001_lecture.html | accessdate = 2007-12-21 }}</ref>. --> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} === Bacaan salajengna === * {{cite journal|last=Appenzeller|first=Tim|coauthors=|year=2004|title=The case of the missing carbon|url=http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0402/feature5/index.html|journal=National Geographic Magazine|issn=|volume=|issue=|pages=|doi=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907052615/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0402/feature5/index.html |date=2006-09-07 }} - article about the missing carbon sink * {{cite book|last=Bolin|first=Bert|coauthors=Degens, E. T.; Kempe, S.; Ketner, P.|authorlink=|title=The global carbon cycle|edition=|publisher=Published on behalf of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) by Wiley|location=Chichester ; New York|year=1979|isbn=0471997102|url=http://www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope13/index.html|accessdate=2007-10-07}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021028024731/http://www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope13/index.html |date=2002-10-28 }} * {{cite book|last=Houghton|first=R. A.|chapter=The contemporary carbon cycle|editor=William H Schlesinger (editor)|title=Biogeochemistry|edition=|publisher=Elsevier Science|location=Amsterdam|year=2005|isbn=0080446426|pages=473-513}} * {{cite journal|last=Janzen|first=H. H.|coauthors=|year=2004|title=Carbon cycling in earth systems—a soil science perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/agriculture-ecosystems-environment_2004-12_104_3/page/399|journal=Agriculture, ecosystems and environment|issn=0167-8809|volume=104|issue=3|pages=399-417|doi=10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.040}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.carboncyclescience.gov/ Carbon Cycle Science Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040602163557/http://www.carboncyclescience.gov/ |date=2004-06-02 }} * [http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/index.html NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group] * [http://www.globalcarbonproject.org Global Carbon Project - initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership] * [http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/13.htm UNEP - The present carbon cycle - Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915231431/http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/13.htm |date=2008-09-15 }} - kadar jeung aliran karbon {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Géokimia]] [[Kategori:Fotosintésis]] [[Kategori:Biologi taneuh]] [[Kategori:Kimia taneuh]] [[Kategori:Karbon|Daur]] [[Kategori:Biogéografi]] h1amf2z6dvr1x0lvotzo5rdqy76fadd Badak sunda 0 27879 712321 711555 2026-08-28T20:45:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Badak sunda | status = cr | status_system = iucn2.3 | status_ref = <ref name="IUCN Rs">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19495 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Salinan [[13 Januari]] [[2008]]. Listed as Critically Endangered (CR C2a v2.3).</ref> | image = Dead_Javan_Rhino.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Tukang Moro Sato ti Éropa jeung badak sunda anu paéh taun 1895 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Perissodactyla]] | familia = [[Rhinocerotidae]] | genus = ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'' | species = '''''R. sondaicus''''' | binomial = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' | binomial_authority = [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest|Desmarest]], 1822<ref name=Zeitschrift/> | range_map = Javan Rhino Range.svg | range_map_width = 250px | range_map_caption = Sebaran Badak sunda<ref name=Range>Peta dumasar kana peta sebaran dina Foose & Van Strien (1997). Ieu peta teu ngawengku kamungkinan populasi di Kalimantan nu dipedar ku Cranbook & Piper (2007).</ref> | subdivision_ranks = [[Subspésiés]] | subdivision = ''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis (musnah)''<br /> ''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus'' }} '''Badak sunda''' (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'') téh nyaéta anggota kulawarga [[''Rhinocerotidae'']] nu kaasup salah sahiji tina rupa-rupa [[badak]] nu hirup kénéh nepi ka kiwari. Ieu badak sagénus jeung [[Badak India]], dedeganana ogé sarupa, tapi tina ukuran leuwih leutik (panjang 3,1–3,2&nbsp;m, jangkung 1,4–1,7&nbsp;m) sarta leuwih deukeut ka [[Badak Hideung]]. Culana tara leuwih ti 25&nbsp;cm, leuwih leutik batan badak séjénna. Mangsa baheula mah, badak Sunda mangrupa badak Asia nu paling lega jajahanana, ti kapuloan [[Indonésia]], [[Asia Tenggara]], nepi ka [[India]] jeung [[Cina]], tapi kiwari ieu spésiés kaayaanana kritis. Populasina di alam liar anu masih kanyahoan ukur aya di dua tempat, turug-turug di taman satwa euweuh nu ngingu deuih<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Di [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]], populasi badak Sunda sahenteuna aya 40–50, sedengkeun di [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]], [[Viétnam]], populasina teu leuwih ti dalapan. Nyirorotna populasi badak Sunda kiwari téh alatan loba diboro pikeun diala culana, anu di pasar gelap dihargaan $30,000<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Lian ti éta, masalah anu utama nyaéta beuki heureutna habitat<ref name=Santiapillai>{{Cite journal | author = Santiapillai, C. | year = 1992 | title = Javan rhinoceros in Vietnam | journal = Pachyderm | volume = 15 | pages = 25–27}}</ref>. Dina alamna, Badak Sunda bisa hirup nepi ka umur 30–45&nbsp;taun. Hirupna di lebak [[leuweung hujan]], tegalan baseuh jeung ranca. Ieu sato hirupna nyorangan, iwal mangsa kawin jeung miara anakna, tapi aya ogé mangsana ngagorombol. Lian ti manusa, sacara alami Badak Sunda anu sawawa taya pamangsana. Di lingkungan nu deukeut jeung manusa, ieu badak biasana nyingkah, tapi bisa malik narajang mun ngarasa kaancam. Para élmuwan jarang nu ngulik ieu sato, utamana ku sabab hésé manggihanana, sarta dianggap bahya saupama ngaganggu kahirupan spésiés langka kawas kieu. Panalungtikan biasana ukur ngandelkeun kaméra jeung analisis taina. == Taksonomi jeung ngaran == Badak Jawa mimiti ditalungtik ku para [[naturalis]] taun [[1787]], nalika dua sato paéh diboro di pulo Jawa. [[Tangkorék]]na dikirim ka naturalis [[Walanda]] [[Petrus Camper]] nu maot taun [[1789]] saméméh ngumumkeun pamanggihna nu nyindekkeun yén éta badak téh spésiés nu béda. Badak Sunda lianna ditémbak di [[Sumatra]] ku [[Alfred Duvaucel]] nu ngirimkeun spésiménna ka bapa téréna [[Georges Cuvier]], élmuwan [[Prancis]]. Cuvier boga kacindekan yén ieu sato téh [[spésiés]] nu dilaporkeun musna taun [[1822]], tapi ku [[Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest]] disebut ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'', spésiés badak anu panungtung dipikawanoh<ref name="Rookmaaker">{{Cite book | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | year = 2005 | chapter = First sightings of Asian rhinos | pages = 52 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref>. Mimitina mah Desmarest nyebutkeun asalna ti Sumatra, tapi terus diralat ku nyebutkeun asalna ti Jawa<ref name=Zeitschrift>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 1982 | title = The type locality of the Javan Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' Desmarest, 1822) | journal = Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 381–382}}</ref>. Ngaran genus ''Rhinoceros'', nu ogé ngawengku Badak India, diturunkeun tina [[basa Yunani]] Kuna: ''rhino'' nu hartina ''irung'', jeung ''ceros'' nu hartina ''cula''; ''sondaicus'' dicokot tina ''[[Amparan sunda|sunda]]'', wilayah [[biogeografi]]s nu ngawengku Sumatra, Jawa, [[Kalimantan]], daratan Asia Tenggara, jeung pulo-pulo leutik di sabudeureunana. Aya tilu subspésiés Badak sunda, dua di antarana dianggap masih aya: * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus sondaicus''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda Indonésia''', kungsi sumebar di Jawa jeung Sumatra. Populasina kiwari kira ukur 40–50 di [[Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon]], tungtung kulon [[Banten]]. Aya nu ngusulkeun yén Badak Sunda di Sumatra dipisahkeun sakalu subspésiés béda, ''R.s. floweri'', tapi ku nu séjénna teu ditarima<ref name="IUCN Rss">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19497 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' ssp. ''sondaicus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Salinan [[13 Januari]] [[2008]].</ref><ref name=CG/>. * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda Viétnam''' atawa '''Badak Viétnam''', kungsi sumebar di Viétnam, [[Kamboja]], [[Laos]], jeung [[Muangtai]] sarta [[Malaysia]]. ''Annamiticus'' diturunkeun tina [[Runtuyan Annamit|Runtuyan Gunung Annamit]] di Asia Tenggara, tempat sumebarna ieu subspésiés. Hiji populasi leutik, ukur kira 12-an badak, hirup di leuweung landeuh di [[Taman Nasional Cat Tien]]. Analisis génétik nuduhkeun yén subspésiés Indonésia jeung Viétnam boga karuhun nu sarua antara 300.000 nepi ka 2 juta taun ka tukang<ref name=CG>{{Cite journal | title = Genetic diversity, phylogeny and conservation of the Javan hinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) | journal = Conservation Genetics | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | year = 2006 | month = June | pages = 439–448 | author = Fernando, Prithiviraj | coauthors = Gert Polet, Nazir Foead, Linda S. Ng, Jennifer Pastorini, and Don J. Melnick | doi = 10.1007/s10592-006-9139-4 }}</ref><ref name="IUCN Rsa">Asian Rhino Specialist Group (1996). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19498 ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'' ssp. ''annamiticus'']. ''2007 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. IUCN 2007. Retrieved on [[January 13]], [[2008]].</ref>. * '''''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis''''', katelah '''Badak Sunda India''', kungsi hirup sumebar di [[Bengal]] nepi ka [[Burma]], tapi sigana geus musnah awal abad ka-19. ''Inermis'' hartina ''tanpa cula'', dumasar kana ciri ieu subspésiés anu culana leutik pisan. Spésimén asli ieu subspésiés gé ukur bikangna anu teu culaan. Kaayaan pulitik di Burma hésé pikeun ngayakeun panalungtikan ieu badak, tapi sigana mémang geus musnah<ref name=Foose>{{Citation | last = Foose | first = Thomas J. | coauthors = Nico van Strien | year = 1997 | title = Asian Rhinos – Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2-8317-0336-0}}</ref><ref name=Pachy>{{Cite journal | journal = Pachyderm | title = Records of the sundarbans Rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus inermis'') in India and Bangladesh | author = Rookmaaker, Kees | volume = 24 | year = 1997 | pages = 37–45}}</ref> === Evolusi === [[Gambar:Panzernashorn2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Indian Rhinoceros]] pictured here is closely related to the Javan Rhinoceros; they are the two members of the [[type genus]] ''Rhinoceros''.]] {{Main|Rhinoceros#Evolution}} Ancestral rhinoceroses first diverged from other [[Perissodactyl]]s in the [[Early Eocene]]. Mitochondrial DNA comparison suggests that the ancestors of modérn rhinos split from the ancestors of [[Equidae]] around 50 million yéars ago.<ref name=DNA/> The extant family, the Rhinocerotidae, first appéared in the Late éocene in [[Eurasia]], and the ancestors of the extant rhino species dispersed from Asia beginning in the [[Miocene]].<ref name=Lacombat>{{Cite book | author = Lacombat, Frédéric | year = 2005 | chapter = The evolution of the rhinoceros | pages = 46–49 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref> The Indian and Javan Rhinoceros, the only members of the genus ''[[Rhinoceros (genus)|Rhinoceros]]'', first appéar in the fossil record in Asia around 1.6 million–3.3 million yéars ago. Molecular estimates, however, suggest the species may have diverged much éarlier, around 11.7 million yéars ago.<ref name=DNA>{{Cite journal | title = The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Greater Indian Rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros unicornis'', and the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea) | author = Xu, Xiufeng | coauthors = Axel Janke, and Ulfur Arnason | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 13 | issue = 9 | pages = 1167–1173 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/9/1167 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref><ref name = Tougard>{{Cite journal | author = Tougard, C. | coauthors = T. Delefosse, C. Hoenni, and C. Montgelard | year = 2001 | title = Phylogenetic relationships of the five extant rhinoceros species (Rhinocerotidae, Perissodactyla) based on mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12s rRNA genes | url = https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2001-04_19_1/page/34 | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 34–44 | doi = 10.1006/mpev.2000.0903}}</ref> Although belonging to the [[type genus]], the Indian and Javan Rhinoceros are not believed to be closely related to other rhino species. Different studies have hypothesized that they may be closely related to the extinct ''Gaindetherium'' or ''Punjabitherium''. A detailed [[clade|cladistic]] analysis of the Rhinocerotidae placed ''Rhinoceros'' and the extinct ''Punjabitherium'' in a clade with ''[[Dicerorhinus]]'', the Sumatran Rhino. Other studies have suggested the Sumatran Rhinoceros is more closely related to the two African species.<ref name=Cerdeno>{{Cite journal | last = Cerdeño | first = Esperanza | url = http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/3566/1/N3143.pdf | journal = Novitates | publisher = [[American Museum of Natural History]] | year = 1995 | title = Cladistic Analysis of the Family Rhinocerotidae (Perissodactyla) | issn = 0003-0082 | number = 3143 | accessdate = 2007-11-04}}</ref> The Sumatran Rhino may have diverged from the other Asian rhinos as far back as 15 million yéars ago.<ref name=Dinerstein/><ref name=Lacombat/> --> == Pedaran == Badak Sunda ukuranana leuwih leutik batan dulurna, Badak India, sarta leuwih deukeut ka [[Badak Hideung]]. Panjang awakna (katut hulu) bisa nepi ka 3,1–3,2&nbsp;m, sedengkeun jangkungna 1,4–1,7&nbsp;m. Beuratna, anu kungsi dilaporkeun nyaéta antara 900 jeung 2.300&nbsp;kg, najan can kungsi aya studi anu daria ngukuran beurat awak badak sunda<ref name=Dinerstein/>. Nu jalu jeung nu bikang ampir taya bédana, tapi biasana mah nu bikangna rada leuwih gedé. Dumasar data poto jeung tapak suku, Badak Sunda di Viétnam ukuranana rada leuwih leutik ti dulurna nu di Jawa<ref name="van Strien">{{Cite book | author = van Strien, Nico | year = 2005 | chapter = Javan Rhinoceros | pages = 75–79 | editor = Fulconis, R. | title = Save the rhinos: EAZA Rhino Campaign 2005/6 | location = London | publisher = [[European Association of Zoos and Aquaria]] }}</ref>. Sarupa jeung dulurna nu di India, Badak Sunda culana ukur hiji (spésiés séjén nu aya kénéh culana dua), leutik deuih (kurang ti 20&nbsp;cm, nu kacatet paling panjang ukur 27&nbsp;cm). Ieu cula lolobana dipaké pikeun ngali leutak jeung muka jalan di leuweung nu rembet, tara dipaké pikeun tarung. Sungut bagian luhurna rada monyong pikeun ngarabut kadaharan, sihungna panjang jeung seukeut. Sakumaha ilaharna badak, Badak Sunda seukeut pangambeu jeung pangdéngéna, tapi panonna kurang awas. Umurna bisa nepi ka 30-45 taun<ref name="van Strien"/>.<!-- Its hairless, splotchy gray or gray-brown skin falls in folds to the shoulder, back and rump. The skin has a natural mosaic pattern which lends the rhino an armored appearance. The neck folds of the Javan Rhinoceros are smaller than those of the Indian Rhinoceros, but still form a saddle shape over the shoulder. Because of the risks of interfering with such an endangered species, however, the Javan Rhinoceros is primarily studied through fecal sampling and camera traps. They are rarely encountered, observed or measured directly.<ref name=NatPost>{{Cite news | title = Their trail is warm: Scientists are studying elusive rhinos by analyzing their feces | work = [[National Post]] | author = Munro, Margaret | date = [[May 10]], [[2002]]}}</ref> == Distribution and habitat == [[Image:Ujungkulon.jpg|thumb|Java's [[Ujung Kulon National Park]] is the home of most remaining Javan rhinos.]] Even the most optimistic estimate suggests there are fewer than 100 Javan Rhinos in the wild. They are considered possibly the most endangered of all large mammals; although there are more Sumatran Rhinos, their range is not as protected as that of the Javan Rhinos, and some conservationists consider them to be at greater risk. The Javan Rhinoceros is only known to survive in two places, the [[Ujung Kulon National Park]] on the western tip of Java and the [[Cat Tien National Park]] about 150&nbsp;km (90&nbsp;miles) north of [[Ho Chi Minh City]].<ref name=CG/><ref name=NYT/> The animal was once widespread from [[Assam]] and [[Bengal]] (where their range would have overlapped with both the Sumatran and Indian Rhino<ref name="NE India"/>) eastward to [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and southwards to the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the islands of [[Sumatra]], [[Java]] and possibly [[Borneo]].<ref name=Raffles/> The Javan Rhino primarily inhabits dense lowland rain forests, tall grass and reed beds that are plentiful with rivers, large floodplains, or wet areas with many mud wallows. Although it historically preferred low-lying areas, the subspecies in Vietnam has been pushed onto much higher ground (up to 2,000&nbsp;m or 6,561&nbsp;ft), probably because of human encroachment and poaching.<ref name=Foose/> The range of the Javan Rhinoceros has been shrinking for at least 3,000 years. Starting around 1000&nbsp;BC, the northern range of the rhinoceros extended into China, but began moving southward at roughly 0.5&nbsp;km (0.3&nbsp;mile) per year, as human settlements increased in the region.<ref name=Biotropica/> It likely became locally extinct in India in the first decade of the 20th century.<ref name="NE India">{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2002 | title = Historical records of the Javan rhinoceros in North-East India | journal = Newsletter of the Rhino Foundation of Nature in North-East India | issue = 4 | pages = 11–12 | month = June}}</ref> The Javan Rhino was hunted to extinction on the Malaysian peninsula by 1932.<ref name=Straits>{{ Cite news | work = [[New Straits Times]] | title = On the horns of a dilemma | author = Ismail, Faezah | date = [[June 9]], [[1998]] }}</ref> By the end of the [[Vietnam War]], the Vietnamese Rhinoceros was believed extinct across all of mainland Asia. Local hunters and woodcutters in [[Cambodia]] claim to have seen Javan Rhinos in the [[Cardamom Mountains]], but surveys of the area have failed to find any evidence of them.<ref name=FFI>{{Cite book | title = Cardamom Mountains biodiversity survey | year = 2000 | author = Daltry, J.C. | coauthors = F. Momberg | publisher = Fauna and Flora International | location = [[Cambridge]]}}</ref> A population may have existed on the island of [[Borneo]] as well, though these specimens could have been the Sumatran Rhinoceros, a small population of which still lives there.<ref name=Raffles>{{Cite journal | journal = The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology | year = 2007 | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | publisher = [[University of Singapore]] | pages = 217–220 | url = http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/55/55rbz217-220.pdf | author = Cranbook, Earl of | coauthors = Philip J. Piper | title = The Javan Rhinoceros ''Rhinoceros Sondaicus'' in Borneo | accessdate = 2007-11-04 }}</ref> == Behavior == The Javan Rhinoceros is a solitary animal with the exception of breeding pairs and mothers with calves. They will sometimes congregate in small groups at salt licks and mud wallows. Wallowing in mud is a common behavior for all rhinos; the activity allows them to maintain a cool body temperature and helps prevent disease and parasite infestation. The Javan Rhinoceros does not generally dig its own mud wallows, preferring to use other animals' wallows or naturally occurring pits, which it will use its horns to enlarge. Salt licks are also very important because of the essential nutrients the rhino receives from the salt. Males's home ranges are larger at 12–20&nbsp;km² (5–8&nbsp;miles²) compared to the females's which are around 3–14&nbsp;km² (1–5&nbsp;mi²). Males's territories overlap each other less than those of females. It is not known if there are territorial fights.<ref name=IZY/> Males mark their territory with dung piles and by urine spraying. Scrapes made by the feet in the ground and twisted saplings also seem to be used for communication. Members of other rhino species have a peculiar habit of defecating in massive rhino dung piles and then scraping their back feet in the dung. The Sumatran and Javan Rhinoceros, while defecating in piles, do not engage in the scraping. This adaptation in behavior is thought to be ecological; in the wet forests of Java and Sumatra, the method may not be useful for spreading odors.<ref name=IZY>{{Cite journal | journal = International Zoo Yearbook | year = 2006 | volume = 40 | pages = 150–173 | title = Rhinoceros behaviour: implications for captive management and conservation | author = Hutchins, M. | coauthors = M.D. Kreger | publisher = [[Zoological Society of London]] | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00150.x }}</ref> The Javan Rhino is much less vocal than the Sumatran; very few Javan Rhino vocalizations have ever been recorded. Adult Javan Rhinos have no known predators other than humans. The species, particularly in Vietnam, is skittish and retreats into dense forests whenever humans are near. Though a valuable trait from a survival standpoint, it has made the rhinos difficult to study.<ref name=Santiapillai/> Nevertheless, when humans approach too closely, the Javan Rhino becomes aggressive and will attack, stabbing with the incisors of its lower jaw while thrusting upward with its head.<ref name=IZY/> Its comparatively anti-social behavior may be a recent adaptation to population stresses; historical evidence suggests that, like other rhinos, the species was once more gregarious.<ref name=CG/> === Diet === The Javan Rhinoceros is herbivorous and eats diverse plant species, especially their shoots, twigs, young foliage and fallen fruit. Most of the plants favored by the species grow in sunny areas: in forest clearings, shrubland and other vegetation types with no large trees. The rhino knocks down saplings to reach its food and grabs it with its prehensile upper lip. It is the most adaptable feeder of all the rhino species. Currently it is a pure browser but probably once both browsed and grazed in its historical range. The rhino eats an estimated 50&nbsp;kg (110&nbsp;lb) of food daily. Like the Sumatran Rhino, it needs salt in its diet. The salt licks common in its historical range do not exist in Ujung Kulon, but the rhinos there have been observed drinking seawater, likely for the same nutritional need.<ref name="van Strien"/> === Reproduction === The sexual habits of the Javan Rhinoceros are difficult to study as the species is rarely observed directly and no zoos have specimens. Females reach sexual maturity at 3–4 years of age while the males are sexually mature at 6. Gestation is estimated to occur over a period around 16–19 months. The birth interval for this species is 4–5 years and the calf is weaned at around 2 years. The other four species of rhino all have similar mating behaviors and the presumption is that the Javan Rhino follows suit.<ref name=IZY/> == Conservation == [[Image:Javan Rhino Zimmerman.jpg|thumb|right|A painting from 1861 depicts the hunting of a Javan Rhinoceros.]] {{See also|Rhinoceros#Rhinoceros horns}} The main factor in the continued decline of the Javan Rhinoceros population has been poaching for horns, a problem that affects all rhino species. The horns have been a traded commodity in China for over 2,000 years where they are believed to have healing properties in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Historically, its hide was used to make armor for Chinese soldiers and some local tribes in Vietnam believed the hide can be used to make an antidote for snake venom.<ref name=AP2/> Because the rhinoceros's range encompasses many areas of poverty, it has been difficult to convince local people not to kill a seemingly useless animal which could be sold for a large sum of money.<ref name=Biotropica>{{Cite journal | journal = Biotropica | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 202–303 | year = 2007 | title = The Impact of Hunting on the Mammalian Fauna of Tropical Asian Forests | author = Corlett, Richard T. | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00271.x }}</ref> When the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]] first went into effect in 1975, the Javan Rhinoceros was placed under complete Appendix 1 protection: all international trade in the Javan Rhinoceros and products derived from it is illegal.<ref name=African>{{Citation | last = Emslie | first = R. | coauthors = M. Brooks | year = 1999 | title = African Rhino. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan | publisher = IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK | isbn = 2831705029}}</ref> Surveys of the rhinoceros horn black market have determined that Asian rhinoceros horn fetches a price as high as $30,000 per kilogram, three times the value of African rhinoceros horn.<ref name=Dinerstein/> Loss of habitat because of agriculture has also contributed to its decline, though this is no longer as significant a factor because the rhinoceros only lives in two nationally protected parks. Deteriorating habitats have hindered the recovery of rhino populations that fell victim to poaching. Even with all the conservation efforts, the prospects for the Javan Rhinoceros's survival are grim. Because the populations are restricted to two small areas, they are very susceptible to disease and the problems of inbreeding. Conservation geneticists estimate that a population of 100 rhinos would be needed to preserve the genetic diversity of the species.<ref name=NYT>{{Cite news | title = Racing to Know the Rarest of Rhinos, Before It’s Too Late | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11rhin.html | work = [[The New York Times]] | accessdate = 2007-10-14 | date = [[July 11]], [[2006]] | author = [[Mark Derr|Derr, Mark]] }}</ref> === Ujung Kulon === The Ujung Kulon peninsula was devastated by the eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in 1883. The Javan Rhinoceros recolonized the peninsula after the explosion, but humans never returned in large numbers, thus creating a haven.<ref name=NYT/> In 1931, as the Javan Rhinoceros was on the brink of extinction in Sumatra, the government of Indonésia declared the rhino a legally protected species, which it has remained ever since.<ref name=Foose/> In 1967 when a census was first conducted of the rhinos in Ujung Kulon, only 25 animals were recorded. By 1980 that population had doubled, and has remained steady at about 50 ever since. Although the rhinos in Ujung Kulon have no natural predators, they have to compete for scarce resources with wild cattle which may keep the rhino's numbers below the peninsula's [[carrying capacity]].<ref name=IPS>{{ Cite news | work = [[Inter Press Service]] | title = Environment-Indonesia: Javan Rhinoceros Remains At High Risk | date = [[January 16]], [[2001]] | author = Dursin, Richel }}</ref> Ujung Kulon is managed by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry.<ref name=Foose/> Evidence of at least four baby rhinos was discovered in 2006, the most ever documented for the species.<ref name=BBCpop>{{Cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5305906.stm | date = [[September 1]], [[2006]] | title = Baby boom for near-extinct rhino | author = Williamson, Lucy | work = [[BBC News]] | accessdate = 2007-10-16 }}</ref> === Cat Tien === The few remaining members of ''R.s. annamiticus'' live in the [[Cat Tien National Park]] in Vietnam. Once widespread in Southeast Asia, after the [[Vietnam War]], the Javan Rhinoceros was presumed extinct. The tactics used in the combat wrought havoc on the ecosystems of the region: use of [[napalm]], extensive defoliation from [[Agent Orange]], aerial bombing and use of landmines. The war also flooded the area with inexpensive weapons. After the war, many poor villagers, who previously relied on methods like pit traps, now had deadly weapons at their disposal, enabling them to become efficient poachers. The assumption of the subspecies extinction was challenged when, in 1988, a hunter shot an adult female, proving the species had somehow survived the war. In 1989, scientists surveyed Vietnam's southern forests to search for evidence of other survivors. Fresh rhinoceros tracks belonging to at least 15 rhinos were found along the [[Dong Nai River]].<ref name=AP1>{{Cite news | title = World's Rarest Rhinos Found In War-Ravaged Region of Vietnam | author = Raeburn, Paul | date = [[April 24]], [[1989]] | work = [[Associated Press]] }}</ref> Largely because of the rhinoceros, the region they inhabited became part of the Cat Tien National Park in 1992.<ref name=AP2>{{Cite news | title = Scientists Find Surviving Members of Rhino Species | author = Stanley, Bruce | date = [[June 22]], [[1993]] | work = [[Associated Press]]}}</ref> Their population is feared to have declined in Vietnam, with some conservationists estimating that as few as 3–8 rhinos, and possibly no males, survive.<ref name=BBCpop/><ref name=NYT> Conservationists debate whether or not the Vietnamese Rhinoceros has any chance of survival, with some arguing that rhinos from Indonésia should be introduced in an attempt to save the population, with others arguing that the population could recover.<ref name=Santiapillai/><ref name=WWF>{{Cite web | url = http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/about_species/species_factsheets/rhinoceros/asian_rhinos/javan_rhinoceros/index.cfm | title = Javan Rhinoceros; Rare, mysterious, and highly threatened | date = [[March 28]], [[2007]] | accessdate = 2007-11-04 | work = [[World Wildlife Fund]]}}</ref> --> === Dina kurungan === Taun 1800-an, sahanteuna aya opat badak Sunda dipamérkeun di [[Adelaide]], [[Kalkuta]], jeung [[London]]. Nu kacatet, sakabéhna paling heneuweuh 22 Badak Sunda kungsi dikurungan. Kanyataanana bisa leuwih ti éta, sabab ieu badak sok salah nyebut jadi Badak India<ref name = Garten>{{Cite journal | author = Rookmaaker, L.C. | year = 2005 | title = A Javan rhinoceros, ''Rhinoceros sondaicus'', in Bali in 1839 | journal = Zoologische Garten | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–131}}</ref>. Badak Sunda teu kungsi bisa hirup waluya dina kurungan, paling kolot ukur nepi ka 20 taun (ukur satengahna ti umur nu di alam liar). Nu pamungkas di kandangan paéh di [[Taman Satwa Adelaide]], [[Australia]] taun [[1907]], kitu ogé disebutna Badak India<ref name="van Strien"/>. Gagalna program ngawinkeun Badak Sumatra di taman satwa taun 1980-an jeung 1990-an ngayakinkeun teu mungkinna miara badak<ref name=Dinerstein>{{Cite book | title = The Return of the Unicorns; The Natural History and Conservation of the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros | url = https://archive.org/details/returnofunicorns0000dine | last = Dinerstein | first = Eric | publisher = [[Columbia University Press]] | location = [[New York]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-231-08450-1 }}</ref>. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino/ Javan Rhino Info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120205655/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/javan-rhino |date=2011-01-20 }} & [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 Javan Rhino Pictures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144442/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/index.php?s=1&act=imgs&CODE=tax_images&taxon=7 |date=2007-12-09 }} on the [http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com Rhino Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711150112/http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/ |date=2017-07-11 }} * [[International Rhino Foundation]] dedicated to the conservation of rhinos: [http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ Javan Rhino] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722044955/http://www.rhinos-irf.org/javan/ |date=2011-07-22 }} * [[ARKive]] - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ images and movies of the Javan Rhinoceros ''(Rhinoceros sondaicus)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029165304/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Rhinoceros_sondaicus/ |date=2007-10-29 }} * [http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm UNEP & WCMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720025625/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/javarhin.htm |date=2008-07-20 }} species sheet on the Javan Rhinoceros. {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Rhinocerotidae]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Indonésia]] m8vnejmjz7149jkhjp9trlzpo1c1je9 Anjing 0 28473 712311 711680 2026-08-28T20:33:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Anjing doméstik | fossil_range = [[Pléistosin]] Ahir – Kiwari | status = DOM | image = Coat types 3.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = [[Canidae]] | genus = ''[[Canis]]'' | species = ''[[Gray Wolf|C. lupus]]'' | subspecies = '''''C. l. familiaris''''' | trinomial = ''Canis lupus familiaris'' | trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758) }} '''Anjing''' (''Canis lupus familiaris'') nyaéta [[subspésiés]] [[doméstik]]asi [[ajag]]/srigala hawuk (''grey wolf''), [[mamalia]] ti kulawarga [[Canidae]] ordo [[Carnivora]].<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref> Istilah ieu nujul boh ka nu liar atawa nu [[ingon-ingon|diingu]] sarta kadang dipaké pikeun [[anjing liar]] ti [[subspésiés]] atawa [[spésiés]] séjén. Anjing doméstik dalit jeung manusa, boh keur diala gawéna atawa pikeun kalangenan, jeung—pikeun sababaraha masarakat—pikeun didahar.<ref name=”Rig”/> Di sakuliah jagat, kira-kira aya 400 juta anjing<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref>. Kiwari, anjing geus mekar jadi ratusan [[ternak anjing|turunan]]. Jangkungna (diukur nepi ka tonggong) aya nu ukur sababaraha [[inci]] ([[anjing Chihuahua]]), tapi aya ogé anu nepi ka sababaraha kaki (''[[Irish Wolfhound]]''); [[warna|kelirna]] aya nu [[bodas]], aya ogé nu [[hideung|hideung lestreng]]; sedengkeun buluna ti nu pondok pisan nepi ka sababaraha sénti, ti nu lempeng nepi ka nu galing<ref>''The Complete dog book : the photograph, history, and official standard of every breed admitted to AKC registration, and the selection, training, breeding, care, and feeding of pure-bred dogs.'' New York: Howell Book House, 1992. ISBN 0876054645</ref>. == Taksonomi == Anjing mimitina diasupkeun kana ''Canis familiaris'' jeung "[[Canis familiarus domesticus]]" ku Linnaeus taun 1758<ref>[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=727488 ITIS Standard Report Page: Canis familiarus domesticus]</ref>. Taun 1993, anjing ''diklasifikasi'' ulang jadi subspésiés srigala hawuk, ''Canis lupus'', ku [[Smithsonian Institution]] jeung [[American Society of Mammalogists]]. == Asal-usul == Dumasar kana bukti [[DNA]], karuhun anjing misah ti srigala lianna kira 100.000 taun ka tukang<ref>{{cite journal | last = Vila | first = Carles | coauthors = Carles Vila, Peter Savolainen, Jesus E. Maldonado, Isabel R. Amorim, John E. Rice, Rodney L. Honeycutt, Keith A. Crandall, Joakim Lundeberg, Wayne, Robert F. | date = [[1997-01-30]]; accepted [[1997-04-14]] | title = Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic dog | journal = Science | volume = 276 | pages = 1687–1689 | url = http://www.mnh.si.edu/GeneticsLab/StaffPage/MaldonadoJ/PublicationsCV/Science_Dog_Paper.pdf | format = pdf | accessdate = 2006-12-09 | doi = 10.1126/science.276.5319.1687 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126231726/http://www.mnh.si.edu/GeneticsLab/StaffPage/MaldonadoJ/PublicationsCV/Science_Dog_Paper.pdf |date=2012-01-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Kerstin | first = Lindblad-Toh | coauthors = Claire M Wade, Tarjei S. Mikkelsen, Elinor K. Karlsson, David B. Jaffe, Michael Kamal, Michele Clamp, Jean L. Chang, Edward J. Kulbokas III, Michael C. Zody, Evan Mauceli, Xiaohui Xie, Matthew Breen, Robert K. Wayne, Elaine A. Ostrander, Chris P. Ponting, Francis Galibert, Douglas R. Smith, Pieter J. deJong, Ewen Kirkness, Pablo Alvarez, Tara Biagi, William Brockman, Jonathan Butler, Chee-Wye Chin, April Cook, James Cuff, Mark J. Daly, David DeCaprio, Sante Gnerre, Manfred Grabherr, Manolis Kellis, Michael Kleber, Carolyne Bardeleben, Leo Goodstadt, Andreas Heger, Christophe Hitte, Lisa Kim, Klaus-Peter Koepfli, Heidi G. Parker, John P. Pollinger, Stephen M. J. Searle, Nathan B. Sutter, Rachael Thomas, Caleb Webber | date = [[2005-12-08]] | title = Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog | journal = Nature | volume = 438 | pages = 803–819 | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7069/abs/nature04338.html | doi = 10.1038/nature04338 }}</ref>, sarta mimiti diingu tina srigala hawuk kira 15.000 taun ka tukang<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2498669.stm | title = Origin of dogs traced | accessdate = 2006-11-29 | last = McGourty | first = Christine | date = [[2002-11-22]] | publisher = BBC News }}</ref>. Ku kituna, anjing téh jadi spésiés munggaran anu didoméstikasi ku [[manusa]]. Bukti nu aya nunjukkeun yén anjing téh munggaran didoméstikasi di Asia Wétan, sigana di [[Cina]] <ref name=Savolainen_et_al_2002>{{cite journal | first = Peter | last = Savolainen | coauthors = Ya-ping Zhang, Jing Luo, Joakim Lundeberg, and Thomas Leitner | date = [[2002-11-22]] | title = Genetic Evidence for an East Asian Origin of Domestic Dogs | journal = Science | volume = 298 | issue = 5598 | pages = 1610–1613 | doi = 10.1126/science.1073906 | url = http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...298.1610S }}</ref>, sedengkeun nu aya di Amérika Kalér mah istuning bawaan ti Asia<ref name=Savolainen_et_al_2002/>. Nuturkeun ngumbarana manusa ka sakuliah dunya, anjing lahir jadi rupa-rupa. [[Révolusi Néolitik|Révolusi tatanén]] jeung masarakatna lajeng ngadorong tumuwuhna populasi anjing sarta lahirna kabutuh kana anjing anu boga kabisa husus. Kaayaan ieu ngadorong ayana kawin seléktif ngarah ngahasilkeun anjing anu boga kabisa. ===Katurunan jeung sajarah doméstikasi=== {{main|Origin of the domestic dog}} [[Image:DogMosaic wb.jpg|thumb|right|Ieu mozaik kuna, kawasna Romawi, nempokeun hiji anjing gedé make panyangcang diba beuheung keur moro jeung hiji singa.]] <!-- [[Molecular systematics]] indicate that the domestic dog (''Canis lupus familiaris'') descends from one or more populations of wild wolves (''Canis lupus''). As reflected in the [[Binomial nomenclature|nomenclature]], dogs are descended from the wolf and are able to interbreed with wolves. The relationship between human and canine has deep roots. Converging archaeological and genetic evidence indicate a time of [[domestication]] in the late [[Upper Paleolithic]] close to the [[Pleistocene]]/[[Holocene]] boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago. [[Fossil]] bone morphologies and genetic analysis of current and ancient dog and wolf populations have not yet been able to conclusively determine whether all dogs descend from a single domestication event, or whether dogs were domesticated independently in more than one location. Domesticated dogs may have interbred with local populations of wild wolves on several occasions (a process known in [[genetics]] as [[introgression]]). The earliest dog fossils, two [[skull|crania]] from [[Russia]] and a [[mandible]] from [[Germany]], date from 13,000 to 17,000 years ago. Their likely ancestor is the large northern [[Holarctic]] wolf, ''Canis lupus lupus''. Remains of smaller dogs from [[Mesolithic]] ([[Natufian]]) cave deposits in the [[Middle East]], dated to around 12,000 years ago, have been interpreted as descendants of a lighter Southwest Asian wolf, ''Canis lupus Arabs''. [[Rock art]] and skeletal remains indicate that by 14,000 years ago, dogs were present from [[North Africa]] across [[Eurasia]] to [[North America]]. Dog burials at the [[Mesolithic]] cemetery of Svaerdborg in Denmark suggest that in ancient Europe dogs were valued companions. Genetic analyses have so far yielded divergent results. Vilà, Savolainen, and colleagues (1997) concluded that the ancestors of dogs split off from other wolves between 75,000 and 135,000 years ago, while a subsequent analysis by Savolainen et al. (2002) indicated a "common origin from a single gene pool for all dog populations" between 40,000 and 15,000 years ago in [[East Asia]]. Verginelli et al. (2005), however, suggest both sets of dates must be reevaluated in light of recent findings showing that poorly calibrated molecular clocks have systematically overestimated the age of geologically recent events. On balance, and in agreement with the archaeological evidence, 15,000 years ago is the most likely time for the wolf-dog divergence.<ref>''The natural history of the dog,'' Richard and Alice Fiennes. London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968. ISBN 0297764551</ref> The Soviets have attempted to domesticate the fox, mentioned in the article [[Tame Silver Fox]], and were able to do so in just nine generations, or less than a human lifetime. This also resulted in other changes, including color, which became black, white, or black and white. They also developed year-round breeding ability, curled-up tails, and droopy ears. The rapidity of this change has suggested to researchers a scenario of the [[origin of the domestic dog]]. Primitive people lived on the edge of survival which involved occasional food shortages, and would not have taken wolf pups and made pets of them. However, wolves would raid garbage dumps near human habitations. Wolves have a flight distance which they keep between themselves and a threatening creature. When a dump was approached by humans, some wolves would run a greater distance from the dump than others. Those that ran the shortest distance would return first, and obtain the greatest amount of food. This set up a selective breeding situation that resulted in a strain of wolves having shorter and shorter flight distances, until they were eventually comfortable near humans, having domesticated themselves, so to speak. At that point, they were tolerated by humans, so long as they were also useful, in such ways as catching rats or driving away other predators. In time, other uses, such as hunting, were found for them. [http://www.floridalupine.org/publications/PDF/trut-fox-study.pdf The Farm Fox Experiment] [http://science.howstuffworks.com/dog2.htm Evolution of Dogs] ===Development of dog breeds=== {{main|Dog breeds}} [[Image:Cavalier King Charles Spaniel trio.jpg|thumb|right|Dogs have been bred into a variety of shapes, colors and sizes. Variation can be wide even within a breed, as with these [[Cavalier King Charles Spaniel]]s.]] There are numerous [[dog breed]]s, with [[List of dog breeds|over 800]] being recognized by various [[kennel club]]s worldwide. Many dogs, especially outside the United States of America and Western Europe, belong to no recognized breed. A few basic [[:Category:Dog types|breed types]] have evolved gradually during the domesticated dog's relationship with humans over the last 10,000 or more years, but all modern breeds are of relatively recent derivation. Many of these are the product of a deliberate process of [[artificial selection]]. Because of this, some breeds are highly specialized, and there is extraordinary morphological diversity across different breeds. Despite these differences, dogs are able to distinguish dogs from other kinds of animal. The definition of a dog breed is a matter of some controversy. Depending on the size of the original founding population, closed gene pool breeds can have problems with inbreeding, specifically due to the [[founder effect]]. Dog breeders are increasingly aware of the importance of population genetics and of maintaining diverse gene pools. Health testing and new DNA tests can help avoid problems, by providing a replacement for natural selection. Without selection, inbreeding and closed gene pools can increase the risk of severe health or behavioral problems. Some organizations define a breed more loosely, such that an individual may be considered of one breed as long as 75% of its parentage is of that breed. These considerations affect both pets and the show dogs entered in [[conformation show|dog shows]]. Even prize-winning [[purebred]] dogs sometimes possess crippling [[Genetic disorder|genetic defects]] due to founder effect or [[inbreeding]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Shook | first = Larry | title = The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog | publisher = Ballantine |date=1995 | location = New York | pages = 57–72 | id = ISBN 0-345-38439-3 }}</ref> These problems are not limited to [[purebred]] dogs and can affect cross-breed populations.<ref>{{cite book | last = Shook | first = Larry | title = The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog | publisher = Ballantine |date=1995 | location = New York | pages = 13–34 | id = ISBN 0-345-38439-3 }}</ref> The behavior and appearance of a dog of a particular breed can be predicted to a degree, while mixed-breed dogs show a broader range of innovative appearance and behavior. [[Image:Young mixed-breed dog (aka).jpg|thumb|250px|left|This puppy is a [[Mixed-breed dog|mix of many breeds]].]] [[Mixed-breed dog]]s or [[Mongrel]]s (also called "mutts") are dogs that do not belong to specific breeds, being mixtures more than two in variant percentages. Mixed breed dogs and purebred dogs are both suitable as companions, [[pet]]s, [[working dog]]s, or competitors in [[dog sports]]. Sometimes different breed dogs are deliberately bred, to create cross-breeds such as the Cockapoo, a mixture of Cocker Spaniel and Miniature [[Poodle]]. Such deliberate crosses may display some degree of [[hybrid vigor]] and other desirable traits, but may or may not inherit any of the desired traits of their parents, such as temperament or a particular color or coat. Without genetic testing of the parents, the crosses can end up inheriting genetic defects that occur in both parental breeds. A breed is a group of animals that possesses a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes it from other animals within the same species. Deliberately crossing two or more breeds is also a manner of establishing new breeds, but it is only a breed when offspring will reliably demonstrate that particular set of characteristics and qualities. [[Image:Buldog angielski 000pl.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The [[Bulldog]] is well known for its short muzzle and saggy skin on its face]] ====Breed popularity==== Breed popularity varies widely over time<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.slate.com/id/2122298/ | title = Why Americans Love Labrador retrievers | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | last = Koerner | first = Brendan I. | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = [[2005-01-08]] | publisher = Slate Magazine Online }}</Ref> and in different parts of the world and different segments of the population. Counting by [[American Kennel Club]] (AKC) registration (not by [[dog licence|licensing registration]] or by [[United Kennel Club]] (UKC) registration, which could present different statistics), the [[Labrador Retriever]] has been the United States's most commonly registered breed of dog since 1991.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.akc.org/news/index.cfm?article_id=2389 | title = Labrador Retriever Tops According to AKC's 2004 Registration Statistics | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | date = [[2005-01-12]] | publisher = American Kennel Club }}</Ref> However, even within parts of the United States, popularity varies; for example, in 2005 the most-registered breed in New York City was the [[Poodle]] while the [[Yorkshire Terrier]] was the second-most-registered breed in [[Houston]].<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.akc.org/reg/topdogsbycity.cfm | title = Top Breeds By City | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = American Kennel Club }}</Ref> However, animal shelters in many parts of the United States report that the most-commonly available dog for adoption is the [[American Pit Bull Terrier]] or pit bull-type mixes, making up as much as 20% of dogs available for adoption, none of which would be registered with the AKC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=cruelty_pitbull |title=Pit Bull Cruelty |publisher=American Society for the Prevention of cruelty to Animals |accessdate = 2007-05-11}}</ref> Two decades ago, in 1983, the AKC's top two registered breeds were the [[American Cocker Spaniel]] and the [[Poodle]].<ref>{{cite book|title=World Almanac and Book of Facts|year=1985|publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association (Doubleday)}}</ref> In the [[United Kingdom]], [[The Kennel Club]] reports that the most-registered breed from at least 1999 to 2005 was the Labrador Retriever. It rounds out the top three for 1999 to 2005 with the [[German Shepherd Dog]], also popular in the US, and the [[English Cocker Spaniel]]<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/pressoffice/press_top20.html | title = The Kennel Club's top twenty of registered breeds | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = The Kennel Club }}</Ref> , which is no longer in the top ten in the US. In the UK, a national dog adoption and rescue service indicates that the most common breed appearing in shelters is the Greyhound followed by the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. <Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.dogsblog.com | title = UK dog adoption and rescue service | accessdate = 2007-05-05 | publisher = Dogs Blog }}</Ref> ==Physical characteristics== {{main|Dog anatomy}}{{see also|Dog health}} [[Image:DogWolf.jpg|200px|thumb|Comparative drawing of dog and wolf anatomy by [[Ernest Thompson Seton]]. Note the proportionately smaller head of the dog]] Modern [[dog breed]]s show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Within the range of extremes, dogs generally share attributes with their wild ancestors, the [[Gray Wolf|wolves]]. Dogs are [[predator]]s and [[scavenger]]s, possessing sharp teeth and strong jaws for attacking, holding, and tearing their food. Although selective breeding has changed the appearance of many breeds, all dogs retain basic traits from their distant ancestors. Like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wristbones, a [[cardiovascular]] system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing. Unlike humans which are [[plantigrade]], dogs are [[digitigrade]]. ===Differences from other canids=== Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 10% smaller brains, as well as proportionately smaller teeth than other canid species.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. Their diet of human refuse in antiquity made the large brains and jaw muscles needed for hunting unnecessary. It is thought by certain experts that the dog's limp ears are a result of [[atrophy]] of the jaw muscles.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some [[Inuit]] tribes favouring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Unlike wolves, but like coyotes, domestic dogs have sweat glands on their paw pads.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves.<ref name="Lopez">{{cite book | author = Lopez, Barry | title = Of wolves and men | url = https://archive.org/details/ofwolvesmen0000lope | year = 1978 | pages = pp.320 | id = ISBN 0743249364}}</ref> ===Sight=== [[Image:Greyhound portrait.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Greyhound]], one of many breeds of [[sighthound]]]] Like most mammals, dogs are [[dichromat]]s and have color vision equivalent to red-green [[color blindness]] in humans.<ref name="note1">A&E Television Networks (1998). ''Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E special presentation'', A Lookout Book, GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9 (hardcover).</ref><ref name="note2">Alderton, David (1984). ''The Dog'', Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = Jennifer Davis | title = Dr. P's Dog Training: Vision in Dogs & People | work = | publisher = | date = [[1998]] | url = http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/dog/LA/davis2.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2008-06-06 }}</ref> Different breeds of dogs have different eye shapes and dimensions, and they also have different [[retina]] configurations.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = Jonica Newby, Caroline Penry-Davey | title = Catalyst: Dogs' Eyes | work = | publisher = Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date = [[2003-09-25]] | url = http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s953902.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2006-11-26 }}</ref> Dogs with long noses have a "''visual streak''" which runs across the width of the retina and gives them a very wide field of excellent vision, while those with short noses have an "''area centralis''" — a central patch with up to three times the density of nerve endings as the ''visual streak'' — giving them detailed sight much more like a human's. Some breeds, particularly the [[sighthound]]s, have a field of vision up to 270° (compared to 180° for humans), although broad-headed breeds with short noses have a much narrower field of vision, as low as 180°.<ref name="note1" /><ref name="note2" /> ===Hearing=== Dogs detect sounds as low as the 16 to 20 [[Hertz|Hz]] frequency range (compared to 20 to 70 Hz for humans) and above 45 kHz<ref>[http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/HearingRange.html How well do dogs and other animals hear]</ref> (compared to 13 to 20 kHz for humans),<ref name="note2" /> and in addition have a degree of ear mobility that helps them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound. Eighteen or more muscles can tilt, rotate and raise or lower a dog's ear. Additionally, a dog can identify a sound's location much faster than a human can, as well as hear sounds up to four times the distance that humans are able to. Those with more natural ear shapes, like those of wild canids like the fox, generally hear better than those with the floppier ears of many domesticated species. ===Smell=== [[Image:Bloodhund r54.jpg|thumb|Scent hounds, especially the [[Bloodhound]], are iconic for their keen sense of smell.]] Dogs have nearly 220 million smell-sensitive cells over an area about the size of a pocket [[handkerchief]] (compared to 5 million over an area the size of a [[postage stamp]] for humans). Some breeds have been selectively bred for excellence in detecting scents, even compared to their canine brethren. What information a dog actually detects when he is scenting is not perfectly understood; although once a matter of debate, it now seems to be well established that dogs can distinguish two different types of scents: an air scent from some person or thing that has recently passed by, and a ground scent that remains detectable for a much longer period. The characteristics and behavior of these two types of scent trail would seem, after some thought, to be quite different, the air scent being intermittent but perhaps less obscured by competing scents, whereas the ground scent would be relatively permanent with respect to careful and repetitive search by the dog, but would seem to be much more contaminated with other scents. In any event, it is established by those who train tracking dogs that it is impossible to teach the dog how to track any better than it does naturally; the object instead is to motivate it properly, and teach it to maintain focus on a single track and ignore any others that might otherwise seem of greater interest to an untrained dog. An intensive search for a scent, for instance searching a ship for contraband, can actually be very fatiguing for a dog, and the dog must be motivated to continue this hard work for a long period of time. ===Coat color=== Domestic dogs often display the remnants of counter-shading, a common natural camouflage pattern. The general theory of countershading is that an animal that is lit from above will appear lighter on its upper half and darker on its lower half where it will usually be in its own shade. This is a pattern that predators can learn to watch for. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below. This reduces the general visibility of the animal. One reminder of this pattern is that many breeds will have the occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or undersides. ===Tail=== There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, cork-screw. In some breeds, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries (especially for hunting dogs). It can happen that some puppies are born with a short tail or no tail in some breeds.<ref>[ http://www.braquedubourbonnais.info/en/tail-genetics.htm Bourbonnais pointer or ‘short tail pointer’]</ref> ===Sprint metabolism=== Dogs can generate large amounts of energy for a short period of time. A dog's heart and lungs are oversized relative to its body and its normal everyday needs. A dog also has relatively more red blood cells than a human. Most of the time the dog will keep the extra red blood cells stored in its spleen. When the animal enters into a situation where its full metabolism is required, such as play, catching game, or fighting other dogs, the extra cells are released into the bloodstream. The "oversized" heart and lungs will now be running at full capacity, and the animal will have an enhanced ability to engage in aerobic activity. This activity will produce internal heating. Dogs, being covered in fur, are limited in their ability to cool down. After a short time the animal must either cease its athletic activity or risk harming itself from overheating. One can easily observe this pattern of intense activity followed by rest periods in puppies. During the rest phase the spleen collects red blood cells and the animal may pant to cool down. ==Behavior and intelligence== {{see|:Category:Dog training and behavior}} [[Image:American water spaniel 01.jpg|thumb|right|Many dogs, such as this [[American Water Spaniel]], have had their natural hunting instincts suppressed or altered to suit human needs.]] [[Image:Golden Retriever agility teeter.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Many dogs can be trained to skillfully perform tasks not natural to canines, such as in this [[dog agility]] competition.]] Dogs are very social animals, but their personality and behavior vary with breed as well as how they are treated by their owners and others who come in contact with them. It is not uncommon for dogs to [[dog attack|attack]] humans and other animals; however, this is usually because of lack of care or improper upbringing by its owner. ===Differences from other canids=== Dogs tend to be poorer than wolves and [[coyote]]s at [[observational learning]], being more responsive to [[instrumental conditioning]].<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Feral dogs show little of the complex social structure or dominance hierarchy present in wolf packs. For dogs, other members of their kind are of no help in locating food items, and are more like competitors.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies showing that unlike their wild cousins, they are poor [[ungulate]] hunters, having little impact on wildlife populations where they are [[sympatric]]. Free ranging pet dogs however are more prone to predatory behaviour toward wild animals. Feral dogs have been reported to be effective hunters of reptiles in the [[Galapagos islands]].<ref name="Evolution">{{cite book | author= Serpell, James| title=The Domestic Dog; its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people | url= https://archive.org/details/domesticdogitsev00serp| year=1995 | pages= p267 | id=0-521-42537-9 }}</ref> ===Intelligence=== {{main|Dog intelligence}} Dogs are valued for their intelligence. This intelligence is expressed differently with different breeds and individuals, however. For example, [[Border Collie]]s are noted for their ability to learn commands, while other breeds may not be so motivated towards obedience, but instead show their cleverness in devising ways to steal food or escape from a yard. Being highly adaptable animals themselves, dogs have learned to do many jobs as required by humans over the generations. Dogs are employed in various roles across the globe, proving invaluable assets in areas such as search-and-rescue; law enforcement (including attack dogs, sniffer dogs and tracking dogs); guards for livestock, people or property; herding; Arctic exploration sled-pullers; guiding the blind and acting as a pair of ears for the deaf; assisting with hunting, and a great many other roles which they may be trained to assume. Most dogs rarely have to deal with complex tasks and are unlikely to learn relatively complicated activities (such as opening doors) unaided. Some dogs (such as [[guide dog]]s for the visually impaired) are specially trained to recognize and avoid dangerous situations. ====Evaluation of a dog's intelligence==== The meaning of "intelligence" in general, not only in reference to dogs, is hard to define. Some tests measure problem-solving abilities and others test the ability to learn in comparison to others of the same age. Defining it for dogs is just as difficult. It is likely that dogs do not have the ability to premeditate an action to solve a problem. [[Image:NICO looks at himself.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A [[mirror test]] is one possible measure of self-awareness.]] For example, the ability to learn quickly could be a sign of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. Conversely it could be interpreted as a sign of a desire to please. In contrast, some dogs who do not learn very quickly may have other talents. An example is breeds that are not particularly interested in pleasing their owners, such as [[Siberian Husky|Siberian Huskies]]. Huskies are often fascinated with the myriad of possibilities for escaping from yards, catching small animals, and often figuring out on their own numerous inventive ways of doing both. [[Assistance dog]]s are also required to be obedient at all times. This means they must learn a tremendous number of commands, understand how to act in a large variety of situations, and recognize threats to their human companion, some of which they might never before have encountered. Many owners of [[livestock guardian dog|livestock guardian]] breeds believe that breeds like the [[Great Pyrenees]] or the [[Kuvasz]] are not easily trained because their stubborn nature prevents them from seeing the point of such commands as “sit” or “down”. [[Hounds]] may also suffer from this type of ranking. These dogs are bred to have more of a "pack" mentality with other dogs and less reliance on a master's direct commands. While they may not have the same kind of intelligence as a Border Collie, they were not bred to learn and obey commands quickly, but to think for themselves while trailing game. ===Human relationships=== [[Image:Iraq dog.jpg|right|thumb|A [[U.S. Army]] Staff Sgt. and his military working dog wait at a safe house before conducting an assault against insurgents in [[Buhriz]], [[Iraq]] on [[April 10]] [[2007]].]] Dogs are highly [[social animal]]s. This can account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations. These attributes have earned dogs a unique position in the realm of interspecies relationships despite being one of the most effective, voracious, and potentially dangerous predators. Dogs and humans at times co-operate in some of the most effective [[hunting]] in the animal world; in that context, dogs are [[superpredator]]s. The loyalty and devotion that dogs demonstrate as part of their natural instincts as pack animals closely mimics the human idea of love and friendship, leading many dog owners to view their pets as full-fledged family members. Conversely, dogs seem to view their human companions as members of their pack, and make few, if any, distinctions between their owners and fellow dogs. Dogs fill a variety of roles in [[human society]] and are often trained as [[working dog]]s. For dogs that do not have traditional jobs, a wide range of [[dog sports]] provide the opportunity to exhibit their natural skills. In many countries, the most common and perhaps most important role of dogs is as [[companion dog|companions]]. Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that their loyalty has earned them the unique [[sobriquet]] "man's best friend".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.almostheaven-golden-retriever-rescue.org/old-drum.html | title = The Story of Old Drum | accessdate = 2006-11-29 | publisher = Cedarcroft Farm Bed & Breakfast - Warrensburg, MO }}</ref> However, some cultures consider dogs to be [[unclean animals|unclean]]. In some parts of the world, dogs are raised as [[livestock]] to produce [[dog meat]] for human consumption. In many places, consumption of dog meat is discouraged by social convention or [[Taboo food and drink|cultural taboo]]. ===Dog communication=== {{main|Dog communication}} ==Reproduction== [[Image:Licking the staffy pup.JPG|thumb|Dogs develop their own [[Dog society|societies]]. Puppies participate with their littermates in learning to relate to other dogs. Dogs learn to successfully relate to other dogs by keeping the peace, rather than by constantly fighting to reestablish this hierarchy.]] ===Differences from other canids=== Unlike most other canids, dogs are not [[monogamous]], and breeding in feral packs is not restricted to a dominant alpha pair (despite common belief, such things also occur in wolf packs<ref>Günther Bloch: Die Pizza-Hunde. ISBN 9783440109861</ref>). Male dogs are unusual among canids by the fact that they mostly play no role in raising their puppies, and do not kill the young of other females to increase their own reproductive success.<ref name="Evolution">{{cite book | author= Serpell, James| title=The Domestic Dog; its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people | url= https://archive.org/details/domesticdogitsev00serp| year=1995 | pages= p267 | id=0-521-42537-9 }}</ref> Dogs differ from wolves and most other large canid species by the fact that they do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the same territory.<ref name="DOGS">{{cite book | author= Coppinger, Ray | title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution | url= https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym | year=2001 | pages= p352 | id=0684855305 }}</ref> However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of food for the young as well as care for the young by the males has been observed in domestic dogs, dingos as well as in other feral or semi-feral dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females and direct choosing of only one mate has been observed even in those semi-feral dogs of direct domestic dog ancestry. So it is sometimes suggested, that the absence of this behavior was unknowingly caused by artificial selection by humans.<ref>Günther Bloch: Die Pizza-Hunde. ISBN 9783440109861</ref> <ref>Eberhard Trumler, Mit dem Hund auf du; Zum Verständnis seines Wesens und Verhaltens; 4. Auflage Januar 1996; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, München</ref> ===Life cycle=== {{main|Canine reproduction}} In domestic dogs, sexual maturity ([[puberty]]) begins to happen around age 6 to 12 months for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. [[Adolescence]] for most domestic dogs is around 12 to 15 months, beyond which they are for the most part more adult than puppy. As with other domesticated species, [[domestication]] has selectively bred for higher [[libido]] and earlier and more frequent breeding cycles in dogs, than in their wild ancestors. Dogs remain reproductively active until old age. [[Image:Australian Shepherd puppy red merle.jpg|thumb|right|An Australian Shepherd Puppy Red Merle]] Most female dogs have their first [[estrous cycle]] between 6 and 12 months, although some larger breeds delay until as late as 2 years. Females experience estrous cycles biannually, during which her body prepares for [[pregnancy]], and at the peak she will come into [[estrus]], during which time she will be mentally and physically receptive to [[copulation]]. Dogs bear their litters roughly 56 to 72 days after [[fertilization]], although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six [[puppy|puppies]], though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. [[Toy dog]]s generally produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as 12 pups in each litter. ===Spaying and neutering=== {{Main|Spaying and neutering}} Neutering (spaying females and castrating males) refers to the [[Sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]] of animals, usually by removal of the male's [[testicle]]s or the female's [[ovary|ovaries]] and [[uterus]], in order to eliminate the ability to procreate, and reduce sex drive. Neutering has also been known to reduce aggression in male dogs, but has been shown to occasionally increase aggression in female dogs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heidenberger E, Unshelm J |title=[Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration] |language=German |journal=Tierärztliche Praxis |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |year=1990 |pmid=2326799 |doi=}}</ref> [[Image:CatahoulaLitter wb.jpg|left|thumb|A [[Catahoula Leopard Dog|Catahoula Leopard]] mother nursing her litter of puppies.]] Animal control agencies in the United States and the [[ASPCA]] advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=adopt_spayneuter |title=Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet |publisher=American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals |accessdate = 2007-05-16}}</ref> Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, puppies born to strays or as the result of accidental breedings often end up being killed in animal shelters. Neutering can also decrease or eliminate the risk of hormone-driven diseases such as mammary cancer, as well as undesired hormone-driven behaviors. However, certain medical problems are more likely after neutering, such as [[urinary incontinence]] in females<ref>{{cite journal |author=Arnold S |title=[Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis] |language=German |journal=Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilkd. |volume=139 |issue=6 |pages=271–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9411733 |doi=}}</ref> and [[prostate cancer]] in males.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnston SD, Kamolpatana K, Root-Kustritz MV, Johnston GR |title=Prostatic disorders in the dog |journal=Anim. Reprod. Sci. |volume=60-61 |issue= |pages=405–15 |year=2000 |pmid=10844211 |doi=}}</ref> The hormonal changes involved with sterilization are likely to somewhat change the animal's personality, however, and some object to neutering as the sterilization could be carried out without the excision of organs. It is not essential for a female dog to either experience a heat cycle or have puppies before spaying, and likewise, a male dog does not need the experience of mating before castration. Female cats and dogs are seven times more likely to develop [[mammary tumor]]s if they are not spayed before their first [[estrus cycle|heat cycle]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Morrison, Wallace B.|title=Cancer in Dogs and Cats (1st ed.)|publisher=Williams and Wilkins|year=1998|id=ISBN 0-683-06105-4}}</ref> Dog food containing [[soybean]]s or soybean fractions have been found to contain [[phytoestrogens]] in levels that could have biological effects when ingested longterm.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cerundolo R, Court MH, Hao Q, Michel KE |title=Identification and concentration of soy phytoestrogens in commercial dog foods |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-veterinary-research_2004-05_65_5/page/592 |journal=Am. J. Vet. Res. |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=592–6 |year=2004 |pmid=15141878 |doi=}}</ref> Gender-preservative surgeries such as vasectomy and tubal ligation are possible, but do not appear to be popular due to the continuation of gender-specific behaviors and disease risks. ===Overpopulation=== ====United States==== According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 million dogs and cats are [[euthanasia|put down]] each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.<Ref> {{cite journal | quotes = Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted, failure of owners to spay and castrate their animals is a major contributing factor. | last = Mahlow | first = Jane C. | year = 1999 | title = Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association (excerpt quoted by spayusa.org) | volume = 215 | pages = 640–643 | url = http://www.spayusa.org/main_directory/02-facts_and_education/stats_surveys/javma_articles/02dogs-cats-sterilized.asp | accessdate = 2006-11-30 }}</Ref> Local humane societies, SPCAs and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them. Several notable public figures have spoken out against animal over population, including [[Bob Barker#Animal rights|Bob Barker]]. On his [[game show]], ''[[The Price Is Right (U.S. game show)|The Price Is Right]]'', Barker stressed the problem at the end of every episode, saying: "Help control the pet population. Have your pets spayed or neutered." The current host, [[Drew Carey]], makes a similar plea at the conclusion of each episode. [[Image:July 2008 Colombia ;- 387.jpg|thumb|bottom|280px|none|Homeless dog in streets of Bogota Colombia]] ==Working, utility and assistance dogs== {{main|Working dog}} There are several types of working dogs: [[Image:Working dog edit.jpg|thumb|right|Working dogs most commonly are purebreds that had been bred for certain traits, however working [[mixed-breed dog]]s are not uncommon.]] * [[Assistance dog]]s which help the seeing and hearing-impaired. Others are trained to help those with epilepsy and psychiatric disorders, by detecting the onset of the condition so they can seek help. The typical assistance dog is a sociable breed such as a [[Labrador Retriever]]. * The [[detection dog]], which is a dog trained to and works at using its senses (almost always the sense of smell) to detect substances such as explosives or [[illegal drugs]]. * [[Guard dog]]s are trained for personal protection, or to protect property. These are commonly [[Doberman pinscher|Doberman Pinschers]], [[German shepherd|German Shepherds]] and [[Rottweiler]]s as well as dogs of other breeds that have protection instinct. * [[Herding dogs]] can be trained to help the herder to move the herded animals, such as [[sheep]]. [[Australian Cattle Dog]], [[Border Collie]], and [[German Shepherd]] are common herding breeds. * [[Hunting dog]]s can be trained to assist the hunter. [[Terrier]]s and [[retriever]]s are hunting breeds. * [[Police dogs]], typically German Shepherds, are trained to assist law enforcement officers. * [[Search and rescue dog|Search and Rescue dogs]] also known as SAR dogs, are specially trained to search for missing humans. The archetypal breed is the [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]]. Nowadays, many dogs of other breeds, such as [[German Shepherd]] and [[Doberman Pinscher]] are trained to perform this task. * [[search and rescue dog|Rescue at sea dogs]] - [[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]] * [[Therapy dog]]s, with friendly and gentle temperaments, trained to provide comfort and affection to hospitalized and institutionalized patients. * The [[war dog]], used by the military to detect mines and enemy soldiers. * [[Livestock guardian dogs|Livestock Guardian dog]], are used to protect livestock in the range against predators and theft. [[Maremma Sheepdog]] and [[Anatolian Shepherd Dog]] are typical livestock guardians. ==Show and sport (competition) dogs== [[Image:German Shepherds WKC dogshow.jpg|thumb|[[German Shepherd Dog]]s at the [[Westminster Kennel Club]] dog show]] {{main|Dog sports}} Owners of dogs often enter them in competitions, whether show (breed conformation shows) or sports, including dog racing & dog sledding. The winners garner much prestige and prize money. These dogs are often bred specifically for competition, which may not be entirely beneficial for the breeds due to the magnification of hereditary defects. *[[Dog agility]] is a sport in which dogs complete a timed obstacle course. *[[Dogsled racing]] is a winter sport where a team of dogs, usually high performance mixed breed dogs called [[alaskan husky|Alaskan Huskies]] or [[Eurohound]]s, pull a sled and driver (called a [[mushing|musher]]). The [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] is perhaps the most famous of these races. [[Dog sled]]ding is an ancient form of transportation and still a very effective way of moving freight across this type of terrain. *[[Dog racing]], almost always [[Greyhounds]], involves dogs racing at betting tracks in a sport not unlike [[horseracing]], reaching speeds of 40 miles per hour. Elsewhere, [[Dachshunds]] are often raced, as a humorous sidelight in charity events. *[[Dog fighting]] and [[Bait (dogs)|dog baiting]] are [[blood sports]] involving dogs. They are illegal in most jurisdictions, but are still performed underground. In some areas, the illegal practice is thriving.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12104472 |title=Illegal Dogfighting Rings Thrive in U.S. Cities |author=Brian Mann |date=[[July 20]], [[2007]] |publisher=National Public Radio |accessdate = 2007-10-07}}</ref> *[[Conformation show]]ing is a sport in which purebred dogs are shown and evaluated for how closely they match the ideal characteristics of the breed. The [[Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show]] is one of the most famous of this type of competition. ==Dog health== {{main|Dog health}} {{further|[[:Category:Dog health]]}} ===Morbidity (illness)=== Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which affect humans in the same way, others of which are unique to dogs. Dogs, like all mammals, are also susceptible to heat exhaustion when dealing with high levels of humidity and/or extreme temperatures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.dasnr.okstate.edu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=257&Itemid=103 |title=Summer heat can be tough on pets |accessdate = 2006-08-21 | first = Trisha | last = Gedon | date = [[2006-05-25]] | work = Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources | publisher = Oklahoma State University }}</ref> ====Diseases==== Infectious diseases commonly associated with dogs include [[rabies]] (hydrophobia), [[canine parvovirus]], and [[canine distemper]]. Inherited diseases of dogs can include a wide range from elbow or [[hip dysplasia]] and [[luxating patella|medial patellar luxation]] to [[Epilepsy in animals|epilepsy]] and [[pulmonic stenosis]]. Canines can get just about anything a human can get (excluding many infections which are species specific) like hypothyroidism, cancer, dental disease, heart disease, etc. Two serious medical conditions affecting dogs are [[pyometra]], affecting [[spay and neuter|unspayed]] females of all types and ages, and [[bloat]], which affects the larger breeds or deep chested dogs. Both of these are [[Acute (medical)|acute]] conditions, and can kill rapidly; owners of dogs which may be at risk should learn about such conditions as part of good animal care. {{see also|Vaccination of dogs}} [[Image:Terrier mixed-breed dog.jpg|thumb|[[Mixed-breed dog|First generation hybrids]] (such as this terrier mix) often are healthier than either parent due to the genetic phenomenon of [[heterosis]] or "hybrid vigor".]] ====Parasites==== Common external parasites are various species of [[flea]]s, [[tick]]s, and [[mites]]. Internal parasites include [[hookworm]]s, [[tapeworm]]s, [[roundworm]]s, and [[heartworms]]. See also [[CVBD]] (Canine Vector-Borne Diseases). ====Common physical disorders==== Some breeds of dogs are also prone to certain genetic ailments, such as [[hip dysplasia]], [[luxating patella]]s, [[cleft palate]], [[blindness]], or [[hearing impairment|deafness]]. Dogs are also susceptible to the same ailments that humans are, including [[Diabetes in cats and dogs|diabetes]], [[epilepsy]], [[cancer]], and [[arthritis]]. [[Gastric torsion]] and [[bloat]] is a dangerous problem in some large-chested breeds. ===Mortality (lifespan and causes of death)=== {{Main|Aging in dogs}} The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds. Based on questionnaire surveys of owners in the UK, Denmark, USA, and Canada, the median longevity of most dog breeds is between 10 and 13 years.<ref name="KC Survey">[http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570 Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee]. 2004. Purebred Dog Health Survey. Retrieved [[July 5]] [[2007]] </ref><ref name="Denmark Survey">Proschowsky, H. F., H. Rugbjerg, and A. K. Ersbell. 2003. Mortality of purebred and mixed-breed dogs in Denmark. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 58:63-74. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12628771&query_hl=5&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref><ref name="British Owners">Michell, A. R., 1999. Longevity of British breeds of dog and its relationships with sex, size, cardiovascular variables and disease. Veterinary Record 145:625-629. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10619607&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref><ref name="Cassidy Data">[http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm Dog Longevity Web Site], Breed Data page. Compiled by K. M. Cassidy. Retrieved [[July 8]] [[2007]]</ref> The breed with the dubious distinction of the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terrier, Bulldog, Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retriever, Bloodhound, Irish Wolfhound, Greater Swiss Mountain Dog, Great Dane, and Mastiff, are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities between 6 and 7 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/> On the other end of the spectrum, the longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodle, Border Terrier, Miniature Dachshund, Miniature Poodle, and Tibetan Spaniel, have median longevities between 14 and 15 years.<ref name="Cassidy Data"/> The median longevity of mixed breed dogs (average of all sizes) is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs (all breeds averaged).<ref name="British Owners"/><ref name="Denmark Survey"/><ref name="Cassidy Data"/><ref name="Vet School Data"> Patronek, G. J., D. J. Waters, and L. T. Glickman, 1997. Comparative longevity of pet dogs and humans: Implications for gerontology research. The Journals of Gerontology, 1997, 52A, 3: Health Module p. B171-B178. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9158552&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum Online abstract].</ref> As a rule of thumb, small breeds are longer-lived than large breeds, but some of the longest lived large breeds have median longevities nearly as long as those of the shortest lived small breeds, and some of the breeds with the shortest longevities are medium-sized.<ref name="Cassidy Weight">{{cite web |url=http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/weight_and_lifespan.htm |title=Dog Longevity |author=Dr. Kelly M. Cassidy |year=2007 |accessdate = 2007-10-04}}</ref> "Median longevity" refers to the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive. Individual dogs, even in breeds with low median longevities, may live well beyond the median. The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived on record is "[[Bluey (Australian cattle dog)|Bluey]]," purportedly born in 1910 in Australia. He died in 1939 at the age of 29.5 years. Bluey is usually identified as an [[Australian Cattle Dog]], but the first Australian Cattle Dog breed standard was written in 1902,<ref name="ACD Online">[http://www.australiancattledog.com/ Australian Cattle Dogs Online]- Retrieved [[July 17]] [[2007]]</ref> only eight years before Bluey's birth. It is unclear how closely Bluey was related to the breed as it exists today. The Bluey record is anecdotal and unverified.<ref name="AnAge">[http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Canis_familiaris AnAge entry for Canis familiaris AnAge Database]. Human Aging Genomic Resources. Retrieved [[July 17]] [[2007]]</ref> The longest verified records are of dogs living to 24 years.<ref name="AnAge"/> ====Predation==== In some areas where dogs and wolves are sympatric, dogs can be a major food source for wolves. Reports from [[Croatia]] indicate that dogs are killed more frequently than sheep. Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In [[Wisconsin]], more compensation has been paid for dog losses than livestock.<ref name="WOLVES">{{cite book | author= L. David Mech & Luigi Boitani | url = http://www.amazon.com/Wolves-Behavior-Conservation-David-Mech/dp/0226516962 | title=Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation | year=2001 | pages= p 448 | id= ISBN 0226516962 }}</ref> Some wolf pairs have been reported to predate on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book | author = Graves, Will |url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/ | title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages | year = 2007 | pages = pp.222 | id = ISBN 1550593323}}</ref> In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to an extent where they have to be beaten off or killed.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/145big.shtml |title=Wolf at my door |accessdate = 2007-07-20 |publisher = BBC | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Coyotes have also been known to attack dogs. Approximately 3 to 5 pets attacked by coyotes, mostly dogs, are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County each week.<ref name="AOP">{{cite web | title = For coyotes, pets are prey | work = Greg Hardesty | publisher = Orange County Register | url = http://www.ocregister.com/ocr/sections/news/focus_in_depth/article_508026.php | accessdate = 2007-08-19}}</ref> [[Big cats]] have been recorded to kill dogs. [[Leopard]]s in particular are known to have a prediliction for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity.<ref name="Leopard">{{cite book | author = Jonathan & Angela Scott | title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard | year = 2006 | pages = pp.108 | id = ISBN 0007211813}}</ref> Unlike sympatric leopards, [[tiger]]s in India seldom prey on dogs, though in [[Manchuria]], [[Indochina]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], tigers are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigour as leopards.<ref name="Perry">{{cite book | author = Perry, Richard | title = The World of the Tiger | year = 1965 | pages = pp.260 | id = ASIN: B0007DU2IU}}</ref> [[Striped hyena]]s are major predators of village dogs in [[Turkmenistan]], India and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="Striped">{{cite web | url = http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm | title = Striped Hyaena ''Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena'' (Linnaeus, 1758) | publisher = IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group | accessdate = 2008-05-21 | month = May | year = }}</ref> ===Diet=== ====Nutrition==== [[Image:Dog treats.jpg|thumb|right|200px|There are a great quantity of commercial foods and treats marketed for dogs, and not all are recommended as part of a balanced, healthy diet.]] There is some debate as to whether domestic dogs should be classified as [[omnivores]] or [[carnivores]], by diet. The classification in the Order [[Carnivora]] does not necessarily mean that a dog's diet must be restricted to [[meat]]; unlike an obligate carnivore, such as the [[cat]] family with its shorter [[small intestine]], a dog is neither dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill its basic dietary requirements. Dogs are able to healthily digest a variety of foods including [[vegetable]]s and [[cereal|grains]], and in fact dogs can consume a large proportion of these in their diet. Wild canines not only eat available plants to obtain [[essential amino acid]]s, but also obtain nutrients from vegetable matter from the stomach and intestinal contents of their [[herbivorous]] prey, which they usually consume. Domestic dogs can survive healthily on a reasonable and carefully designed [[vegetarian]] diet, particularly if [[egg (food)|eggs]] and [[milk]] products are included. Some sources suggest that a dog fed on a [[strict vegetarian]] diet without [[L-carnitine]] may develop [[dilated cardiomyopathy]],<ref>''Small animal internal medicine'', RW Nelson, Couto page 107</ref> however, L-carnitine is found in many [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[seed]]s, [[bean]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s and [[whole grain]]s. In the wild, dogs can survive on a vegetarian diet when animal prey is not available. Observation of extremely stressful conditions such as the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, and scientific studies of similar conditions has shown that high-protein (approximately 40%) diets including meat help prevent damage to [[muscle]] tissue in dogs and some other mammals. This level of protein corresponds to the percentage of protein found in the wild dog's diet when prey is abundant; higher levels of protein seem to confer no added benefit. Dogs frequently eat [[grass]], which is a harmless activity. Explanations abound, but rationales such as that it neutralizes [[acid]], or that dogs eat grass to induce [[vomiting]] to remove unwanted substances from their [[stomach]]s,<ref name="wonderquest">[http://www.wonderquest.com/DogsGrass.htm Why dogs eat grass.]</ref> are at best educated guesses. Dogs do vomit more readily than humans, as part of their typical feeding behavior of gulping down food then regurgitating indigestible material such as bones and fur. This behavior is typical of pack feeding in the wild, where the most important thing is to get as much of the kill as possible before others consume it all. Individual domestic dogs, however, may be very "picky" eaters, in the absence of this social pressure. Dogs may also appear to eat grass when they are just running the blades through their mouth to gather information. Their sense of smell and taste may act together to detect if other animals have walked through their area or urinated on the grass.<ref name="wonderquest" /> ====Dangerous substances==== *Human food. Some foods commonly enjoyed by humans are dangerous to dogs, including [[chocolate]] ([[Theobromine poisoning]]), [[onion]]s, [[grape]]s and [[raisin]]s,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.aspca.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=16645 | title = ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center Issues Nationwide Update: Raisins and Grapes Can Be Toxic To Dogs | accessmonthday = [[September 2]] | accessyear = [[2006]] | date = [[2004-07-06]] | work = ASPCA Press Releases | publisher = American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals }}</ref> some types of [[chewing gum|gum]], certain sweeteners<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wkyc.com/news/news_fullstory.asp?id=38879|title=Artificial sweetener poses deadly risk to dogs|publisher=WKYC-TV}}</ref> and [[Macadamia nut]]s. The only known dangerous substance in chocolate is [[cocoa]], so the danger of [[white chocolate]] is uncertain. The [[Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs|acute danger]] from grapes and raisins was discovered around 2000, and has slowly been publicized since then. The cause is not known. Small quantities will induce acute [[renal failure]]. [[Sultana (grape)|Sultanas]] and [[currants]] may also be dangerous. [[Alcoholic beverage]]s pose comparable hazards to dogs as they do to humans, but due to low body weight and lack of [[alcohol tolerance]] they are toxic in much smaller portions. *Plants. Plants such as [[caladium]], [[dieffenbachia]] and [[philodendron]] will cause [[throat]] irritations that will burn the throat going down as well as coming up. [[Hops]] are particularly dangerous and even small quantities can lead to [[malignant hyperthermia]].<ref>{{cite journal | first = K. L.| last = Duncan | coauthors = W. R. Hare and W. B. Buck | date = [[1997-01-01]] | title = Malignant hyperthermia-like reaction secondary to ingestion of hops in five dogs | journal = Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 210 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–4 | pmid = 8977648}}</ref> [[Amaryllis]], [[daffodil]], [[english ivy]], [[Iris (plant)|iris]], and [[tulip]] (especially the bulbs) cause [[gastric]] irritation and sometimes [[central nervous system]] excitement followed by [[coma]], and, in severe cases, even death. Ingesting [[foxglove]], [[lily of the valley]], [[Ranunculaceae|larkspur]] and [[oleander]] can be life threatening because the [[cardiovascular]] system is affected. [[Yew]] is very dangerous because it affects the [[nervous system]]. Immediate veterinary treatment is required for dogs that ingest these. *Household poisons. Many household cleaners such as [[ammonia]], [[bleach]], [[disinfectants]], [[drain cleaner]], [[soap]]s, [[detergent]]s, and other cleaners, [[mothball]]s and [[matches]] are dangerous to dogs, as are cosmetics such as [[deodorant]]s, [[hair coloring]], [[nail polish]] and remover, [[permanent wave|home permanent]] lotion, and [[suntan lotion]]. Dogs find some poisons attractive, such as [[antifreeze]] (automotive coolant), [[snail bait|slug and snail bait]], [[insect]] bait, and [[rodent]] poisons. [[Antifreeze]] is insidious to dogs, either puddled or even partly cleaned residue, because of its sweet taste. A dog may pick up antifreeze on its fur and then lick it off. *Animal feces. Dogs occasionally eat their own feces, or the feces of other dogs and other species if available, such as cats, deer, cows, or horses. This is known as [[coprophagia]]. Some dogs develop preferences for one type over another. There is no definitive reason known, although boredom, hunger, and nutritional needs have been suggested. Eating cat feces is common, possibly because of the high protein content of cat food. Dogs eating cat feces from a litter box may lead to [[Toxoplasmosis]]. Dogs seem to have different preferences in relation to eating feces. Some are attracted to the stools of deer, cows, or horses.<ref> [http://www.petlibrary.co.uk/dog-care/why-do-dogs-eact-poop.html Why do dogs eat poop.]</ref> *Other risks. Human medications may be [[toxic]] to dogs, for example [[paracetamol]]/acetaminophen (Tylenol). [[Zinc]] toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of [[Cent (United States coin)|US cents]] minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe [[hemolytic anemia]].<ref>Stowe CM, Nelson R, Werdin R, et al: Zinc phosphide poisoning in dogs. JAVMA 173:270, 1978</ref> Some wet dog and cat food was recalled by [[Menu Foods]] in 2007 because it contained a dangerous substance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.menufoods.com/recall/index.html |title=Recall Information |accessdate = 2008-03-08 |format=HTML |publisher=Menu Foods Income Fund }}</ref> ===Dog abuse=== {{main|Cruelty to animals}} Cruelty to dogs refers to treatment that causes unacceptable suffering or [[harm]]. What qualifies as unacceptable suffering varies among countries and cultures. Cruelty can be passive, typified by simple neglect, or active, with malicious intent.<Ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.pet-abuse.com/pages/animal_cruelty.php | title = Animal Cruelty | accessdate = 2006-11-30 | publisher = pet-abuse.com }}</Ref> Malicious treatment of a dog can lead to [[dog attack]]s upon not only the abuser but also innocent people. ==Dog meat for human consumption== {{Main article|Dog meat}} In some countries, certain dog breeds, apart from being kept as pets, are raised on farms and slaughtered for consumption. In countries where dogs are popular as household pets, consumption of dog meat is generally considered abhorrent. There are exceptions, such as [[Korea]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Vietnam]], where dogs are popular as both pets and meat.<ref>{{cite web | last = Arthurs | first = Clare | title = Vietnam's dog meat tradition | publisher = BBC | date = [[2001-12-31]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1735647.stm | accessdate = 2006-10-10 }}</ref><ref name="SKBBC2">[[Stefan Gates]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/6551385.stm "Stefan's diary: South Korea"], ''[[Cooking in the Danger Zone]]'', [[BBC Two]], [[1 May]] [[2007]].</ref><ref name=swissdogmeat>[http://www.rjkoehler.com/?p=460 "And you thought they just ate fondue"]</ref> Dog meat has been a source of food in China from at least the time of [[Confucius]], and possibly even before. Ancient writings from the [[Zhou Dynasty]] referred to the 'three beasts' (which were bred for food), including pig, goat, and dog. [[Mencius]], the philosopher, recommended dog as the tastiest of all meats. Dog meat is also consumed for allegedly salubrious effects: the [[Swiss]] rural cantons of [[Appenzell]] and [[St. Gallen]] are known to have had a tradition of eating dogs, curing dog meat into jerky and sausages, as well as using the lard for medicinal purposes.<ref name=swissdogmeat /> ==Dogs in religion== {{main|Dogs in religion}} Dogs have played a role in many religious traditions, including [[ancient Egyptian religion]], [[Chinese religion]], [[Hinduism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. ==See also== {{portal|Dogs|Aussie-blacktri.jpg}} {{portal|Mammals|Okapi2.jpg}} * [[Bark (dog)]] * [[Dog king]] – Scandinavian tradition * [[Dog licence]] * [[Dog odor]] * [[Dog paddle]] – basic swimming stroke * [[Dog park]] * [[Fear of dogs]] * [[List of dog breeds]] * [[List of dogs]] * [[List of fictional dogs]] * [[List of most popular dog breeds]] * [[Subspecies of Canis lupus|Subspecies of ''Canis lupus'']] * [[Wolf-dog hybrid]] --> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Dog|Dog]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris. Disalin 13 Agustus 2008. {{reflist|2}} * Abrantes, Roger (1999). ''Dogs Home Alone''. Wakan Tanka, 46 pages. ISBN 0-9660484-2-3 (paperback). * A&E Television Networks (1998). ''Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E special presentation'', A Lookout Book, GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9 (hardcover). * Alderton, David (1984). ''The Dog'', Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0. * Bloch, Günther. ''Die Pizza-Hunde'' (in German), 2007, Franckh-Kosmos-Verlags GmbH & Co. KG, Stuttgart,ISBN 9783440109861 * Brewer, Douglas J. (2002) ''Dogs in Antiquity: Anubis to Cerberus: The Origins of the Domestic Dog'', Aris & Phillips ISBN 0-85668-704-9 * Coppinger, Raymond and Lorna Coppinger (2002). ''Dogs: A New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution'', University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-11563-1 * Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds''. Parragon Publishing. ISBN 0-7525-8276-3. * Derr, Mark (2004). ''Dog's Best Friend: Annals of the Dog-Human Relationship''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14280-9 * Donaldson, Jéan (1997). ''The Culture Clash''. James & Kenneth Publishers. ISBN 1-888047-05-4 (paperback). * Fogle, Bruce, DVM (2000). ''The New Encyclopedia of the Dog''. Doring Kindersley (DK). ISBN 0-7894-6130-7. * Grenier, Roger (2000). ''The Difficulty of Being a Dog''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-30828-6 * Milani, Myrna M. (1986). ''The Body Language and Emotion of Dogs: A practical guide to the Physical and Behavioral Displays Owners and Dogs Exchange and How to Use Them to Create a Lasting Bond'', William Morrow, 283 pages. ISBN 0-688-12841-6 (trade paperback). * Pfaffenberger, Clare (1971). ''New Knowledge of Dog Behavior''. Wiley, ISBN 0-87605-704-0 (hardcover); Dogwise Publications, 2001, 208 pages, ISBN 1-929242-04-2 (paperback). * Savolainen, P. et al. (2002). Genetic Evidence for an éast Asian Origin of Domestic Dogs. ''Science'' '''298'''. 5598: 1610–1613. * Shook, Larry (1995). "Breeders Can Hazardous to Health", ''The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog'', Chapter Two, pp.&nbsp;13–34. Ballantine, 130 pages, ISBN 0-345-38439-3 (mass market paperback); Globe Pequot, 1992, ISBN 1-55821-140-3 (hardcover; this is much chéaper should you buy). * Shook, Larry (1995). ''The Puppy Report: How to Select a Healthy, Happy Dog'', Chapter Four, "Hereditary Problems in Purebred Dogs", pp.&nbsp;57–72. Ballantine, 130 pages, ISBN 0-345-38439-3 (mass market paperback); Globe Pequot, 1992, ISBN 1-55821-140-3 (hardcover; this is much chéaper should you buy). * Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall (1993). ''The Hidden Life of Dogs'' (hardcover), A Peter Davison Book, Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-66958-8. * Verginelli, F. et al. (2005). Mitochondrial DNA from Prehistoric Canids Highlights Relationships Between Dogs and South-éast Européan Wolves. ''Mol. Biol. Evol.'' '''22''': 2541–2551. * Trumler, Eberhard. ''Mit dem Hund auf du; Zum Verständnis seines Wesens und Verhaltens'' (in German); 4. Auflage Januar 1996; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, München * ''Small animal internal medicine'', RW Nelson, Couto page 107 == Tumbu kaluar == {{sisterlinks}} {{Wikispecies}} * [http://www.akc.org/ American Kennel Club] * [http://www.ankc.aust.com/breed_list.html Australian National Kennel Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116235432/http://www.ankc.aust.com/breed_list.html |date=2006-11-16 }} * [http://www.ckc.ca/ Canadian Kennel Club] * [http://www.fci.be/home.asp?lang=en Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) - World Canine Organisation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061218004220/http://www.fci.be/home.asp?lang=en |date=2006-12-18 }} * [http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html New Zealand Kennel Club] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105182612/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html |date=2009-11-05 }} * [http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/ The Kennel Club (UK)] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Anjing]] [[Kategori:Canis]] [[Kategori:Sato nyusuan]] 72sh59k7gemymx2ob8o0kqsuc59flls Biofilm 0 28673 712398 665306 2026-08-28T22:35:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712398 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Staphylococcus aureus biofilm 01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Biofilm ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' dina jero [[katéter]].]] '''Biofilm''' nyaéta wangunan komunitas-komunitas [[mikroorganismeu]] nu dibulen ku matriks [[polimér]] nu napel dina barang inert anu cicing atawa hirup. Biofilm mindeng dicirikeun ku napel dina hiji barang, wangunna [[hétérogén]], [[biodiversitas]], interaksi kumunitas anu pajeulit, sarta [[matriks ékstrasélulér]] zat polimérik. <!-- Single-celled organisms generally exhibit two distinct modes of behavior. The first is the familiar free floating, or [[plankton]]ic, form in which single cells float or swim independently in some liquid medium. The second is an attached state in which cells are closely packed and firmly attached to each other and usually form a solid surface. A change in behavior is triggered by many factors, including [[quorum sensing]], as well as other mechanisms that vary between species. When a cell switches modes, it undergoes a [[phenotype|phenotypic]] shift in behavior in which large suites of genes are up- and down- [[gene regulation|regulated]]. ==Formation== [[Image:biofilm.jpg|thumb|300px|5 stages of biofilm development. Stage 1, initial attachment; stage 2, irreversible attachment; stage 3, maturation I; stage 4, maturation II; stage 5, dispersion. Each stage of development in the diagram is paired with a photomicrograph of a developing P. aeruginosa biofilm. All photomicrographs are shown to same scale.]] Formation of a biofilm begins with the attachment of free-floating microorganisms to a surface. These first colonists adhere to the surface initially through weak, reversible [[van der Waals force]]s. If the colonists are not immediately separated from the surface, they can anchor themselves more permanently using [[cell adhesion]] structures such as [[pilus|pili]].<ref> JPG Images: [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dir/labs/images/ottofig.jpg niaid.nih.gov] [http://www.erc.montana.edu/Res-Lib99-SW/Image_Library/Structure-Function/Images-full/CBE-03_ComplexBf.jpg erc.montana.edu]</ref> The first colonists facilitate the arrival of other cells by providing more diverse [[cell adhesion|adhesion]] sites and beginning to build the matrix that holds the biofilm together. Some species are not able to attach to a surface on their own but are often able to anchor themselves to the matrix or directly to earlier colonists. It is during this colonization that the cells are able to communicate via quorum sensing. Once colonization has begun, the biofilm grows through a combination of cell division and recruitment. The final stage of biofilm formation is known as development, and is the stage in which the biofilm is established and may only change in shape and size. This development of biofilm allows for the cells to become more antibiotic resistant. ==Properties== Biofilms are usually found on solid [[Wiktionary:substrate|substrate]]s submerged in or exposed to some [[aqueous]] [[solution]], although they can form as floating mats on liquid surfaces and also on the surface of leaves, particularly in high humidity climates. Given sufficient resources for growth, a biofilm will quickly grow to be macroscopic. Biofilms can contain many different types of microorganism, e.g. [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], [[protozoa]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[algae]]; each group performing specialized [[metabolism|metabolic]] functions. However, some organisms will form monospecies films under certain conditions. Researchers from the [[Helmholtz Center for Infection Research]] have found the strategies used by biofilms. They discovered that biofilm bacteria apply chemical weapons in order to defend themselves against disinfectants and antibiotics, phagocytes and our immune system. The lead researcher, Dr. Carsten Matz, began a serious investigation in order to find why [[phagocytes]] cannot annihilate the biofilm bacteria. He analyzed the marine bacteria, which defend themselves against the [[amoebae]], the behavior of which copies the behavior of phagocytes. The amoebae behave in the sea just like the immune cells in human body: they search for and feed on the bacteria. When bacteria are alone and separated in the water, they become an easy catch for the attackers. However, when they attach to a surface and join other bacteria, the amoebae cannot assault them. The researcher stated that biofilms may be seen as a source of new bioactive agents. When bacteria are organized in biofilms, they produce effective substances which individual bacteria are unable to produce alone.<ref>[http://www.infoniac.com/science/biofilm-bacteria-protect-themselves-with-chemical-weapons.html Biofilm Bacteria Protect Themselves With Chemical Weapons]</ref> ===Extracellular matrix=== The biofilm is held together and protected by a matrix of excreted [[polymer]]ic compounds called EPS. EPS is an abbreviation for either [[extracellular polymeric substance]] or exopolysaccharide. This matrix protects the cells within it and facilitates communication among them through biochemical signals. Some biofilms have been found to contain water channels that help distribute [[nutrient]]s and signalling molecules. This matrix is strong enough that under certain conditions, biofilms can become [[fossil]]ized. Bacteria living in a biofilm usually have significantly different properties from free-floating bacteria of the same species, as the dense and protected environment of the film allows them to cooperate and interact in various ways. One benefit of this environment is increased resistance to [[detergent]]s and [[antibiotic]]s, as the dense extracellular matrix and the outer layer of cells protect the interior of the community. In some cases antibiotic resistance can be increased 1000 fold.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stewart P, Costerton J |title=Antibiotic resistance of bacteria in biofilms |journal=Lancet |volume=358 |issue=9276 |pages=135–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11463434 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05321-1</ref> ==Examples== [[Image:Bacteria mats near Grand Prismatic Spring in Yellowstone-750px.JPG|thumb|Biofilm in [[Yellowstone National Park]]. Longest raised mat area is about half a meter long.]] Biofilms are ubiquitous. Nearly every species of microorganism, not only bacteria and archaea, have mechanisms by which they can adhere to surfaces and to each other. * Biofilms can be found on rocks and pebbles at the bottom of most streams or [[river]]s and often form on the surface of [[stagnant (water)|stagnant]] pools of water. In fact, biofilms are important components of foodchains in rivers and streams and are grazed by the aquatic [[invertebrate]]s upon which many fish feed. * Biofilms grow in hot, acidic pools in [[Yellowstone National Park]] (USA) and on glaciers in [[Antarctica]]. * In [[industry|industrial]] environments, biofilms can develop on the interiors of pipes, which can lead to clogging and corrosion. Biofilms on floors and counters can make sanitation difficult in food preparation areas. Biofilms in cooling water systems are known to reduce heat transfer<ref>W.G. Characklis, M.J. Nimmons and B.F. Picologlou, Influence of fouling biofilms on Heat transfer, Heat Trans. Eng. 3 (1981), pp. 23–37</ref> and harbour ''[[Legionella]]'' bacteria<ref>Murga et al, Microbiology (2001), 147; "Role of biofilms in the survival of Legionella pneumophila in a model potable-water system" pp3121–3126</ref>. *Bacterial adhesion to boat hulls serves as the foundation for biofouling of seagoing vessels. Once a film of bacteria forms, it is easier for other marine organisms such as barnacles to attach. Such fouling can inhibit vessel speed by up to 20%, making voyages longer and requiring additional fuel. Time in dry dock for refitting and repainting reduces the productivity of shipping assets, and the useful life of ships is also reduced due to corrosion and mechanical removal (scraping) of marine organisms from ships’ hulls. * Biofilms can also be harnessed for constructive purposes. For example, many [[sewage treatment]] plants include a treatment stage in which waste water passes over biofilms grown on filters, which extract and digest organic compounds. In such biofilms, bacteria are mainly responsible for removal of organic matter ([[Biochemical oxygen demand|BOD]]); whilst [[protozoa]] and [[rotifer]]s are mainly responsible for removal of suspended solids (SS), including pathogens and other microorganisms. [[Slow sand filter]]s rely on biofilm development in the same way to filter surface water from lake, spring or river sources for drinking purposes. * Biofilms can help eliminate [[petroleum]] oil from contaminated oceans or marine systems. The oil is eliminated by the [[microbial biodegradation| hydrocarbon-degrading]] activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB).<ref name=chapter9>{{cite book |chapterurl=http://www.horizonpress.com/biod|author=Martins VAP et al|year=2008|chapter=Genomic Insights into Oil Biodegradation in Marine Systems|title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology|publisher=Caister Academic Press|id=[http://www.horizonpress.com/biod ISBN 978-1-904455-17-2]}}</ref> * Biofilms are also present on the [[teeth]] of most animals as [[dental plaque]], where they may become responsible for [[tooth decay]] and [[gum disease]]. *Biofilms are found on the surface of and inside plants. They can both contribute to crop disease or, as in the case of nitrogen fixing Rhizobium on roots, exist symbiotically with the plant <ref>[http://www.cs.montana.edu/ross/personal/intro-biofilms-s3.htm Introduction to Biofilms: Negative and positive impacts of biofilm]</ref>. Examples of crop diseases related to biofilms include [[Citrus Canker]], [[Pierce's Disease]] of grapes, and [[Bacterial Spot]] of plants such as peppers and tomatoes. <ref> Influence of xylem fuid chemistry on planktonic growth, biofilm formation and aggregation of Xylella fastidiosa. Peter C. Andersen, Brent V. Brodbeck, Steve Oden, Anthony Shriner & Breno Leite North Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Quincy, FL, USA </ref> == Biofilms and infectious diseases == Biofilms have been found to be involved in a wide variety of microbial infections in the body, by one estimate 80% of all infections.<ref>{{cite web | title=Research on microbial biofilms (PA-03-047) | url=http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-03-047.html | date=2002-12-20 | publisher=NIH, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute}}</ref> Infectious processes in which biofilms have been implicated include common problems such as [[urinary tract infections]], [[Urinary catheterization|catheter]] infections, [[otitis media|middle-ear infections]], formation of [[dental plaque]]<ref name = AnthonyHRogers/>, [[gingivitis]]<ref name = AnthonyHRogers/>, coating [[contact lenses]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Imamura Y, Chandra J, Mukherjee PK, Lattif AA, Szczotka-Flynn LB, Pearlman E, Lass JH, O'Donnell K, Ghannoum MA |title=Fusarium and Candida albicans Biofilms on Soft Contact Lenses: Model Development, Influence of Lens Type, and Susceptibility to Lens Care Solutions |journal=Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=171–182 |year=2008 |pmid=17999966 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17999966 |doi=10.1128/AAC.00387-07}}</ref>, and less common but more lethal processes such as [[endocarditis]], infections in [[cystic fibrosis]], and infections of permanent indwelling devices such as joint [[prosthesis|prostheses]] and [[Heart valve prosthesis|heart valves]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lewis K |title=Riddle of biofilm resistance |journal=Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=999–1007 |year=2001 |pmid=11257008 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=90417 | doi = 10.1128/AAC.45.4.999-1007.2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Parsek M, Singh P |title=Bacterial biofilms: an emerging link to disease pathogenesis |journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=57 |issue= |pages=677–701 |year=2003 |pmid=14527295 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720}}</ref> It has recently been shown that biofilms are present on the removed tissue of 80% of patients undergoing surgery for chronic [[sinusitis]]. The patients with biofilms were shown to have been denuded of [[Cilium|cilia]] and [[goblet cells]], unlike the controls without biofilms who had normal cilia and goblet cell morphology.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanclement J, Webster P, Thomas J, Ramadan H |title=Bacterial biofilms in surgical specimens of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis |journal=Laryngoscope |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=578–82 |year=2005 |pmid=15805862}}</ref> Biofilms were also found on samples from two of 10 healthy controls mentioned. The species of bacteria from interoperative cultures did not correspond to the bacteria species in the biofilm on the respective patient's tissue. In other words, the cultures were negative though the bacteria were present.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sanderson A, Leid J, Hunsaker D |title=Bacterial biofilms on the sinus mucosa of human subjects with chronic rhinosinusitis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_laryngoscope_2006-07_116_7/page/1121 |journal=Laryngoscope |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=1121–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16826045 | doi = 10.1097/01.mlg.0000221954.05467.54}}</ref> New staining techniques are being developed to differentiate bacterial cells growing in living animals, e.g. from tissues with allergy-inflammations .<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leevy WM, Gammon ST, Jiang H, Johnson JR, Maxwell DJ, Jackson EN, Marquez M, Piwnica-Worms D, Smith BD |title=Optical imaging of bacterial infection in living mice using a fluorescent near-infrared molecular probe |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=128 |issue=51 |pages=16476–7 |year=2006 | url = http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/sample.cgi/jacsat/2006/128/i51/html/ja0665592.html |pmid=17177377 | doi = 10.1021/ja0665592}}</ref> ===''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' biofilms=== The achievements of medical care in industrialised societies are markedly impaired due to chronic [[opportunistic infection]]s that have become increasingly apparent in [[immunocompromised]] patients and the aging population. [[Chronic infection]]s remain a major challenge for the medical profession and are of great economic relevance because traditional [[antibiotic]] therapy is usually not sufficient to eradicate these infections. One major reason for [[persistence]] seems to be the capability of the bacteria to grow within biofilms that protects them from adverse environmental factors. ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' is not only an important opportunistic pathogen and causative agent of emerging [[nosocomial]] infections but can also be considered a model organism for the study of diverse bacterial mechanisms that contribute to bacterial persistence. In this context the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the switch from planctonic growth to a biofilm phenotype and the role of inter-bacterial communication in persistent disease should provide new insights in ''P. aeruginosa'' [[pathogenicity]], contribute to a better clinical management of chronically infected patients and should lead to the identification of new drug targets for the development of alternative anti-infective treatment strategies.<ref name=Cornelis>{{cite book | author = Cornelis P (editor). | title = Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/pseudo | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/pseudo ISBN 978-1-904455-19-6 ]}}</ref> ====Dental plaque==== [[Dental plaque]] is the material that adheres to the teeth and consists of bacterial cells (mainly ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' and ''[[Streptococcus sanguis]]''), salivary [[polymers]] and bacterial extracellular products. Plaque is a biofilm on the surfaces of the teeth. This accumulation of microorganisms subject the teeth and gingival tissues to high concentrations of bacterial [[metabolite]]s which results in dental disease.<ref name=AnthonyHRogers>{{cite book | author = Rogers A H (editor). | title = Molecular Oral Microbiology | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/oral2 | id = [http://www.horizonpress.com/oral2 ISBN 978-1-904455-24-0 ]}}</ref> --> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Biofilm|Biofilm]]''. Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (disalin 28 Agustus 2008). <!--* {{cite book | last = Allison | first = D. | title = Community Structure and Co-Operation in Biofilms | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 2000 | isbn = 0521793025 }} * {{cite book | last = Lappin-Scott | first = Hilary | title = Microbial Biofilms | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 2003 | isbn = 052154212X }} * {{cite web | title=A Friendly Guide to Biofilm Basics & the CBE | publisher=Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University | url=http://www.erc.montana.edu/CBEssentials-SW/bf-basics-99/default.htm}} == Catetan == {{Reflist|2}} --> == Bacaeun salajengna == * {{cite journal |author=Ramadan H, Sanclement J, Thomas J |title=Chronic rhinosinusitis and biofilms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_otolaryngology-head-and-neck-surgery_2005-03_132_3/page/414 |journal=Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=414–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15746854 |doi=10.1016/j.otohns.2004.11.011}} * {{cite journal |author=Bendouah Z, Barbeau J, Hamad W, Desrosiers M |title=Biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa is associated with an unfavorable evolution after surgery for chronic sinusitis and nasal polyposis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_otolaryngology-head-and-neck-surgery_2006-06_134_6/page/991 |journal=Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery |volume=134 |issue=6 |pages=991–6 |year=2006 |pmid=16730544 |doi=10.1016/j.otohns.2006.03.001}} * [http://www.erc.montana.edu/biofilmbook/ Center for Biofilm Engineering's Hypertextbook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326072303/http://www.erc.montana.edu/biofilmbook/ |date=2009-03-26 }} * {{cite journal | author = A. Simon Lynch and Gregory T. Robertson | title = Biofilm and Fungal Infections | journal = Annu. Rev. Med. | issue = 59 | pages = 415-28 | year = 2008 }} * [http://www.kazieltys.com/ Biofilms specialists in France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731125705/http://www.kazieltys.com/ |date=2009-07-31 }} * [http://www.streambiofilm.org.nz/ All about biofilms in streams] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208023418/http://streambiofilm.org.nz/ |date=2013-02-08 }} * [http://wiki.biomine.skelleftea.se/wiki/index.php/Biofilm Biofilm, BioMineWiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603111432/http://wiki.biomine.skelleftea.se/wiki/index.php/Biofilm |date=2009-06-03 }} * [http://www.agilesci.com Agile Sciences antibiofilm technology] * [http://www.ebcrc.com.au/ Environmental Biotechnology CRC, biofilm specialists in Australia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022233321/http://www.ebcrc.com.au/ |date=2009-10-22 }} * [http://www.equisetites.de/palbot/preservation/biofilms.html Bacterial Biofilms (Microbial Mats)] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Baktériologi]] [[Kategori:Mikrobiologi]] isu8fk990o7iwd6rmioh5artopgmiep Alpuket 0 28763 712435 711567 2026-08-28T23:24:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Alpuket | image = Avocado fruitnfoliage.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Buah alpuket dina tangkalna, [[Pabukon Huntington]], California | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Laurales]] | familia = [[Lauraceae]] | genus = ''[[Persea]]'' | species = '''''P. americana''''' | binomial = ''Persea americana'' | binomial_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]] }} '''Alpuket''' (''Persea americana'') (tina [[basa Nahuatl]] ''āhuacatl'') nyaéta tutuwuhan pituin [[Méksiko]] jeung [[Amérika Tengah]], kaasup kana [[tutuwuhan kembangan]] kulawarga [[Lauraceae]].<ref name=”Priyadi”>{{Cite book | title = Five Hundred Plant Species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java: A Checklist Including Sundanese Names, Distribution, and Use| last = Hari Priyadi, Gen Takao, Irma Rahmawati, Bambang Supriyanto, Wim Ikbal Nursal, Ismail Rahman| first =Priyadi | publisher =CIFOR | location =Bogor| year =2010|ISBN=9786028693226 |pages = 1}}</ref><ref name=”Lut”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=uTKyDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=sato+sunda&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo9P3M_JCGAxU6cGwGHVzeAr8Q6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=sato%20sunda&f=false| title =Kamus Genggam Bahasa SundaLuthfiyani| last =Luthfiyani| first =Lulu| publisher =Frasa Lingua| location =Jakarta| year =2016|ISBN=9786026475275|pages =23}} Disungsi25 Désémber 2024</ref> Ieu buah boga ajén ékonomi anu gedé, antukna loba dipelak di sakuliah dunya, utamana di wewengkon [[tropis]]. Daging buahna beyé, héjo semu konéng, loba ngandung [[lemak]] nu utamana [[lemak teu jenuh]]. Lian ti [[lemak]], ieu buah ogé euyeub [[serat pangan|serat]], [[vitamin]], jeung [[kalium]].<ref name=”Priyadi”/><ref name="Herbal">{{Cite book|title =Khasiat Tanaman Obat Herbal| last= Bagus Pratama| first= Aditya | coauthors =Firzatullah Dwiko R.| year= 2021|page=60|location=Jakarta| publisher=Pustaka Media| isbn=9786028214537|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=0yQ6EAAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> == Asal-usul == Alpuket geus lila pisan dipelak di [[Amérika]] Tengah jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]]. Di [[Chan Chan]], hiji kota kuna saméméh jaman [[Ingka]], kapanggih artéfak kendi ti taun [[900-an]] nu wujudna kawas alpuket<ref name = turtle>{{cite web | url = http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm | title = Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2001-04-07 | last = Barry | first = PC | publisher = Canku Ota }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215142535/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |date=2007-12-15 }}</ref>, sedengkeun bukti tatanén di Méksiko paling henteu umurna geus 10.000 taunan<ref name = IF>{{cite web | url = http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm | title = Avocado History | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007 | publisher = indexfresh.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063117/http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |date=2007-12-25 }}</ref>. ''Literatur'' paling kuna nu nyabit-nyabit alpuket di Éropah ditulis taun 1518/1519 karya [[Martín Fernández de Enciso]] ([[1470]]–[[1528]]): ''Suma de Geografía que Trata de Todas las Partidas y Provincias del Mundo''.<ref name = IF/><ref name = WCA>{{cite web | url = http://whatscookingamerica.net/avacado.htm | title = All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | year = 2004 | first = Linda | last = Stradley}}</ref>. Catetan munggaran ngeunaan alpuket dina [[basa Inggris]] dijieun ku [[Hans Sloane]] taun [[1696]], dina bukuna ngeunaan tutuwuhan [[Jamaika]]. Ieu pepelakan dibawa ka [[Indonésia]] taun [[1750]], [[Brazil]] taun [[1809]], [[Levant]] taun [[1908]], jeung [[Afrika Kidul]] sarta [[Australia]] ahir abad ka-19<ref name = IF/>. === Étimologi === [[Gambar:Avacado444.jpg|250px|thumb|Alpuket nu cangkangna semu hideung.]] Kecap "alpuket" asalna tina kecap "avocado", nu béh dituna tina [[basa Nahuatl]] ''āhuacatl'' ("[[siki kanjut]]", dumasar kana bentuk buahna)<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=avocado Online Etymology Dictionary - Avocado]</ref>. Baheula, alpuket katelah salaku ''afrodisiak'', antukna tara didahar ku jalma anu can kawin atawa anu satia ka pamajikan. Ku bangsa [[Azték]], ieu buah disebut "buah kasuburan"<ref name = WCA/>. Di sababaraha nagara Amérika Kidul, kayaning [[Argéntina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chilé]], [[Péru]], jeung [[Uruguay]], ieu buah kawentar dina ngaran [[Quechua]]na, ''palta''. Di nagara-nagara nu maké [[basa Spanyol]], ieu buah disebut ''aguacate'', sedengkeun ku urang [[Portugis]] disebutna ''abacate''. ==Melak jeung ngarekahkeun== [[Image:Avocado Seedling.jpg|thumb|rigjt|150px|''Persea americana'', bibit alpuket katenpo akar jeung sikina] [[Image:2005avocado.PNG|thumb|Hasil bumi tina alpuket sadunya dina taun 2005]] {| style="width: 14em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Food and agriculture |- {{#if:Avocado.jpeg|<tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;">[[Image:Avocado.jpeg|100px]] {{#if:Avocado fruit (cv. 'Fuerte'); left: buah weuteuh, katuhu: kaayaan geus dibeulah|</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center">''Buah alpuket (cv. 'Fuerte'); kenca: whole, right: in section''|}} </td></tr>}} |- ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | '''Country''' ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | '''Quantity ([[Metric ton|Tm]])''' ! style="background:#e9e9e9;" | World Rank<sup>1</sup> |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Mexico | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right| 1,040,390 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right| 1 |- |Indonesia |align=right|263,575 |align=right|2 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |United States of America | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|214,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|3 |- |Colombia |align=right|185,811 |align=right|4 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Brazil | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|185,811 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|5 |- |Chile |align=right|163,000 |align=right|6 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Dominican Republic | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|140,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|7 |- |- |Peru |align=right|102,000 |align=right|8 |- | style="background:#f0f0f0;" |China | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|85,000 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" align=right|9 |- |- |Ethiopia |align=right|81,500 |align=right|10 |- |- |colspan=3 style="background:#e9e9e9;" align=center|<small><sup>1</sup>Source: [[FAO]] (2004) [http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html;jsessionid=1FD7B1AF15B3ADE8D52C26E94FF4B1EE?item=572&lang=en&year=2005 Major Producers of Avocado]</small> |- |} </div> <!-- The tree grows to 20 [[metre]]s (65 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), with alternately arranged [[leaf|leaves]] 12–25 centimetres long. The [[flower]]s are inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, 5–10 millimetres wide. The [[pear]]-shaped fruit is 7–20 centimetres long, weighs between 100 and 1000 grams, and has a large central [[seed]], 5–6.4 centimeters long.<ref name="isbn0-9610184-1-0">{{cite book |author=Dowling, Curtis F.; Morton, Julia Frances |title=Fruits of warm climates |url=https://archive.org/details/fruitsofwarmclim0000mort |publisher=J.F. Morton |location=Miami, Fla |year=1987 |pages= |isbn=0-9610184-1-0 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> It is considered by many to be a [[drupe]], but is botanically classified as a [[berry]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoWebSite+folder/AvocadoWebSite/General/FruitBerry.html | title = What Kind of Fruit is the Avocado? | last = Storey | first = WB | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | publisher = [[University of California]] }}{{waybackdate | site = http://ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoWebSite+folder/AvocadoWebSite/General/FruitBerry.html | date = 20070611191722}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ecoph17.htm#avocado | title = Fruits Of The Rose, Olive, Avocado & Mahagany Families - Laurel Family: Lauraceae | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | last = Armstrong | first = WP}}</ref> The [[subtropical]] species needs a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination. In particular, the West Indian race requires humidity and a tropical climate which is important in flowering. When even a mild frost occurs, some fruit may drop from the tree, reducing the yield, although the [[Hass avocado|Hass]] [[cultivar]] can tolerate temperatures down to −1°[[Celsius|C]]. The trees also need well aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation water is highly [[Salinity|saline]]. These soil and climate conditions are provided only in a few areas of the world, particularly in southern [[Spain]], the [[Levant]], [[South Africa]], [[Peru]], parts of central and northern [[Chile]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]], [[the Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], [[Central America]], and [[Mexico]], the center of origin and diversity of this species. Each region has different types of cultivars. Mexico is the largest producer of the Hass variety, with over 1 million tonnes produced annually. === Harvest and post-harvest === An average avocado tree produces about 120 avocados annually. Commercial orchards produce an average of 7 [[tonnes]] per [[hectare]] each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm | title = Avocado Production in Australia | last = Whiley | first = A | publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] | date = 2000-09-01 | accessdate = 2007-12-29}}</ref> [[Biennial bearing]] can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next. The avocado tree does not tolerate freezing temperatures, and can be grown only in subtropical or tropical climates. The avocado is a [[Climacteric_(biology)|climacteric]] fruit (the [[banana]] is another), which means that it matures on the tree but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 38 to 42°F (3.3 to 5.6°C) until they reach their final destination. Avocado must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground, and depending on the amount of oil they contain, their taste and texture may vary greatly. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick Hass-variety avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in a few days at [[room temperature]] (faster if stored with other fruits such as [[banana]]s, because of the influence of [[ethylene]] gas). Premium [[supermarkets]] sell pre-ripened avocados treated with synthetic [[ethylene]] to hasten the ripening process.<ref>[http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm Ethylene gas and produce]</ref> In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop; if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, however, it will fall to the ground. === Breeding === [[Image:Persea americana.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''P. americana'', avocado plant flowers]] The species is only partially able to [[self-pollination|self-pollinate]], because of [[dichogamy]] in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated via [[grafting]], having originated from random seedling plants or minor [[mutation]]s derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-[[pollination]] are reduced. That is the case for programs at the [[University of California, Riverside]], as well as the [[Agricultural research In Israel#The Agricultural Research Organization .28ARO.29|Volcani Centre]] and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in [[Chile]]. The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. There are two flowering types, "A" and "B". "A" cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. "B" varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning. :"A" cultivars: Hass, Gwen, Lamb Hass, Pinkerton, Reed. :"B" cultivars: Fuerte, Sharwil, Zutano, Bacon, Ettinger, Sir Prize, Walter Hole.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm | title = Agriculture Handbook | publisher = [[University of California]] | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213 | title = Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape | publisher = [[University of Florida]] | first = JH | last = Crane | coauthors = Balerdi CF, Maguire I | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007-08-01 }}</ref> Certain cultivars, such as the Hass, have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. This heavy crop depletes stored carbohydrates, resulting in a reduced yield the following season, and thus the alternate bearing pattern becomes established. === Propagation and rootstocks === [[Image:GrowingAvocadoFromSeed.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Avocado is usually [[sowing|treated]] with a special technique to assist its sprouting process]] While an avocado propagated by seed can bear fruit, it takes roughly 4–6 years to do so, and the offspring is unlikely to resemble the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Thus, commercial orchards are planted using [[grafting|grafted]] trees and [[rootstock]]s. Rootstocks are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) and also [[layering]] (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing the young plants in a greenhouse, they are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar will then grow for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks have been selected for specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease caused by [[phytophthora]] (root rot). ===Diseases=== {{Main|List of avocado diseases}} Avocado trees are vulnerable to [[bacteria]]l, [[virus|viral]], [[fungus|fungal]] and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting and discoloration.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.apsnet.org/online/common/names/avocado.asp | last = Ohr | first = HD | coauthors = Coffer MD & McMillan RT | title = Common Names of Plant Diseases | date = 2003-08-04 | accessdate = 2008-05-13 | publisher = American Phytopathological Society }}</ref> === Cultivation in California === The avocado was introduced from [[Mexico]] to the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[California]] in the 19th century, and has become an extremely successful [[cash crop]]. Ninety-five percent of United States avocado production is located in southern [[California]], with 60% in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]].<ref name=CACFF>{{cite web | url = http://www.avocado.org/about/fun_facts | title = Avocado Fun Facts | publisher = California Avocado Commission | accessdate = 2008-06-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://kgkat.tripod.com/avocado.html | title = Avocado Toxicity | last = Clipsham | first = R | accessdate = 2007-12-29 }}</ref> Approximately 59,000 acres (approximately 24,000 hectares) of avocados are grown in California. [[Fallbrook, California]], claims the title of "Avocado Capital of the World", and both Fallbrook and [[Carpinteria, California]] host annual avocado festivals. ====Hass cultivar==== [[Image:Avacado white bg.jpg|thumb|150px|Two Hass avocado]] {{main|Hass avocado}} While dozens of [[cultivar]]s are grown in California, the [[Hass avocado]] (commonly misspelled "Haas") is the most common. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for the majority of cultivated avocados in California.<ref name = WCA/> All Hass avocado trees are genic copies of a single "mother tree" that was raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass.<ref name = IF/> According to Hass' family, Hass bought the seed from A.R. Rideout of Whittier, California, in 1926 and repeatedly attempted to graft productive branches onto pre-existing trees. Ultimately this succeeded in producing the Hass avocado, though the source tree of the graft is uncertain. Hass propagated the productive graft in his front yard in La Habra Heights, California, and [[patent]]ed the tree in [[1935]]. All Hass avocados can be traced back to grafts made from the original, successful graft tree. The "mother tree" died of [[root rot]] and was cut down in September, 2002; its former location is indicated with a [[commemorative plaque]].<ref name = WCA/> ===Other cultivars=== Other avocado cultivars include Bacon, Fuerte, Gwen, Pinkerton, Reed and Zutano. The fruit of the cultivar Florida, grown mostly outside California, is larger and rounder, with a smooth, medium-green skin, and a less-fatty, firmer and fibrous flesh. These are occasionally marketed as low-calorie avocados. ===Avocado-related trade war=== After the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, Mexico tried exporting avocados to the USA. The U.S. government resisted, claiming that the trade would introduce [[fruit flies]] that would destroy California's crops. The Mexican government responded by inviting U.S. Department of Agriculture inspectors to Mexico, but the U.S. government declined, claiming fruit fly inspection is not feasible. The Mexican government then proposed to sell avocados only to the northeastern U.S. in the winter (fruit flies cannot withstand extreme cold). The U.S. government balked, but gave in when the Mexican government started throwing up barriers to [[United States|U.S.]] [[corn (maize)|corn]]. Legitimate pest invasion issues exist, as avocado pests originating in Mexico have made their way to California, including the [[persea mite]] and avocado [[thrips]]. These pests have increased pest control costs and made previously-relied-upon [[biological pest control|biological control]] less feasible. Other potentially disastrous pests, including a weevil, remain risks. Another argument is that the lower prices generated by the Mexican and Chilean imports would increase the popularity of avocados outside of California, thereby assuaging the loss of profits due to the new competition. Today avocados from Mexico are allowed in all 50 states. This is because USDA inspectors in Uruapan, Michoacán (the state where 90% of Hass avocados from Mexico are grown), have cut open and inspected millions of fruit, finding no problems. Imports from Mexico in the 2005-2006 season exceeded 130,000 [[tonne]]s.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/03/business/LA-FIN-ECO-Mexico-US-Avocados.php | title = Mexico praises lifting of last U.S. avocado import barriers | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2007-02-02 | publisher = International [[Herald Tribune]] }}</ref> Avocados are more expensive in the USA than in other countries, because those consumed in the USA are grown almost exclusively in California and Florida. California produces about 90% of the nation's avocado crop.<ref name=CACFF/> --> == Mangpaat == {{ajen gizi | name=Avocado, raw (edible parts) | kJ=670 | protein=2 g | fat=14.66 g | satfat=2.13 g | monofat=9.80 g | polyfat=1.82 g | carbs=8.53 g | fiber=6.7 g | sugars=0.66 g | iron_mg=0.55 | calcium_mg=12 | magnesium_mg=29 | phosphorus_mg=52 | potassium_mg=485 | zinc_mg=0.64 | vitC_mg=10 | pantothenic_mg=1.389 | vitB6_mg=0.257 | folate_ug=81 | thiamin_mg=0.067 | riboflavin_mg=0.130 | niacin_mg=1.738 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }} Buah alpuket hasil budidaya bentukna buleud nepi ka lonyod panjang, kelirna [[héjo|héjo kolot]] nepi ka [[coklat]] semu [[hideung]]. Kandungan [[lemak]]na onjoy batan bungbuahan séjén, nu lolobana [[lemak teu jenuh tunggal]]. Daging buah nu geus asak warnana konéng semu héjo nepi ka konéng emas. Mun kabuka jeung keuna ku udara, warnana bakal robah jadi coklat alatan [[oksidasi]]. Pikeun [[vegetarian]], alpuket kapaké pisan salaku gaganti daging ku sabab loba kandungan lemakna. === Ajén gizi === Kandungan lemak dina alpuket ampir 15%, nu lolobana [[lemak teu jenuh tunggal]]. Kandungan [[kalium]]na 60% leuwih loba batan [[cau]], euyeub [[vitamin-vitamin B]], [[vitamin E]], jeung [[vitamin K]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c20Tk.html | title = Avocados, raw, California | publisher = NutritionData.com | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | year = 2007 }}</ref>. Kandungan [[serat pangan|seratna]] paling punjul di antara bungbuahan - 25% serat leyur jeung 75% teu leyur<ref name="pmid12097685">{{cite journal |author=Naveh E, Werman MJ, Sabo E, Neeman I |title=Defatted avocado pulp reduces body weight and total hepatic fat but increases plasma cholesterol in male rats fed diets with cholesterol |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2002-07_132_7/page/2015 |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=132 |issue=7 |pages=2015–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12097685 |doi=}}</ref>. <!-- A fatty [[triol]] ([[fatty alcohol]]) with one [[double bond]], [[avocadene]] (16-heptadecene-1,2,4-triol), is found in avocado.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cyberlipid.org/simple/simp0003.htm#3 | title = FATTY ALCOHOLS: Unsaturated alcohols | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | publisher = Cyberlipid Center }}</ref> === As a houseplant === Avocado can be grown as a [[houseplant]] from seed. It can germinate in normal [[soil]] in a large pot or by suspending a washed pit (generally using [[toothpick]]s embedded in the sides) pointed-side up and filling the glass until the bottom quarter of the pit is covered. The pit will crack as it absorbs water and germinates, and should sprout in 4–6 weeks. When the roots and stem emerge from the seed, it can be planted in soil. Alternatively, [[vermicompost]] bins provide ideal conditions for germination of avocado pits. Once the pit sprouts a root transplant it to a pot containing a mixture of worm castings and potting soil. The stem should sprout within a month.<ref>{{cite book |title= Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set Up & Maintain a Worm Composting System|last= Appelhof |first= Mary |authorlink= Mary Appelhof |year= 1997 |publisher= Flower Press |isbn= 978-0942256109 |pages= 162}}</ref> The young tree is amenable to pruning and training but will not normally bear fruit indoors without sufficient sunlight and a second plant to [[Pollination|cross-pollinate]]. ==Toxicity to animals== There is documented evidence that animals such as cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits, rats, birds, fish, horses and especially humans<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px | title = Notes on poisoning: avocado | publisher = [[Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility]] | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | date = 2006-06-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://kgkat.tripod.com/avocado.html | title = Avocado Toxicity | last = Clipsham | first = R | accessdate = 2007=12-29 }}</ref> can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume the avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit. The avocado fruit is poisonous to birds in some cases, so on a practical level feeding the fruit to birds should be avoided. Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative known as [[persin]], which in sufficient quantity can cause equine colic and, with lack of veterinary treatment, death.<ref name="pmid8581318">{{cite journal |author=Oelrichs PB, Ng JC, Seawright AA, Ward A, Schäffeler L, MacLeod JK |title=Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium |url=https://archive.org/details/natural-toxins_1995_3_5/page/344 |journal=Nat. Toxins |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=344–9 |year=1995 |pmid=8581318|doi=10.1002/nt.2620030504}}</ref> The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound. Negative effects in humans seem to be primarily in allergic individuals. ==Co-evolution== The avocado may be an example of an 'evolutionary anachronism', a fruit adapted for [[ecology|ecological]] relationship with now-[[Extinction|extinct]] large mammals (such as the giant [[ground sloth]] or the [[Gomphothere]]). Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of [[seed|seed dispersal]], accomplished by their consumption by large animals. Author Connie Barlow hypothesizes that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have [[Co-evolution|co-evolve]]d with [[Pleistocene megafauna]] to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion. When the avocado's hypothesized ecological partners disappeared the avocado likely would have gone extinct, or evolved a different fruit morphology, if human cultivation had not maintained this "ghost of evolution."<ref name="isbn0-465-00551-9">{{cite book |author=Barlow, Connie C. |title=The ghosts of evolution: nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms |url=https://archive.org/details/ghostsofevolutio00conn |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-465-00551-9 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> --> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Persea americana}} {{wikispecies|Persea americana}} * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_33/lec_33.html Purdue horticultural lecture on Avocados with pictures of cultivation from fertilization to harvest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418013859/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_33/lec_33.html |date=2010-04-18 }} * [http://avocadosource.com/ Avocadosource.com] Online library of avocado reséarch papers. * [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html California Rare Fruit Growers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107033301/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html |date=2006-11-07 }}, avocados beyond ''Persea americana'' {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Lauraceae]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] d5qa1xuiou48p47wf8560jn6a8capx0 Eureup-eureup 0 29200 712315 658485 2026-08-28T20:39:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|thumb|280px|''The Nightmare'', ku [[Henry Fuseli]] (1781) mangrupa salasahiji gambaran klasik eureup-eureup nu dianggap minangka datangna [[setan]].]] '''Eureup-eureup''' ([[Basa Indonésia]]: ''tindihan'' {{lang-en|sleep paralysis}} {{lang-nl|slaapverlamming ''atawa'' slaapparalyse}}) nyaéta hiji kaayaan ilahar alatan lumpuhna otot rangka jeung [[areflexia]] boh sabagéan atawa sakabéhna nu kajadian nalika hudang sare atawa saeutik kajadianana nalika arek sare. Rangsangan saperti usapan atawa sora moal karasa nalika kaayaan ieu, nu lilana sababaraha detik tepi ka sababaraha menit.Kondisi ieu bisa kajadian kalayan subyek nu normal atawa dibarengan ku [[narkolepsi]], kataplexi, jeung hypnagogische hallucinaties. [[Patofisiologi]] kondisi ieu patali jeung [[REM atonia|hipotonia]] normal nu kajadian nalika ''saré REM''<ref>(From Adv Neurol 1995;67:245-271)</ref>. When considered to be a diséase, isolated sleep paralysis is classified as [[Medical Subject Headings|MeSH]] D020188.<ref>[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D020188 D020188]</ref> {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} Sacara psikologis, it is closely related to the paralysis that occurs as a natural part of [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] (rapid eye movement) sleep, which is known as [[REM atonia]]. Sleep paralysis occurs when the [[brain]] awakes from a REM state, but the bodily paralysis persists. This léaves the person fully conscious, but unable to move. In addition, the state may be accompanied by terrifying hallucinations (hypnopompic or hypnagogic) and an acute sense of danger <ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>. Sleep paralysis is particularly frightening to the individual due to the vividness of such hallucinations<ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>. The [[hallucination|hallucinatory]] element to sleep paralysis makes it even more likely that soméone will interpret the experience as a dréam, since completely fanciful, or dréam-like, objects may appéar in the room alongside one's normal vision. Some scientists have proposed this condition as an explanation for [[alien abduction]]s and [[ghost]]ly encounters.<ref name="pmid15881271">{{cite journal |author=McNally RJ, Clancy SA. |title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction |url=https://archive.org/details/transcultural-psychiatry_2005-03_42_1/page/113 |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–122 |year=2005|pmid=15881271 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050715}}</ref> A study by [[Susan Blackmore]] and [[Marcus Cox]] of the [[University of the West of England]] suggested that alien abductions are related to sleep paralysis rather than to [[temporal lobe]] lability.<ref name="ejufoas">{{cite journal | last = Blackmore | first = Susan | authorlink = Susan Blackmore | coauthors = Marcus Cox | title = Alien Abductions, Sleep Paralysis and the Temporal Lobe | journal = European Journal of UFO and Abduction Studies | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = pp. 113-118 | publisher = | location = | date = | url = http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Articles/ejufoas00.html | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-07-26}}</ref> The paralysis can last from several seconds to several minutes "after which the individual may experience panic symptoms and the realization that the distorted perceptions were false" <ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380">Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref>. When there is an absence of [[narcolepsy]], sleep paralysis is referred to as isolated sleep paralysis (ISP) <ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007"/>. "ISP appears to be far more common and recurrent among African Americans than among White Americans or Nigerian Blacks" <ref name="Hersen, Turner 2007 p. 380"/>, and is often referred to within African American communities as "the witch riding your back" <ref>Mattek, (2005) Memoirs p. 34</ref><ref>[http://au.answers.yahoo.com/answers2/frontend.php/question?qid=20071224062255AAqQrR5 Have you ever heard of a devil or a witch riding your back? - Yahoo!7 Answers<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. == Gejala == {{Original research|date=May 2008}} Symptoms of sleep paralysis can be either one of the following or a combination: * '''Paralysis:''' this occurs after waking up or shortly before falling asleep. The person cannot move any body part, cannot spéak, and only has minimal control over blinking and bréathing. This paralysis is the same paralysis that occurs when dréaming. The brain paralyzes the muscles to prevent possible injury during dréams, as some body parts may move during dréaming. If the person wakes up suddenly, the brain may still think that it is dréaming, and sustains the paralysis. * '''Hallucinations:''' Images or spéaking that appéar during the paralysis. The person may think that soméone is standing beside them or they may héar strange sounds. These may be dréamlike, possibly causing the person to think that they are still dréaming. Often it is reported as feeling a weight on one's chest, as if being undernéath a person or héavy object. These symptoms can last from méré seconds to several minutes (although they can feel like much longer) and can be frightening to the person. There may be some body movement, but it is very unlikely and hard for a person to accomplish. == Kamungkinan sababna == Sleep paralysis occurs during [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] sleep, thus preventing the body from manifesting movements made in the subject's dréams. Very little is known about the physiology of sleep paralysis.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} However, some have suggested that it may be linked to post-[[synapse|synaptic]] inhibition of [[motor neuron]]s in the [[pons]] region of the [[brain]].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} In particular, low levels of [[melatonin]] may stop the [[depolarization]] current in the nerves, which prevents the stimulation of the muscles, to prevent the body from enacting the dréam activity (e.g. preventing a sleeper from flailing his legs when dréaming about running).{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Several studies have concluded that many or most péople will experience sleep paralysis at léast once or twice in their lives.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Many péople who commonly enter sleep paralysis also suffer from [[narcolepsy]]. In [[African-American]]s, [[panic disorder]] occurs with sleep paralysis more frequently than in Caucasians.<ref> Friedman, S. & Paradis, C. (2002). Panic disorder in African-Americans: Symptomatology and isolated sleep paralysis. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2002 Jun;26(2):179-98 PMID 12211324</ref> Some reports réad that various factors incréase the likelihood of both paralysis and hallucinations. These include:<ref>{{cite web | author= J. A. Cheyne | url= http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html | title= Preventing and Coping with Sleep Paralysis | accessmonthday= 17 July | accessyear= 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013081811/http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html |date=2007-10-13 }}</ref> * Sleeping in a face upwards or [[supine position]] * Irregular sleeping schedules; naps, sleeping in, [[sleep deprivation]] * Incréased stress * Sudden environmental/lifestyle changes * A [[lucid dream]] that immediately precedes the episode. == Cara ngarawat == [[Clonazepam]] is highly effective in the tréatment of sleep paralysis.<ref>Wills L, Garcia J. (2002) ''Parasomnias: epidemiology and management''16(12):803-10.</ref> The initial dose is 0.5&nbsp;mg at bedtime, while an incréase to 1&nbsp;mg per night might be necessary to maintain potency. [[Ritalin]] has been used successfully as a daytime medication to promote structured sleep patterns and the prevention of sleep paralysis in ''some'' adults. Care should be taken to monitor blood pressure along with other appropriate tests. Dosage starts at 20&nbsp;mg per day (morning) incréased weekly until episodes diminish.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} == Dongeng == {{Prose|date=March 2008}} Complete references to many cultures are given in [[Sleep paralysis#References|the References section]] <!---deletions to this section are here [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Sleep_paralysis#Edited_out_by_Laurascudder.2C_see_article.27s_history] ---> <!---The '''bibliographic references''' to most cultural references have always been and still are here: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_paralysis#References] ---> * In African American culture, isolated sleep paralysis is commonly referred to as "the devil riding your back" * In the Cambodian, Laotian and Thai culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "pee umm" and "khmout sukkhot". It describes an event where the person is sleeping and dréams that ghostly figure(s) are either holding him/her down or the ghosts can just be néar. The person usually thinks that they are awake but is unable to move or maké any noises. This is not to be confused with "pee khao" and "khmout jool" which refers to a ghost possession. * In [[Hmong people|Hmong]] culture, sleep paralysis describes an experience called "dab tsog" or "crushing demon" from the compound phrase "dab" (demon) and "tsog" (crush). Often the sufferer claims to be able to see a tiny figure, no larger than a child, sitting on his or her chest. What is alarming is that a vast number of American Hmong, mainly males, have died in their sleep prompting the Centers for Diséase Control to créate the term "Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome" or "SUNDS" for short. * In Vietnamese culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "ma de", méaning "held down by a ghost" or "bong de", méaning "held down by a shadow". Many péople in this culture believe that a ghost has entered one's body, causing the paralyzed state. * In [[Chinese culture]], sleep paralysis is widely known as "鬼壓身/鬼压身" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā shēn) or "鬼壓床/鬼压床" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā chuáng), which literally translate into "ghost pressing on body" or "ghost pressing on bed." The modérn scientific term, however, is "夢魘/梦魇" ([[pinyin]]: méng yǎn); notice that the character "魘/魇" ([[pinyin]]: yǎn) is composed of "厭/厌" ([[pinyin]]: yàn), "to detest", and "鬼" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ), "ghost, demon". * In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as ''kanashibari'' ([http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%B8%9B%E3%82%8A 金縛り], literally "bound or fastened in metal," from kane "metal" and shibaru" to bind, to tie, to fasten"). This term is occasionally used by English spéaking authors to refer to the phenomenon both in academic papers and in [[popular psychology|pop psych]] literature. * In [[Hungary|Hungarian]] folk culture sleep paralysis is called "lidércnyomás" ("lidérc pressing") and can be attributed to a number of supernatural entities like "lidérc" (wraith), "boszorkány" (witch), "tündér" (fairy) or "ördögszerető" (demon lover).<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/3-1332.html lidérc], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref> The word "boszorkány" itself stems from the Turkish root "bas-", méaning "to press".<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/1-925.html boszorkány], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref> * In [[Iceland]] folk culture sleep paralysis is generally called having a "[[Mara (folklore)|Mara]]". Mara is an old Icelandic word for a mare but has taken on the méaning for a sort of a devil that sits on ones chest at night, trying to suffocate the victim. * In [[Malta]], folk culture attributes a sleep paralysis incident to an attack by the "Haddiela" who is the wife of the "Hares", the entity in Maltese folk culture which haunts the individual in similar ways as to those of a poltergeist. As believed in folk culture, to rid oneself of the Haddiela, one must place a piece of silverware or a knife under the pillow prior to sleep. * Kurdish péople call this phenomenon a "mottaka", they believe that some one, in a form of a ghost or perhaps an evil spirit, turns up on top the of the person in the middle of the night and suffocates him/her. Apparently this happens usually when some one has done something bad. * In New Guinéa, péople refer to this phenomenon as "Suk Ninmyo", believed to originate from sacred trees that use human essence to sustain its life. The trees are said to feed on human essence during night as to not disturb the human's daily life, but sometimes péople wake unnaturally during the feeding, resulting in the paralysis. * In [[Turkey|Turkish]] culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as "karabasan" ("The dark presser/assailer"). It is believed to be a créature which attacks péople in their sleep, pressing on their chest and stéaling their bréath. * In Mexico, it's believed that sleep paralysis is in fact the spirit of a déad person getting on the person and impeding movement, calling this "se me subió el muerto" (the déad person got on me). * In many parts of the Southern United States, the phenomenon is known as a "hag", and the event is said to often be a sign of an approaching tragedy or accident. * Ogun Oru is a traditional explanation for nocturnal disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria; ogun oru (nocturnal warefare) involves an acute night-time disturbance that is culturally attributed to demonic infiltration of the body and psyche during dréaming. Ogun oru is characterized by its occurrence, a female preponderance, the perception of an underlying feud between the sufferer's éarthly spouse and a ;spiritual' spouse, and the event of bewitchment through éating while dréaming. The condition is believed to be tréatable through Christian prayers or elaborate traditional rituals designed to exorcise the imbibed demonic elements.<ref name="pmid17379609">{{cite journal |author=Aina OF, Famuyiwa OO |title=Ogun Oru: a traditional explanation for nocturnal neuropsychiatric disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/transcultural-psychiatry_2007-03_44_1/page/44 |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17379609 |doi=10.1177/1363461507074968}}</ref> * In [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], it is believed that sleep paralysis occurs when a ghost-like créature or Demon named Mora, Vrahnas or Varypnas (Greek: Μόρα, Βραχνάς, Βαρυπνάς) tries to stéal the victim's speech or sits on the victim's chest causing asphyxiation. * In Zimbabwéan Shona culture the word Madzikirira is used to refer something réally pressing one down. This mostly refers to the spiritual world in which some spirit—especially an evil one—tries to use its victim for some evil purpose. The péople believe that witches can only be péople of close relations to be effective, and hence a witches often try to use one's spirit to bewitch one's relatives. * In Ethiopian culture the word Dukak is used. Dukak is believed to be some form of evil spirit that possesses péople during their sleep. This experience is also believed to be related to use of [[Khat]]. Most Khat users experience sleep paralysis when quitting after a long time of use. * In Ireland it is also known as "the hag." The expression originates from reports of an old woman that was believed to be seen néar the sufferer during paralysis. * Several studies have shown that African-Americans may be predisposed to isolated sleep paralysis also known as "the witch is riding you," or "the haint is riding you."<ref name="pmid6737506">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Shakoor B, Thompson B, Dew D, Hughley E, Mays R, Shorter-Gooden K |title=Prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=501–508 |year=1984 |pmid=6737506}}</ref> In addition, other studies have shown that African-Americans who have frequent episodes of isolated sleep paralysis, i.e., reporting having one or more sleep paralysis episodes per month coined as "sleep paralysis disorder," were predisposed to having panic attacks.<ref name="pmid3746934">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Dixie-Bell DD, Thompson B |title=Further studies on the prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=649–659 |year=1986|pmid=3746934}}</ref> This finding has been replicated by other independent reséarchers<ref name="pmid15881272">{{cite journal |author=Paradis CM, Friedman S |title=Sleep Paralysis in African Americans with Panic Disorder |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_transcultural-psychiatry_2006-12_43_4/page/692 |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=692–694 |year=2006 |pmid=15881272 |unused_data=|DOI: 10.1177/1363461505050720}}</ref><ref name="pmid7982696">{{cite journal |author=Friedman S, Paradis CM, Hatch M |title=Characteristics of African-Americans and white patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia |journal=Hospital and Community Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=798–803 |year=1994 |pmid=7982696}}</ref> * In [[Culture of Pakistan|Pakistani]] culture, it is an encounter with evil [[Genie|jinns]] and [[demon]]s. It is also assumed that it is due to the [[black magic]] performed by enemies and jéalous persons. [[Curse]]s could also result in [[ghoul]] haunting a person. Some homes and locations are also haunted by these [[satan]]ic beings. * In Koréan Culture, sleep paralysis is known as 가위눌림 ("ga-ui nool-lim"), which méans "pressed by a nightmare." * In [[Culture of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan]] Culture, this particular phenomenon is referred to as 'Amuku Be" or 'Amuku Pei' méaning the ghost that forces one down. == Catetan == {{reflist|2}} == Rujukan == * Culhane-Pera, Kathie (2003). Héaling by Héart: Clinical and Ethical Case Stories of Hmong Families and Western Providers. Vanderbilt University Press. * Bower, Bruce (July 9, 2005). "[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/bob9.asp Night of the Crusher] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423231007/http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/bob9.asp |date=2008-04-23 }}." ''Science News''. * Conesa, J. (2000). Géomagnetic, cross-cultural and occupational faces of sleep paralysis: An ecological perspective. ''Sleep and Hypnosis'', 2, (3), 105-111. * Conesa, J. (2002). Isolated Sleep Paralysis and Lucid Dréaming: Ten-yéar longitudinal case study and related dréam frequencies, types, and categories. ''Sleep and Hypnosis'', 4, (4), 132-143. * Conesa, J. (2003). Sleep Paralysis Signaling (SPS) As A Natural Cueing Method for the Generation and Maintenance of Lucid Dréaming. Presented at The 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, May 1 - 4, 2003 in Vancouver, BC, Canada. * Conesa-Sevilla, Jorge (2004). Wrestling With Ghosts: A Personal and Scientific Account of Sleep Paralysis. Pennsylvania: Xlibris/Randomhouse. * Firestone M. The “Old Hag”: sleep paralysis in Newfoundland. ''The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology'' 1985; 8:47-66. * Fukuda K, Miyasita A, Inugami M, Ishihara K. High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan. ''Sleep'' 1987; 10:279-286. * Hartmann E. The nightmare: the psychology and biology of terrifying dréams. New York:Basic,1984. * Hufford D.J. The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982 * Kettlewell, N; Lipscomb, S; Evans, E. (June, 1993). "Differences in neuropsychological correlates between normals and those experiencing "Old Hag Attacks'." ''Perceptual and Motor Skills''. 76 (3 Pt 1): 839-45; discussion 846. PMID 8321596 * Ness RC. “The Old Hag” phenomenon as sleep paralysis: a bicultural interpretation . Culture, ''Medicine and Psychiatry'' 1978; 2:15-39. * Ohayon MM, Zulley J, Guilleminault C, Smirne, S. Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population. ''Neurology'', 1999; 52:1194-1200. * Sagan, Carl (1997). ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''. * Schneck JM. Sleep paralysis and microsomatognosia with special reference to hypnotherapy . The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' 1977; XXV:72-77. * Takeuchi T, Miyasita A, Sasaki Y, Inugami M, Fukuda K. Isolated sleep paralysis elicited by sleep interruption. ''American Sleep Disorders Association and Sleep Research Society'', 1992; 15: 217-225. == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.spis.org.uk Sleep Paralysis Information Service] * [http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html Sleep information and links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306075040/http://stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html |date=2016-03-06 }} from Stanford University * [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html Sleep Paralysis and Associated Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030605094412/http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html |date=2003-06-05 }} from University of Waterloo * [http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/sleep/ Waking Up to Sleep Paralysis] * {{id}} [http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/09/21/1407118/misteri.di.balik.tindihan Misteri di satukangeun eureup-eureup] {{SleepSeries2}} [[Kategori:Fisiologi saré]] [[Kategori:Panyakit saré]] [[Kategori:Psikologi saraf]] lxryhnozje76lznyyrrza71ot84h0x3 Kromosom X 0 29719 712350 485689 2026-08-28T21:27:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712350 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Chromosome X.svg|125px|thumb|right|Skéma kromosom X]] '''Kromosom X''' nyaéta salah sahiji ti dua [[kromosom]] [[sistem panangtuan kelamin|nu nangtukeun kelamin]] dina lolobana [[spésiés]] [[sato]], kaasup [[manusa]] (nu hiji deui nyaéta [[kromosom Y]]). Ieu mangrupa bagian ti [[sistem panangtuan kelamin XY]] jeung [[sistem panangtuan kelamin X0]]. Ieu kromosom dingaranan kitu dumasar kana kaunikanana anu kapanggih ku para panalungtik baheula. Tina X, mangka kromosom anu hiji deui dingaranan Y nuturkeun urutan aksara Latén<ref name="nyt-angier">{{cite web | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/01/science/01angi.html | title = For Motherly X Chromosome, Gender Is Only the Beginning | last = Angier | first = Natalie | publisher = New York Times | date = 2007-05-01 | accessdate = 2007-05-01}}</ref>. == Kromosom manusa == === Fungsi === [[Image:Sd4hi-unten-crop.jpg|thumb|Inti sél cairan amniotik wanoja. Luhur: dua wilayah kromosom X kalacak ku [[Fluoresénsi hibridisasi in situ|FISH]] (hiji potongan optik nu dijieun maké [[mikroskop konfokal]]). Handap: inti nu sarua diwarnaan [[DAPI]] sarta dirékam maké [[Charge-coupled device|kaméra CCD]]. Tanda panah nunjukkeun awak Barr nu mikawanoh X inaktif (Xi).]] Kromosom X X mangrupa salah sahiji ti 23 pasangan kromosom homolog dina inti sél awéwé. Kromosom X diwangun ku 153 juta [[pasang basa]], ngawengku 5% total [[DNA]] dina sél awéwé, sarta 2,5% dina sél lalaki. Normalna, unggal jalma boga sapasang kromosom kelamin dina unggal sélna. Wanoja boga dua kromosom X, sedengkeun lalaki boga hiji kromosom X jeung hiji [[kromosom Y]]. Boh wanoja atawa lalaki diwarisan hiji kromosom X ti indungna, sedengkeun nu hiji deui (pikeun wanoja) diwariskeun ti bapana. ku sabab bapana nampa kromosom X ti indungna, mangka hiji wanoja boga hiji kromosom X ti indungna sarta hiji ti nini ti bapana. Kromosom X ngandung kira 2000 gén<ref name="Macmillan Science Library">{{cite web | author=Macmillan Science Library |title=Genetics on X Chromosome| year=2001 |url=http://www.bookrags.com/X_chromosome#br_2}}</ref> (bandingkeun jeung kromosom Y nu ukur ngandung 78<ref name="Harris">{{cite web |author=Richard Harris|title=Scientists Decipher Y Chromosome |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1303260 |year=2003}}</ref>, tina kira 20.000-25.000 gén dina génom manusa. [[Cacad genetik]] alatan [[mutasi]] dina gén dina kromosom X katelahna `''X-linked''`. Najan kasebutna kromosom kelamin, gén-gén anu aya dina kromosom X lolobana euweuh patalina jeung panangtuan kelamin. Dina mangsa awal kamekaran janin awéwé, salah sahiji kromosom X sacara acak tur permanén diteuaktifkeun di ampir sakabéh sél somatik (sél salian ti [[ovum|endog]] jeung [[spérmatozoon|spérma]]). Ieu fénoména katelahna [[inaktivasi-X]] atawa [[lyonisasi]], sarta ngahasilkeun [[awak Barr]]. Inaktivasi-X ngajadikeun awéwé sarua jeung lalaki dina hal fungsi kromosom X-na<ref name="Carrel">{{cite journal |author=Carrel L, Willard H |title=X-inactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-03-17_434_7031/page/400 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=434 |issue=7031 |pages=400–4 |year=2005 |doi=10.1038/nature03479}}</ref>. === Bangun === Kromosom X téh carang gén, lolobana ukur ségmén ulangan DNA nu teu nyandi protéin atawa fungsi nu geus kanyahoan. Nu nyandi protéin fungsional ukur 1,7% ti sakujurna, nu masing-masing génna kaitung parondok dibandingkeun rata-rata gén manusa. Dina kromosom X, aya kira 10% gén anu tumali jeung kulawarga gén "CT" (disebut CT ku sabab nyandi marka nu aya dina sél tumor (di pasén kangker, '''''c'''ancer'') jeung dina '''t'''éstis (nu waluya). Gén-gén CT nu aya dina eu kromosom téh 90%-na ti sakabéh gén CT nu aya dina génom manusa. Ku lobana kitu, aya hipotésis yén gén-gén ieu (ku kituna kromosom X ogé) tumali jeung évolusi manusa lalaki<ref name="ross">{{cite journal |author=Ross M et al. |title=The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome |journal=Nature |volume=434 |issue=7031 |pages=325–37 |year=2005 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7031/full/nature03440.html |doi=10.1038/nature03440}}</ref>. <!-- It is theorized by Ross et al 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X-chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal (non-sex-related) genome of other mammals evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments. The X-chromosome is notably larger and has a more active [[euchromatin]] region than its [[Y-chromosome]] counterpart. Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two. However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions which are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one x-chromosome, they are more likely to have an x-chromosome related disease. ===Role in diseases=== [[Image:Chromosome X Etude Inactivation X.PNG|right]] ====Numerical abnormalities==== [[Klinefelter's syndrome]]: * Klinefelter's syndrome is caused by the presence of one or more extra copies of the X chromosome in a male's cells. Extra genetic material from the X chromosome interferes with male sexual development, preventing the testicles from functioning normally and reducing the levels of [[testosterone]]. * Typically, males with Klinefelter's syndrome have one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell, for a total of two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (47,XXY). Less commonly, affected males may have two or three extra X chromosomes (48,XXXY or 49,XXXXY) or extra copies of both the X and Y chromosomes (48,XXYY) in each cell. The extra genetic material may lead to [[mental retardation]] and other medical problems. * Klinefelter's syndrome can also result from an extra X chromosome in only some of the body's cells. These cases are called mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY. [[Triple X syndrome]] (also called 47,XXX or trisomy X): * This syndrome results from an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Females with trisomy X have three X chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. The average [[IQ]] of females with this syndrome is 90, while the average [[IQ]] of their normal siblings is 100 [http://www.aaa.dk/TURNER/ENGELSK/TRIEN.HTM]. Their stature on average is taller than for normal females. They are fertile and their children do not inherit the condition. [http://www.library.nhs.uk/genepool/ViewResource.aspx?resID=93920&catID=8930] * Females with more than one extra copy of the X chromosome (48,[[XXXX syndrome]] or 49,[[XXXXX syndrome]]) have been identified, but these conditions are rare. The extra genetic material may lead to mental retardation and other medical problems. [[Turner syndrome]]: * This results when each of a female's cells has one normal X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing or altered. The missing genetic material affects development and causes the characteristic features of the condition, including short stature and infertility. * About half of individuals with Turner syndrome have [[monosomy]] X (45,X), which means each cell in a woman's body has only one copy of the X chromosome instead of the usual two copies. Turner syndrome can also occur if one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged rather than completely missing. Some women with Turner syndrome have a chromosomal change in only some of their cells. These cases are called Turner syndrome mosaics (45,X/46,XX). ====X-linked inherited diseases==== {{Main|Sex linkage}} X-linked inherited diseases are caused by gene [[mutation]]s on the X chromosome. Such genes do not necessarily code for any feminization or demasculinization per se, in contrast to the numerical abnormalities above. X-linked inherited diseases are either [[Dominance (genetics)|recessive or dominant]]. Diseases well known for their X-linked recessive inheritance are [[hemophilia]] (types A and B), [[Duchenne muscular dystrophy]] and [[color blindness]].--> === Lianna === [[Sindrom lalaki XX]] kaitung cacad anu langka pisan, balukar tina rékombinasi bagian SRY ti kromosom Y kana kromosom X. == Rujukan == *''[[:en:X chromosome|X chromosome]]''. Disalin 22 Oktober 2008 {{reflist}} {{Kromosom}} {{biologi-pondok}} [[Kategori:Kromosom]] [[Kategori:Sitogenetika]] 0dp7eyizlrkjis4nu3cqgbrzo4sf77p Kromosom Y 0 29785 712368 684787 2026-08-28T22:02:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712368 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Chromosome Y.svg|125px|right]] '''Kromosom Y''' nyaéta [[kromosom]] [[sistem panangtu kelamin|panangtu kelamin]] di lolobana [[mamalia]], kaasup [[manusa]]. Ieu kromosom diwangun ku 60 juta [[pasang basa]], nu di antarana aya gén [[SRY]] nu ngahirupkeun tumuwuhna [[siki kanjut|téstis]]. Mamalian lolobana boga sapasang kromosom kelamin dina unggal [[sél (biologi)|sélna]] (najan aya [[platipus]] anu boga lima pasang). Nu jalu boga hiji kromosom Y jeung hiji kromosom X, sedengkeun nu bikang boga dua kromosom X wungkul. Lian ti gén SRY, dina kromosom Y ieu aya gén-gén lianna anu dipikabutuh pikeun produksi [[spérma]] anu normal. Aya ogé anu cacad, misalna lalaki anu boga dua kromosom X jeung hiji kromosom Y ("XXY", baca [[sindrom Klinefelter]]) atawa hiji kromosom X jeung dua kromosom Y (baca [[sindrom XYY]]). Aya deui [[sindrom tripel X|wanoja nu boag tilu kromosom X]] atawa hiji kromosom X (tanpa Y, "X0", baca [[sindrom Turner]]). Aya/euweuhna kromosom Y mangrupa salah sahiji uji pikeun nangtukeun jenis kelamin. == Asal-usul jeung évolusi == === Saméméh kromosom Y === [[Vertebrata]] [[éktotermik]] loba nu teu boga kromosom kelamin, sarta ayana ditangtukeun ku lingkungan, lain génétik. Misalna baé [[réptil]], kelamin gumantung kana suhu inkubasi mangsa disileungleuman; nu séjénna malah [[hérmaprodit]] (boga gamét jalu jeung bikang dina jero awakna). === Asal-usul === Numutkeun [[téori évolusi]], kromosom X jeung Y mimiti misah tina sapasang kromosom idéntik kira-kira 300 juta taun kaliwat<ref name="lahn">{{cite journal |author=Lahn B, Page D |title=Four evolutionary strata on the human X chromosome |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1999-10-29_286_5441/page/964 |journal=Science |volume=286 |issue=5441 |pages=964–7 |year=1999 |pmid=10542153 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5441.964}}</ref>, nu disebut [[autosom]]. Nalika éta [[mamalia]] karuhun ngahasilkeun variasi [[alél]] dina 'lokus kelamin' (''sex locus''), mangka éta organisme jadi jalu<ref name="Graves J.A.M. 2006 901–14">{{cite journal |author=Graves J.A.M. |title=Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2006-03-10_124_5/page/901 |journal=Cell |volume=124 |issue=5 |pages=901–14 |year=2006 |pmid=16530039 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024}}</ref>. Kromosom nu mawa ieu alél robah jadi kromosom Y, sedengkeun pasangan anu séjénna robah jadi kromosom X. Salajengna, gén-gén anu mangpaat pikeun jalu sarta bahya atawa teu guna pikeun bikang mekar dina kromosom Y atawa pindah ka kromosom Y dina prosés [[translokasi kromosomal|translokasi]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Graves J.A.M., Koina E., Sankovic N. |title=How the gene content of human sex chromosomes evolved |journal=Curr Opin Genet Dev |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=219–24 |year=2006 |pmid=16650758 |doi=10.1016/j.gde.2006.04.007}}</ref>. === Inhibisi rékombinasi === Gén-gén dina kromosom Y dijaga tina rékombinasi jeung kromosom X; 95% kromosom Y manusa teu bisa rékombinasi. Gén-gén anu penting pikeun jalu ngagunduk deukeut gén-gén panangtu kelamin, sarta neken (suprési) rékombinasi dina ieu bagian<ref name="Graves J.A.M. 2006 901–14"/>, sabab [[Rékombinasi genetik|rékombinasi]] antara kromosom X jeung Y kabuktian bahya - ngahasilkeun jalu tanpa gén-gén penting nu saméméhna aya dina kromosom X jeung bikang anu euyeub ku gén-gén teu penting atawa malah bahya nu saméméhna aya di kromosom Y. <!-- ===Shrinking=== With time, larger and larger areas became unable to recombine with the X chromosome. This caused its own problems: without recombination, the removal of harmful mutations from chromosomes becomes increasingly difficult. With no ability to remove the harmful mutations, only fortuitous mutations that permanently turned these coding regions off would give their bearer an advantage over those with still-functioning, harmful genes. This gradually turned large swaths of the chromosome into [[Junk DNA|genetic junk]]; this was eventually removed from the Y chromosome.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Today, the human Y chromosome itself contains only 86 working genes,<ref name="Chromosome Y">{{cite web |url = http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/mapview?chr=Y |title = Ensembl Human MapView release 43 |date = February 2007 |accessdate = 2007-04-14}}</ref> compared to close to 1000 working genes on the X chromosome. In some animals, Y degradation is even more severe. The [[dunnart]], a marsupial carrying a [[megabase|10-12 Mb]] Y chromosome, has only four characterised genes; among them the [[SRY]] gene, is the smallest known mammalian Y chromosome. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Toder R., Wakefield M.J., Graves J.A.M. |title=The minimal mammalian Y chromosome - the marsupial Y as a model system |journal=Cytogenet Cell Genet |volume=91 |issue=1-4 |pages=285–92 |year=2000 |pmid=11173870 |doi=10.1159/000056858}}</ref> === Gene conversion === In [[2003]], researchers from [[MIT]] discovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, using [[palindrome]] [[base pair]] sequences.<ref name="rozen">{{cite journal |author=Rozen S, Skaletsky H, Marszalek J, Minx P, Cordum H, Waterston R, Wilson R, Page D |title=Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2003-06-19_423_6942/page/873 |journal=Nature |volume=423 |issue=6942 |pages=873–6 |year=2003 |pmid=12815433 |doi=10.1038/nature01723}}</ref> Such a "recombination" is called [[gene conversion]] or ''[[RecLOH|recombinational loss of heterozygosity]]'' (RecLOH). In the case of the Y chromosomes, the [[palindrome]]s are not [[junk DNA]]; these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them. Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes of [[chimpanzee]]s, [[bonobo]]s and [[gorilla]]s. The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other. === Future evolution === {{Unreferenced|date=September 2008}} {{Original research|date=September 2008}} After only an SRY (or other sex-determining) gene remains from the whole Y chromosome, there are the following possibilities: *The gene is connected to X chromosome or some [[autosome]], making it the new Y chromosome. The whole process starts again. This has happened in the [[Transcaucasian Mole Vole]] (''Ellobius lutescens''), the [[Northern Mole Vole]] (''E. talpinus'') and the [[Zaisan Mole Vole]] (''E. tancrei''). In ''E. lutescens'', both sexes have unpaired X chromosomes; in ''E. talpinus'' and ''E. tancrei'', both females and males have XX. A similar situation to that of the Transcaucasian Mole Vole seems to exist in the ''[[Tokudaia osimensis]]'' [[species complex]] of spinous country-rats. Among [[Eumuroida]], ''[[Ellobius]]'' and ''[[Tokudaia]]'' are not particularly closely related. Consequently unusual mechanisms of sex determination may well be far more common among these [[rodent]]s than generally assumed. *Part of some autosome is connected to both the X and Y chromosomes. This happened with one species of ''[[Drosophila]]''. *The Y chromosome remains, containing only the SRY gene. --> == Kromosom Y manusa == Kromosom Y manusa diwangun ku 58 juta pasang basa (kira 0,38% tina total [[DNA]] dina sél manusa) nu ngandung 86 gén<ref name="Chromosome Y"/> nu nyandi ukur 23 [[protéin]] anu béda. ''Trait'' anu diturunkeun ngaliwatan kromosom Y disebut ''holandric traits''. Kromosom Y manusa teu bisa ngalaman rékombinasi jeung kromosom X, iwal bagian leutik pseudoautosomal dina [[telomér]] (nu ngawengku 5%-an panjang kromosom). <!--These regions are relics of ancient [[Homology (biology)|homology]] between the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome which does not recombine is called the "NRY" or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080401184955.htm ScienceDaily.com Apr. 3, 2008]</ref> It is the [[Single nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]]s in this region which are used for tracing direct paternal ancestral lines. === Gén === *[[AMELY]] ([[amélogénin]]) *[[ANT3Y]] ([[adénin nukléotida translokator]]-3) *[[ASMTY]] ([[asetilserotonin métiltransferase]]) *[[AZF1]] (faktor 1 [[azoospermia]]) *[[AZF2]] (faktor 2 azoospermia) *[[BPY2]] (protéin dasar) *[[CSF2RY]] (reséptor faktor stimulasi koloni makrofage-granulosit, subunit alfa) *[[DAZ1]] (leungit dina azoospermia) *[[DAZ2]] *[[IL3RAY]] ([[interleukin]]-3 receptor) *[[PRKY]] (protein kinase, Y-linked) *[[RBM1]] ([[RNA]] binding motif protein, Y chromosome, family 1, member A1) *[[RBM2]] (RNA binding motif protein 2) *[[RPS4Y1]] (Ribosomal protein S4, Y-linked copy 1) *[[RPS4Y2]] (Ribosomal protein S4, Y-linked copy 2) *[[SRY]] (sex-determining region) *[[TSPY1|TSPY]] ([[testis]]-specific protein) *[[UTY (gene)|UTY]] (ubiquitously transcribed TPR gene on Y chromosome) *[[ZFY]] ([[zinc finger protein]]) ===Y-Chromosome-linked diseases=== Y-Chromosome-linked diseases can be of more common types, or very rare ones. Yet, the rare ones still have importance in understanding the function of the Y-chromosome in the normal case.{{Fact|mar 2008|date=March 2008}} ====More common==== No vital genes reside only on the Y chromosome, since 50% of humans (females) do not have Y chromosomes. The only well-defined human disease linked to a defect on the Y chromosome is defective testicular development (due to deletion or deleterious mutation of ''SRY''). However, having two X-chromosomes and one Y-chromosome has similar effects. On the other hand, having Y-chromosome polysomy has other effects than masculinization. =====Defective Y-chromosome===== This results in the person presenting a female [[phenotype]] even though that person possesses an XY [[karyotype]] (i.e., is born with female-like genitalia). The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from opposite direction, the person goes through [[defeminization]] but fails to complete [[masculinization]]. The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 46X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of structure may occur, especially if mosaicism is present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child usually is a girl with the features of [[Turner syndrome]] or [[mixed gonadal dysgenesis]]. =====XXY===== [[Klinefelter's syndrome]] (47, XXY) is not an aneuploidy of the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome. It usually results in defective postnatal testicular function, but as the extra X does not seem to be due to direct interference with expression of Y genes. The mechanism is not fully understood. =====XYY===== {{main|XYY}} It is possible for an abnormal number (aneuploidy) of Y chromosomes to result in problems. [[47,XYY syndrome]] is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47,XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype. When chromosome surveys were done in the mid-1960s in British secure hospitals for the developmentally disabled, a higher than expected number of patients were found to have an extra Y chromosome. The patients were mischaracterized as aggressive and criminal, so that for a while an extra Y chromosome was believed to predispose a boy to antisocial behavior (and was dubbed the "criminal karyotype"). Subsequently, in 1968 in Scotland the only ever comprehensive nationwide chromosome survey of prisons found no overrepresentation of 47,XYY men, and later studies found 47,XYY boys and men had the same rate of criminal convictions as 46,XY boys and men of equal intelligence. Thus, the "criminal karyotype" concept is inaccurate and obsolete. ====Rare==== The following Y-Chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidating of the nature of the Y-chromosome. =====More than two Y chromosomes===== Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYYY) are rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, decreased IQ, and delayed development, but the severity features of these conditions are variable. =====XX male syndrome===== [[XX male syndrome]] occurs when there has been a [[recombination]] in the formation of the male [[gametes]], causing the [[SRY]]-portion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome. When such an X chromosome contributes to the child, the development will lead to a male, because of the SRY gene. === Genetic genealogy === In human [[genetic genealogy]] (the application of [[genetics]] to [[Genealogy|traditional genealogy]]) use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest since, unlike other genes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son.<ref>See [http://www.smgf.org/page.jspx?name=together www.smgf.org] for more information.</ref> See [http://www.smgf.org/page.jspx?name=together www.smgf.org] for more information. [[Mitochondrial DNA]], maternally inherited, is used in an analogous way to trace the maternal line. ==Non-mammal Y-chromosome== Many groups of organisms in addition to mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with mammalian Y chromosomes. Such groups include [[Drosophila]], some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. In [[Drosophila melanogaster]], the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. The ''D. melanogaster'' Y chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXY ''D. melanogaster'' are female, and ''D. melanogaster'' with a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile. ===ZW-chromosomes=== Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: the female is "XY" and the male is "XX", but by convention biologists call a "female Y" a [[W chromosome]] and the other a [[Z chromosome]]. For example, female birds, snakes, and butterflies have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes. --> == Baca ogé == * [[Uji silsilah DNA]] * [[Y-STR]] * ''[[Single nucleotide polymorphism]]'' == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Y chromosome|Y chromosome]]''. Disalin 27 Oktober 2008. {{reflist}} * Skaletsky, H.S., et al. (2003) The male-specific region of the human Y chromosome is a mosaic of discrete sequence classes. Nature, 423, 825-837 * Rozen, S., et al. (2003) Abundant gene conversion between arms of palindromes in human and ape Y chromosomes. Nature, 423, 873-876. == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.cambridgedna.com/genealogy-dna-genetic-genealogy.php Genetic Genealogy: About the use of mtDNA and Y chromosome analysis in ancestry testing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708112956/http://www.cambridgedna.com/genealogy-dna-genetic-genealogy.php |date=2011-07-08 }} *http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/mapview?chr=Y *http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/maps.cgi?taxid=9606&chr=Y * [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml Human Genome Project Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420021612/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/snps.shtml |date=2012-04-20 }} — Human Chromosome Y Launchpad * [http://www.wi.mit.edu/news/ontopic/ychromosome.html On Topic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508143830/http://www.wi.mit.edu/news/ontopic/ychromosome.html |date=2012-05-08 }} — The Y Chromosome - From the Whitehéad Institute for Biomedical Reséarch * [http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/ychromosome/index.html Nature] — focus on the Y chomosome * [http://www.genome.gov/11007628 National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014173807/http://www.genome.gov/11007628 |date=2006-10-14 }} — Use of Novel Mechanism Preserves Y Chromosome Genes * [http://www.ysearch.org/ Ysearch.org - Public Y-DNA database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104031453/http://www.ysearch.org/ |date=2011-01-04 }} * [http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/ Y Chromosome Consortium (YCC)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116195823/http://ycc.biosci.arizona.edu/ |date=2017-01-16 }} {{kromosom}} {{biologi-pondok}} [[Category:Kromosom]] [[Category:Andrologi]] n9pi6mrhj9yelzz6oj33jwe8lmo0qbw Foton 0 30243 712419 711712 2026-08-28T23:07:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712419 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Lasers.jpeg|275px|thumb|right|Foton anu dipancarkeun dina ''berkas'' kohéren [[laser]]]] '''Foton''' nyaéta partikel éleménter dina fénomena [[Gelombang éléktromagnétik|éléktromagnétik]]. Biasana foton dianggap minangka nu mawa radiasi éléktromagnétik, kawas [[cahaya]], [[Gelombang éléktromagnétik#Gelombang radio|gelombang radio]], sarta [[Sinar X]]. Foton béda jeung [[partikel éleménter]] séjénna kawas [[éléktron]] jeung [[quark]], alatan manéhna henteu boga [[massa]] sarta dina [[rohangan hapa]] foton sok usik kalawan laju cahya, ''c''. Foton mibanda sipat [[gelombang]] ogé [[partikel]] ("dualisme gelombang-partikel"). Minangka gelombang, hiji foton tunggal sumebar di sakumna rohang sarta némbongkeun fénomena gelombang kawas [[réfraksi]] ku lénsa sarta interférensi déstruktif sabot gelombang kapantulkeun silih musnahkeun. Minangka partikel, foton ngan bisa interaksi jeung materi ku cara mindahkeun énergi sajumlah: :<math>E = \frac{hc}{\lambda},</math> di mana ''h'' nyaéta konstanta Planck, ''c'' nyaéta laju cahya, sarta \lambda nyaéta panjang gelombangna. Sajaba énergi, partikel foton ogé mawa moméntum sarta mibanda polarisasi. Foton nurut kana hukum [[mékanika kuantum]], anu hartina mindeng diménsi-diménsi kasebut henteu bisa diukur kalawan taliti. Biasana diménsi-diménsi kasebut didéfinisikeun minangka probabilitas pangukur polarisasi, perenah (posisi), atawa moméntum nu tangtu. Contona, sanajan hiji foton bisa ngaéksitasi hiji [[molekul]] nu tangtu, mindeng mustahil pikeun norah saméméhna molekul mana anu baris kaéksitasi. Gambaran foton minangka nu mawa [[radiasi éléktromagnétik]] ilahar dipaké ku para fisikawan. Tapi dina [[fisika téoritis]] hiji foton bisa dianggap minangka médiator pikin sagala rupa interaksi éléktromagnétik, kawas [[médan magnét]] sarta gaya tolak-tolakan antara muatan sajinis. Konsép modéren foton dimekarkeun sacara ''berangsur-angsur'' antara 1905-1917 ku [[Albert Einstein]]{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1905| title = Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt (trans. A Heuristic Modél of the Creation and Transformation of Light)| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annalen-der-physik_1905_17_1/page/132| journal = [[Annalen der Physik]]| volume = 17| pages = 132–148}}. [[s:A Heuristic Modél of the Creation and Transformation of Light|Tarjamahan Basa Inggris]] sadia di [[Wikisource]].{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1909| title = Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung (trans. The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation)| journal = Physikalische Zeitschrift| volume = 10|pages = 817–825}}. [[s:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|Tarjamahan Basa Inggris]] sadia ti [[Wikisource]]. {{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1916a| title = Strahlungs-emission und -absorption nach der Quantentheorie| journal = Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft| volume = 18| pages = 318}}{{de}}{{cite journal| last = Einstein| first = A| authorlink = Albert Einstein| year = 1916b| title = Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung| journal = Mitteilungen der Physikalischen Geselschaft zu Zürich| volume = 16| pages = 47}} ogé ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'', '''18''', 121–128 (1917). pikeun ngécéskeun pengimeutan ékspériméntal anu henteu nyumponan modél klasik pikeun cahaya. Modél foton hususna merhitungkeun gumantungna énergi cahaya kana frékuénsi, sarta ngécéskeun kamampuh [[materi]] sarta radiasi éléktromagnétik pikeun aya dina [[kasaimbangan termal]]. Fisikawan séjén mecakan ngécéskeun anomali pangimeutan ieu ku ''modél semiklasik'', anu masih ngagunakeun [[persamaan Maxwell]] pikeun ngagambarkeun cahaya. Tapi dina modél ieu objék material anu mancarkeun sarta nyerep cahaya nu dikuantisasi. Sanajan modél-modél semiklasik ieu milu nyumbang dina mekarna [[mékanika kuantum]], percobaan-percobaan satuluyna ngabuktikeun [[hipotésis]] Einstein yén ''cahaya éta sorangan'' anu kakuantisasi. Kuantum cahaya nyaéta ''foton''. Konsép foton geus mawa kamajuan dina fisika téoretis sarta ékspériméntal, kawas [[laser]], [[kondénsasi Bose-einstein]], [[téori médan kuantum]], sarta interprétasi probabilistik ti mékanika kuantum. Nurutkeun modél standar fisika partikel, foton tanggung jawab dina mroduksi kabéh médan listrik sarta [[médan magnét]]. Konsép foton dilarapkeun dina réa widang kawas [[fotokimia]], mikroskopi résolusi luhur, sarta pangukuran jarak molekulér. Anyar-anyar ieu foton diulik minangka unsur [[komputer kuantum]] sarta pikeun aplikasi canggih dina komunikasi optik kawas [[kriptografi kuantum]] == Tata ngaran == Foton mimitina dingaranan '''kuantum cahaya''' (''das Lichtquant'') ku [[Albert Einstein]]. Ngaran modéren "photon" asalna tina kecap [[Basa Yunani]] pikeun cahaya ''{{polytonic|φῶς}}'', nu ditransliterasikeun jadi ''phôs'', sarta munggaran dipaké ku kimiawan fisik [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], anu medar téori spékulatif{{cite journal| last=Lewis| first = GN| authorlink = Gilbert N. Lewis| title = The conservation of photons| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1926-12-18_118_2981/page/874|journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]| year = 1926| volume = 118| pages = 874–875}} anu nyarita: foton "henteu bisa diciptakeun atawa dibinasakeun". Sanajan téori Lewis ieu henteu bisa ditarima alatan teu saluyu jeung hasil réa percobaan, ngaran anyarna ieu, ''photon'', gancang dipaké ku lolobana fisikawan. [[Isaac Asimov]] nyebutkeun [[Arthur Compton]] minangka jelema anu munggaran ngadéfinisikeun kuantum cahaya minangka foton dina taun 1927 [{{cite book| title = The Neutrino, Ghost Particle of the Atom| url = https://archive.org/details/neutrinoghostpar0000asim| author = Isaac Asimov| publisher = Doubleday| year = 1966 }}{{cite book| title = The Universe From Flat Earth To Quasar| author = Isaac Asimov| publisher = Avon Books| year = 1968| isbn =| url =https://archive.org/details/universefromflat0000isaa}} Dina fisika, foton biasana dilambangkan ku γ, abjad Yunani [[gamma]]. Simbol ieu jigana asalna tina [[sinar gamma]], anu kapanggih sarta dingaranan ku [[Paul Ulrich Villard|Villard]]{{cite journal| last = Villard| first = P| authorlink = Paul Ulrich Villard| year = 1900| title = Sur la réflexion et la réfraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons déviables du radium| journal = Comptes Rendus| volume = 130| pages = 1010–1012}} {{fr icon}}{{cite journal| last = Villard| first = P| authorlink = Paul Ulrich Villard| year = 1900| title = Sur le rayonnement du radium| journal = Comptes Rendus| volume = 130| pages = 1178–1179}} {{fr icon}}, sarta dibuktikeun minangka salah sahiji wangun [[radiasi éléktromagnétik]] dina taun 1914 ku [[Ernest Rutherford]] jeung [[Edward Andrade]] {{cite journal| last = Rutherford| first = E| authorlink = Ernest Rutherford| coauthors = [[Edward Andrade|Andrade ENC]]| year = 1914| title = The Wavelength of the Soft Gamma Rays from Radium B| journal = Philosophical Magazine| volume = 27|pages = 854–868}} Dina élmu [[kimia]] jeung [[rékayasa optik]], foton biasana dilambangkan ku h <math>\nu</math>, énergi foton, h nyaéta [[konstanta Planck]] sarta abjad Yunani <math>\nu</math> nyaéta [[frékuénsi]] foton. Rada arang kapanggih nyaéta foton dilambangkeun ku ''hf'', ''f'' di dieu ngalambangkeun frékuénsi. == Sipat-sipat fisik == [[Gambar:Electron-positron-scattering.svg|220px|thumb|right|[[Diagram Feynman]] patukeurna foton virtual (dilambangkan ku gurat gelombang sarta gamma, <math>\gamma</math>) antara sasiki [[positron]] jeung [[éléktron]].]] Foton henteu boga [[massa]]. Massa foton dipercaya persis enol, didasarkeun kana alesan-alesan téoritis sarta ékspériméntal. Sawaréh sumber ogé ngarujuk kana konsép [[massa rélativistik]], anu mangrupa énergi anu diukur dina [[hijian]] massa. Pikeun foton kalawan [[panjang gelombang]] λ atawa énergi ''E'', ieu téh h/λc atawa E/c<sup>2</sup>. Pamakéan istilah massa kawas ieu henteu deui ilahar dina pustaka ilmiah. Foton henteu mibanda [[muatan listrik]]{{cite journal| last = Kobychev| first = V V| coauthors = Popov, S B| year = 2005| title = Constraints on the photon charge from observations of extragalactic sources| journal = Astronomy Letters| volume = 31| pages = 147–151|doi = 10.1134/1.1883345 }}, sarta henteu murudul sacara spontan dina [[rohangan hapa]]. Hiji foton mibanda dua kaayaan polarisasi anu dimungkinkan, sarta bisa digambarkeun ku tilu paraméter: komponén-komponén [[véktor gelombang]], anu nangtukeun panjang gelombangna (<math>\lambda</math>) sarta arah rambatanana. Foton nyaéta "boson gauge'' pikeun [[éléktromagnétisme]], sarta ku sabab éta kabéh bilangan kuantum séjénna kawas [[bilangan lepton]], [[bilangan baryon]], jeung ''[[strangeness]]'' boga harga nu persis enol. Foton dipancarkeun dina réa prosés alamiah, contona sabot muatan digancangkeun [[laju]]na, waktu transisi molekulér, atomik atawa nuklir, ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih handap, atawa sabot hiji partikel jeung [[antipartikel]] tabrakan sarta silih musnahkeun. Fonton diserep dina prosés kalayan waktu mundur (time-reversed) anu patula-patali jeung anu geus disebut di luhur: contona dina produksi pasangan partikel-antipartikel, atawa dina transisi molekulér, atomik atawa nuklir, ka tingkat énergi anu leuwih luhur. Dina rohangan hapa, foton usik kalawan laju c ([[laju cahaya]]). Énergina E sarta [[moméntum]]na p dihubungkan ku persamaan <math>E = p c</math>, di mana p mangrupa harga moméntum. Minangka babandingan, persamaan nu patali jeung massa m nyaéta <math>E^{2} = c^{2} p^{2} + m^{2} c^{4}</math>, luyu jeung [[téori rélativitas husus]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Elektromagnetisme]] lijh6av33hkj0fguwqypser93qu9pbx Naftaléna 0 30323 712385 654189 2026-08-28T22:20:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Naftaléna''', ogé katelah '''naftalin''', '''naftalina''', '''kamper''', atawa '''albokarbon''' (ulah kajeujeut jeung [[nafta]]) nyaéta [[hidrokarbon]] padet kristalin, [[Aromatisitas|aromatik]], bodas nu boga [[rumus molekul|rumus]] [[karbon|C]]<sub>10</sub>[[hidrogén|H]]<sub>8</sub> dina wangun gabungan dua cingcin [[bénzéna]]. Di masarakat urang mah katelahna kamper, kadang warna-warni, bentukna baruleud atawa bunder. Zatna volatil ngahasilkeun [[saab]] anu gampang kaduruk, sarta [[sublimasi|nyublim]] dina hawa biasa nu bauna bisa kaambeu dina kadar 0,08&nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm w/w]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Odor as an aid to chemical safety: Odor thresholds compared with threshold limit values and volatiles for 214 industrial chemicals in air and water dilution | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-toxicology_1983-12_3_6/page/n5 | author=Amoore J E & Hautala E | journal=J. Appl. Toxicol. | volume=3 | issue=6 | pages=272–290 | year=1983 | doi=10.1002/jat.2550030603 }}</ref>. <!-- == Sajarah == In 1819–1820, at least two chemists reported a white solid with a pungent odor derived from the distillation of coal tar. In 1821, [[John Kidd]] described many of this substance's properties and the means of its production, and proposed the name ''naphthaline'', as it had been derived from a kind of [[naphtha]] (a broad term encompassing any volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture, including coal tar).<ref>{{cite journal | author = John Kidd | year = 1821 | title = Observations on Naphthaline, a peculiar substance resembling a concrete essential oil, which is apparently produced during the decomposition of coal tar, by exposure to a red heat | journal = Philosophical Transactions | volume = 111 | pages = 209–221 | doi = 10.1098/rstl.1821.0017}}</ref> Naphthaline's chemical formula was determined by [[Michael Faraday]] in 1826. The structure of two fused benzene rings was proposed by [[Emil Erlenmeyer]] in 1866,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Studien über die s. g. aromatischen Säuren | author = Emil Erlenmeyer | journal = [[Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie]] | volume = 137 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–359 | year = 1866 | url = | doi = 10.1002/jlac.18661370309 }}</ref> and confirmed by [[Carl Graebe]] three years later. ==Structure and reactivity== A naphthalene molecule is composed of two fused benzene rings. (In [[organic chemistry]], rings are ''fused'' if they share two or more atoms.) Accordingly, naphthalene is classified as a benzenoid [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]] (PAH). There are two sets of equivalent hydrogens: the ''alpha'' positions are positions 1, 4, 5, and 8 on the drawing below, and the ''beta'' positions are positions 2, 3, 6, and 7. Unlike highly-symmetrical [[aromatic]]s, such as [[benzene]], the carbon-carbon bonds in naphthalene are not of the same length. The bonds C1–C2, C3–C4, C5–C6 and C7–C8 are about 1.36 Å (136 pm) in length, whereas the other carbon-carbon bonds are about 1.42 Å (142 pm) long. This has been verified by [[x-ray diffraction]], and is consistent with the [[valence bond theory|valence bond]] model of bonding in naphthalene which involves three [[resonance structure]]s (as shown below); while the bonds C1–C2, C3–C4, C5–C6 and C7–C8 are double in ''two'' of the three structures, the others are double in only one. [[Image:naphthalene resonance.PNG|Resonace structures of naphthalene]] Like benzene, naphthalene can undergo [[electrophilic aromatic substitution]]. For many electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, naphthalene is more reactive than benzene, reacting under milder conditions than does benzene. For example, whereas both benzene and naphthalene react with [[chlorine]] in the presence of a [[ferric chloride]] or [[aluminium chloride]] catalyst, naphthalene and chlorine can react to form [[1-chloronaphthalene]] even without a catalyst. Similarly, while both benzene and naphthalene can be alkylated using [[Friedel-Crafts reaction]]s, naphthalene can also be alkylated by reaction with [[alkene]]s or [[alcohol]]s, with [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] or [[phosphoric acid]] as the catalyst. Two [[isomer]]s are possible for mono-substituted naphthalenes, corresponding to substitution at an alpha or beta position. Usually, electrophiles attack at the alpha position. The selectivity for alpha over beta substitution can be rationalized in terms of the resonance structures of the intermediate: for the alpha substitution intermediate, seven resonance structures can be drawn, of which four preserve an aromatic ring. For beta substitution, the intermediate has only six resonance structures, and only two of these are aromatic. Sulfonation, however, gives a mixture of the "alpha" product 1-naphthalenesulfonic acid and the "beta" product 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, with the ratio dependent on reaction conditions. The 1-isomer forms predominantly at 25°C, and the 2-isomer at 160°C. Naphthalene can be [[hydrogenate]]d under high pressure with metal [[catalyst]]s to give 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene or [[tetralin]] (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>12</sub>). Further hydrogenation yields [[decahydronaphthalene]] or decalin (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>18</sub>). [[Oxidation]] with [[chromate]] or [[permanganate]], or catalytic oxidation with O<sub>2</sub> and a [[vanadium]] [[catalyst]], gives [[phthalic acid]]. ==Production== Most naphthalene is derived from [[coal tar]]. From the 1960s until the 1990s, significant amounts of naphthalene were also produced from heavy petroleum fractions during [[petroleum refining]], but today petroleum-derived naphthalene represents only a minor component of naphthalene production. Naphthalene is the most abundant single component of coal tar. While the composition of coal tar varies with the coal from which it is produced, typical coal tar is about 10% naphthalene by weight. In industrial practice, [[distillation]] of coal tar yields an oil containing about 50% naphthalene, along with a variety of other [[aromatic compound]]s. This oil, after being washed with aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]] to remove [[acid]]ic components (chiefly various [[phenol]]s), and with [[sulfuric acid]] to remove [[base (chemistry)|basic]] components, undergoes [[fractional distillation]] to isolate naphthalene. The crude naphthalene resulting from this process is about 95% naphthalene by weight, often referred to as 78°C (melting point). The chief impurities are the sulfur-containing aromatic compound [[benzothiophene]] (<2%), [[indane]] (0.2%), [[indene]] (<2%), and methylnapthalene (<2%). Petroleum-derived naphthalene is usually purer than that derived from coal tar. Where required, crude naphthalene can be further purified by [[recrystallization]] from any of a variety of solvents, resulting in 99% naphthalene by weight, referred to as 80°C (melting point). In North America, coal tar producers are [[Koppers]] Inc. and Recochem Inc., and petroleum-derived producer is Advanced Aromatics, L.P.. ==Natural occurrence== Trace amounts of naphthalene are produced by [[magnolia]]s and specific types of [[deer]], as well as the [[Formosan subterranean termite]], possibly produced by the termite as a repellant against "ants, poisonous fungi and nematode worms."<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/76115.stm BBC News]</ref> Some strains of the [[endophytic]] fungus [[muscodor albus]] produce naphthalene among a range of volatile organic compounds, while [[muscodor vitigenus]] produces naphthalene almost exlusively. <ref>[http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/148/11/3737 Naphthalene, an insect repellent, is produced by Muscodor vitigenus, a novel endophytic fungus].</ref> Naphthalene has been found in meteorites that continue to fall to the surface of the Earth. It has also been discovered in the interstellar medium in the direction of the star Cernis 52 in the constellation [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]].<ref> [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080919075007.htm Science Daily]</ref> ==Uses== Naphthalene's most familiar use is as a household [[fumigant]], such as in [[mothball]]s (although [[1,4-dichlorobenzene]] (or ''p''-dichlorobenzene) is now more widely used). In a sealed container containing naphthalene pellets, naphthalene vapors build up to levels toxic to both the adult and larval forms of many [[moth]]s that attack textiles. Other fumigant uses of naphthalene include use in soil as a fumigant pesticide, in [[attic]] spaces to repel animals and insects, and in museum storage-drawers and cupboards to protect the contents from attack by insect pests. It is used in pyrotechnic special effects such as the generation of black smoke and simulated explosions. It is used to create artificial pores in the manufacture of high-porosity grinding wheels. In the past, naphthalene was administered orally to kill parasitic worms in livestock. Naphthalene vapour can also slow the onset of [[rust]]{{Fact|date=December 2007}}, as in the use of moth balls in a tool box. Naphthalene and its alkyl [[homolog (chemistry)|homologs]] are the major constituents of [[creosote]]. ===Use as a chemical intermediate=== Larger volumes of naphthalene are used as a chemical intermediate to produce other chemicals. The single largest use of naphthalene is the industrial production of [[phthalic anhydride]] (although more phthalic anhydride is made from [[O-Xylene|''o''-xylene]] than from naphthalene), depending on the price of naphthalene and o-Xylene. Other naphthalene-derived chemicals include alkyl naphthalene sulfonate [[surfactant]]s, and the [[insecticide]] [[carbaryl|1-naphthyl-N-methylcarbamate (''carbaryl'')]]. Naphthalenes substituted with combinations of strongly electron-donating [[functional group]]s, such as [[alcohol]]s and [[amine]]s, and strongly electron-withdrawing groups, especially [[sulfonic acid]]s, are intermediates in the preparation of many synthetic [[dye]]s. The hydrogenated naphthalenes [[tetrahydronaphthalene]] (tetralin) and [[decahydronaphthalene]] (decalin) are used as low-volatility [[solvent]]s. ===Dispersant/Plastizer=== Naphthalene sulfonic acids are used in the manufacture of naphthalene sulfonate polymer [[plasticizer]]s (''dispersants'') which are used to produce [[concrete]] and [[plasterboard]] ([[wallboard]] or [[drywall]]). They are also used as [[dispersant]]s in synthetic and natural rubbers, and as [[tanning|tanning agents]] (syntans) in leather industries, agricultural formulations (dispersants for pesticides), dyes and as a dispersant in [[Lead-acid battery]] plates. Naphthalene sulfonate polymers are produced by reacting naphthalene with sulfuric acid and then polymerizing with [[formaldehyde]], followed by neutralization with sodium or calcium hydroxide. These products are commercially sold in solution (water) or dry powder form. ===Wetting Agent/Surfactant=== Alkyl naphthalene sulfonates ''ANS'' are used in many industrial applications as nondetergent wetting agents that effectively disperse colloidal systems in aqueous media. The major commercial applications are in the agricultural chemical industry, which uses ANS for wettable powder and wettable granular (dry-flowable) formulations, and the textile and fabric industry, which utilizes the wetting and defoaming properties of ANS for bleaching and dyeing operations. ===Other Uses=== Naphthalene is also used in the synthesis of [[2-naphthol]], a major raw material used as a precursor for various intermediates including dyestuffs, pesticides, pigments, rubber processing chemicals and others, and of miscellaneous chemicals and pharmaceuticals. ==Health effects== Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may damage or destroy [[red blood cell]]s. Humans, particularly children, have developed this condition, known as [[hemolytic anemia]], after ingesting mothballs or deodorant blocks containing naphthalene. Symptoms include fatigue, lack of appetite, restlessness, and pale [[skin]]. Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may cause [[nausea]], vomiting, [[diarrhea]], [[blood]] in the [[urine]], and [[jaundice]] (yellow coloration of the skin). When the U.S. National Toxicology Program exposed male and female rats and mice to naphthalene vapors on weekdays for two years,<ref>{{cite web | title=NTP Technical Reports 410 and 500 | work=NTP Technical Reports 410 and 500, available from NTP: Long-Term Abstracts & Reports| url=http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEX.CFM?OBJECTID=0847DDA0-F261-59BF-FAA04EB1EC032B61| accessmonthday=March 6 | accessyear=2005}}</ref> male and female rats exhibited: evidence of carcinogenic activity, based on increased incidences of adenoma and neuroblastoma of the nose, female mice exhibited some evidence of carcinogenic activity, based on increased incidences of alveolar and bronchiolar adenomas of the lung, and male mice exhibited no evidence of carcinogenic activity. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)<ref>{{cite web | title=IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans | work=Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Some Traditional Herbal Medicines, Some Mycotoxins, Naphthalene and Styrene, Vol. 82 (2002) (p. 367)| url=http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol82/82-06.html | accessmonthday=March 9 | accessyear=2005}}</ref> classifies naphthalene as possibly carcinogenic to humans and animals [Group 2B]. The IARC also points out that acute exposure causes cataracts in humans, rats, rabbits, and mice; and that hemolytic anemia, described above, can occur in children and infants after oral or inhalation exposure or after maternal exposure during pregnancy. Over 400 million people have an inherited condition called [[glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency]]. Exposure to naphthalene is more harmful for these people and may cause hemolytic anemia at lower doses. --> == Baca ogé == * [[Dékahidronaftaléna]] (analog naftaléna jenuh) * [[Naftol]] * Sintésis klasik naftaléna: [[réaksi Wagner-Jauregg]] == Rujukan == <references/> * CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics éd. ka-87 == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://npic.orst.edu/capro/Mothballs1.pdf National Pesticide Information Center - Mothballs Case Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622021329/http://npic.orst.edu/capro/Mothballs1.pdf |date=2010-06-22 }} * [http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/naphthal.html Naphthalene] - EPA Air Toxics Web Site * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pim363.htm Naphthalene (PIM 363)] - mostly on toxicity of naphthalene * Koppers Inc.[http://www.koppers.com/] * Recochem Inc.[http://www.recochem.com/] * Advanced Aromatics, L.P.[http://www.advancedaromatics.com/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210005316/http://www.advancedaromatics.com/ |date=2008-12-10 }} * Géo Specialty Chemicals, Inc. [http://www.geosc.com/ Naphthalene Sulfonate Polymer Dispersants] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Hidrokarbon]] [[Kategori:Inséktisida]] [[Kategori:Sanyawa aromatik]] 87o1tte49pnivqc5mqgczj89zd6rh28 Séng 0 30921 712392 711782 2026-08-28T22:28:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712392 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Sphalerite4.jpg|thumb|Spalerit (ZnS)]] '''Séng''' (tina {{lang-de|Zink}}) nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] [[logam]] nu dilambangan '''Zn''' kalawan [[nomer atom]] 30. Ieu unsur aya dina baris kahiji [[logam transisi]] dina [[unsur golongan 12|golongan 12]] [[tabél periodik]]. Sacara kimia, séng sarupa jeung [[magnésium]] ku sabab ukuran [[ion]]na sarua sarta boga [[bilangan oksidasi]] +2. Dina kulit [[Bumi]], séng téh unsur ka-24 panglobana, dina bentuk lima rupa [[isotop]] stabil. Bijih anu panglobana digali nyaéta dina bentuk [[spalerit]] atawa [[séng sulfida]], kapanggih loba pisan di [[Australia]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Amérika Serikat]]. [[Aloy]] séng jeung [[tembaga]] anu katelah [[kuningan]], sahanteuna geus dipaké ti abad ka-10 SM. Dina skala gedé, masarakat [[India]] geus bisa ngahasilkeun séng (teu murni) ti [[abad ka-13]], anapon bangsa-bangsa [[Éropah]] kakara wanoh jeung ieu logam [[abad ka-16]]. Para [[alkémi]]s ngaduruk séng pikeun nyieun anu katelah "''philosopher's wool''" atawa "''white snow''". Taun [[1800]], [[Luigi Galvani]] jeung [[Alessandro Volta]] medarkeun pasipatan éléktrokimia séng. Kiwari, ieu logam utamana dipaké pikeun [[galvanisasi]] baja ngarah tahan tai hiang. Lian ti éta, séng ogé dipaké dina [[batré]], [[séng karbonat]] jeung [[séng glukonat]] pikeun suplemén katuangan, [[séng klorida]] dina déodoran, [[séng pirition]] dina [[sampo]] anti-[[ketombé]], [[séng sulfida]] dina cét luminesens, sarta séng métil atawa séng diétil di laboratorium organik. Séng téh kaasup [[zat gizi mikro|mineral ésénsial]]<ref name=Hambridge2007>{{cite journal|author=Hambidge, K. M. and Krebs, N. F.|title=Zinc deficiency: a special challenge|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2007-04_137_4/page/1101|journal=J. Nutr.|volume=137|page=1101|year=2007|pmid=17374687}}</ref>, [[défisiénsi séng|défisiénsina]] karandapan ku 2 miliar jalma di nagara-nagara nu keur mekar, anu tumali jeung rupa-rupa kasakit<ref name=Prasad2003/>. Mun kaalaman ku barudak, tumuwuhna bisa kaganggu, telat sawawa sacara séksual, gampang katarajang inféksi, jeung diaré nu unggal taunna ngabalukarkeun maotna 800.000 budak<ref name=Hambridge2007/>. Dina biokimia, loba pisan [[énzim]] anu ngandung atom séng dina [[gugus prostétik]]na, misalna baé [[alkohol dehidrogénaseu]] di [[manusa]]. Sabalikna, asupan séng anu kaleuleuwihi bisa ngabalukarkeun [[ataksia]], [[défisiénsi tembaga]], jeung matak létoy kana awak. == Catetan == <references group=note/> == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Zinc|Zinc]]'' (disalin 20 Agustus 2009) {{reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin|2}} * <!-- Ch -->{{cite book |title=Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge |year=1901 |last=Chambers |first=William and Robert |edition=Revised |location=London and Edinburgh |publisher=J. B. Lippincott Company |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rz8oAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 |ref=CITEREFChambers1901 }} * <!-- Co -->{{cite book |last=Cotton|first=F. Albert |coauthors=Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred |title=Advanced Inorganic Chemistry |edition=6th |year=1999 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-471-199957-5 |ref=CITEREFCotton1999}} * <!-- CRC -->{{cite book |author=CRC contributors |title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |editor=David R. Lide |edition=87th |year=2006 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-0487-3 |ref=CITEREFCRC2006}} * <!-- Em -->{{cite book |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |last=Emsley |first=John |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |location=Oxford, England, UK |isbn=0-19-850340-7 |chapter=Zinc |pages=499–505 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC |ref=CITEREFEmsley2001}} * <!-- Gr -->{{cite book |last=Greenwood |first=N. N. |coauthors=Earnshaw, A. |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |year=1997 |isbn=0750633654 |ref=CITEREFGreenwood1997}} * <!-- He -->{{cite book |last=Heiserman |first=David L. |title=Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds |location=New York |publisher=TAB Books |isbn=0-8306-3018-X |chapter=Element 30: Zinc |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=24l-Cpal9oIC&pgis=1 |ref=CITEREFHeiserman1992 |year=1992 }} * <!-- Le -->{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp |publisher=Reinhold Book Corporation |location=New York |year=1968 |editor=Clifford A. Hampel |id=LCCN 68-29938 |last=Lehto |first=R. S. |isbn=0-442-15598-0 |chapter=Zinc |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp/page/822 822]–830 |ref=CITEREFLehto1968 }} * <!-- NRC -->{{cite book |publisher=National Academies Press |author=[[United States National Research Council]], Institute of Medicine. |year=2000 |title=Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc |pages=442–455 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10026 |ref=CITEREFNRC2000 }} * <!-- Sw -->{{cite book |title=Guide to the Elements |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetoelements00stwe |edition=Revised |first=Albert |last=Stwertka |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |chapter=Zinc |isbn=0195080831 |ref=CITEREFStwertka1998 }} * <!-- We -->{{cite book |last=Weeks |first=Mary Elvira |year=1933 |title=The Discovery of the Elements |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |chapter=III. Some Eighteenth-Century Metals |isbn=0766138720 |ref=CITEREFWeeks1933 }} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Zinc}} * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html WebElements.com – Zinc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516062709/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Zn/index.html |date=2008-05-16 }} * [http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/zn.html History & Etymology of Zinc] * [http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/zinc/ Statistics and Information from the U.S. Geological Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428161824/http://minerals.er.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/zinc/ |date=2007-04-28 }} * [http://www.organic-chemistry.org/chemicals/reductions/zinc-zn.shtm Reducing Agents > Zinc] * [http://www.zinc.org American Zinc Association] Information about the uses and properties of zinc. * [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc.html Outline safety data for zinc] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070521001731/http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ZI/zinc.html |date=2007-05-21 }} {{tabél périodik}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori:Logam transisi]] [[Kategori:Séng]] njmdtjwvdwuhrjvh7wb00tt3zzddjv0 Métaloprotéin 0 30964 712348 711772 2026-08-28T21:25:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Carbonic anhydrase 1CA2 active site.png|thumb|250px|right|Sisi aktif métaloprotéin (métaloénzim) [[karbonat anhidrase]]: koordinasi diwangun ku tilu résidu [[histidin]] ([[kayas]]), [[hidroksida]] ([[beureum]] jeung [[bodas]]), sarta ion [[séng]] ([[bungur]]).]] '''Métaloprotéin''' nyaéta istilah generik pikeun [[protéin]] anu ngandung [[kofaktor (biokimia)|kofaktor]] [[ion]] [[logam]]<ref name=AS>{{cite book |last=Shriver |first=D.F.|coauthors=Atkins, P.W.|title=Inorganic chemistry|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1999|edition=ka-3.|chapter=Chapter 19, Bioinorganic chemistry|ISBN=019 850330x }}</ref>, nu gunana dina [[sél (biologi)|sél]] rupa-rupa, kayaning [[énzim]], protéin angkutan (''transport'') jeung simpenan (''storage''), sarta protéin [[transduksi sinyal]]. Malah, saparapat nepi ka sapertilu ti sakabéh protéin butuh logam pikeun ngajalankeun fungsina<ref>{{cite journal |author=Waldron KJ, Robinson NJ |title=How do bacterial cells ensure that metalloproteins get the correct metal? |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–35 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=19079350 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2057}}</ref>. Ion logam ilaharna dibeungkeut ku atom [[nitrogén]], [[oksigén]], atawa [[walirang]] nu aya dina [[asam amino]] nu ngawangun ranté [[péptida|polipéptida]] jeung/atawa ligan [[makrosiklik]] nu aya dina protéin. Ku ayana ion logam, métaloénzim bisa ngajalankeun fungsina salaku—misalna -- [[réaksi rédoks]] nu teu bisa lumangsung ukur ku ayana [[gugus fungsi|gugus-gugus fungsi]] nu aya dina asam amino<ref>{{cite book|last=Messerschmidt|first=A|coauthors=Huber, R.;Wieghardt,K.;Poulos, T.|title=Handbook of Metalloproteins|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofmetall0004albr|publisher=Wiley|date=2001|isbn= 0-471-62743-7}}</ref>. <!-- == Storage and transport metalloproteins == === Oxygen carriers === [[Hemoglobin]], which is the principal oxygen carrier in humans has four sub-units in which the iron(II) ion is coordinated by the planar, macrocyclic ligand [[porphyrin|protoporphyrin IX]] (PIX) and the [[imidazole]] nitrogen atom of a [[histidine]] residue. The sixth coordination site contains a water molecule or a dioxygen molecule. [[myoglobin]] has only one such unit. The active site is located in an [[hydrophobic]] pocket. This is important as, without it, the iron(II) would be irreveribly oxidised to iron(III). The [[stability constants of complexes|equilibrium constant]] for the formation of HbO<sub>2</sub> is such that oxygen is taken up or released depending on the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen in the lungs or in muscle. In hemoglobin the four sub-units show a cooperativity effect which allows for easy oxygen transfer from hemoglobin to myoglobin.<ref name=GE1/> In both [[hemoglobin]] and [[myoglobin]] it is sometimes incorrectly stated that the oxygenated species contains iron(III). It is now known that the [[diamagnetic]] nature of these species is due to the fact that the iron(II) is in the [[low-spin]] state. In oxyhemoglobin the iron atom is located in the plane of the porphyrin ring, but in the [[paramagnetic]] deoxyhemoglobin the iron atom lies above the plane of the ring. <ref name=GE1>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}} Fig.25.7, p 1100 illustrates the structure of deoxyhemoglobin</ref> The change in spin state is a cooperative effect of higher [[Crystal field theory|crystal field splitting]] and smaller ionic radius of Fe<sup>2+</sup> in the oxy- moiety. [[Hemerythrin]] is another iron-containing oxygen carrier. The oxygen binding site is a binuclear iron center. The iron atoms are coordinated to the protein through the carboxylate side chains of a glutamate and aspartate and five histidine residues. The uptake of O<sub>2</sub> by hemerythrin is accompanied by two-electron oxidation of the reduced binuclear center to produce bound peroxide (OOH-). The mechanism of oxygen uptake and release have been worked out in detail.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Stenkamp, R.E. | title=Dioxygen and hemerythrin | journal=Chem. Rev. | year=1994 | volume=94 | pages=715–726 | doi=10.1021/cr00027a008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Wirstam M., Lippard, S.J., Friesner R.A. | title=Reversioble Dioxygen Binding to Hemerythrin | journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. | year=2003 | volume=125 | pages=3980–3987 | doi=10.1021/ja017692r}}</ref> [[Hemocyanin]]s carry oxygen in the blood of most [[molluscs]], and some [[arthropods]] such as the [[horseshoe crab]]. They are second only to hemoglobin in biological popularity of use in oxygen transport. On oxygenation the two copper(I) atoms at the active site are oxidised to copper(II) and the dioxygen molecules is reduced to peroxide, O<sub>2</sub><sup>2-</sup>.<ref name=Karlin>{{cite journal | author = K. D. Karlin, R. W. Cruse, Y. Gultneh, A. Farooq, J. C. Hayes and J. Zubieta | title = Dioxygen-copper reactivity. Reversible binding of O2 and CO to a phenoxo-bridged dicopper(I) complex | url = https://archive.org/details/american-chemical-society-journal_1987-04-29_109_9/page/2668 | year = 1987 | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 109 | issue = 9 | pages = 2668–2679 | doi=10.1021/ja00243a019}}</ref><ref name = Kitajima>{{cite journal | author = N. Kitajima, K. Fujisawa, C. Fujimoto, Y. Morooka, S. Hashimoto, T. Kitagawa, K. Toriumi, K. Tatsumi and A. Nakamura | title = A new model for dioxygen binding in hemocyanin. Synthesis, characterization, and molecular structure of the μ-η2:η2 peroxo dinuclear copper(II) complexes, [Cu(HB(3,5-R2pz)3)]2(O2) (R = isopropyl and Ph) | url = https://archive.org/details/american-chemical-society-journal_1992-02-12_114_4/page/1277 | year = 1992 | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 1277–1291 | doi=10.1021/ja00030a025}}</ref> ===Cytochromes=== {{main|cytochrome}} [[Oxidation]] and [[reduction]] are reactions are not common in organic chemistry as few organic molecules can act as oxidizing or reducing agents. Iron(II), on the other hand, can easily be oxidized to iron(III). This functionality is used in [[cytochrome]]s which function as electron-tranfer vectors. The iron atom in most cytochromes is contained in a [[heme]] group. The differences between those cytochromes lies in the different side-chains. For instance Cytochrome a has a [[heme a]] prosthetic group and cytochrome b has a [[heme b]] prosthetic group. These differences result in different Fe<sup>2+</sup>/Fe<sup>3+</sup> [[redox potential]]s such that various cytochromes are involved in the [[mitochondrial]] electron transport chain.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=G.R.|coauthors=Pettigrew, G.W.|title=Cytochrome c:structural and physicochemical aspects |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |date=1990}}</ref> [[Cytochrome P450]] enzymes perform the function of inserting an oxygen atom into a C—H bond, an oxidation reaction.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Ubiquitous Roles of Cytochrome450 Proteins|editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2007|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=3|isbn=978-0-470-01672-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ortiz de Montellano |first=P.R. |title=Cytochrome P450 Structure, Mechanism, and Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/cytochromep450st0000unse_s1a5 |publisher=Springer |date=2005 |edition=3rd. |isbn= 978-0-306-48324-0}}</ref> [[Image:Rubredoxin.png|thumb|130px| rubredoxin active site.]] === Rubredoxin=== {{main|Iron-sulfur protein}} [[Rubredoxin]] is an electron-carrier found in sulfur-metabolizing [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]]. The active site contains an iron ion which is coordinated by the sulphur atoms of four [[cysteine]] residues forming an almost regular tetrahedron. Rubredoxins perform one-electron transfer processes. The oxidation state of the iron atom changes between the +2 and +3 states. In both oxidation states the metal is [[high spin]], which helps to minimize structural changes. ===Iron storage and transfer=== Iron is stored as iron(III) in [[ferritin]]. The exact nature of the binding site has not yet been determined. The iron appears to be present as an [[hydrolysis]] product such as FeO(OH). Iron is transported by [[transferrin]] whose binding site consists of two tyrosines, one aspartic acid and one histidine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson BF, Baker HM, Dodson EJ, ''et al.'' |title=Structure of human lactoferrin at 3.2-A resolution |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=84 |issue=7 |pages=1769–73 |year=1987 |month=April |pmid=3470756 |pmc=304522 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3470756}}</ref> The human body has no mechanism for iron excretion. This can lead to iron-overload problems in patients treated with blood transfusions, as, for instance, with β-[[thallasemia]]. ===Ceruloplasmin=== {{main|ceruloplasmin}} Ceruloplasmin is the major copper-carrying protein in the blood. Ceruloplasmin exhibits oxidase activity, which is associated with possible oxidation of Fe<sup>2+</sup> (ferrous iron) into Fe<sup>3+</sup> (ferric iron), therefore assisting in its transport in the plasma in association with transferrin, which can only carry iron in the ferric state. ==Metalloenzymes== Metalloenzymes all have one feature in common, namely, that the metal ion is bound to the protein with one labile coordination site. As with all enzymes, the shape of the active site is crucial. The metal ion is usually located in a pocket whose shape fits the substrate. The metal ion catalyzes reactions which are difficult to achieve in [[organic chemistry]]. === Carbonic anhydrase === :CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O {{eqm}} H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> This reaction is very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but quite fast in the presence of the [[hydroxide]] ion :CO<sub>2</sub> + OH<sup>-</sup> {{eqm}} HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> A reaction similar to this is almost instantaneaous with [[carbonic anhydrase]]. The structure of the active site in carbonic anhydrases is well-known from a number of crystal structures. It consists of a zinc ion coordinated by three [[imidazole]] nitrogen atoms from three [[histidine]] units. The fourth coordination site is occupied by a water molecule. The coordination sphere of the zinc ion is approximately tetrahedral. The positively charged zinc ion polarizes the coordinated water molecule and [[nucleophilic]] attack by the negatively charged hydoxide portion on carbon dioxide (carbonic anhydride) proceeds rapidly. The catalytic cycle produces the bicarbonate ion and the hydrogen ion<ref name=AS/> as the equilibrium :H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> {{eqm}} HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> + H<sup>+</sup> favours dissociation of [[carbonic acid]] at biological pH values.<ref name="Lindskog_1997">{{cite journal | author = Lindskog S | title = Structure and mechanism of carbonic anhydrase | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmacology-therapeutics_1997_74_1/page/n6 | journal = Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–20 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9336012 | doi = 10.1016/S0163-7258(96)00198-2 }}</ref> === Vitamin B12-dependent enzymes === [[Vitamin B12]] catalyzes the tranfer of methyl (-CH<sub>3</sub>) groups between two molecules, which involves the breaking of C-C bonds, a process that is energetically expensive in organic reactions. The metal ion lowers the [[activation energy]] for the process by forming a transient Co-CH<sub>3</sub> bond.<ref>{{cite book|title=Metal-carbon bonds in enzymes and cofactors |editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2008|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=6|isbn=978-1-84755-915-9}}</ref> The structure of the coenzyme was famously determined by [[Dorothy Hodgkin]] and co-workers, for which she received a [[Nobel prize]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964 | publisher = Nobelprize.org | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1964/index.html|accessdate=2008-10-06}}</ref> It constists of a cobalt(II) ion coordinated by four nitrogen atoms of a [[corrin]] rings and a fifth Nitrogen atom from an imidazole group. In the resting state there is a Co—C σ bond with the 5' carbon atom of [[adenosine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hodgkin |first=D.C.|date=1965|journal=Proc. Roy. Soc. A|volume=288|pages=294–305 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1965.0219 |title=The Structure of the Corrin Nucleus from X-ray Analysis}}</ref> This is a naturally occurring [[organometallic]] compound, which explains its function in trans-methylation reactions, such as the reaction carried out by [[5-Methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine methyltransferase|methionine synthase]]. ===Nitrogenase (nitrogen fixation)=== The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is a very energy-intensive process, as it involves breaking the very stable [[triple bond]] between the nitrogen atoms. The enzyme [[nitrogenase]] is one of the few enzymes that can catalyze the process. The enzyme occurs in certain [[Rhizobium (genus)|bacteria]]. There are three components to its action: a molybdenum atom at the active site, [[Iron-sulfur cluster]]s which are involved in transporting the electrons needed to reduce the nitrogen and an abundant energy source. The energy is provided by a [[symbiotic]] relationship between the bacteria and a host plant, often a [[legume]]. The relationship is symbiotic because the plant supplies the energy by [[photosynthesis]] and benefits by obtaining the fixed nitrogen. The reaction may be written symbollically as :N<sub>2</sub> +16 Mg[[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] +8e<sup>-</sup> → 2NH<sub>3</sub> + 16 Mg[[ADP]] +16 P<sub>i</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> where P<sub>i</sub> stands for inorganic phosphate. The precise structure of the active site has been difficult to determine. It appears to contain a MoFe<sub>7</sub>S<sub>8</sub> cluster which is able to bind the dinitrogen molecule and, presumably, enable the reduction process to begin.<ref>{{cite book|last=Orme-Johnson|first=W.H.|title=Molybdenum enzymes, cofactors and model systems|editor=Steifel, E.I; Coucouvannis, D.; Newton, D.C.|publisher=American Chemical Society|location=Washington, DC|date=1993|series=Advances in chemystry, Symposium series no. 535|pages=257}}</ref> The electrons are transported by the associated "P" cluster, which contains two cubical Fe<sub>4</sub>S<sub>4</sub> clusters joined by sulphur bridges.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chan|first=M.K.|coauthors=Kim, J.; Rees, D.C.|date=1993|journal=Science|volume=260|pages=792|doi=10.1126/science.8484118|title=The nitrogenase FeMo-cofactor and P-cluster pair: 2.2 A resolution structures|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1993-05-07_260_5109/page/792|pmid=8484118}}</ref> === SuperOxide Dismutase === [[Image:SOD.gif|thumb|250px|Structure of the monomeric unit of human superoxide dismutase 2]] The [[superoxide]] ion, O<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup> is generated in biological systems by reduction of molecular oxygen. It has an unpaired electron, so it behaves as a [[free radical]]. It is a powerful [[oxidising agent]]. These properties render the superoxide ion very toxic and are deployed to advantage by [[phagocytes]] to kill invading micro organisms. Otherwise, the superoxide ion must be destroyed before it does unwanted damage in a cell. The [[superoxide dismutase]] enzymes perform this function very efficiently.<ref>{{cite book|last=Packer|first=L. (editor)|title=Superoxide Dismutase: 349 (Methods in Enzymology)|url=https://archive.org/details/superoxidedismut0349unse|publisher=Academic Press|date=2002|ISBN=0121822524}}</ref> The formal oxidation state of the oxygen atoms is ½. In solutions at neutral [[pH]], the superoxide ion [[disproportionates]] to molecular oxygen and [[hydrogen peroxide]]. :2 O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> + 2 H<sup>+</sup> → O<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> In biology this type of reaction is call a [[dismutation]] reaction. It involves both oxidation and reduction of superoxide ions. The [[superoxide dismutase]] group of enzymes, abbreviated as SOD, increase the rate of reaction to near the diffusion limited rate.<ref name="isbn3-540-32680-4">{{cite book | author = Heinrich, Peter; Georg Löffler; Petro E. Petrides | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Biochemie und Pathobiochemie (Springer-Lehrbuch) (German Edition) | edition = | language = | publisher = Springer | location = Berlin | year = 2006 | origyear = | pages = 123 | quote = | isbn = 3-540-32680-4 | oclc = | doi = | url = | accessdate = }}</ref> The key to the action of these enzymes is a metal ion with variable oxidation state which can act as either an oxidizing agent or as a reducing agent. :Oxidation: M<sup>(n+1)+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> → M<sup>n+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub> :Reduction: M<sup>n+</sup> + O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup> + 2H<sup>+</sup> → M<sup>(n+1)+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. In human SOD the active metal is copper, as Cu<sup>2+</sup> or Cu<sup>+</sup>, coordinated tetrahedrally by four histidine residues. This enzyme also contains zinc ions. Other [[isozyme]]s may contain iron, manganese or nickel. Ni-SOD is particularly interesting as it involves nickel(III), an unusual oxidation state for this element. The active site Ni geometry cycles from square planar Ni(II), with thiolate (Cys2 and Cys6) and backbone nitrogen (His1 and Cys2) ligands, to square pyramidal Ni(III) with an added axial His1 side chain ligand. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Barondeau |first=D.P.|coauthors=Kassmann C.J.; Bruns C.K.; Tainer J.A.; Getzoff E.D.|date=2004|title=Nickel superoxide dismutase structure and mechanism|journal=Biochemistry|volume= 43|issue=25|pages=8038-8047|doi=1021/bi0496081 |pmid=15209499}}</ref> === Chlorophyll === {{main|chlorophyll}} Chlorophyll plays a crucial role in [[photosynthesis]]. In contains a magnesium enclosed in a [[chlorin]] ring. However, the magnesium ion is not directly involved in the photosynthetic function and can be replaced by other divalent ions with a little loss of activity. Rather, the photon is absorbed by the chlorin ring, whose electronic structure is well-adapted for its purpose Initially the absorption of a photon causes an electron to be excited into a singlet state of the Q band. This is the reason why chlorophyll is green. The excited state undergoes an [[intersystem crossing]] from the [[singlet state]] to a [[triplet state]] in which there are two electrons with parallel spin. This species is, effectively, a [[free radical]], and is very reactive and allows an electron to be transferred to acceptors which are adjacent to the chlorophyll in the [[chloroplast]]. In the process chlorophyll is oxydised. Later in the phosynthetic cycle it reduced by accepting an electron and the final oxidation product is molecular oxygen whose atoms come from water molecules. ==Signal-transduction metalloproteins== ===Calmodulin=== [[Calmodulin]] is an example of a signal-transduction protein. It is a small protein which contains four [[EF-hand]] motifs, each of which can bind a Ca<sup>2+</sup> ion. In an EF-hand loop the calcium ion is coordinated in a pentagonal bipyramidal configuration. Six [[Glutamic acid]] and [[Aspartic acid]] residues involved in the binding are in positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 of the polypeptide chain. At position 12 there is a glutamate or aspartate ligand which behaves as a (bidentate ligand), providing two oxygen atoms. The ninth residue in the loop is necessarily [[glycine]] due to the conformational requirements of the backbone. The coordination sphere of the calcium ion contains only carboxylate oxygen atoms and no nitrogen atoms. This is consistent with the [[hsab|hard]] nature of the calcium ion. The protein has two approximately symmetrical domains, separated by a flexible "hinge" region. Binding of calcium causes a conformational change to occur in the protein. Calmodulin participates in an intracellular signalling system by acting as a diffusible second messenger to the initial stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Stevens FC | title = Calmodulin: an introduction | journal = Can. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. | volume = 61 | issue = 8 | pages = 906–10 | year = 1983 | pmid = 6313166 | doi = | issn = }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Chin D, Means AR | title = Calmodulin: a prototypical calcium sensor | journal = Trends Cell Biol. | volume = 10 | issue = 8 | pages = 322–8 | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1016/S0962-8924(00)01800-6 }}</ref> [[Image:Zinc finger rendered.png|thumb|300px|right|Cartoon representation of the zinc finger motif of proteins, consisting of an [[alpha helix|α helix]] and an antiparallel [[Beta sheet|β sheet]]. The [[zinc]] ion (green) is coordinated by two [[histidine]] residues and two [[cysteine]] residues.]] ===Transcription factors=== Many [[transcription factor]]s contain a structure known as a [[zinc finger]], this is a structural module where a region of protein folds around a zinc ion. The zinc does not directly contact the [[DNA]] that these proteins bind to, instead the cofactor is essential for the stability of the tightly-folded protein chain.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Berg JM |title=Zinc finger domains: hypotheses and current knowledge |journal=Annu Rev Biophys Biophys Chem |volume=19 |pages=405–21 |year=1990 |pmid=2114117 |doi=10.1146/annurev.bb.19.060190.002201}}</ref> In these proteins the zinc ion is usually coordinated by pairs of cysteine and histidine side chains. --> == Métaloénzim lianna == {| class="wikitable" |- !Ion!!Conto énzim nu ngandung ieu ion |- ||[[Magnésium]] || [[Glukosa 6-fosfatase]]<br />[[Héksokinase]]<br />[[DNA polimérase]] |- ||[[Vanadium]]||[[vanabin]] |- ||[[Mangan]]|| [[arginase]] |- ||[[Beusi]]|| [[Katalase]]<br />[[Hidrogénase]]<br />[[IRE-BP]]<br />[[Akonitase]] |- ||[[Nikel]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Nickel and Its Surprising Impact in Nature|editor=Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K.O. Sigel|publisher=Wiley|date=2008|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=2|isbn=978-0-470-01671-8}}</ref> || [[Uréase]]<br />[[Hidrogénase]] |- ||[[Tambaga]] || [[Sitokrom oksidase]]<br />[[Plastosianin]]<br />[[Lakase]] |- ||[[Séng]] || [[Alkohol dehidrogénase]]<br />[[karboksipéptidase]]<br />[[Aminopéptidase]] |- ||[[Molibdénum]] || [[Nitrat réduktase]] |- ||[[Sélénium]] || [[Glutation peroksidase]] |- ||Rupa-rupa||[[Métalotionéin]]<br />[[Fosfatase]] |} == Baca ogé == * [[Kimia bioanorganik]] * [[Koénzim]] * [[Kofaktor (biokimia)|Kofaktor]] * [[Hémoprotéin]] * [[Gugus prostétik]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Metalloproteins}} * {{MeshName|Metalloprotein}} {{kofaktor énzim}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Métaloprotéin]] 31qa8crv7grmglpqg33wmt41cts6lz8 Kokain 0 31012 712373 705723 2026-08-28T22:08:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{drugbox | verifiedrevid = 263751970 | IUPAC_name = métil (1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',5''S'')-3- (bénzoiloksi)-8-métil-8-azabisiklo[3.2.1] oktana-2-karboksilat | image = Kokain_-_Cocaine.svg | image2 = Cocaine-from-xtal-1983-3D-balls.png | CAS_number = 50-36-2 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite}} | ChemSpiderID = 5557 | ATC_prefix = N01 | ATC_suffix = BC01 | ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|R02|AD03}}, {{ATC|S01|HA01}}, {{ATC|S02|DA02}} | PubChem = 5760 | DrugBank = APRD00080 | C=17 | H=21 | N=1 | O=4 | smiles = C1=CC=CC=C1C(=O)OC3CC2CC[C@@H](N2C)[C@H]3C(=O)OC | synonyms = métilbénzoilékgonin, bénzoilmétilékgonin | molecular_weight = 303.353 g/mol | melting_point = 195 | solubility = 1800 | bioavailability = Oral: 33%<ref name="fattinger2000">{{cite journal |author=Fattinger K, Benowitz NL, Jones RT, Verotta D |title=Nasal mucosal versus gastrointestinal absorption of nasally administered cocaine |journal=Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=305–10 |year=2000 |month=July |pmid=10954344 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_european-journal-of-clinical-pharmacology_2000-07_56_4/page/305}}</ref><br />[[Insufflation (medicine)|Insufflated]]: 60<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barnett G, Hawks R, Resnick R |title=Cocaine pharmacokinetics in humans |journal=J Ethnopharmacol |volume=3 |issue=2-3 |pages=353–66 |year=1981 |pmid=7242115 |doi= |url=}}</ref>–80%<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jeffcoat AR, Perez-Reyes M, Hill JM, Sadler BM, Cook CE |title=Cocaine disposition in humans after intravenous injection, nasal insufflation (snorting), or smoking |journal=Drug Metab. Dispos. |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=153–9 |year=1989 |pmid=2565204 |doi= |url=http://dmd.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2565204 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br />Nasal Spray: 25<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilkinson P, Van Dyke C, Jatlow P, Barash P, Byck R |title=Intranasal and oral cocaine kinetics |journal=Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=386–94 |year=1980 |month=March |pmid=7357795 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-pharmacology-and-therapeutics_1980-03_27_3/page/386}}</ref>–43%<ref name="fattinger2000" /> | protein_bound = | metabolism = [[CYP3A4]] [[hépatik]] | elimination_half-life = 1 jam | excretion = Rénal (bénzoilékgonin jeung ékgonin métil éster) | routes_of_administration = [[Topikal]], Oral, [[Insuflasi (obat)|Insuflasi]], [[intravéna|IV]], PO | dependency_liability = Luhur }} '''Kokain''' ('''bénzoilmétilékgonin''') nyaéta [[alkaloid]] [[tropana]] [[kristalin]] nu diala tina [[daun]] dua [[spésiés]] [[koka]] pituin Amérika Kidul: ''[[Erythroxylum coca]]'' jeung ''[[Erythroxylum novogranatense]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Plowman T |title=The identification of coca (Erythroxylum species): 1860–1910 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=June 1982 |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=329–353 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1982.tb00368.x}}</ref><ref name=Pom2012>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pomara C, Cassano T, D'Errico S, Bello S, Romano AD, Riezzo I, Serviddio G | title = Data available on the extent of cocaine use and dependence: biochemistry, pharmacologic effects and global burden of disease of cocaine abusers | journal = Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 19 | issue = 33 | pages = 5647–57 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22856655 | doi = 10.2174/092986712803988811 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=E. L.|date=22 Sep 2008|title=Alkaloid Content in Two Erythroxylum Taxa During Juvenile Growth and Development|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J044v10n02_06|journal=J. Herbs, Spices & Medicinal Plants|doi=10.1300/J044v10n02_06}}</ref> Ngaran 'kokain' dicokot tina ngaran tangkalna ditambah ahiran alkaloid ''-in'' (''-ina'', numutkeun aturan baku), jadi ''kokain''. Ieu alkaloid téh [[stimulan]] [[sistem saraf puseur]], hususna salaku inhibitor ''reuptake'' [[dopamin]], [[norépinéfrin]], jeung [[serotonin]]. ku sabab mangaruhan jalur ''reward'' mésolimbik, kokain jadi matak [[kacanduan|nyandu]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fattore L, Piras G, Corda MG, Giorgi O |title=The Roman high- and low-avoidance rat lines differ in the acquisition, maintenance, extinction, and reinstatement of intravenous cocaine self-administration |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1091–101 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=18418365 |doi=10.1038/npp.2008.43 |url=}}</ref>. kokain tré tré bon pouir toi == Watesan == Produksi, distribusi, jeung jual-beuli produk kokain diwates pisan (lolobana mah kaasup ilégal). Sababaraha nagara, kayaning [[Péru]] jeung [[Bolivia]] ngawenangkeun tatanén [[koka|daun koka]] pikeun konsumsi tradisional ku [[masarakat pituin Amérika|masarakat pituin]]. Di [[Éropah]] jeung [[Australia]], kokain olahan diwenangkeun pikeun kaperluan kadokteran. == Pamaké == Numutkeun laporan [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] taun [[2007]], kokain panglobana dipaké di [[Spanyol]] (3,0% ti jalma sawawa)<ref name="unodc">{{citation|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/wdr07/WDR_2007.pdf|publisher=United Nations|title=World Drug Report 2007|location=New York|date=2007|format=PDF}}, k. 243.</ref>. Nagara séjén anu pamakéanana sahanteuna 1,5% nyaéta [[AS]] (2,8%), [[Inggris]] (2,4%), [[Kanada]] (2,3%), [[Italia]] (2,1%), [[Bolivia]] (1,9%), [[Cili]] (1,8%), jeung [[Skotlandia]] (1,5%)<ref name="unodc"/>. == Baca ogé == * [[Biosintésis kokain]] * [[Kokain hideung]] * [[Koka]] * [[Kacanduan obat]] * [[Éntomotoksikologi]] * [[Obat psikoaktif]] == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Cocaine|Cocaine]]'' (dicutat 16 Séptémber 2009) {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/ethnic/mummy.htm Cocaine in Egyptian Mummies] * [http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/?nnodeid=25482 EMCDDA drugs profile: Cocaine(2007)] * [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/cocaine/cocaine.shtml Erowid -> Cocaine Information] — Kumpulan data ngeunaan dosis, pangaruh, kimia, status hukum, gambar, jeung sajabana * [http://parentingteens.about.com/cs/cocainecrack/l/blsldiccocaine.htm Slang Dictionary for Cocaine.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125185238/http://parentingteens.about.com/cs/cocainecrack/l/blsldiccocaine.htm |date=2009-11-25 }} * [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/chemdisp.xsql?chemical=COCAINE Cocaine content of plants] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A10832384 Cocaine - The History and the Risks at h2g2] * [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/cocaine/faq.htm Cocaine Frequently Asked Questions] * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/19/cocaine-rainforests-columbia-santos-calderon Cocaine users are destroying the rainforest - at 4 square metres a gram | World news | The Guardian] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Stimulan]] [[Kategori:Alkaloid]] 4mc6g8a8fww97vstdsv8a0ny1itj5yw Kaféin 0 31017 712341 707270 2026-08-28T21:13:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712341 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Caffeine.svg|180px|thumb|Wangun kimia '''kaféin''', [[stimulan sistem saraf puseur]].]] '''Kaféin''' atawa nyaéta hiji [[sanyawa kimia|sanyawa]] [[alkaloid]] [[stimulan]] [[psikoaktif]], kapanggih ku [[kimia]]wan [[Jérman]] [[Friedrich Ferdinand Runge]] taun [[1819]] (anjeunna ngistilahkeun ''kaffein'', zat kimia anu aya dina [[kopi]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/caffeine |title=caffeine - Definitions from Dictionary.com|accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref>. Ieu zat téh ogé bagian tina campuran kimia '''guaranin''' nu aya dina [[guarana]], '''matéin''' nu aya dina maté, jeung '''téin''' nu aya dina [[entéh]]; kabéhanana ngandung [[alkaloid]] lian kayaning [[téofilin]] jeung [[téobromin]], stimulan jantung<ref name="Ref-1">{{cite book|author = Balentine D. A., Harbowy M. E. and Graham H. N.|title = Tea: the Plant and its Manufacture; Chemistry and Consumption of the Beverage|journal = Caffeine|year = 1998|editor = G Spiller}}</ref>. Kaféin dikandung dina [[kacang]]/[[siki]], [[daun]], jeung [[buah]] kalawan kadar anu béda-béda. Gunana taya lian pikeun [[péstisida]] alami nu [[paralisis|maralisis]] jeung bisa maéhan [[serangga]] nu ngahakan éta tutuwuhan. Sumber kaféin pikeun manusa biasana diala tina ékstrak [[siki kopi]] jeung daun [[Camellia sinensis]], sarta kadaharan/inuman nu ngandung produk turunan [[siki kola]]. Pikeun awak [[manusa]], kaféin téh stimulan [[sistem saraf puseur]], nu balukarna sacara samentara bisa ngaleungitkeun rasa tunduh sarta ngaronjatkeun kawaspadaan. Kiwari, kaféin jadi [[zat psikoaktif]] nu panglobana dikonsumsi, utamana ku sabab ieu zat mah teu dicaram konsumsina. Di Amérika Kalér, unggal poé 90% sawawa ngonsumsi kaféin<ref name="demon drink">{{cite journal|last = Lovett|first = Richard|title = Coffee: The demon drink?|journal = New Scientist|issue = 2518|date = 24 Séptémber 2005|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725181.700|accessdate=2009-08-03|format=fee required}}</ref>. Badan POM AS (FDA) ngadaptar kaféin salaku "''multiple purpose generally recognized as safe food substance''" (zat kadaharan multiguna nu sacara umum aman)<ref name="GRAS">{{cite web |url=http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2003/aprqtr/21cfr182.1180.htm |title=21 CFR 182.1180 |accessdate=2009-08-03|date=2003-04-01 |work=U.S. [[Code of Federal Regulations]] |publisher=U.S. [[Office of the Federal Register]] |page=462}}</ref>. [[Gambar:CoffeePalestineStereo.jpg|thumb|Adat ngopi di Paléstina, taun [[1900-an]].]] Kaféin mibanda pasipatan [[diurétik]], sahanteuna mun dibikeun ka nu teu [[toléransi obat|toléran obat]] kalawan dosis anu cukup<ref name="diuretic">{{cite journal|last=Griffin |first = R. J. |title=Caffeine ingestion and fluid balance: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-human-nutrition-and-dietetics_2003-12_16_6/page/411 |journal=Journal of human nutrition and dietetics|issue=6|volume=16|year=2003|doi=10.1046/j.1365-277X.2003.00477.x|page=411}}</ref>. Sabalikna, pikeun nu geus biasa ngonsumsi mah toléransina beuki luat<ref name="diuretic"/>, sarta teu ngabalukarkeun déhidrasi<ref name="really">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/04/health/nutrition/04real.html?_r=1 |title=Really? The Claim: Caffeine Causes Dehydration|publisher= The New York Times|accessdate=2009-08-03}}</ref><ref name="armstrong2007">{{cite journal | author = Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Ganio MS | year = 2007 | title = Caffeine, fluid-electrolyte balance, temperature regulation, and exercise-heat tolerance | url = https://archive.org/details/exercise-sport-sciences_2007-07_35_3/page/135 | journal = Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages = 135–140 | pmid = 17620932 | doi = 10.1097/jes.0b013e3180a02cc1}} (Review article)</ref><ref name="armstrong2005">{{cite journal | author = Armstrong LE, Pumerantz AC, Roti MW, Judelson DA, Watson G, Dias JC, Sokmen B, Casa DJ, Maresh CM, Lieberman H, Kellogg M. | year = 2005 | title = Fluid, electrolyte, and renal indices of hydration during 11 days of controlled caffeine consumption | journal = Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 252–265 | pmid = 16131696}} (Placebo controlled randomized clinical trial)</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu kaluar == === Émbaran umum === * [http://home.howstuffworks.com/caffeine.htm How Stuff Works: "How Caffeine Works"] * [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine.shtml Erowid Caffeine Vaults] * [http://sxph.org/caffeine/ Highly Caffeinated: The Caffeine Information Archive"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904024724/http://sxph.org/caffeine/ |date=2009-09-04 }} * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/feature1/ National Geographic January 2005: Caffeine] * [http://www.caffeinezone.com Caffeine Zone: Social and Medical info on caffeine and its effects.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809214850/http://caffeinezone.com/ |date=2019-08-09 }} * [http://www.thenakedscientists.com/html/columnists/dalyacolumn2.htm Naked Scientists Online: Why do plants make caffeine?] * [http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm ''The Physician and Sportsmedicine'': Caffeine: A User's Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621111946/http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm |date=2008-06-21 }} * [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU21.html The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101108074858/http://www.druglibrary.org/Schaffer/LIBRARY/studies/cu/CU21.html |date=2010-11-08 }} [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU22.html Part 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100916061300/http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/cu/CU22.html |date=2010-09-16 }} * [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6155178 Coffee: A Little Really Does Go a Long Way, NPR, [[September 28]], 2006] * [http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/4664/Does-coffee-really-give-you-a-buzz- Does coffee really give you a buzz? by John Triggs in the Daily Express April 17 2007] * [http://chemsub.online.fr/chemsearch/cas_number_58-08-2.html Caffeine: ChemSub Online]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/caffeine/AN01211 How much caffeine is in your daily habit? (Caffeine content in common foods and drinks) by Mayo Clinic Staff October 2007] * [http://www.camo.com/downloads/resources/application_notes/decaffeinated_coffee_NIR_spectroscopy.pdf How to determine caffeine in decaffeinated coffee by NIR spectroscopy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205710/http://www.camo.com/downloads/resources/application_notes/decaffeinated_coffee_NIR_spectroscopy.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }} === Warta === * [http://historyofalcoholanddrugs.typepad.com/alcohol_and_drugs_history/caffeine/index.html Alcohol and Drugs History Society: Caffeine news page] * [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=30d6d514-1c68-441a-bbec-5b80ae23627f&k=45911 National Post: Caffeine linked to psychiatric disorders] * [http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/Press_releases/2004/09_29_04.html Caffeine Withdrawal Recognized as a Disorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823020136/http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/press_releases/2004/09_29_04.html |date=2010-08-23 }} === Kawaluyaan === * [http://www.benbest.com/health/caffeine.html Is Caffeine a Health Hazard?] * [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3115.htm eMedicine Caffeine-Related Psychiatric Disorders] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7326839.stm Protects brain from Alzheimer's?] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Kaféin]] [[Kategori:Kopi]] iyv83w38a7gipdjjxj65td8jxqvssn7 Suharto 0 31116 712314 711565 2026-08-28T20:38:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Unreferenced}} {{Infobox President | honorific-prefix= | name=Soeharto | nationality= | image=President Suharto, 1993.jpg | order=Presiden Indonesia | office= | term_start= 12 Maret 1967 | term_end=21 Mei 1998 | predecessor=[[Soekarno]] | successor=[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | order2=Sekretaris Jendral Gerakan Non Blok | term_start2= 7 September 1992 | term_end2=20 Oktober 1995 | predecessor2=[[Dobrica Ćosić]] | successor2=[[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] | birth_date={{birth date|1921|6|8}} | birth_place=[[Kemusuk]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Indonesia]] | death_date= {{death date and age|2008|1|27|1921|6|8}} | death_place= [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] | religion=[[Islam]] | spouse=[[Siti Hartinah]] (d. 1996) | children=[[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana|Siti Hardiyanti Hastuti]]<br />Sigit Harjojudanto<br />Bambang Trihatmodjo<br />Siti Hediyati Hariyadi<br />[[Tommy Suharto|Hutomo Mandala Putra]]<br />Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih | party=[[Partey Golkar]] | vicepresident= [[Hamengkubuwono IX]]<br />[[Adam Malik]]<br />[[Umar Wirahadikusumah]]<br />[[Sudharmono]]<br />[[Try Sutrisno]]<br />[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | occupation=[[Militer]], [[Politikus]] | signature= Suharto signature.svg }} '''Soeharto''' ({{lahirmati|Dusun [[Kemusuk]], Desa [[Argomulyo, Sedayu, Bantul|Argomulyo]], Kecamatan [[Sedayu, Bantul|Sedayu]], [[Kabupaten Bantul|Bantul]], [[Yogyakarta]]|8|6|1921|[[Jakarta]]|27|1|2008}}) nyaéta présidén Indonesia kadua nu ngajabat ti taun 1967 dugi ka 1998. ==Daftar pustaka== * {{cite news |date=22 February 2006 |title=Two former strongmen, Soeharto-Lee Kuan Yew meet again |publisher=ANTARA |access-date=22 February 2006 |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 |archive-date=25 March 2007 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070325054315/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=9296 }} * {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. McCormack |title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? |series=International Humanitarian Law |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004156913 }} * {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Benedict R. |last2=McVey |date=2009 |first2=Ruth T. |title=A Preliminary Analysis of 1 October 1965 Coup in Indonesia |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9786028397520 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVcwPV3NvDMC }} * {{cite news |date=19 October 1965 |title=Army in Jakarta Imposes a Ban on Communists |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=registration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=29 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829193148/https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |last=Aspinall |first=Ed |date=October–December 1996 |title=What happened before the riots? |newspaper=[[Inside Indonesia]] |issue=48 |archive-date=5 May 2005 |url=http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505222646/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505222646/http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit48/ed.htm |date=5 May 2005 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Aspinall |editor1-first=Ed |editor2-last=Klinken |editor2-first=Gerry van |editor3-last=Feith |editor3-first=Herb |date=1999 |title=The Last Days of President Suharto |location=[[Clayton, Victoria|Clayton AU-VIC]] |publisher=Monash Asia Institute |isbn=073261175X}} *{{cite book |last1=Bevins |first1=Vincent |title= [[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |date=2020 |publisher= [[PublicAffairs]] |isbn= 978-1541742406}} * {{cite news| title=Attorney general doubts Soeharto can be prosecuted |work=The Jakarta Post| date=27 May 2005}} * {{cite book| first = William| last = Blum| date = 1995| title = Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II| publisher = Common Courage Press| location = Monroe, Me.| isbn = 1-56751-052-3| url = https://archive.org/details/killinghopeusmil00blum_0}} * ''[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm Camdessus Commends Indonesian Actions]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109110205/http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/nb/1997/nb9722.htm |date=9 November 2016 }}''. Press Release. [[International Monetary Fund]]. (31 October 1997) * {{cite web| title=CIA Stalling State Department Histories| work=The National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| access-date=23 May 2005| archive-date=8 March 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308035956/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| last=Colmey| first=John| title=The Family Firm| date=24 May 1999| publisher=TIME Asia| url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=8 February 2001}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010208155758/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990524/cover1.html |date=8 February 2001 }} * {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |access-date=20 April 2021 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145048/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |url-status=live }} * Robert Cribb, "Genocide in Indonesia,1965–1966". Journal of Genocide Research no.2:219–239, 2001. * {{cite book |last=Elson |first=Robert E. |date=2001 |title = Suharto: A Political Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/suhartopolitical0000elso |location=Cambridge UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-77326-1}} * {{cite book |last=Dijk |first=Kees van |date=2001 |title=A country in despair : Indonesia between 1997 and 2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/countryindespair0000unse |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181600 }} * {{cite book |last=Friend |first=Theodore |date=2003 |title=Indonesian Destinies |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-01834-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo |url-access=registration }} * {{cite web | title=H.AMDT.647 (A003): An amendment to prohibit any funds appropriated in the bill to be used for military education and training assistance to Indonesia | url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | publisher=THOMAS (Library of Congress) | access-date=4 February 2006 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113050730/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: | archive-date=13 January 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113050730/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:HZ00647: |date=13 January 2016 }} * {{cite book| last=Hughes |first=John |title=The End of Sukarno – A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild| publisher=Archipelago Press|date=2002 | orig-year=1976| isbn=981-4068-65-9}} * {{cite news |title=Indonesia: Arrests, torture and intimidation: The Government's response to its critics |date=27 November 1996 |publisher=Amnesty International |url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index&start=391 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109023133/http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index |archive-date=9 November 2005 }} * {{cite web | title=Indonesia Economic | work=Commanding Heights | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | access-date=23 May 2005 | archive-date=24 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224182929/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html | url-status=live }} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge|work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Leftist Out As Army Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=15 October 1965}} * {{cite news| title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge| work=The New York Times| date=16 December 1965}} * {{cite news| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James| name-list-style=amp | title=MI6 Spread Lies to Put Killer in Power| work=The Independent |location=UK| date=16 April 2000}} * {{cite book| last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James |title=Britain's Secret Propaganda War| publisher=Sutton Pub Ltd|date=1999| isbn=0-7509-1668-0}} * {{cite book|last=McDonald |first=H. |author-link=Hamish McDonald |date=1980 |title=Suharto's Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/suhartoindonesia0000mcdo |location=[[Blackburn, Victoria|Blackburn]] AU|publisher=Fontana Books |isbn=0-00-635721-0}} * {{cite book|last=Melvin|first=Jess|date=2018|title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-57469-4|access-date=21 November 2021|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608032221/https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694|url-status=live}} *{{cite news |date=1993 |title=Public Expenditures, Prices and the Poor |publisher=World Bank |url=http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323210822/http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-date=23 March 2007 }} * {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |date=1991 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300 |edition=2nd |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}} * {{cite book |last=Rock |first=Michael T. |date=2003 |title=The Politics of Development Policy and Development Policy Reform |others=William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 632 |publisher=The University of Michigan Business School |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=11 June 2013 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212120254/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Purdey |first=Jemma |date=2006 |title=Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 |location=[[Honolulu]] HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|isbn=9780824830571}} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey B. |date=2018 |title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9781400888863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW0wDwAAQBAJ }} * John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement & Suharto's Coup D'état. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}. * {{cite news| last=Simpson| first=Brad| title=Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"| date=9 July 2004| publisher=National Security Archive| url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| access-date=17 June 2005| archive-date=5 February 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205191327/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm| url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam |date=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813388816 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw }} * {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |date=2010 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |location= |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804771825 |access-date=21 November 2021 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |date=25 June 2018 }} * {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| title=Suharto tops corruption rankings| work=BBC News| date=25 March 2004| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=13 November 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm| url-status=live}} * {{cite news| title=Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief| work=[[New York Times]]| date=22 February 1966}} * {{cite news| title=Tapol Troubles: When Will They End?| date=April–June 1999| publisher=Inside Indonesia| url=http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view| archive-date=5 March 2012| df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view |date=5 March 2012 }} * {{cite book| author=Pramoedya Ananta Toer| title=The Mute's Soliloquy: A Memoir| url=https://archive.org/details/mutessoliloquyme0000toer| publisher=Penguin|date=2000| isbn=0-14-028904-6}} * {{cite web| title=United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor| url=http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| publisher=United Nations| access-date=4 February 2006| archive-date=4 February 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035327/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument| url-status=live}} *{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |date=2005 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521542623 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri }} * {{cite book |last=Wanandi |first=Jusuf |author-link=Jusuf Wanandi |date=2012 |title=Shades of Grey: A Political Memoir of Modern Indonesia 1965–1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/shadesofgreypoli0000wana |location=Singapore |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789793780924 }} * {{cite book| title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA| last=Weiner| first=Tim| publisher=Doubleday| place=New York|date=2007| isbn=978-3-596-17865-0| chapter=Chapter 15, CIA and Indonesia| title-link=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA}} * {{cite journal| last1=Wertheim| first1=W.F.| title=Whose plot?-New light on the 1965 events| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-asia_1979_9_2/page/197| journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia|date=1979| volume=9| issue=2| pages=197–215| doi=10.1080/00472337985390191}} * {{cite book |last=Wiranto |author-link=Wiranto |date=2011 |title=7 Tahun Menggali Pemikiran dan Tindakan Pak Harto 1991–1997 |trans-title=7 Years Exploring the Thoughts and Actions of Pak Harto 1991–1997 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Kharisma Bunda |isbn=9786028112123}} {{start box}} {{s-off}} {{succession box | title=Presiden Indonesia | before=[[Sukarno]] | after=[[Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]] | years=1945 - 1967 }} {{succession box | title=Sekretaris Jendral<br> Gerakan Non Blok | before=[[Dobrica Ćosić]] | after=[[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] | years=1992 - 1995 }} {{end box}} {{Presiden Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Présidén Indonésia]] 2mxmsu2dvftvyrmp99k0nutg64091tf Keuyeup 0 31948 712335 710577 2026-08-28T21:02:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Keuyeup | fossil_range = {{rentang géologis|Jurasik|Kiwari|earliest=Mississippian}} | image = Liocarcinus_vernalis.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Liocarcinus vernalis]]'' | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropoda]] | subphylum = [[Crustacea]] | classis = [[Malacostraca]] | ordo = [[Decapoda]] | subordo = [[Pleocyemata]] | infraordo = '''Brachyura''' | infraordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae|1758]] | subdivision_ranks = Sections & subsections&nbsp;<ref name="Grave">{{cite journal |journal=[[Raffles Bulletin of Zoology]] |year=2009 |volume=Suppl. 21 |pages=1–109 |title=A classification of living and fossil genera of decapod crustaceans |author=Sammy De Grave ''et al.'' |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s21/s21rbz1-109.pdf |format=[[Format Dokumén Portabel|PDF]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606064728/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s21/s21rbz1-109.pdf |date=2011-06-06 }}</ref> | subdivision = *[[Dromiacea]] *[[Raninoida]] *[[Cyclodorippoida]] *[[Eubrachyura]] **[[Heterotremata]] **[[Thoracotremata]] }} '''Keuyeup'''; ''yuyu'' nyaéta ''[[crustacea]] [[Decapoda]]'' ti infraordo '''Brachyura''', nu dicirikeun ku ayana "buntut" anu pondok pisan ({{lang-el|βραχύς / ''brachys''}} = pondok,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbraxu%2Fs |title=βραχύς |author=Henry George Liddel & Robert Scott |work=A Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]] |accessdate=24 Méi 2010}}</ref> {{lang|el|οὐρά / ''οura''}} = buntut<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dou%29ra%2F |title=οὐρά |author=Henry George Liddel & Robert Scott |work=A Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]] |accessdate=24 Méi 2010}}</ref>), atawa anu [[abdomén]]na nyumput handapeun [[toraks]].<ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book | title = A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| last = Jonathan| first =Rigg | publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen | location =Universitas Harvard | year =1862 }}</ref><ref name=”Hen”>{{Cite book| url =https://www.google.co.id/books/edition/Kamus_Basa_Sunda_Indonesia_Indonesia_Sun/UiWyDwAAQBAJ?hl=id&gbpv=1&dq=basa+sunda,+sirah%27&pg=PA255&printsec=frontcover| title =Kamus Basa Sunda - Indonesia , Indonesia - Sunda Untuk Pelajar & UmumHenrayana & Yus R. Ismail| last =Henrayana & Yus R. Ismail| first =Dian | publisher =Bhuana Ilmu Populer| location =Jakarta| year =2019|ISBN=9786232164123|pages =290}} Disungsi 25 Desember 2025</ref> == Évolusi == [[File:Gecarcinus quadratus (Nosara).jpg|thumb|left|''[[Halloween crab|Gecarcinus quadratus]]'', [[keuyeup darat]] ti [[Amérika Tengah]] jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]].]] Awak keuyeup biasana dibulen ku ''[[éksoskeleton]]'' anu kandel sarta boga '[[pakarang]]' mangrupa sapasang [[cacapit]]. Keuyeup aya di sagara di sakuliah dunya jeung di darat, boh dina [[cai]] atawa di [[keuyeup darat|darat]], utamana di wewengkon [[tropis]]. Gedéna rupa-rupa, ti ''Pinnotheres pisum'' anu awakna ukur sababaraha miliméter, nepi ka ''Macrocheira kaempferi'' (keuyeup lancah ti Jepang) anu deupa sukuna bisa nepi ka 4 m.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://na.oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/japanese-spider-crab |title=Japanese spider crab ''Macrocheira kaempferi'' |publisher=[[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana North America]] |accessdate=January 2, 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114041143/http://na.oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/japanese-spider-crab |date=November 14, 2009 }}</ref> [[File:Rice field crab (Parathelphusa convexa) at rice field.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Keuyeup sawah (Parathelphusa convexa)]] Di darat (kaasup dina cai darat), aya kira 850 [[spésiés]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=R. von Sternberg & N. Cumberlidge|date=|year=2001|title=On the heterotreme-thoracotreme distinction in the Eubrachyura De Saint Laurent, 1980 (Decapoda: Brachyura)|url=https://www.keuyeup.com/|journal=[[Crustaceana]]|volume=74|pages=321–338|doi=10.1163/156854001300104417}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525233459/https://www.keuyeup.com/ |date=2023-05-25 }}</ref>, sumebar di wewengkon tropis jeung [[Subtropis|semi-tropis]]. Mimitina mah disangka hiji [[grup monofilétik]], tapi kiwari sacara umum ngabagi kana sahanteuna dua [[Silsilah (évolusi)|silsilah]], hiji ti [[Dunya Kuna]] jeung hiji ti [[Dunya Anyar]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=R. von Sternberg, N. Cumberlidge & G. Rodriguez |year=1999 |title=On the marine sister groups of the freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) |journal=[[Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research]] |volume=37 |pages=19–38 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0469.1999.95092.x}}</ref> == Dimorfismeu séksual == [[File:Pachygrapsus marmoratus male female.png|thumb|right|Bagian handap keuyeup ''[[Pachygrapsus marmoratus]]'' jalu (luhur) jeung bikang (handap), nunjukkeun béda bentuk abdoménna.]] Ilaharna, keuyeup jalu bisa dibédakeun ti nu bikang tina ukuran [[cacapit]]na,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sms.si.edu/irLspec/Pachyg_transv.htm |title=''Pachygrapsus transversus'' |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |accessdate=20 Januari 2010 |author=L. H. Sweat |date=21 Agustus 2009}}</ref>, utamana di genus ''Uca''. Keuyeup jalu ti ieu genus boga cacapit anu gedé sabeulah nu dipaké pikeun komunikasi, utamana pikeun ngabandang bikang.<ref>{{cite journal |author=M. J. How, J. M. Hemmi, J. Zeil & R. Peters |url=http://richard.eriophora.com.au/pubs/pdf/HowHemmiZeilPeters-07.pdf |title=Claw waving display changes with receiver distance in fiddler crabs, ''Uca perplexa'' |journal=[[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=1015–1022 |year=2008}}</ref> Béda nu lianna bisa kapanggih dina bentuk pléonna (abdomén); nu jalu biasana heureut jeung ngabentuk [[jurutilu]], anapon nu bikang biasana leuwih lébar sarta [[buleud]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Post-larval development and sexual dimorphism of the spider crab ''Maja brachydactyla'' (Brachyura: Majidae) |author=Guillermo Guerao & Guiomar Rotllant |journal=[[Scientia Marina]] |volume=73 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=797–808 |doi=10.3989/scimar.2009.73n4797 |url=http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/19120/3/1148.pdf}}</ref> Ieu patali raket jeung kanyataan yén endog nu geus dibuahan digedékeun di jero [[pléopod]] bikangna. == Paripolah == [[File:Carpilius convexus is consuming Heterocentrotus trigonarius in Hawaii.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Carpilius convexus]]'' ngahakan ''[[Heterocentrotus trigonarius]]'' di [[Haway]]]] Kaahéngan keuyeup katémbong tina leumpangna anu ka gigir<ref name="Sleinis">{{cite journal |title=Locomotion in a forward walking crab |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-comparative-physiology_1980_136_4/page/301 |author=Sally Sleinis & Gerald E. Silvey |journal=[[Journal of Comparative Physiology A]]: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology |volume=136 |issue=4 |year=1980 |doi=10.1007/BF00657350 |pages=301–312}}</ref>, ku sabab sasandian sukuna leuwih ngagampangkeun leumpang ka gigir batan ka hareup.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keuyeup.com/2023/07/keuyeup-pahami-tentang-kepiting-sunda.html |title=keuyeup |author=Andy Horton & Jane Lilley |publisher=[[British Marine Life Study Society]] |accessdate=5 Januari 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715022634/https://www.keuyeup.com/2023/07/keuyeup-pahami-tentang-kepiting-sunda.html |date=2023-07-15 }}</ref> Najan kitu, aya ogé anu leumpangna ka hareup atawa ka tukang, di antarana [[Raninidae]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Spanner crab ''Ranina ranina'' |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/recreational/saltwater/sw-species/spanner-crab |publisher=[[New South Wales Department of Primary Industries]] |accessdate=4 Januari 2009 |year=2005 |work=Fishing and Aquaculture }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319021249/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/recreational/saltwater/sw-species/spanner-crab |date=2016-03-19 }}</ref>, keuyeup lancah ''[[Libinia emarginata]]''<ref>{{cite journal |title=Muscular anatomy of the legs of the forward walking crab, ''Libinia emarginata'' (Decapoda, Brachyura, Majoidea) |author=A. G. Vidal-Gadea & J. H. Belanger |journal=[[Arthropod Structure & Development]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |year=2009 |pages=179–194 |doi=10.1016/j.asd.2008.12.002}}</ref> jeung ''[[Mictyris platycheles]]''.<ref name="Sleinis"/>. Aya ogé keuyeup anu bisa ngojay, di antarana [[Portunidae]] jeung [[Matutidae]].<ref name="Ng"/> Ieu sato kaasup [[omnivora]], kahakananana [[ganggang]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Natural diet of the crab ''Notomithrax ursus'' (Brachyura, Majidae) at Oaro, South Island, New Zealand |author=C. M. C. Woods |journal=[[New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research]] |year=1993 |volume=27 |pages=309–315 |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/1993/29.php}}</ref> [[moluska]], [[cacing]], [[crustacea]] lianna, [[fungi]], [[baktéri]], jeung [[détritus]], gumantung aya/henteuna di lingkungan hirupna sarta spésiésna. == Kadaharan manusa == [[File:Sorting Crabs Fionnphort.jpg|thumb|right|Keuyeup keur dipilihan di [[Fionnphort]], [[Skotlandia]].]] Keuyeup bisa ngahontal 20% crustacéa hasil laut, nu jumlahna bisa nepi ka 1½ juya [[ton]] sataunna, utamana ''[[Portunus trituberculatus]]''. Keuyeup dahareun lianna nyaéta ''[[Portunus pelagicus]]'', sababaraha spésiés genus ''[[Chionoecetes]]'', ''Callinectes sapidus'', ''[[Charybdis (genus)|Charybdis spp.]]'', ''Cancer pagurus'', ''Metacarcinus magister'', jeung ''Scylla serrata'', nu masing-masing bisa ngahontal leuwih ti 20.000&nbsp;ton sataunna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&tb_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY |title=Global Capture Production 1950-2004 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] |accessdate=26 Agustus 2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123085332/http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&tb_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY |date=2016-01-23 }}</ref> Masak keuyeup sok tara dipaéhan heula. Taun [[2005]], élmuwan Norwégia boga kacindekan yén [[lobster]] teu boga kanyeri.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/feb/08/research.highereducation |title=Scientists say lobsters feel no pain |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |date=8 Pébruari 2005 |author=David Adam}}</ref>, tapi panalungtikan leuwih ahir nyindekkeun yén crustacéa bisa ngarasa jeung nginget kanyeri.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/03/27/crabs.memorypain/ |title=Crabs 'feel and remember pain' suggests new study |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=27 Maret 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106235902/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/03/27/crabs.memorypain/ |date=2017-01-06 }}</ref> == Dina Budaya Sunda == * '''Babasan''': ''Kawas keuyeup apu'' (ngagambarkeun jalma nu teu boga tanaga).<ref name="DeMan1879">De Man, J.G. (1879). "On some new or imperfectly known podophthalmous crustacea of the Leyden Museum". ''Notes from the Leyden Museum'', vol. 1: 61–73.</ref> * '''Kuliner''': Di sawatara tempat di Tatar Sunda, keuyeup sok ditéwak pikeun dijadikeun deungeun sangu, biasana dipasak ku cara dioncoman atawa digoréng garing.<ref name="Whitten1996">Whitten, T., Soeriaatmadja, R. E., & Afiff, S. A. (1996). ''The Ecology of Java and Bali''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198544340.</ref> [https://www.keuyeup.com/ keuyeup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525233459/https://www.keuyeup.com/ |date=2023-05-25 }} == Rujukan == * ''[[:en:Crab|Crab]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris (disalin 14 Juli 2010) {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Keuyeup]] oskot7exxizyhn2h5m3tie4r27ghg2k Mohammad Hatta 0 32155 712326 711670 2026-08-28T20:49:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox President | honorific-prefix = Dr.(H.C.). Drs. H. | name = {{PAGENAME}} | image = Hatta-1.jpg | office = Wakil Présidén Indonésia | order = 1 | term_start = [[18 Agustus]] [[1945]] | term_end = [[1 Desember]] [[1956]] | president = [[Soekarno]] | predecessor = ''Henteu aya'' | successor = [[Hamengkubuwono IX|Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX]] | office2 = Perdana Menteri Indonesia | order2 = 3 | term_start2 = [[29 Januari]] [[1948]] | term_end2 = [[5 September]] [[1950]] | president2 = [[Sukarno|Soekarno]] | predecessor2 = [[Amir Sjarifuddin]] | successor2 = [[Muhammad Natsir]] | office3 = Menteri Pertahanan Republik Indonesia|Menteri Pertahanan | order3 = 4 | term_start3 = [[29 Januari]] [[1948]] | term_end3 = [[4 Agustus]] [[1949]] | president3 = | predecessor3 = | successor3 = | birth_date = [[12 Agustus]] [[1902]] | birth_place = [[Bukittinggi]], [[Sumatera Barat]] | death_date = [[14 Maret]] [[1980]]<br /> (yuswa 77) | death_place = [[Jakarta]] | nationality = [[Indonesia]] | party = Non Partéy | spouse = [[Rahmi Rachim]] | children = [[Meutia Hatta]] <br /> [[Gemala Hatta]] <br /> [[Halida Hatta]] | profession = | religion = [[Islam]] | signature = Signature of Mohammad Hatta.png }} Dr.(H.C.) Drs. H. '''Mohammad Hatta''', atawa populér minangka '''Bung Hatta''' (lahir di Bukittinggi, [[Sumatra Barat|Sumatera Kulon]], 12 Agustus 1902 – pupus di [[Jakarta]], 14 Maret 1980, dina umur 77 warsih) nyaéta saurang pajoang, nagarawan, sarta ogé Wawakil Présidén Indonésia anu kahiji. <!--Ia mundur dari jabatan wakil presiden pada tahun 1956, karena berselisih dengan Presiden Soekarno.--> Bung Hatta ogé dipikawanoh minangka ''Bapa Koperasi Indonésia''. [[Bandara Internasional Soekarno-Hatta|Bandara Internasional Jakarta]] ngagunakeun ngaranna pikeun ngahormatan jasana minangka salah saurang proklamator kamerdikaan Indonésia. salah sahiji anak awéwé anjeunna, Meutia Hatta, nyekel kalungguhan Menteri Nagara Pemberdayaan Awéwé dina Kabinét Indonésia Bersatu lulugu Présidén [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]]. <!--Ia dimakamkan di Tanah Kusir, Jakarta.--> == Kasang Tukang jeung Riwayat Atikan == Hatta lahir ti kulawarga [[ulama]] [[Minangkabau]], [[Sumatera Kulon]]. Ngaran paméré kolotna mah nyaéta Muhammad Athar. Hatta sakola di Sekolah Melayu, [[Bukittinggi]] sarta dina taun [[1913]]-[[1916]] anjeunna nuluykeun sakolana ka ''Europeesche Lagere School'' (ELS) di [[Padang]]. Waktu umurna 13 taun, Hatta geus lulus ujian asup ka HBS (satingkat SMA) di [[Batavia]] (kiwari [[Jakarta]]), ngan indungna hayang Hatta tetep cicing di Padang lantaran umurna nu kalintang ngora kénéh. Ahirna Bung Hatta nuluykeun sakolana ka MULO di [[Padang]]. Dina taun [[1919]], anjeunna indit ka Batavia pikeun nyuprih élmu di Sekolah Tinggi Dagang ''Prins Hendrik School''. Anjeunna nganggeuskeun sakolana kalawan hasil nu kacida hadéna. Dina taun [[1921]], Bung Hatta indit ka [[Rotterdam]], [[Walanda]] pikeun diajar élmu dagang/bisnis di Nederland Handelshogeschool (bahasa inggris: Rotterdam School of Commerce, kiwari jadi [[Universitas Erasmus]]). Di [[Walanda]] anjeunna cicing salila 11 taun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mohammad Hatta: memoir : terbitan khusus satu abad Bung Hatta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzRwAAAAMAAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hatta:+Memoir&q=Hatta:+Memoir&hl=id|publisher=Yayasan Hatta|date=2002|isbn=978-979-97081-0-6|language=id|first=Mohammad|last=Hatta}}</ref> Tanggal [[27 Nopember]] [[1956]], Bung Hatta nyangking gelar kehormatan akademis nyaéta Doctor Honoris Causa dina [[Élmu Hukum]] ti [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] di [[Yogyakarta]], kalawan pidato pengukuhan anu judulna ''Lampau dan Datang''. Nalika umurna 15 taun, Hatta naratas karir salaku aktivis organisasi, salaku juru simpen Jong Sumatranen Bond Cabang [[Padang]]. Kasadaran politik Hatta beuki ngaronjat lantaran kabiasaanana ngaluuhan ceramah-ceramah atawa lawungan-lawungan politik. Salah sahiji inohong politik nu jadi idola keur Hatta nyaéta [[Abdul Muis]]. Di [[Batavia]], Hatta ogé aktif di Jong Sumatranen Bond Pusat salaku juru simpen. Basa di [[Walanda]], anjeunna ilubiung dina [[Perhimpunan Hindia]] (''Indische Vereeniging''). Harita téh keur jaman mekarna iklim pergerakan di ''Indische Vereeniging''. Saméméhna, ''Indische Vereeniging'' nu ngadeg dina taun [[1908]] ngan saukur hiji lawungan antar palajar di [[Indonésia]]. Tapi Indische Vereeniging robah sanggeus ayana tilu inohong Indische Partij ([[Suwardi Suryaningrat]], [[Ernest Douwes Dekker]], jeung [[Tjipto Mangunkusumo]]) di [[Walanda]] dina taun [[1913]] salaku jalma nu dipiceun lantaran tulisan-tulisanana di média massa nu anti pamaréntah. == Réferénsi == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |author = Arniati Prasedyawati Herkusumo | title = Chuo Sangi-in: Dewan Pertimbang Pusat Pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang|language = Indonesian |trans-title = Chuo Sangi-in: The Central Advisory Council during the Japanese Occupation | publisher =PT. Rosda Jayaputra |location = Jakarta, Indonesia| year = 1982 }} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1961 | orig-year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal |title=In Memoriam: Mohammad Hatta (1902–1980) |last=Kahin | first = George Mc. T | journal=Indonesia | volume = 30|year=1980 |pages=113–120 | url= https://cip.cornell.edu/DPubS?service=Repository&version=1.0&verb=Disseminate&view=body&content-type=pdf_1&handle=seap.indo/1107014423#}} * {{Cite book | last = Mrazek | first = Rudolf | title =Sjahrir: politics in exile in Indonesia | publisher = (SEAP Cornel South East Asia program | year = 1994 | isbn = 0-87727-713-3 }} * {{Cite book |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=The Co-operative Movement in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/cooperativemovem00hatt |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1957}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=Colonialism and the Danger of War |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1961-11_1_9/page/10 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=1| issue=9| pages=10–14 |date=November 1961 |doi=10.2307/3023504 |jstor=3023504}} * {{Cite journal |author=Mohammad Hatta |title=One Indonesian View of the Malaysia Issue |url=https://archive.org/details/asian-survey_1965-03_5_3/page/139 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=139–143 |date=March 1965 |doi=10.2307/2642403 |jstor=2642403}} * {{Cite journal | first = Klaas | last = Stutje |title=To Maintain an Independent Course: Inter-war Indonesian Nationalism and International Communism on a Dutch-European Stage |journal= Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies| volume = 39|year=2015 | issue = 3 |pages=204–220 | doi = 10.1080/03096564.2015.1101298 | s2cid = 146939108 |language= nl}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_m3c8| publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book | last = Sudarmanto| first = Y.B. | title = Jejak-Jejak Pahlawan dari Sultan Agung hingga Syekh Yusuf (The Footsteps of Heroes from Sultan Agung to Syekh Yusuf) | publisher = Grasindo |location = Jakarta | year = 1996 | language = id | isbn =979-553-111-5}} * {{Cite book | last = Weismann | first = Itzchak | title = The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition | year = 2009 | publisher = Routledge | location = Abingdon-on-Thames | isbn = 978-0-415-48992-8 }} {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1902]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1980]] [[Kategori:Inohong Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Indonésia]] 2yfpxyihoci83bbhp8csodbpdal82cf G-Spot 0 32550 712313 711747 2026-08-28T20:37:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712313 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gräfenberg Spot''', mindeng disebut '''G-Spot''', nyaéta hiji daérah dina [[vagina]] nu gedéna saukuran kacang buncis<ref name="time1982"/>. Loba awéwé nu ngalaporkeun yén G-Spot mangrupa [[erogenous zone]] nu waktu dirangsang bakal ngalantarankeun hiji dorongan sahwat nu gedé, [[orgasme]] nu kacida kuatna sarta [[éjakulasi wanoja]].<ref name="Ladas">{{cite book |last=Ladas |first=AK |coauthors=Whipple, B; Perry, JD |title=The G-Spot and other discoveries about human sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/gspototherrecent00lada |publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston |location=New York |year=1982 |isbn=0440130409}}</ref> Gräfenberg Spot ilaharna aya dina sainci tepikeun ka tilu inci (2.5 to 7.6&nbsp;cm) saluhureun pinding vagina béh hareup antara bukaan vagina jeung [[urétra]]<ref name="sex101"/> tur mangrupa daérah sénsitif nu mangrupa bagéan tina [[#prostat wanoja|prostat wanoja]].<ref name="the-clitoris.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.the-clitoris.com/f_html/ejacula.htm |title=Female Ejaculation, the G-Spot, and the Female Prostate Gland |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref> Sok sanajan G-Spot téh geus ditalungtik ti taun 1940-an,<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> kahanteupanujuan tetep mucunghul aya ngeunaan aya henteuna G-Spot minangka hiji struktur, définisi katut lokasi nu béda ti nu liana.<ref name="Hines">{{cite web |url=http://www.drgspot.net/Hines.htm |title=The G-Spot: A modern gynecological myth |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref><ref name="AJOG"/> Panalungtikan di Inggris taun 2009 British nyindekkeun yén ayana G-Spot téh henteu kabuktian tur kacida subjéktifna, nu ngan ukur dumasar kana kuisionér katut pangalaman pribadi.<ref name="BBC8439000"/> Aya ogé hipotésis yén G-Spot téh cenah mah mangrupa papanjangan tina [[itil]] tur ieu pisan nu nyababkeun orgasme vagina.<ref name="Masters and Johnson">{{cite book |last=Federation of Feminist Women’s Health Centers |year=1991 |title=A New View of a Woman’s Body |publisher= Feminist Heath Press |pages=46 |isbn=0-929945-0-2}}</ref><ref name="O'Connell"/> Panalungtikan liana nu maké [[ultrasound]], geus manggihan bukti fisiologis ngeunaan G-Spot dina wanoja nu ngalaporkeun kungsi orgasme nalika saresmi.<ref name="Aquila"/><ref name="CNNreal"/> [[Psikolog]] seksual méré perhatian yén wanoja bisa dianggap boga gangguan lamun henteu bisa manggihan G-Spot-na sorangan.<ref name="BBCGspotDetected">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7254523.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Health &#124; Female G spot 'can be detected' |format= |work=html |accessdate=2010-01-03 | date=2008-02-20}}</ref> Wanoja ngalakukeun prosedur [[bedah palastik]] nu disebut [[nguatkeun G-Spot]] pikeun nambahan sensitivitasna.<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> <!-- ==Origin== The term "G-Spot" was coined by Addiego ''et al.'' in 1981,<ref name="Addiego"/> after the German [[Gynecology|gynecologist]] [[Ernst Gräfenberg]],<ref>{{cite journal|year=1950|journal=International Journal of Sexology|volume=3|issue=3|pages=145–148|title=The role of urethra in female orgasm|author=Ernest Gräfenberg|url=http://www.landman-psychology.com/284/sexuality/grafenberg-gspot.htm}}</ref> even though his 1940s research was dedicated to urethral stimulation and not internal vaginal wall stimulation. The concept entered popular culture after the publication of ''[[The G Spot and Other Recent Discoveries About Human Sexuality]]'' by Ladas ''et al.'' in 1982,<ref name="Ladas"/> but it was criticized immediately by leading gynecologists.<ref name="time1982">{{cite journal |date = September 13, 1982 |title =In Search of the Perfect G |journal =[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,951842-1,00.html}}</ref> They denied its existence as it is not easily found if not aroused and autopsy studies missed this. After the G-Spot was demonstrated for their observation they changed their minds.<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> An anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 2350 professional women in the United States and Canada with a subsequent 55% return rate. Of these respondents, 40% reported having a fluid release (ejaculation) at the moment of orgasm. Further, 82% of the women who reported the sensitive area (Gräfenberg Spot) also reported ejaculation with their orgasms. A number of variables were associated with this perceived existence of female ejaculation.<ref>{{cite journal |author =Darling, CA; Davidson, JK; Conway-Welch, C.|year =1990 |title =Female ejaculation: perceived origins, the Grafenberg spot/area, and sexual responsiveness. |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_1990-02_19_1/page/29|journal = Arch Sex Behav |volume =19 |pages =29–47 |doi =10.1007/BF01541824 |pmid =2327894 |issue =1}}</ref> While not disputing vaginal responsiveness to stimulation, gynecologists and doctors continue to be skeptical of the existence of a distinct anatomical feature in the G-Spot rub zone.<ref name="time1982"/><ref name = AJOG>{{cite web|url = http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/ajog/abstract.00000447-200108000-00016.htm;jsessionid=JRxHThBXZJqHPC2BRT5MQphBgHxpSYQ9LFKhLhG6vJMLQFJTK121!-749683226!181195629!8091!-1|format = abstract|title = The G-Spot: A modern gynecologic myth. |last = Hines|first = Terence M.|date = August 2001|work = Clinical Opinion: American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 185(2)|pages = pages 359–362|accessdate = 6 November 2008}}</ref><ref name = Delvin>{{cite web |url=http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthyliving/gspot.htm|title=The G-Spot|accessdate=5 November 2008 |work=Healthy Living|last = Delvin |first = David|coauthors = Christine Webber|publisher = NetDoctor.co.uk|date=May 2008}}</ref> ==Female prostate== {{See also|Skene's gland|Urethral sponge}} In 2001, the [[International Federation of Associations of Anatomists|Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology]] accepted ''female prostate'' as an accurate term for the [[Skene's gland]] found in the G-Spot area along the walls of the [[urethra]].<ref name="the-clitoris.com"/> The male [[prostate]] is biologically [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] to the female G-Spot, which was first hypothesized by [[Regnier de Graaf]] in 1672 where he observed that the secretions (female ejaculation) by the women's G-Spot "lubricates their sexual parts in agreeable fashion during coitus."<ref name="the-clitoris.com"/> The prostate in men has been unofficially called the male G-Spot because it can also be used as an erogenous zone.<ref name="about.com">{{cite web |url=http://sexuality.about.com/od/analplay/ht/htprostate.htm |title=How to Find and Stimulate the Prostate – Exploring Anal Play for Men |work= |accessdate=2010-05-09}}</ref> It is located about 50&nbsp;[[millimeter|mm]] (2&nbsp;in) along the front wall of the [[anus]], and when aroused it is a walnut-shaped swelling. Links between G-Spot sensitivity and female ejaculation led to the idea that non-urine female ejaculate may originate from the Skene's gland. Tissue examination showed 15 prostate-specific antigens in the gland,<ref>{{cite journal |author =Tepper, Sl; Jagirdar, J; Heath, D; Geller, SA. |year =1984 |title =Homology between the female paraurethral (Skene's) glands and the prostate. |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-pathology-laboratory-medicine_1984-05_108_5/page/423 |journal =Arch Pathol Lab Med. |volume =108 |pages =423–425 |pmid =6546868 |issue =5}}</ref> leading to a trend of calling the Skene's glands the female [[prostate]].<ref>{{cite journal |author =Zaviacic, M; Ablin, RJ. |year =2000 |title =The female prostate and prostate-specific antigen. Immunohistochemical localization, implications for this prostate marker in women, and reasons for using the term “prostate in the human female. |journal =Histol Histopathol |volume =15 |pages =131–142 |pmid =10668204 |issue =1}}</ref> Consequently, it has been argued that the G-Spot is a system of [[gland]]s and [[duct (anatomy)|ducts]] located within the anterior (front) wall of the vagina about one centimeter from the surface.<ref name="BrooksCole">{{cite book |last=Crooks |first=R |coauthors=Baur, K |title=Our Sexuality |url=https://archive.org/details/oursexuality00croo |publisher= Brooks/Cole |location=California |year=1999 |isbn=0495813478}}</ref> A similar approach has linked the G-spot with the [[urethral sponge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://womenshealth.about.com/cs/sexuality/a/clitoraltruthin.htm|title= "The Clitoral Truth": An Interview With Author Rebecca Chalker|publisher=About.com: Women's Health|author=Tracee Cornforth|year=2004}}</ref> The enzyme [[CGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5|PDE5]] (involved with [[erectile dysfunction]]) has been associated with the G-Spot area.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nicola Jones|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn2495|title= Bigger is better when it comes to the G-Spot|date=3 July 2002|journal=New Scientist}}</ref> Several researchers consider the connection between the Skene's gland and the G-Spot to be weak.<ref name="Hines"/><ref name="santos">{{cite journal |author=Santos, F Taboga, S. |year=2003 |title=Female prostate: a review about biological repercussions of this gland in humans and rodents. |journal=Animal Reproduction. |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages= 3–18}}</ref> They contend that Skene's gland does not appear to have receptors for touch stimulation, and that there is no direct evidence for its involvement.<ref name="Alzate">{{cite journal |author =Alzate H Hoch Z |year =1986 |title =The "G spot" and "female ejaculation": a current appraisal. |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-sex-and-marital-therapy_fall-1986_12_3/page/211 |journal =J Sex Marital Ther. |volume =12 |issue =3 |pages =211–20 |pmid =3531529}}</ref> ==Sexual stimulation and studies== The G-Spot is typically located about 50 to 80&nbsp;mm (2 to 3&nbsp;in) inside the vagina, on the front wall.<ref name="TheNakedWoman">{{cite book |author=Morris, Desmond |title=The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books |location=New York |year=2004 |pages=211–212 |isbn=0-312-33852-X}}</ref> For some women, stimulating the G-Spot creates a more intense orgasm than clitoral stimulation.<ref name="sex101"/><ref name="Newsbeat">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/hi/health/newsid_7345000/7345799.stm |title=BBC - Newsbeat - Health - G Shot 'helps women in search of orgasm' |format= |work= BBC News|accessdate=2010-05-02 | date=2008-04-14}}</ref> The G-Spot needs direct [[Sexual stimulation|stimulation]], especially with firm moves and constant pressure as it is ~1&nbsp;cm below the surface.<ref name="BrooksCole"/> Stimulating the G-Spot through sexual penetration, especially in the [[missionary position]],<ref name="TheNakedWoman"/> is difficult to achieve because of the special angle at which penetration must occur. It is claimed that the best G-Spot stimulation is achieved by using both manual stimulation and sexual intercourse.<ref name="sex101">[http://www.sexinfo101.com/pw_gspot.shtml G spot stimulation] SexInfo 101. Retrieved on 2010-03-09</ref> ===Methodology=== Two primary methods have been used to define and locate the G-Spot as a sensitive area in the vagina:<ref name="Hines"/> *self-reported levels of arousal during stimulation *stimulation of the G-Spot leads to [[female ejaculation]] Studies using ultrasound have also been used to identify physiological differences between women<ref name="Aquila"/> and changes to the G-Spot region during sex.<ref name="CNNreal"/> ===Findings===--> <!--Place studies in chronological order.--><!-- In a published case study of one woman, it was reported that stimulation of the [[anterior]] vaginal wall made the area grow by fifty percent and that self-reported levels of arousal/orgasm were "deeper" when the G-Spot was stimulated.<ref name="Addiego">{{cite journal |author =Addiego, F; Belzer, EG; Comolli, J; Moger, W; Perry, JD; Whipple, B. |year =1981|title =Female ejaculation: a case study. |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-sex-research_1981-02_17_1/page/13 |journal =Journal of Sex Research |volume =17 |issue =1|pages =13–21 |doi =10.1080/00224498109551094}}</ref> Another study examined eleven women by [[palpate|palpating]] the entire vagina in a clockwise fashion, and reported a specific response to stimulation of the anterior vaginal wall in four of the women.<ref>{{cite journal |author =Goldberg, DC; Whipple, B; Fishkin, RE; Waxman H; Fink PJ; Wiesberg M. |year =1983 |title =The Grafenberg Spot and female ejaculation: a review of initial hypotheses. |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-sex-and-marital-therapy_spring-1983_9_1/page/27 |journal =J Sex Marital Ther. |volume =9 |pages =27–37 |pmid =6686614 |issue =1}}</ref> Researchers at the [[University of L'Aquila]] have found, using ultrasonography, that women who experience vaginal orgasm are statistically more likely to have thicker tissue in the anterior vaginal wall.<ref name="Aquila">{{cite journal |author=Gravina GL, Brandetti F, Martini P, ''et al.'' |title=Measurement of the Thickness of the Urethrovaginal Space in Women with or without Vaginal Orgasm |journal=J Sex Med |volume= 5|issue= 3|pages=610|year=2008 |pmid=18221286 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00739.x}}</ref> The researchers believe these findings make it possible for women to have a rapid test to confirm whether or not they have a G-Spot.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Sample |title=The elusive G-Spot really does exist, say researchers |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/feb/21/medicalresearch.sciencenews |publisher =The Guardian |date= 21 February 2008|accessdate=3 September 2008 | location=London}}</ref> A French study in late 2009 examined a small number of women with ultrasound as they had intercourse, by examining changes in the vagina they found physiological evidence of the G-Spot. The findings are under review by the ''[[Journal of Sexual Medicine]]''.<ref name="CNNreal">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/01/05/g.spot.sex.women/index.html |title=Finding the G-spot: Is it real? - CNN.com |work= |accessdate=2010-05-02 | date=2010-01-05}}</ref> There is some research suggesting that G-Spot and [[clitoris|clitoral]] orgasms are of the same origin. [[Masters and Johnson]] were the first to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia, determining that all orgasms are of clitoral origin.<ref name="Masters and Johnson"/> Dr. Tim Spector hypothesizes thicker tissue in the G-Spot area may be part of the clitoris and is not a separate erogenous zone.<ref name="BBCGspotDetected"/> Supporting these conclusions is a 2005 study investigating the size of the clitoris – it found clitoral tissue extends considerably inside the vagina. This discovery indicates clitoral and vaginal orgasms are produced by the same internal source.<ref name="O'Connell">{{cite journal |author=O'Connell HE, Sanjeevan KV, Hutson JM |title=Anatomy of the clitoris |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-urology_2005-10_174_4/page/1189 |journal=The Journal of Urology |volume=174 |issue=4 Pt 1 |pages=1189–95 |year=2005 |month=October |pmid=16145367 |laysummary=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5013866.stm |laysource=[[BBC News]] |laydate=11 June 2006 |doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd}}</ref> The main researcher of the studies, Australian [[Urology|urologist]] Dr. Helen O'Connell, asserts that this interconnected relationship is the physiological explanation for the conjectured G-Spot and experience of vaginal orgasm, taking into account the stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration. "The vaginal wall is, in fact, the clitoris," said O'Connell. "If you lift the skin off the vagina on the side walls, you get the bulbs of the clitoris – triangular, crescental masses of erectile tissue."<ref name="O'Connell"/> ===Criticism=== G-Spot proponents are criticized for giving too much credence to [[anecdotal evidence]], and for questionable investigative methods: for instance, the studies which have yielded positive evidence for a precisely located G-Spot involve small participant samples.<ref name="Hines">{{cite journal |author =Hines, T |year =2001 |month =August |title =The G-Spot: A modern gynecologic myth |url =https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2001-08_185_2/page/359 |journal =Am J Obstet Gynecol |volume =185 |issue =2 |pages =359–62 | pmid = 11518892 |doi =10.1067/mob.2001.115995}}</ref> Scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation have generally shown that there is no single area with a greater density of nerve endings.<ref name="Hines"/> A recent study of 110 [[biopsy]] specimens drawn from 21 women concluded with the absence of a vaginal locus with greater nerve density.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Pauls, R; Mutema, G; Segal, J; Silva, WA; Kleeman, S; Dryfhout, Ma V; Karram, M.|year =2006 |month =November |title =A prospective study examining the anatomic distribution of nerve density in the human vagina. |journal = J Sex Med |volume =3 |issue =6 |pages =979–87 | pmid = 17100930 |doi = 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2006.00325.x}}</ref> However, while neither the area of the anterior vaginal wall where the G-Spot is said to be located nor the [[Skene's gland]] appear to possess them, the [[urethral sponge]], which is thought by some to be homologous to the G-Spot, does contain sensitive nerve endings as well as [[erectile tissue]]. It should also be noted that sensitivity is not determined by neuron density alone: other factors include the branching patterns of neuron terminals and cross or collateral innervation of neurons.<ref name="pmid10651316">{{cite journal |author=Babmindra VP, Novozhilova AP, Bragina TA, ''et al.'' |title=The structural bases of the regulation of neuron sensitivity |journal=Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=615–20 |year=1999 |pmid=10651316 |doi= 10.1007/BF02462474|url=http://resources.metapress.com/pdf-preview.axd?code=q6h325761132q014&size=largest |accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref> The existence of the G-Spot was questioned by a team at [[King's College London]] in late 2009. They acquired the largest sample size to date of 1,800 women – who are pairs of twins – and found they did not report a similar G-Spot in a questionnaire, suggesting its existence is subjective.<ref name="TimesOnline">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/article6973971.ece |title=What an anti-climax: G-Spot is a myth - Times Online |work= The Times|author=Lois Rogers |accessdate=2010-01-03 | location=London | date=2010-01-03}}</ref> Study co-author Dr. Andrea Burri believes: "It is irresponsible to claim the existence of an entity that has never been proven and pressurise women and men too."<ref name="BBC8439000">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8439000.stm |title=BBC News - The G-spot 'doesn't appear to exist', say researchers |work= |accessdate=2010-01-04 | date=2010-01-04}}</ref> Burri also stated one of the reasons for the research was to remove feelings of "inadequacy or underachievement" for women who feared they lacked a G-Spot.<ref name="YvonneRoberts">{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jan/05/g-spot-women-study |title=The real G-spot myth &#124; Yvonne Roberts &#124; Comment is free &#124; guardian.co.uk |format= |work= The Guardian|accessdate=2010-05-02 | location=London | date=2010-01-05}}</ref> Dr. Whipple dismissed the findings, commenting that twins have different sexual partners and techniques, and that the study did not properly account for lesbian or bisexual women.<ref name="TimesOnline"/> Sexual psychologists are concerned about the promotion of the G-Spot, as it could lead to women feeling "dysfunctional" if they do not experience it. Dr. Petra Boynton, a British scientist who has written extensively on this debate,<ref name="drpetra">[http://www.drpetra.co.uk/blog/where-have-all-the-g-spots-gone/ Where have all the g spots gone?] - Dr Petra Boynton</ref> states:<ref name="BBCGspotDetected"/> <blockquote>We're all different. Some women will have a certain area within the vagina which will be very sensitive, and some won't{{mdash}}but they won't necessarily be in the area called the G-Spot. If a woman spends all her time worrying about whether she is normal, or has a G-Spot or not, she will focus on just one area, and ignore everything else. It's telling people that there is a single, best way to have sex, which isn't the right thing to do.</blockquote> The ''Journal of Sexual Medicine'' is planning a debate and publications from both sides of the G-Spot issue.<ref name="TimesOnline"/> ==Sex toys== One of the most common [[sex toy]]s used in G-Spot stimulation is the specially designed [[G-Spot vibrator]]. This is a [[phallus]]-like vibrator that has a curved tip which makes G-Spot stimulation very easy. The head of the G-Spot vibrator has a special form and it is a little curved in order to ease the stimulation of the G-Spot. The level of [[Sexual intercourse|penetration]] when using this sex toy depends on every woman because the [[physiology]] is not the same in two individuals. The effect of the G-Spot stimulation, no matter which way this is done, may be enhanced by stimulation of the other erogenous zones in a woman's body. These may include the clitoris and [[Labium (genitalia)|labia]].<ref>[http://www.gspotstimulation.net/ All about stimulation of the G-spot] Retrieved on 2010-03-09</ref> These toys are made of the same materials that the regular vibrators are made of including silicone, jelly, rubber or any combination of them. --> ==Tempo ogé== {{Portal|Séksualitas}} * [[Human female sexuality]] * [[Human sexuality]] * ''[[The G Spot and Other Recent Discoveries About Human Sexuality]]'' (book) ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== * [http://sexuality.about.com/od/gspotfemaleejaculation/a/whatisgspot.htm About.com – Sexuality, "What is the G-Spot?", Cory Silverberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102033321/http://sexuality.about.com/od/gspotfemaleejaculation/a/whatisgspot.htm |date=2007-01-02 }} * [http://sexuality.about.com/od/anatomyresponse/ht/findyourgspot.htm About.com – How to Locate Your G Spot] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710054616/http://sexuality.about.com/od/anatomyresponse/ht/findyourgspot.htm |date=2017-07-10 }} * [http://www.the-clitoris.com/f_html/ejacula.htm The-Clitoris.com – Female Ejaculation, the Female Prostate, and The G-Spot] {{Female reproductive system}} {{Sex}} {{DEFAULTSORT:G-Spot}} [[Kategori:Sistim baranahan awéwé]] rxh0f46jfwloy4to9v9k9qr0ohzh7tk Ki tambleg 0 32874 712358 711587 2026-08-28T21:42:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox |image = Baobab Adansonia digitata.jpg |image_width = 275px |image_caption = Tangkal ki tambleg Afrika (''[[Adansonia digitata]]'') di [[Bagamoyo]], [[Tanzania]], deukeut [[Kaole|ruruntuk Kaole]] |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]] |ordo = [[Malvales]] |familia = [[Malvaceae]] |subfamilia = [[Bombacoideae]] |genus = '''''Adansonia''''' |genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?167 |title=Genus: ''Adansonia'' L. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United State Department of Agriculture |date=2008-11-12 |accessdate=2011-01-14}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Spésiés |subdivision = Baca [[#Spésiés|Bab spésiés]] }} '''''Adansonia''''', '''baobab''', atawa nu di [[Pasundan]] katelah '''ki tambleg''' nyaéta génus dalapan [[spésiés]] tangkal pituin [[Madagaskar]] (genep spésiés), [[Afrika]] jeung [[Semenangjung Arab]] (hiji spésiés), jeung [[Australia]] (hiji spésiés). == Pedaran == Ukuran tangkal ki tambleg bisa ngahontal 5–30 m, anapon diaméter batangna 7–11 m. [[Ki tambleg Glencoe]] - spésimén [[ki tambleg Afrika]] di [[Propinsi Limpopo]], [[Afrika Kidul]], dianggap conto bungkeuleukan nu pangbadagna, kurilingna nepi ka 47 m<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bigbaobab.co.za/baobab.html |title=Big Baobab Facts |accessdate=2008-01-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080106151314/http://www.bigbaobab.co.za/baobab.html |date=2008-01-06 }}</ref>. Diaméterna kira-kira 15,9 m. Ceuk sakaol, umur ki tambleg bisa nepi ka rébuan taun, tapi teu bisa dipastikeun. == Spésiés == [[Gambar:Adansonia digitata (Baobab)- young tree in Hyderabad W IMG 8273.jpg|thumb|190px|Ki tambleg ''[[Adansonia digitata]]'' ngora di [[Hyderabad, India]].]] * ''[[Adansonia digitata]]'' <small>[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]</small> – Ki tambleg Afrika ([[Afrika]] kulon, wétan ngalér, tengah, jeung kidul, sarta di [[Oman]] jeung [[Yaman]] di [[Semenanjung Arab]], [[Asia]]) * ''[[Adansonia grandidieri]]'' <small>[[Henri Ernest Baillon|Baill.]]</small> – Ki tambleg Grandidier ([[Madagaskar]]) * ''[[Adansonia gregorii]]'' <small>[[Ferdinand von Mueller|F.Muell.]]</small> (sin. ''A. gibbosa'') – Ki tambleg Australia (Australia kulon ngalér) * ''[[Adansonia madagascariensis]]'' <small>Baill.</small> – Ki tambleg Madagaskar (Madagascar) * ''[[Adansonia perrieri]]'' <small>[[René Paul Raymond Capuron|Capuron]]</small> – Ki tambleg Perrier (Madagaskar kalér) * ''[[Adansonia rubrostipa]]'' <small>[[Henri Lucien Jumelle|Jum.]] & [[Joseph Marie Henry Alfred Perrier de la Bâthie|H.Perrier]]</small> (sin. ''A. fony'') – Ki tambleg Fony (Madagaskar) * ''[[Adansonia suarezensis]]'' <small>H.Perrier</small> – Ki tambleg Suarez (Diego Suarez, Madagaskar) * ''[[Adansonia za]]'' <small>Baill.</small> – Ki tambleg Za (Madagaskar)<ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?167 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Adansonia'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United State Department of Agriculture |accessdate=2011-01-14}}</ref> == Nyerep cai == Ki tambleg neundeun [[cai]] dina kaina nu 'bareuh' (nepi ka 120.000 l)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Baobab tree in Senegal |url=http://www.senegal-online.com/anglais/parcs-faune-flore/baobab.htm |accessdate=2008-10-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004233417/http://www.senegal-online.com/anglais/parcs-faune-flore/baobab.htm |date=2008-10-04 }}</ref>. == Mangpaat == [[Gambar:Baobab seeds.jpg|thumb|left|187px|Panjang buahna 18 cm]] Ti 2008, ki tambleg mimiti diulik pikeun kaperluan konsumsi<ref name=biov>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bioversityinternational.org/index.php?itemid=1166|title=Scientists predict African fruit trees could help solve major public health problem|accessdate=2008-10-01|publisher=Bioversity International}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20070813225151/http://news.bioversityinternational.org/index.php?itemid=1166 |date=2007-08-13 }}</ref><ref>Hills S. [http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Financial-Industry/Baobab-goes-for-GRAS-ahead-of-2010-World-Cup "Baobab goes for GRAS ahead of 2010 World Cup"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527050103/http://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Financial-Industry/Baobab-goes-for-GRAS-ahead-of-2010-World-Cup |date=2010-05-27 }} FoodNavigator.com-USA, 30 Séptémber 2008</ref>. Di Afrika ([[Malawi]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwé]], jeung [[Sahel]]), daunna biasa didahar salaku lalab atah atawa tipung nu digaringkeun. Di [[Nigéria]], daunna nu katelah kuka sok diangeun<ref>http://blog.notcutts.co.uk/latest-articles/2010/9/13/the-oldest-trees-in-the-world.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812155627/http://blog.notcutts.co.uk/latest-articles/2010/9/13/the-oldest-trees-in-the-world.html |date=2011-08-12 }} – The oldest trees in the world (access date 2010-09-13)</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=April 2011}}. Kandungan giji buahna kaitung onjoy, ku sabab [[vitamin C]]-na leuwih loba batan [[jeruk]] jeung [[kalsium]]na leuwih loba batan susu sapi<ref name=bbcnew>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7506997.stm|title=New exotic fruit to hit UK shops|accessdate=2008-07-15|publisher= BBC | date=2008-07-15}}</ref>. Daging buahna dibubur atawa dicampur jeung susu, atawa dijus<ref name=bbcnew/>. Di Zimbabwé, buah nu dina [[basa Shona]] katelah mawuyu geus ti baheula biasa didahar. Buahna ogé bisa dijieun [[krim tartar]]<ref name=geoim>{{Cite web|url=http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/Geoimages/Johnson/Biomes/BiomesAfrica/Baobabtree.html|title=Baobab tree -- a miracle of nature|accessdate=2010-02-12|publisher=Geo-Images Project|date=October 2000}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131143239/http://geoimages.berkeley.edu/Geoimages/Johnson/Biomes/BiomesAfrica/Baobabtree.html |date=2010-01-31 }}</ref>. Siki ki tambleg biasa dipaké keur pangentel [[sop]], tapi ogé bisa [[férméntasi (pangan)|dipeuyeum]] jadi [[bungbu]], di[[sangray]], atawa digiling diala [[minyak sayur|minyakna]]. == Galeri == <gallery> Image:baobabtre b3599.jpg|''Adansonia digitata'', [[Taman Nasional Tarangire]] di [[Tanzania]] Image:Baobab Avenue 1.JPG|''[[Adansonia grandidieri]]'', [[Jalan Raya Ki Tambleg]], Madagaskar Image:Derby boab, Western Australia.jpg|''[[Adansonia gregorii]]'' di [[Australia]] Image:Baobab Flowers.jpg|Kembang ki tambleg di Mulund, [[Mumbai, India]] </gallery> == Rujukan == * The Baobab's official website, [http://www.baobab.com/ Baobab] (en) {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Commons category|Adansonia}} {{Wikispecies|Adansonia}} {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/106351598260879 | last1 = Baum | first1 = D. A. | last2 = Small | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Wendel | first3 = J. F. | year = 1998 | title = Biogeography and floral evolution of baobabs (Adansonia, Bombacaceae) as inferred from multiple data sets | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1998-06_47_2/page/181| journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 181–207 | pmid = 12064226 }} * Braun, K. (1900) ''Beiträge zur Anatomie der Adansonia digitata L.'' F. Reinhardt, Universitäts-Buchdruckerei, Basel, [http://worldcat.org/oclc/15926986 OCLC 15926986] * {{Cite book |last=Colin |first= Tudge |title= The Tree: A Natural History of What Trees Are, How They Live, and Why They Matter |url=https://archive.org/details/treenaturalhisto00tudg |year=2006, 2005 |edition= 1st U.S. |publisher=Crown Publishers |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-4000-5036-7 |oclc=64336118}} * {{Cite book |last=Lowe |first= Pat |title= The Boab Tree |year= |edition= |publisher=Lothian |location=Port Melbourne, Australia |isbn=0-85091-912-6 |oclc=39079651}} * {{Cite book |last=Pakenham |first= Thomas |title= The Remarkable Baobab |url=https://archive.org/details/remarkablebaobab0000thom |year=2004 |edition= 1st American |publisher=Norton |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-393-05989-8 |oclc=56844554}} * {{Cite book |last=Watson |first= Rupert |title= The African Baobab |url=https://archive.org/details/africanbaobab0000wats |year=2007 |publisher= Struik; New Holland |location=Cape Town, South Africa; London, England |isbn= 978-1-77007-430-9 |oclc=163617611}} * {{Cite book |last=Wickens |first= G. E. |coauthors=Lowe, Pat |title= The Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia |year=2008 |publisher= Springer Verlag |location=Berlin, Germany; New York, NY |isbn=978-1-4020-6430-2 |oclc=166358049}} {{Refend}} [[Kategori:Adansonia]] [[Kategori:Malvaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan Tropis]] omoljp71zhxa0u6ckm0fduq1megf6a1 Butan 0 32912 712423 711830 2026-08-28T23:12:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info nagara Butan}} '''Butan''' ([[basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]: {{lang |dz|འབྲུག་ཡུལ་}}; [[Alihaksara Wylie]]: ''ʼbrug-yul''{{nbsp|2}}"Druk Yul"), resmina '''Karajaan Butan''', nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] nu [[nagara nu dilingkung|dilingkung]] di [[Asia Kidul]], aya di wewengkon wétan [[Himalaya]]. Butan wawatesan jeung [[Cina]] di kalér sarta [[India]] di kidul, wétan, jeung kulon. Leuwih ka kulonna aya [[Nepal]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Sikkim]]. Leuwih ka kidulna aya [[Bangladés]], dipisahkeun ku nagara bagian India, [[Assam]] jeung [[Benggala Kulon]]. Ibu kota Butan sareng kota panggedéna nyaéta [[Thimphu]]. Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan nepi ka awal abad ka-17 nalika [[Lama]] sarta pamingpin militér [[Shabdrung]] [[Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di [[Tibét]], ngahijikeun wewengkon Butan sarta melak hiji cicirén Butan nu béda. Teras dina awal abad ka-20, Butan tepang jeung [[Kakaisaran Britania]] sarta miboga hubungan bilateral nu kiat jeung India sanggeus kamerdikaanna. Dina taun 2006, dumasar kana survéy sadunya, ''[[Business Week]]'' nyimpen Butan salaku [[nagara nu pangbagjana]] sa-Asia sarta ka-8 sadunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |title=The World's Happiest Countries |publisher=Business Week |date=2006-10-11 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090426174928/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm? |archivedate=26 April 2009 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025024213/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |date=2006-10-25 }}</ref> Lemah Butan kasusun ti dataran [[subtropis]] di kidul nepi ka daratan luhur Himalaya [[sub-alpen]] di kalér, di mana sababaraha titik miboga kaluhuran leuwih ti {{j|{{convert|7000|m|ft}}}}. Lega wewengkonna dilaporkeun kira-kira {{convert|46500|km2|abbr=on}} taun 1997<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |title=8th Five Year Plan (1997–2002) |format=PDF |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=1997 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190503/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> and {{convert|38394|km2|sqmi}} in 2002.<ref name=FYP9>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |title=9th Five Year Plan (2002–2007) |publisher=Pamaréntah Karajaan Bhutan |year=2002 |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320060614/http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |date=2012-03-20 }}</ref><ref name=official>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |title=Portal Nasional Butan |publisher=Departemén Ténologi Informasi Butan |accessdate=2011-08-22 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423102833/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |date=2012-04-23 }}</ref> Agama nasional Butan nyaéta [[Budha Vajrayana]] sarta pangeusina, diperkirakeun jumlahna méh 750.000 jiwa,<ref name=clock/> utamina ngagem [[Budha]]. [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama nu panggedéna kadua.<ref>"Bhutan." ''World Almanac & Book Of Facts'' (2008): 752-753. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dés. 2011.</ref> Taun 2008, Butan ngarobih wangun nagara ti [[monarki absolut]] ka [[monarki konstitusional]] jeung miboga pamilihan umum kahijina. Butan mangrupa anggota ti [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] sareng [[Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] (SAARC) sarta minangka tuan rumah pikeun [[Daptar patepungan SAARC|Patepungan SAARC XVI]] dina April 2010. == Étimologi == Kecap nu mirip jeung Butan{{spaced ndash}}kaasup ''Bottanthis'', ''Bottan'', jeung ''Bottanter''{{spaced ndash}}mimiti muncul dina peta Éropa sabundeureun 1580-an. ''Six Voyages'' taun 1676 beunangna [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]] minangka nu kahiji anu nyutat ngaran ''Boutan''. Tapi, dina sadaya kasus, katingalna ngaran-ngaran ieu dipaké sanés pikeun Butan modéren ieu tapi pikeun [[Tibét (1912–1951)|Karajaan Tibét]]. Bébéda modéren antara duanana mimiti ku ékspedisi [[George Bogle (diplomat)|Bogle]] taun 1774{{mdash}}sadar kana bébéda antara 2 wewengkon éta, ogé budayana jeung pamaréntahanna. Teras laporan ahirna pikeun [[East India Company]] (EIC, Pasarikatan Dagang Inggris di Hindia Wétan) sacara resmi ngajukeun ngaran karajaanna [[Druk Desi]] salaku "Boutan" sarta nu [[Panchen Lama]] salaku "Tibét". Survéyor jéndral EIC, [[James Rennell]], kahijina nga-Inggris-keun ngaran Perancis éta kana "Bootan" sarta teras ngapopulérkeun yén Butan jeung Tibét téh béda.<ref name="Kuensel">[http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php "History of Bhutan: How Europe heard about Bhutan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216090138/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php |date=2012-02-16 }}. ''Kuensel''. 24 August 2003. Diaksés 28 Sépt 2011.</ref> Asal ngaran "Butan" sacara pastina heunteu terang, sanajan kamungkinan gedéna, ngaran ieu diturunkeun ti [[éndonim]] dina [[basa Tibét Heubeul]], ''Bod'', dipaké pikeun [[Tibét Raya]]. Sacara tradisional, ngaran éta dipaké dina basa [[Sangsakarta]] ''Bhoṭa-anta'' (भोट-अन्त, "ahir [[Tibét]]"), nunjukkeun lokasi Butan di wewengkon pakidulan plato jeung kabudayaan Tibét.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Cultural History of Bhutan |volume=1 |first=Balaram |last=Chakravarti |publisher=Hilltop |year=1979 |page=7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6VxuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref name="Names&Histories">Taylor, Isaac. ''[http://www.archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi00taylgoog Names and Their Histories; a Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature]''. Gale Research Co. (Detroit), 1898. Diaksés 24 Séptémber 2011.</ref> Sacara lokalna, Butan kawanoh dina loba ngaran. Cutatan di Dunya Kulon nu pangkolotna ngeunaan Butan, ''Relação'' 1627 [[masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[Karajaan Portugal|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]], nyutat ngaranna dina raloba rupa salaku ''Cambirasi'' (di antara [[Koch Bihar]]<ref>Cacella, Estêvão. Trans. by Baillie, Luiza Maria. [http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_01_01_01.pdf "Laporan di mana Rama Father Estevao Cacella ti Masarakat Yésus Ngintun ka Rama Alberto Laercio, Pangurus pikeun Propinsi Malabar, India Wétan, ngeunaan Lalampahanna ka Katay, nepi Anjeunna Sumping di Karajaan Bhotanta"] (1627). Diaksés 28 Séptémber 2011.</ref>), ''Potente'', jeung ''Mon'' (éndonim pikeun Tibét beulah kidul).<ref name="Kuensel"/> Kahiji kalina hiji Karajaan Butan nu bener muncul dina peta urang Kulon, dina ngaran lokalna nyaéta "Broukpa".<ref name="Kuensel"/> Ngaran lian misalna ''Lho Mon'' ("Pakidulan Poék"), ''Lho Tsendenjong'' ("Pakidulan [[Cypress]]"), ''Lhomen Khazhi'' ("Pakidulan 4 Padeukeutan"), sarta ''Lho Men Jong'' ("Pakidulan [[apotek hirup|Ubar Hirup]]").<ref>{{cite book |title=Beneath Blossom Rain: Discovering Bhutan on the Toughest Trek in the World |series=Outdoor Lives |first=Kevin |last=Grange |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2011 |isbn=0-8032-3433-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bWco7DY94fsC|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife |volume=2 |series=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |page=105}}</ref> == Sajarah == {{utama|Sajarah Butan|Gurat wanci sajarah Butan}} Pakakas, pakarang, [[gajah|gagajah]]an, sarta wangunan tina batu ngabuktikeun yén Butan dieusian kira-kira saprak taun [[abada ka-20 SM|2000 SM]], sanajan euweuh cutatan ti jaman éta. Sajarawan miboga téori yén nagara ''Lhomon'' ("poék kidul"), atanapi ''Monyul'' ("Lemah Poék", sesebutan nu ngarah kana [[urang Monpa|Monpa]], [[urang pribumi]] Butan) bisa jadi enggeus aya antawis 500 SM jeung 600 M. Ngaran ''Lhomon Tsendenjong'' (Nagara [[Cendana]]), jeung ''Lhomon Khashi'', atanapi Mon Kidul (nagara 4 padeukeutan), dipanggih dina hikayat-hikayat Butan jeung Tibét kuna.<ref name=WIAS>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinstituteforasianstudies.org/buthan.html|title=Bhutan|publisher=World Institute for Asian Studies|date=2006-08-21|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref><ref name=CS0>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Origins and Early Settlement, A.D. 600–1600|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> [[File:Cloud-hidden, whereabouts unknown (Paro, Bhutan).jpg|thumb|left|[[Dzong]] di [[Lebak Paro]], diwangun taun 1646]] Agama Budha kahiji kalina disebarkeun di Butan dina abad ka-7 M. Raja Tibét, [[Songtsän Gampo]]<ref name=Padel>{{cite book|title=Tigers in Red Weather: a Quest for the Last Wild Tigers|first=Ruth|last=Padel|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|year=2006|isbn=0-8027-1544-3|pages=139–40|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zYLJp0X04mUC|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> (maréntah 627–649), nu pindah agama ka Budha, ngalegakeun Kakaisaran Tibét nepi ka Sikkim jeung Butan,<ref>Sailen Debnath, Essays on Cultural History of North Bengal, ISBN 9788186860427; & Sailen Debnath, The Dooars in Historical Transition, ISBN 9788186860441</ref> maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 kuil Budha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] di Butan bagian tengah sarta di Kyichu (deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name=CS1>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Arrival of Buddhism|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Agama Budha disebarkeun luas<ref name=Padel/> dina taun 746<ref name=Hattaway>{{cite book|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World: a Christian Prayer Diary|first=Paul|last=Hattaway|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004|isbn=0-87808-361-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OzEOKNPsv2EC|page=30|accessdate=2011-08-20}}</ref> jaman pamaréntahan Raja Sindhu Rāja (''ogé'' Künjom;<ref name=Rennie>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sHAnAtNrUQoC|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|first1=Frank|last1=Rennie|first2=Robin|last2=Mason|publisher=IAP|pages=18, 58|year=2008|isbn=1-59311-734-5|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), saurang raja [[urang India|India]] dina pangasingan nu ngawangun pamaréntahan di Bumthang jeung Istana Chakhar Gutho Palace.<ref name=HBB>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yA9uAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Bhutan Based on Buddhism|first=C. T.|last=Dorji|publisher=Sangay Xam, Prominent Publishers|year=1994|isbn=81-86239-01-4|accessdate=2011-08-12}}</ref>{{rp|35}} <ref name=Harding>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rlxdncBwpbgC|title=The Life and Revelations of Pema Lingpa|first1=Padma-gliṅ-pa (Gter-ston)|first2=Sarah|last2=Harding|editor=Harding, Sarah|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2003|isbn=1-55939-194-4|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>{{rp|13}} [[File:Tashigang Dzong 111120.jpg|thumb|Dzong Trashigang, diwangun taun 1659.]] Ulama Budha [[Padmasambhava|Padma Sambhava]] (kawanoh ogé salaku [[Guru Rinpoche]]) sumping ka Butan dina taun 747.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=18,963,0,0,1,0 |title=Taktshang: a Buddhist Legend |first=Kinley |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |work=Buddhist Channel |date=2005-03-30 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Sajarah awal Butan kalobaanana teu terang ku sabab raloba cutatan sajarah ancur nalika ibu kota heubeul, [[Punakha]], kaduruk dina taun 1827. Di abad ka-10, kaayaan pulitik Butan loba dipangaruhan ku sajarah kaagamaanna. Rupa-rupa aliran Budha muncul nu didukung ku rupa-rupa pamingpin militér [[Mongol]]. Sanggeus teuleumna [[Dinasti Yuan]] dina abad ka-14, aliran-aliran ieu silih sihung pikeun dominasi sacara pulitik jeung kaagamaan, nu teras ngarah kana unggulna aliran [[Druk]]pa di abad ka-16.<ref name=CS1/><ref name=CS4>{{country study |country=Bhutan |abbr=bt |editor=Savada, Andrea Matles |year=1991 |section=Rivalry among the Sects |author=Worden, Robert L |pd=yes}}</ref> Nepi ka awal abad ka-17, Butan aya salaku wewengkon ti sababaraha karajaan leutik, nepi ka dihijikeun ku Lama Tibét sarta paminpin militér [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] nu kabur ti panarajangan kaagamaan di Tibét. Pikeun ngalindungan nagarana ti panarajangan Tibét, Namgyal ngawangun hiji jaringan ''[[dzong]]'' (bénténg), jeung nyusun [[Tsa Yig]], hiji undang-undang nu nyieun raja-raja lokal aya dina pangawasaan séntral. Loba ''dzong'' masih aya jeung minangka puseur kaagamaan sarta pamaréntahan distrik. [[Masarakat Yésus|Yésuit]] [[urang Portugis|Portugis]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] jeung [[João Cabral]] kacutat minangka urang Éropa kahiji nu sumping ka Butan, dina lalampahan ka Tibét. Aranjeunna tepang jeung Ngawang Namgyal, ningalikeun pakarang seuneu, [[mésiu]], hiji [[téléskop]], sarta nawiskeun pitulunh dina perang ngalawan Tibét. Nanging Shabdrung teu nampi tawaran éta. Sanggeus ngawengi méh 8 bulan, Cacella nyerat hiji surat nu panjang ti [[Kuil Chagri]] ngeunaan lalampahan anjeunna. Surat ieu mangrupa hiji ti saeutik cutatan ngeunaan Shabdrung.<ref name=LP>{{cite book|title=Bhutan |series=Country Guides |first1=Lindsay |last1=Brown |first2=Stan |last2=Armington |edition=3 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2007 |pages=26, 36 |isbn=1-74059-529-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s-L8NUlW_QgC |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Eighteenth-Century Tibet |first=Trent |last=Pomplun |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=0-19-537786-9 |page=49 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-3iG4p85PHgC |accessdate=2011-10-19}}</ref> Sanggeus maotna Ngawang Namgyal taun 1651, warta ngeunaan maotna éta dirusiahkeun pikeun 54 taun. Teras sanggeus ngagabung sajaman, Butan peupeus kana papaséaan jero nagri. Taun 1711, Butan perang jeung [[Kakaisaran Mughal]] sarta [[Subedar]]na, nu ngarebut [[Koch Bihar]] di kidul. Nalika karusuhan sanggeusna, Tibét teu hasil narajang Butan taun 1714.<ref name=CS3>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Administrative Integration and Conflict with Tibet, 1651–1728|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina abad ka-18, Butan narajang jeung ngajajah Karajaan [[distrik Cooch Behar|Cooch Behar]] di kidul. Taun 1772, Cooch Behar mundut ka [[Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan Britania|Sarikat Dagang Hindia Wétan]] [[Karajaan Britania Raya|Britania]] nu teras nulungan dina ngusir Butan sarta narajang Butan dina taun 1774. Hiji pajangjian karapihan ditandatanganan di mana Butan satuju pikeun mulih deui ka wewengkonna saméméh taun 1730. Tatapi, karapihan kaayaanna leuleus. Patempuran perwatesan jeung [[India Birtania|Britania]] lanjut sababaraha taun senggeusna. Patempuran-patempuran ieu ahirna ngarah ka [[Perang Duar]] (1864–1865), ngarebutkeun kadali kana [[Duar]] [[Benggala]]. Sanggeus Butan éléh dina perang éta, [[Pajangjian Sinchula]] ditandatanganan antawis [[India Britania]] jeung Butan. Salaku bagian ti [[pamulihan paska-perang]], Duar dibéré ka [[Britania Raya|Britania]] pikeun dana injeuman Rs. 50.000. Pajangjian ieu ngeureunkeun sagala karusuhan antawis India Britania jeung Butan. Dina taun 1870-an, papaséaan antawis [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Tongsa]] ngarah ka perang sadulur di Butan, sarta teras diangkatna [[Ugyen Wangchuck]], ''ponlop'' (gubernur) Tongsa. Ti basis kakiatanna di Butan bagian tengah, Ugyen Wangchuck ngéléhkeun musuh pulitikna sarta ngahijikeun nagara dina sababraha perang sadulur jeung pemberontakan taun 1882–1885.<ref name=CS2>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=British Intrusion, 1772–1907|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Dina taun 1907, taun nu penting pikeun nagara Butan, Ugyen Wangchuck dipilih salaku raja ku hiji majelis ti pandita-pandita luhur Budha, pajabat pamaréntahan, jeung pamingpin-pamingpin kulawarga ageung. Pamaréntah Britania gancang ngakuan kadaulatan monarki anyar ieu, sarta teras dina taun 1910, Butan nanndatanganan [[Pajangjian Punakha]], pakta aliansi nu méré Britania kakawsaan kana hubungan luar nagri Butan. Hartina, Butan diperlakukeun salaku [[nagara bagian kabangsawanan]] India. Dina praktikna, pajangjian ieu boga pangaruh nu saeutik, ku Butan ogé dumasar sajarahna sipatna teu gaul jeung dunya luar, sarta katingalna heunteu mangaruha hubungan tradisional antawis Butan jeung Tibét. Sanggeus [[Dominion India|Sarikat India]] miboga [[Kamerdikaan India|kamerdikaan]] ti Britania Raya dina 15 Agustus 1947, Butan mangrupa salah sahiji ti nagara-nagara kahiji nu ngakuan kamerdikaan India. Dina 8 Agustus 1949, hiji pajangjian nu mirip jeung Pajangjian Punakha ditandatanganan bareng India.<ref name=WIAS/> Taun 1953, Raja [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck]] ngadegkeun badan législatif nagara mangrupa [[Majelis Nasional]] kalawan 130 anggota dina tujuan pikeun ngawangun pamaréntahan nu leuwih démokratis. Dina taun 1965, anjeunna nyusun hiji Déwan Panaséhat Karajaan, sarta taun 1968 anjeunna ngawangun hiji kabinét. Taun 1971, Butan gabung ka [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]], sanggeus nyekel status anggota panénjo dina 3 taun. Dina bulan Juli 1972, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] naék tahta dina yuswa 16 taun sanggeus ramana, Dorji Wangchuck, maot. ===Réformasi pulitik jeung modérenisasi=== {{seealso|Hukum Bhutan|Undang-Undang Dasar Bhutan}} Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] mikawanohkeun sababaraha réformasi pulitik, mindahkeun raloba kakawasaan pamaréntahanna ka Déwan Mentri Kabinét sarta ngijinkeun ayana [[pamakzulan]] Raja ku 2 per 3 anggota Majelis Nasional.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf|last=Hoffman|first=Klus|title=Democratization from Above: The Case of Bhutan|format=PDF|date=2006-04-01|accessdate=2010-04-24}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003014927/http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf |date=2006-10-03 }}</ref> Dina taun 1999, pamaréntah ngahupus larangan dina [[televisi]] jeung [[Internét]], nyieun Butan salah sahiji ti nagara nu karak mimiti maké televisi. Dina biantarana, anjeunna nyarios yén televisi mangrupa léngkah penting dina [[modérenisasi]] Butan sarta mangrupa panyumbang gedé pikeun [[Kabagjaan Nasional Bruto]] nagara (Butan mangrupa sahiji-hijina nagara nu ngukur kabagjaan),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larmer|first=Brook|year=2008|month=March|title= Bhutan's Enlightened Experiment|work=ngm.nationalgeographic.com|journal=National Geographic|issn=0027-9358|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/bhutan/larmer-text/2|accessdate=2010-06-19}}</ref> tatapi miélingkeun yén "panyalahgunaan" televisi bisa ngahupus ajén-ajén tradisi Butan.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Cathy|last1=Scott-Clark|first2=Adrian|last2=Levy|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html|title=Fast Forward into Trouble|publisher=The Guardian|date=2003-06-14|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Hiji [[undang-undang dasar]] nu anyar dipikawanohkeun dina awal taun 2005. Dina bualn Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén anjeunna badé [[abdikasi|masihan]] tahtana ka putrana dina taun 2008. 14 Désémber 2006, anjeunna ngumumkeun yén abdikasi badé dilaksanakeun dina wanci deukeut. Hal ieu dimiluan ku [[Pamilihan umum di Butan|pamilihan umum parlemén]] nu kahiji dina bulan [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Désémber 2007]] jeung [[pamilihan umum Butan 2008|Maret 2008]]. Dina 6 Nopémber 2008, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], putra pangluhurna ti Raja [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], diangkat minangka Raja.<ref>{{cite web|first=Nitasha|last=Kaul|title=Bhutan Crowns a Jewel|work=UPI Asia|publisher=United Press International|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|date=2008-11-10|accessdate=2011-06-19|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|archivedate=15 June 2011 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962 |date=2011-06-15 }}</ref> ==Pulitik jeung pamaréntahan== [[File:Tashichoedzong-Bhutan-2001.JPG|250px|thumb|Pamandangan [[Dzong Tashichhoe]], [[Thimphu]], puseur pamaréntahan Butan saprak 1952.]] {{utama|Pulitik Butan}} Sistim pulitik Butan geus robah ti [[monarki absolut]] kana [[monarki konstitusional]]. Taun 1999, Raja Butan ka-4, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], nyieun hiji lembaga nu ngaranna [[Lhengye Zhungtshog]] (Déwan Para Mentri). ''[[Druk Gyalpo]]'' (Raja Druk Yul) minangka [[pupuhu nagara]]. [[Kakawasaan éksekutif]] dilaksanakeun ku Lhengye Zhungtshog, déwan para mentri. [[Kakawasaan législatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[pamaréntah]] jeung [[Tshogdu]] (Majelis Nasional). Dina kaping 17 Désémber 2005, Raja Jigme Singye Wangchuck ngabéwarakeun yén pamilihan umum nu munggaran bakal dilaksanakeun taun 2008 jeung anjeunna badé masihan tahtana ka putra makutana nyaéta putrana nu pangluhurna.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gelay Jamtsho|author2=Keys to Bhutan|url=http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php|title=His Majesty the King's Historic National Day Address – 2005|publisher=Keystobhutan.com|date=2008-10-31|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213023237/http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php |date=2008-02-13 }}</ref> Raja [[Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck]] nampi tahta dina kaping 14 Désémber 2006. Anjeunna dipaparin Makuta Gagak Butan dina upacara di Thimphu kaping 6 Nopémber 2008, ku kitu janten pamingpin monarki nu panganomna sadunya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7521429.stm|title=Bhutan King to be Crowned at Last|publisher=BBC News online|date=2008-07-23|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Sistim pulitik nu anyar miboga majelis luhur jeung majelis handap, nu saterasna miboga dasar kana afiliasi partéy pulitik. [[Pamilihan umum Déwan Nasional Butan 2007–2008|Pamilihan umum]] pikeun majelis luhur ([[Déwan Nasional Butan|Déwan Nasional]]) dilaksanakeun kaping 31 Désémber 2007, samentara [[Pamilihan umum Butan 2008|pamilihan umum]] pikeun [[Majelis Nasional Butan|Majelis Nasional]] (majelis handap) dilaksanekun kaping 24 Maret 2008. 2 partéy pulitik, [[Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat (Butan)|Partéy Démokrasi Rahayat]] (PDR) nu dipingpin ku [[Sangay Ngedup]], sareng Partéy [[Druk Phuensum Tshogpa]] (DPT) nu dipingpin ku [[Jigmi Thinley]], marebutkeun 47 korsi di Majelis Nasional. Druk Phuensum Tshogpa unggul dina pamilihan umum, ngawasaan 45 ti 47 korsi di majelis.<ref>{{cite web|first=Aradhana|last=Sharma|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080044949&ch=3/25/2008%2012:28:00%20AM|title=Royalist Party Wins Election in Bhutan|publisher=NDTV.com|date=2008-03-25|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Kakawasaan yudikatif]] dilaksanakeun ku [[Mahkamah]] Butan. [[Hakim Agung]]na nyaéta pupuhu [[administrasi publik|administratif]] [[lembaga yudikatif]] nagara. ===Hak asasi manusa=== ====Papaséaan étnis==== [[File:Lotshampa refugees in Beldangi Camp.jpg|thumb|Urang katurunan Nepal ti Butan nu ngungsi ka Nepal dina awal 1990-an.]] Taun 1990-an, Butan ngusir atanapi maksa méh 1 per 5 pangeusina ku alesan pikeun ngajaga idéntitas budaya Budha Mahayana Tibét-na, nyebut yén maranéhna anu diusir téh pangeusi ilégal.<ref name=theweek11>{{cite web |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |archivedate=2011-05-11 |url=http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |title=Family Portrait of Bhutan Nepalis in USA |publisher=The Week Republica |date=2011-04-15 |accessdate=2011-04-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |date=2011-05-11 }}</ref><ref name=CIDCM/><ref name=unhcr08/> Kaputusan ieu boga dasar yén étnis minoritas Nepal nu tumuwuhna gancang bisi ngawasaan nagara, ngulang kajadian nu sarua nu nyababkeun bubarna Karajaan Sikkim taun 1975. [[Lhotshampas]], pihak nu teu satuju kana pamikiran éta, diperkirakeun jadi tujuan panyiksaan jeung panahanan,<ref name="hrw.org">Frelick, Bill. ''For Bhutan's Refugees, There's no Place Like Home.'' Human Rights Watch. Mar 3 2011. Web. Dec 30 2011. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/30/bhutan-s-refugees-there-s-no-place-home</ref> ngakibatkeun unjuk rasa dina 1990-an. Saterasna, pasukan kaamanan Butan mimiti ngusir urang-urang sanggeus nyieun maranéhna ngabatalkeun klaim imah jeung lemburna. Ku lantaran karusuhan nu lumangsung, Urang Butan katurunan Nepal, mayoritasna ngagem agama Hindu, kaluar. Numutkeun [[UNHCR]], langkung ti 107.000 [[Pangungsi Butan]] ngeusi 7 kémah pangungsian di [[Nepal]] beulah wétan sarta geus didokuméntasi dina taun 2008.<ref name=unhcr08>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan|title=Refugees from Bhutan Poised for New Start|publisher=UNHCR|date=2008-02-01|accessdate=2011-04-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110510005625/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan| archivedate= 10 May 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Ngeunaan bener heunteuna sadaya pangeusi kémah téh pangungsi diragukeun sabab UNHCR heunteu mariksa pangeusi-pangeusi awal sacara bener.<ref>{{cite web|last=Casella|first=Alexander|title=Nepal Finally Waves off Refugees|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html|publisher=Asia Times Online}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923190108/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html |date=2015-09-23 }}, 15 Désémber 2009</ref> Sarana di jero pangungsian, nu kacutat leuwih alus ti batan wewengkon sabundereunana, ngarojong masarakat Nepal asup ka pangungsian. Sanggues raloba taun di pangungsian, raloba pangeusi ayeuna pindah ka nagara lian saperti Kanada, Norwégia, Britania Raya, Australia, jeung Amérika Sarikat salaku pangungsi. [[Amérika Sarikat]] nyutat 30.870 pangungsi ti taun kauangan 2008 nepi ka 2010.<ref>''Reguee Arrival Data.'' Departemén Kaséhatan jeung Palayanan Kamanusaan Amérika Sarikat. 3 Nopémber 2011. Web. 30 Désémber 2011. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207045007/http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm |date=2011-12-07 }}</ref> Pamaréntah heunteu ngijinkeun dibéréna status kawarganagaraan pikeun pangungsi Butan, ku kituna raloba pangungsi heunteu miboga status kawarganagaraan.<ref name=hrr/> Urusan birokrasi nu riweuh dipaké alesan pikeun ngahalangan kulawarga <!--- "relatives" disebutkeun di en.wikpedia -->maranéhna miboga kartu idéntitas jeung hak sora.<ref name=hrr/> Butan nganggap partéy pulitik ti pangungsi-pangungsi ieu heunteu sah sarta mangrupa kelompok téroris.<ref name=hrr/> Kelompok hak asasi manusa nyebutkeun yén pamaréntah mangaruhan hak asasi individu ku cara ngaatur yén sadaya warga, kaasup anggota étnis minoritas ieu, maké pakéan tradisionalna étnis mayoritas di tempat umum. Nanging, pamaréntah sacara kawates nerapkeun aturan ieu ukur di wangunan kaagaamaan Budha, kantor pamaréntahan, sakola, pajabat pamaréntah, sarta parayaan-parayaan umum.<ref name=hrr>[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/sca/136086.htm], U.S. Department of State, February 25, 2009</ref> ====Kabébasan agama==== [[Budha Mahayana]] mangrupa dasar warisan kaagamaan nagara, tapi undang-undang ngarojong kabébasan agama.<ref name=hrr/> == Militér jeung hubungan luar nagri == {{utama|Militér Butan|Hubungan luar nagri Butan}} [[Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan]] mangrupa angkatan pakarang Butan. Lembaga militér ieu ngawengku [[Pasukan Pangaman Karajaan Bhutan|Pangaman Karajaan]] sareng [[Kapulisian Karajaan Butan]]. Kaanggotaan militér sipatna sukaréla. Yuswa minimal pikeun asup ka militér nyaéta 18 taun. Jumlah personil kira-kira 16.000 urang, nu dilatih ku [[Angkatan Darat India]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Arun |last=Bhattacharjee |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |title=Bhutan Army Sees Action at Last |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2003-12-19 |accessdate=2009-04-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121042613/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |date=2016-11-21 }}</ref> Angkatan Pakarang Karajaan Butan miboga dana alokasi taunan kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$]]13,7 yuta (1,8% [[Produk doméstik bruto|PDB]]). Minangka [[nagara nu dilingkung]], Butan heunteu miboga angkatan laut. Butan ogé teu boga angkatan udara atanapi korps udara angkatan darat. Angkatan pakarangna ngandalkeun Komando Udara Wétan ti [[Angkatan Udara India]] pikeun pitulungan. Butan miboga hubungan ékonomi, stratégi, jeung militér nu kiat jeung tatanggana, India.<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/exclusive/bhutan-pm-india-is-closest-ally/33779 Bhutan PM: India is closest ally, NDTV, July 16, 2008]</ref><ref>[http://www.thebhutanese.bt/pm-stresses-on-importance-of-foreign-relations/ PM stresses on importance of foreign relations, The Bhutanese, 12 Julu 2012]</ref> Taun 2007, Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pajangjian anyar ngijinkeun Butan ngawasaan hubungan luar nagrina. Pajangjian ieu ngahupus kaayaan nu diakibatkeun ku pajangjian satacanna taun 1949. Pajangjian nu satacanna éta ayuen kadang-kadang ogé dijadikeun alesan pikeun kadali India kana hubungan luar nagri Bhutan, nanging pamaréntah Butan ngadali sadaya hubungan luar nagrina, kaasup sababaraha maslaah di mana India miboga perhatosan, kawas status wates Butan jeung [[Cina]].<!--Library of Congress|Foreign Relations--> Butan miboga hubungan diplomatik sateng 21 nagara sarta [[Uni Éropa]] sarta mibboga misi di India, [[Bangladés]], [[Thailand]], jeung [[Kuwait]]. Butan miboga 2 misi [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]], hiji di New York sarta hiji di [[Jénéwa]]. Ngan India jeung Bangladés nu miboga kadutaan pangeusi di Butan, samentara Thailand miboga kantor konsulat di Butan. [[File:Bhutan CIA WFB 2010 map.png|thumb|Peta Butan némbongkeun watesna jeung Cina sarta India sakumaha dina taun 2012.]] Ku hiji pasatujuan nu lila, warga nagara India jeung Butan tiasa sumping ka masing-masing nagara tanpa [[paspor]] atanapi [[visa]], ukur butuh kartu idéntitas nagarana. Warga Butan ogé tiasa gawé di india tanpa palarangan hukum. Butan teu boga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung tatangga kalérna, [[Républik Rahayat Cina]], sanajan paturakan kunjungan dina raloba tingkat pernah aya. Pasatujuan bilateral nu kahiji antawis Cina jeung Butan ditandatanganan dina taun 1998. Butan ogé miboga konsulat husus di [[Makau]] jeung [[Hong Kong]]. Wates Butan jeung Cina kalobaanana heunteu di[[démarkasi]] sarta ku kituna aya papaséaan di sababaraha tempat. Kira-kira 269 kilométer pasagi aya dina sawala antawis kadua nagara.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7833 |title=Indo-Bhutan Border Finalised |first=Samten |last=Wangchuk |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2006-12-13 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Dina 13 Nopémber 2005, prajurit Cina asup ka wewengkon papaséaan antara Cina jeung Butan, sarta mimiti ngawangun jalan jeung sasak.<ref name=dispcb/> Perdana Mentri Luar Nagri Butan, [[Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk|Khandu Wangchuk]] ngomongkeun masalah ieu jeung pamaréntah Cina sanggeus masalah ieu diomongkeun di parlemén Butan. Balesanna, Juru Carios Kamentrian Luar Nagri Cina, [[Qin Gang]] nyebatkeun yén wates éta masih aya dina papaséaan sarta kadua pihak tetep ngalajengkeun diskusi nu rapih jeung hadé pikeun nangtukeun solusina.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.china.com/zh_cn/domestic/945/20051201/12906175.html|title=中国不丹同意平等友好协商早日解决边界问题 |trans_title=China and Bhutan Agree to Equal and Amicable Talks in Order to Resolve the Border Issue Quickly|language=Chinese|publisher=News.china.com|date=2005-12-01|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Pajabat intélijen India nyebatkeun yén délégasi Cina di Butan nngomong ka Butan yén Butan téh "''overreacting''." Hiji koran Butan ''Kuensel'' nuliskeun yén Cina bisa maké jalanan éta pikeun alesan klaim Cina sapanjang wates éta.<ref name=dispcb>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060824075647/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archivedate=2006-08-24|title=Alarm over Chinese Incursion|first=Pramod|last=Giri|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=2005-10-28|accessdate=2009-04-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229111417/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871%2C000500020006.htm |date=2007-12-29 }}</ref> Dina 8 Pébruari 2007, Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan dirévisi. Pajangjian 1949, Pasal 2 nyebtkeun: "Pamaréntah India heunteu ngalaksanakeun sagala campur tangan dina administrasi jero nagri Butan. Pamaréntah Butan salaku bagianna, satuju pikeun dipandu dina naséhat Pamaréntah India ngeunaan hubungan luar nagrina." Dina pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ayeuna katulis "Pikeun ngajaga hubungan sababaturan jeung sabilulungan nu parantos aya antawis Butan jeung India, Pamaréntah Karjaaan Butan sareng Pamaréntah Républik India bakal gawé bareng sacara husus dina masalah perkawis kaayaan nasionalna. Kadua pamaréntah heunteu tiasa mangpaatkeun wewengkonna pikeun kagiatan anu ngancem kaamanan jeung kaayaan nasional kadua nagara." Pajangjian nu enggeus dirévisi ieu ogé ngawengku kalimah pamuka ieu: "Negaskeun kamerdikaan, kadaulatan, sarta intregitas nasional masing-masing pihak", hiji kaayaan nu euweuh dina vérsi saméméhna. Pajangjian Kasababaturan India-Butan 2007 negaskeun status Butan salaku nagara nu merdika jeung daulat. Butan miboga [[hubungan luar nagri Butan|hubungan diplomatik]] sareng sababraha nagara [[Asia]] jeung [[Éropa]], [[Kanada]], jeung [[Brasil]]. Nagara lian, saperti [[Amérika Sarikat]] jeung [[Britania Raya]], heunteu miboga hubungan diplomatik resmi jeung Butan, tapi miboga hubungan teu resmi (informal) langkung kadutaan masing-masing nagara di [[New Delhi]] sarta konsulat husus Butan di [[London]] jeung [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/2010/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=18408 |title=Bhutan establishes ties with Spain |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |title=Overseas Embassies and Consulates of Bhutan |work=Go Abroad.com |accessdate=2011-03-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309070142/http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |date=2009-03-09 }}</ref><ref name=state>{{cite web|url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|title=Bhutan Country Specific Information|work=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=2008-03-24|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|archivedate=28 March 2008 <!--DASHBot-->|deadurl=no}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html |date=2008-03-28 }}</ref> ==Géografi== [[File:HaaValley.jpg|thumb|left|Lebak Haa.]] [[File:Bhutan topo en.jpg|thumb|Peta topografis Bhutan.]] [[File:GangkharPuensum3.jpg|thumb|[[Gangkhar Puensum]] ti Ura La, Butan.]] {{utama|Géografi Butan}} Butan aya di léréng kidul jeung wétan [[Himalaya]], dilingkung ku [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét]], Cina di kalér jeung nagara bagian [[Sikkim]], [[Benggala Kulon]], [[Assam]], jeung [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India di kulon jeung kidul. Butan aya di antara gurat lintang [[26 lintang kalér|26°]] sarta [[29 lintang kalér|29°N]], serta [[88 méridian wétan|88°]] sarta [[93 méridian wétan|93°]] méridian wétan. Wewengkonna ngawengku utamina [[pagunungan di Butan|pagunungan]] diliwatan ku walungan, nu ngawangun lebak nu jero. Tingkat kaluhuran antara {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} di suku pasir di pakidulan nepi ka leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. Karagaman géografis ieu ditambih jeung karagaman iklim miboga pangaruh kana ralobana karagaman hayati jeung ékosistem Butan.<ref name=official/> Wewengkon kalér nagara diwangun ti hiji wilayah [[Padang jukut jwung rungkun alpen Hiimalaya Wétan]], ngaluhur ka pagunungan glasial kalawan iklim nu tiis pisan di titik-titik puncakna. Raloba titik puncak di kalér aya dina kaluhuran leuwih ti {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}} ti beungeut laut. Titik pangluhurna di Butan nyaéta [[Gangkhar Puensum]] dina {{convert|7570|m|ft}}, nu mana minangka [[puncak pangluhurna nu teu pernah didaki]] sadunya.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Titik panghandapna nyaéta {{convert|98|m|ft|abbr=on}}, di lebak di [[Drangme Chhu]], di mana aya walungan nu misahkeun Butan jeung India.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Kalawan walungan nu ngalir ti salju, lebak alpen di wewengkon ieu nyadiaakeun [[padang jukut]] pikeun angon, dipiara ku masarakat pangangon ngumbara nu nyumebar. [[Pagunungan Hideung (Butan)|Pagunungan Hideung]] di bagian tengah Butan ngawangun hiji wates antara 2 walungan utama Butan: [[Walungan Mo Chhu]] sarta [[Walungan Drangme Chhu]]. Puncak-puncak Pagunungan Hideung aya antara {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|4925|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Leuwung di pagunungan Butan beulah tengah kasusun ti [[leuweung koniféra sub-alpen Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah luhur sarta [[leuwung tutuwuhan kembang Himalaya Wétan]] di beulah handap pagunungan. Leuwugn di wewengkon tengah nyadiakeun mayoritas produksi leuweung Butan. Walungan [[Walungan Torsa|Torsa]], [[Walungan Raidak|Raidak]], [[Walungan Sankosh|Sankosh]], jeung [[Walungan Manas|Manas]] mangrupa walungan-walungan utama Butan, ngalir ngaliwatan wewengkon ieu. Kalobaannana warga ngeusian daratan luhur bagian tengah. Di beulah kidul, aya [[Papasiran Shiwalik]] nu ditutupan ku [[leuweung tutuwuhan kembang sub-tropis Himalaya]] nu padet, lebak walungan aluvial, sarta pagunungan nepi ka {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} luhureun beungeut laut. Bagian handap pasir turun nepi ka dataran sub-tropis [[Duars]]. Kalobaannana bagian Duars aya di India, sanajan hiji sela kalawan lébar {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} nepi ka {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} manjang nepi ka Butan. Duars di Butan dibagi kana 2 bagian: kalér jeung kidul. Duars kalér, nu wawatesan jeung suku papasiran Himalaya, rupana kagurat, ngawangun léréng-léréng, jeung taneuh nu saat jeung ngabeulah kalawan tutuwuhan nu padet sarta raloba margasatwa. Duars kidul taneuhna subu5, kalawan sabana, leuwung nu padet, sarta cinyusu. Walungan-walungan, nu sumberna ti salju atanapi hujan muson, ngalir ka [[Walungan Brahmaputra]] di India. Data nu dirilis ku Kamentrian Tatanén némbongkeun yén Butan miboga tutupan leuwung saluas 64% dina Oktober 2005. Iklim di Butan dipangaruhan ku kaluhuranana. Ti iklim sub-tropis di kidul nepi ka [[iklim sedeng]] di daratan luhur sarta iklim [[iklim kutub|jenis kutub]], kalawan salju sapanjang taun di kalér. Butan miboga 5 rupa usum: panas, [[muson]], gugur, tiis, jeung semi. Butran beulah kulon miboga hujan muson nu leuwih loba. Butan beulah kidul miboga usum panas nu lembap jeung panas sarta usum tiis nu tiis. Butan beulah tengah jeung wétan iklimna sedeng sarta leuwih saat ti batan beulah kulon, kalawan usum panas nu haneut sarta usum tiis nu tiis.<!--Library of Congress|Geography--> {{Geographic location | Centre={{Flagicon|Butan}} Butan | North={{Flagicon|Cina}} [[Cina]] | East={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | South={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] | West={{Flagicon|India}} [[India]] }} == Kaayaan hayati == [[File:Takin, Thimphu mini-zoo.jpg|thumb|[[Takin]], [[sato nasional]] Butan.]] {{see also|Daptar mamalia di Butan}} Butan nanda tanganan [[Konvénsi Kaanékaragaman Biologi]] dina 11 Juni 1992, sarta jadi bagian ti konvénsi éta dina 25 Agustus 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |date=|accessdate=8 Désémber 2012}}</ref> Butan teras nyieun hiji [[Rancangan Aksi Kaanékaragaman Hayati|Rancangan Aksi jeung Stratégi Kaanékaragaman Hayati Nasional]], kalawan 2 révisi, nu mana nu panganyarna ditarima ku konvénsi dina 4 Pébruari 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/bt/bt-nbsap-v3-en.pdf |title=Biodiversity Action Plan 2009 |date=|accessdate=9 Désémber 2012}}</ref> ===Sasatoan=== Butan miboga rupa-rupa primata, saperti spésiés langka kawas [[langur emas]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1990|title=Primates in Bhutan |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oryx_1990-07_24_3/page/125|journal=Oryx |volume=24 |page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1992|title=Golden langur – Distribution Confusion|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oryx_1992-07_26_3/page/172|journal=Oryx|volume=26|pages=172–173}}</ref> Hiji varian makaka Assam, nu dianggaep ku sababaraha otoritas salaku hiji spésiés anyar, ''Macaca munzala'', kacutat di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2008|title=Primates of Bhutan and Observations of Hybrid Langurs|journal=Primate Conservation|volume=23|pages=65–73}}</ref> [[Lodaya Benggala]], [[badak India]], [[macan dahan]], [[kelenci Assam]], jeung [[ontohod sloth]] hirup di daratan handap tropis jeung leuwung kai kandel di kidul. Di wewengkon iklim sedeng, [[langur kulawu]], lodaya, [[maung tutul India]], [[goral]], jeung [[serow]] tiasa dipanggih dina leuwung campuran koniféra, camara, jeung tutuwuhan kembang. Tutuwuhan buah jeung awi nyadiakeun habitat pikeun [[ontohod hideung Himalaya]], [[panda beureum]], [[bajing]], [[uncal sambar]], [[bagong]], jeung [[mencek]]. Wewengkon alpen di Pagunungan Himalaya di kalér mangrupa habitat pikeun [[maung tutul salju]], [[domba paul]], [[marmot]], [[ajag Tibét]], [[antelop]], [[uncal kasturi Himalaya]], jeung [[sato nasional]] Butan, [[takin]]. Munding cai liar ngeusian Butan beulah kidul kalawan populasi nu saeutik.<ref>{{cite book|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2010 |title=The Vanishing Herds: Wild Water Buffalo|publisher=Gibbon Books & The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India|location=Guwahati, India}}</ref> Leuwih ti 770 spésiés manuk enggeus kacutat hirup di Butan. Spésiés kaancem, [[meri jangjang bodas]], karak sababaraha taun ditambahkeun ka daptar manuk di Butan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2007|title=White-winged duck ''Cairina (=Asarcornis) scutulata'' and Blue-tailed Bee-eater ''Merops philippinus'': two new country records for Bhutan.|journal=Forktail|volume=23|pages=153–155}}</ref> ===Konsérvasi=== {{seealso|Masalah lingkungan di Butan}} {{utama|Daptar suaka alam di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption = [[Suaka alam di Bhutan]] dina warna ungu; [[Wildlife corridor|biological corridor]] dina warna héjo. |image-width=300 |width=300 |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan protected areas location map.png|300px default [[File:Bhutan protected areas location map.png]] desc none </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|63|57|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Dorji|Jigme Dorji]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|80|<small>''[[Suaka Alam Motithang Takin|Motithang]]''</small>}} {{Annotation|116|50|<small>[[Kebon Raya Pangélingan Wangchuck|Wangchuck]]</small>}} {{Annotation|220|65|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Bumdeling|Bumdeling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|90|<small>[[Taman Nasional Thrumshingla|Thrumshingla]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Khaling|Khaling]]</small>}} {{Annotation|20|100|<small>[[Suaka Alam Torsa|Torsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|115|110|<small>[[Taman Nasional Jigme Singye Wangchuck|Jigme Singye]]</small>}} {{Annotation|75|145|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Phibsoo|Phibsoo]]</small>}} {{Annotation|150|140|<small>[[Taman Nasional Karajaan Manas|Manas]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|100|<small>[[Suaka Margasatwa Sakteng|Sakteng]]</small>}} }} [[Himalaya]] Wétan kawanoh salaku titik puncak [[biodivérsitas]] sarta mangrupa salah sahiji ti 234 [[wewengkon ékologi]] istiméwa sadunya ti analisis [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] antara taun 1995 jeung 1997. Butan dianggep salaku modél inisiatif [[konsérvasi]]. Nagara ieu enggeus pernah narima pujian internasional ti usaha ngamumulé kaanékarupaan hayatina. Butan nangtukeun yén saeutikna 60% wewengkon daratna katutup ku [[leuweung]], kalawan 40%<ref name=BTF1>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan|title=Parks of Bhutan|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217080833/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan/ |date=2016-12-17 }}</ref><ref name=BTF2>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation|title=The Organisation|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329063448/http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation |date=2010-03-29 }}</ref> wewengkon nagarana pikeun taman nasional, suaka alam, jeung wewengkon tangtayungan lianna. [[File:DholeT.zoo.jpg|thumb|200px|Nepi ka taun 2010, [[pamangsa apéks]] Asia anu pangrawanna tina [[kapunahan]] nyaéta ''[[dhole]]''. Diperkirakeun kirang ti 2.500 ékor anu kasésa sadunya.]] Sanajan kaayaan alam Butan ralobana masih alus, pamaréntah ngumumkeun yén konsérvasi masih kénéh dipertimbangkeun sarta mangrupa salah sahiji tujuan nasional pikeun sababaraha taun jagana. Anceman pikeun kahirupan alam di Butan enggeus mimiti katingal, saperti tekenan pangeusi, modérenisasi tatanén, moro tanpa ijin, pawangunan PLTA, tambang, industrialisasi, urbanisasi, panataan limbah jeung runtah, pariwisata, papaséaan lemah pikeun pawangunan jalan sarta pangaruh infrastruktur sosial jeung ékonomi lianna. Dina kanyataanana, wates wewengkon tangtayungan jeung wewengkon pamukiman anu pacampur-campur ngarah kana masalah lian. Sasatoan kalindung asup ka lemah tatanén warga, ngaruksak tatangkalan jeung maéhan angon. Ku kituna, Butan nyieun hiji rancangan pawangunan pager alarm tanaga surya, munara panénjo, jeung lampu sorot, sarta nyadiakeun pangan sasatoan jeung tempat uyah di luar pamukiman warga sangkan sasatoan heunteu asup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/addressing-human-wildlife-conflict|title=Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict|first=Jigme|last=Wangchuk|publisher=[[Bhutan Observer]] online|date=2011-07-08|accessdate=2011-07-13}}</ref> Harga pasaran supa ''[[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]]'' anu dicandak ti alam nyababkeun pamangpaatan leuwih anu sesah diorganisasikeun.<ref>P.F. Cannon, N.L. Hywel-Jones, N. Maczey, L. Norbu, Tshitila, T. Samdup & P. Lhendup, ''Steps towards sustainable harvest of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Bhutan'' Biodivers. Conserv. 18: 2263-2281 (2009).</ref> == Ékonomi == [[File:10 Ngultrum Vorderseite.jpg|thumb|Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]].]] [[File:Tree map export 2009 Bhutan.jpeg|thumb|Babagian ékspor Butan.]] {{utama|Ékonomi Butan}} Mata uang Butan nyaéta [[Ngultrum]], nu peunteunna [[Ajén tukeur katangtu|disaruakeun]] jeung [[Rupee India]]. Rupee India ogé ditarima salaku [[alat tukeur sah]] di Butan. Sanajan ékonomi Butan mangrupa salah sahiji anu pangleutikna sadunya, ékonomi Butan enggues tumuwuh dina sababaraha taun ieu, 8% dina 2005 sarta 14% dina 2006. Taun 2007, ékonomi Butan mangrupa anu ka-2 panggancangna tumuwuhna sadunya, kalawan tingkat tumuwuh ékonomi taunan 22,4%. Kaayaan ieu disababkeun utamina ku proyék agung [[Proyék Pambangkit Listrik Tanaga Cai Tala|PLTA]] [[Tala, Butan|Tala]]. Nepi ka Maret 2006, [[pamasukan per kapita]] Butan nyaéta US$1,321. Ékonomi Butan utamina aya dina kagiatan [[tatanén di Butan|tatanén]], kaleuweungan, pariwisata, jeung panjualan [[tanaga hidroéléktrik]] ka India. Kagiatan tatanén mangrupa pagawéan utami ti leuwih ti 80 persén wargi Butan. Kagiatan [[agraris]]na utamina mangrupa [[tatanén subsistén]] jeung [[kaingonan]]. Karajinan leungeun, utaminan tinunan jeung banda kaagamaan, mangrupa [[industri désa]] leutik. Wewengkon anu robah-robah ti pasir jeung pagunungan nyababkeun pawangunan jalan jeung [[infrastruktur]] lianna sesah jeung awis. Hal ieu ditambah ku euweuhna aksés sagara nyababkeun Butan hésé miboga kauntungan signifikan ti padagangan banda produksina. Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél|karéta]], sanajan [[Indian Railways]] ngarencanakeun nyambungkeun wewengkon Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan karéta di India dina hiji pasatujuan anu ditandatanganan dina Januari 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050126/main5.htm |first=Rajeev |last=Sharma |title=MoUs with Bhutan on Rail Links, Power Projects |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date=2011-01-25 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Butan jeung India nandatanganan hiji pasatujuan 'dagang bébas' dina 2008, anu ngijinkeun impor jeung ékspor Butan ti jeung ka nagara lian tiasa transit di India tanpa [[béa cukai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm |title=MEMBER INFORMATION: India and the WTO |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) |accessdate=2009-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090422224717/http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/india_e.htm| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga hubungan padagangan jeung wewengkon [[Wewengkon Otonom Tibét|Tibét]] nepi ka taun 1960, nalika Butan nutup watesna jeung Cina sanggeus raloba pangungsi anu asup ka Butan.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |title=In Bhutan, China and India Collide |first=Mohan |last=Balaji |date=2008-01-12 |accessdate=2010-10-03 |publisher=[[Asia Times]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509184053/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |date=2008-05-09 }}</ref> Pamasukan leuwih ti [[Ngultrum|Nu]] 100.000 [[per taun]] dikeunakeun pajak, tapi ngan saeutik wajib pajak anu minuhan sarat éta. TInkgat inflasi Butan diperkirakeun aya dina tingkat 3% dina taun 2003. Butan miboga [[Produk Doméstik Bruto]] kira-kira [[dolar Amérika Sarikat|$AS]] 2,913 milyar <!-- (disaruakeun jeung [[Purchasing Power Parity]])-->. Pamasukan per kapita kira-kira $1.400,{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}}. Pamasukan pamaréntah totalna $272 yuta, sanajan pangaluaranna sagedé $350 yuta. 60 persén <!---CIA factbook|CIA-economy---> pangaluaran nagara, dibayar ku Kamentrian Luar Nagri India.<ref group=note>Kamentrian Luar Nagri India nyadiakeun pitulung kauangan ka nagara taanggana dina "gawé bareng sacara téhnis jeung ékonomi jeung nagara lianna sarta kamajuan pikeun pamaréntahan nagara luar."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |title=BUDGET |publisher=The Tribune (India) online |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Ékspor Butan, utamina tanaga listrik, [[kapulaga]], [[gips]], [[kai]], karajinan, semén, bubuahan, batu mulia, jeung [[rempah]], total [[Euro|€]]128 yuta (perk. 2000). Sanajan kitu, tingkat imporna nyaéta €164 yuta, ngarah kana [[défisit]]. Komoditas impor utama ngawengku [[béngsin]] jeung [[minyak bumi]], [[pangan]], [[mesin]], kandaraan, kaén, jeung [[béas]]. Mitra utama ékspor Butan's nyaéta India, ngawengku 58,6% ti total éksporna. [[Hong Kong]] (30,1%) jeung [[Bangladés]] (7,3%) nyaéta 2 mitra ékspor salajengna.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Ku sabab watesna jeung Tibét ditutup, padagangan antara Butan jeung Cina ayeuna méh euweuh. == Babagian administratif ==<!--Kahubugn jeung Citakan:Ngeunaan Butan--> {{utama|Distrik di Butan|Blok di Butan|Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009}} Butan dibagi kana 20 ''[[dzongkhag]]'' (distrik), diparéntah ku hiji lembaga anu disebut ''Dzongkhag Tshogdu''. Di sababaraha ''[[thromde]]'' (kalurahan), tingkat adiministrasi di handapeunana aya kahubung langusng jeung administrasi Dzongkhag. Kalobaanana daérah, ''[[gewog]]'' padésaan (blok désa) diparéntah ku hiji lembaha anu disebut ''Gewog Tshogde''.<ref name=LGA09>{{cite web |url=http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |format=PDF |title=Undang-Undang Pamaréntahan Lokal Butan 2009 |publisher=[[Pamaréntah Butan]] |date=2009-09-11 |accessdate=2011-01-20 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162642/http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}</ref> Thromde (kalurahan) milih ''Thrompon'' salaku pamingpin sarta wakil Thromde éta di Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Gewog ogé milih pamingpin anu disebut ''gup'', wakilna disebut ''mangmi'', anu ogé minangka wakil di Dzongkhag Thshogdu. Pikeun perkawis pamilihan umum, daérah pamilihan di Butan nyaéta ''[[chiwog]]'', babagian ti gewog anu ditangtukeun ku Komisi Pamilihan Umum.<ref name=LGA09/> {{Annotated image |caption = [[Distrik di Butan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |title=Delimitation |publisher=Komisi Pamilihan Umum, [[Pamaréntah Butan]] |year=2011 |accessdate=2011-07-31 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |archivedate=20 July 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |date=2011-07-20 }}</ref> |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=right |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Bhutan location map.svg|320px default [[File:Bhutan location map.svg]] desc none # </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|160|65|<small>[[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|63|145|<small>[[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|90|130|<small>[[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]]</small>}} {{Annotation|95|45|<small>[[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|110|<small>[[Distrik Haa|Haa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|200|55|<small>[[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|120|<small>[[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|50|82|<small>[[Distrik Paro|Paro]]</small>}} {{Annotation|215|135|<small>[[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pema-<br>gatshel]]</small>}} {{Annotation|87|73|<small>[[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|260|145|<small>[[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]]</small>}} {{Annotation|15|140|<small>[[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|135|155|<small>[[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|40|60|<small>[[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|250|110|<small>[[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|240|80|<small>[[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]]</small>}} {{Annotation|145|100|<small>[[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|125|140|<small>[[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|105|90|<small>[[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue<br>Phodrang]]</small>}} {{Annotation|160|130|<small>[[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]]</small>}} }} {{col|2}} # [[Distrik Bumthang|Bumthang]] # [[Distrik Chukha|Chukha]] (''Chhukha'') # [[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]] # [[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]] # [[Distrik Haa|Haa]] # [[Distrik Lhuntse|Lhuntse]] # [[Distrik Mongar|Mongar]] # [[Distrik Paro|Paro]] # [[Distrik Pemagatshel|Pemagatshel]] (''Pemagatsel'') # [[Distrik Punakha|Punakha]] # [[Distrik Samdrup Jongkhar|Samdrup Jongkhar]] # [[Distrik Samtse|Samtse]] (''Samchi'') # [[Distrik Sarpang|Sarpang]] (''Sarbhang'') # [[Distrik Thimphu|Thimphu]] # [[Distrik Trashigang|Trashigang]] (''Tashigang'') # [[Distrik Trashiyangtse|Trashiyangtse]] # [[Distrik Trongsa|Trongsa]] (''Tongsa'') # [[Distrik Tsirang|Tsirang]] (''Chirang'') # [[Distrik Wangdue Phodrang|Wangdue Phodrang]] (''Wangdi Phodrang'') # [[Distrik Zhemgang|Zhemgang]] (''Shemgang'') </div> == Dayeuh jeung kota == {{utama|Daptar kota di Butan}} * [[Thimphu]], ibu kota jeung kota panggedéna di Butan. * [[Damphu, Tsirang|Damphu]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Tsirang]]. * [[Jakar]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Bumthang]] sarta lokasi di mana Buddha asup ka Butan. * [[Mongar]], puseur padagangan di Butan beulah wétan. * [[Paro, Butan|Paro]], lokasi [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. * [[Phuentsholing]], puseur padagangan Butan. * [[Punakha]], ibu kota heubeul. * [[Samdrup Jongkhar]], kota wates jeung India. * [[Trashigang]], puseur administratif [[Distrik Trashigang]], distrik anu panglobana pangeusina di Butan. {{Largest cities of Bhutan}} == Démografi == {{Historical populations |type= |footnote= Source: <small>http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ Angka taun 2005 heunteu ngawengku pangeusi teu tetep jeung migran</small> |1969 |930614 |1980 |1165000 |1991 |1375400 |2005 |634982 }} [[File:Bhutanese people.jpg|thumb|left|Urang Butan keur maké pakéan nasional dina Parayaan Wangdi Phodrang.]] {{utama|Démografi Butan}} Urang Butan utamina disusun ku Urang [[Ngalop]] (Butan Kulon) jeung [[urang Sharchop|Sharchop]] (Butan Wétan). Urang [[Lhotshampa]] (urang kidul) nyaéta kelompok urang anu hétérogén kalawan komposisi utama urang katurunan [[Urang Nepal|Nepal]]. Urang Lhotshampa dianggep ngawasaan 45% total pangeusi Butan dina sénsus taun 1988<ref name="bns">http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116201719/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ |date=2011-11-16 }}</ref>. Dina awal jaman 1970-an, pernikahan campuran antawis Urang jeung and masarakat Butan utama dirojong ku pamaréntah. Tatapi dina ahir jaman 1980-an, pamaréntah Butan ngaluarkeun kira-kira 108.000 Urang Lhotshampa ti wewengkonna ka kémah-kémah pangungsian.<ref name="hrw.org"/> Tingkat [[beunta hurup]] di Butan nyaéta 59,5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |title=Report: Data Profile |publisher=World Bank |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080801053414/http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |archivedate=2008-08-01}}</ref> Butan miboga yuswa médian 24,8 taun.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html CIA World Factbook: Bhutan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }}</ref> Tingkat [[harepan hirup]] nyaéta 62,2 taun (61 lalaki, 64,5 awéwé). Rasio jenis kelamin nyaéta 1.070 lalaki per 1.000 awéwé.<!---CIA factbook|CIA-4---> ===Agama=== {{bar box |title=Agama di Butan |left1=agama |right1=perséntase |float=right |bars = {{bar percent|Buddha|gold|76}} {{bar percent|Hindu|purple|23}} {{bar percent|Lianna|black|1}} }} [[File:Takstan-monastery.jpg|thumb|''Taktshang Goemba'' di Butan, [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=27.491884,89.363544&spn=0.011706,0.026157&t=h&z=16&vpsrc=6&lci=com.panoramio.all aya dina gawir saluhur 900 méter]]] {{utama|Agama di Butan}} Diperkirakeun antawis dua per tilu jeung tilu per opat populasi Butan ngagem [[Buddha Vajrayana]], nu mangrupa [[agama nagara]]. Kirang leuwih saperopat nepi ka sapertilu populasi ngagem [[Hindu]]. Pangagem agama lian ngawengku kirang ti 1% populasi.<ref name=USDOS>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007–Bhutan|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=2007-09-14|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm|accessdate=2008-01-06| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080109063821/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm| archivedate= 9 Januari 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Aturan undang-undang anu ayeuna ngarojong kana [[kabébasan agama]]; tatapi [[proselytism]] dilarang ku hiji kawijakan pamaréntah<ref name=USDOS/> sarta tina interpretasi yudikatif [[Undang-Undang Dasar Butan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison|title=Pastor Sentenced to Three Years in Prison|work=Bhutan News Service|publisher=Bhutan News Service|date=2010-12-12|accessdate=2011-01-25}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216034352/http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison/ |date=2010-12-16 }}</ref> Agama Buddha dipikawanohkeun ka Butan dina abad ka-7 maséhi. Raja Tibét [[Songtsän Gampo]] (ngajabat 627–649), maréntahkeun diwangunna 2 wihara Buddha, di [[Bumthang (kota)|Bumthang]] Jampa Lhakhang di Butan bagian tengah jeung di Kyichu Lhakhang (di deukeut [[Paro, Butan|Paro]]) di [[Lebak Paro]].<ref name="CS1"/> ===Basa=== {{utama|Basa di Butan}} {{Annotated image |caption=[[Basa di Butan]] |image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=left |image-bg-color=#F4E2BA |imagemap=<imagemap> Image:Languages of Bhutan.svg|300px default [[File:Languages of Bhutan with labels.svg]] desc none # Dots and long names in small, Dzongkha in big </imagemap> |annotations= {{Annotation|50|65|'''[[Basa Dzongkha]]'''}} {{Annotation|149|73|<small>'''[[Basa Bumthang|Bumthang]]'''</small>}} {{Annotation|174|16|<small>[[Basa Kurtöp|Kurtöp]]</small>}} {{Annotation|204|42|<small>[[Basa Dzala|Dzala]]</small>}} {{Annotation|231|28|<small>[[Basa Khams Tibét|Khampa Tibét]]</small>}} {{Annotation|122|42|<small>[[Lakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|100|81|<small>[[Nyenkha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|136|91|<small>[['Olekha|'Olekha (Monpa)]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|56|<small>[[Basa Brokkat|Brokkat]]</small>}} {{Annotation|207|61|<small>[[Chocangacakha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|213|90|<small>[[Basa Chali|Chali]]</small>}} {{Annotation|222|80|<small>[[Basa Dakpa|Dakpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|275|75|<small>[[Basa Brokpa|Brokpa]]</small>}} {{Annotation|264|138|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|10|118|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|120|123|'''[[Basa Nepal|Nepal]]'''}} {{Annotation|53|113|<small>[[Basa Lepcha|Lepcha]]</small>}} {{Annotation|58|126|<small>[[Basa Lhokpu|Lhokpu]]</small>}} {{Annotation|165|111|<small>[[Basa Kheng|Kheng]]</small>}} {{Annotation|192|119|<small>[[Basa Gongduk|Gongduk]]</small>}} {{Annotation|228|100|<small>'''[[Basa Tshangla|Tshangla]]<br>[[Basa Tshangla|(Sharchopkha)]]'''</small>}} }} Basa resmi nagara nyaéta Basa Butan ([[Basa Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]), salah sahiji ti 53 basa di [[rungkun basa Tibét]]. Aksarana anu disebut ''Chhokey'', sarungkun jeung aksara Tibét klasik. Di sakola-sakola, Basa Inggris mangrupa basa panganteur pangatikan sedengkeun Dzongkha diajar salaku basa nasional. [[Ethnologue]] nulis 24 basa anu kiwari dipaké di Butan, sadayana mangrupa bagian tu [[rungkun basa Tibet-Burma]], iwal [[Basa Nepal]] anu asup kana [[rungkun basa Indo-Arya]]. Nepi ka taun 1980-an, pamaréntah ngarojong pangajaran Basa Nepal di sakola-sakola di Butan beulah kidul. Tapi, sanggeus karusuhan pakarang, Basa Nepal dikaluarkeun ti kurikulum. Saméméh 1980-an, [[Lhotshampa]] (masarakat panyatur Basa Nepal), utamina ngeusian Butan beulah kidul, ngawengku kira-kira 30% populasi Butan.<ref name=CIDCM>{{cite web |title=MAR {{!}} Data |2=Assessment for Lhotshampas in Bhutan |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |work=Database |publisher=Puseur Pamekaran Internasional jeung Manajemén Konflik [[Universitas Maryland]] |accessdate=2011-08-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622213816/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |date=2012-06-22 }}</ref> == Budaya == [[File:Bhutanese thanka of Mt. Meru and the Buddhist Universe.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Thanka]]'' [[Gunung Meru (mitos)|Gunung Meru]] jeung jagad Buddha (abad ka-19, [[Tongsa|Dzong Tongsa]], Tongsa, Butan).]] [[File:Bhutan-masked-dance.jpg|thumb|200px|''Chaam'', sacara taunan dipéntaskeun dina parayaan kaagamaan.]] {{utama|Budaya Butan}} Butan miboga loba budaya khas anu sacara umum masih asli lantaran isolasi Butan ti dunya luar nepi ka awal 1960-an. Tradisi Butan patali jeung pangaruh agama Buddha.<ref>Kharat, Rajesh. "Bhutan's Security Scenario." ''Contemporary South Asia'' 13.2 (2004): 171-185. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref><ref>Martin Regg, Cohn. "Lost horizon." ''Toronto Star'' (Canada) n.d.: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> [[Hindu]] mangrupa agama dominan anu kadua di Butan, utamina di pakidulan.<ref>Zurick, David. "Gross National Happiness And Environmental Status In Bhutan." ''Geographical Review'' 96.4 (2006): 657-681. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Désémber 2011.</ref> The government is incréasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. ku sabab kaayaan alam jeung warisan budayana anu saeutik kapangaruh ti luar, Butan disebut ogé salaku ''[[Shangri-la]] Pangahirna''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan|title=Bhutan – the Last Shangri La|publisher=PBS online|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> [[Sangu]], [[soba]], jeung [[jagong]] mangrupa kadaharan utama dina [[kulinér Butan]]. Kadaharan lianna aya ogé saperti daging [[daging babi]], [[daging sapi|sapi]], [[yak]], [[hayam]], jeung [[daging domba|domba]]. [[Produk susu]], saperti [[mantéga]] and kiju ti yak jeung [[sapi]], ogé populér. Inuman populér contona [[entéh mantéga]], [[entéh]], ''[[ara (inuman)|ara]]'', jeung [[bir]]. Butan mangrupa nagara kahiji di dunya anu ngalarang dijualna [[bako]] liwat [[Undang-Undang Pangadalian Bako Butan 2010|UU Bako 2010]].<ref name=LP/> [[Arsitéktur Butan]] mangrupa arsitéktur karuhun anu khas. Arsitéktur tradisionalna heunteu maké paku boh rangkay beusi dina ngajieunana.<ref name=LP/><ref>{{cite book|title=Earth Architecture |first=Ronald |last=Rael |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-56898-767-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BsLAeifqe4EC |page=92 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref name=bbc98>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm |title=Country profile – Bhutan: a land frozen in time |date=1998-02-09 |publisher=BBC News online |accessdate=2010-10-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101111083203/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm| archivedate= 11 Nopémber 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Salah sahiji wangunan cicirén Butan nyaéta wangunan bénténg anu disebut ''[[dzong]]''. Ti jaman kuna, dzong dipaké salaku puseur pamaréntahan jeung kaagamaan di wewengkonna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Amundsen |first=Ingun B |url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |format=PDF |title=On Bhutanese and Tibetan Dzongs |journal=Journal of Bhutan Studies |volume=5 |edition=Winter |year=2001 |pages=8–41 |accessdate=2011-10-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005194330/http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |date=2011-10-05 }} ([http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/ JBS])</ref> [[Universitas Texas El Paso]] ti Amérika Sarikat maké gaya arsitéktur Butan dina wangunan kampusna, kitu ogé ku sababaraha wangunan lian di kota [[El Paso]].<ref>{{cite web|work=UTEP Handbook of Operations |title=1.1 University History|url=http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289|publisher=University of Texas, El Paso|accessdate=2011-09-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110723225636/http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289| archivedate= 23 Juli 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Butan miboga [[poé peré di Butan|loba poé peré]], kalobaanana mangrupa parayaan tradisional usuman, sékulér, jeung kaagamaan. Di antarana saperti [[Dongzhi|titik balik panonpoé]] (kira-kira 1 Januari, dumasar [[kalénder bulan]]), Taun Anyar (kalénder bulan, Pébruari atanapi Maret), tepang taun Raja, sarta poé pangistrénana, ahir resmi usum [[muson]] (22 Séptémber), Poé Nasional (17 Désémber), sareng rupa-rupa parayaan Buddha jeung Hindu. [[Musik Butan]] sacara umum dibagi kana varian tradisional jeung modéren. Musik tradisional mangrupa musik kaagamaan jeung rahayat, saperti ''[[zhungdra]]'' jeung ''[[boedra]]''.<ref name=Greenwood>{{cite book|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |volume=2 |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |pages=106–110 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> Musik modéren saperti ''[[rigsar]]'' dimaénkeun ku alat musik campuran antara instrumén tradisional jeung organ listrik, nu tiasa ditulusuran balik ka jaman awal 1990-an. Musik ieu némbongkeun pangaruh ti musik populér India, hiji campuran ti musik tradisional jeung pangaruh musik populér Kulon.<ref name=k1>{{cite web|accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2420 |first=Ugyen |last=Penjor |title=From Ngesem Ngesem to Khu Khu Khu&nbsp;... Rigsar music woos local music fans |date=2003-01-19 |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |title=Rigsar Dranyen |work=RAOnline |date=2011-06-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717012409/http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |date=2012-07-17 }}</ref> Dina kulawarga Butan, warisan ilaharna dipasihan ka gurat katurunan awéwé ti batan ka lalaki. Budak awéwé bakal diwariskeun imah kolotna. Budak lalaki dipiharep sangkan tiasa nyieun kahirupanna sorangan sarta remenna pindah ka imah pamajikanana. [[Nikah ku bogoh]] ilahar di wewengkon kota, tapi tradisi [[perjodohan]] masih kénéh umum di wewengkon désa. Sanajan teu umum, [[poligami]] dianggep biasa, malah ogé sok janten cara pikeun ngajaga harta tetep dina kulawarga.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sikkim and Bhutan|publisher=Vikas Publications, Indian Council for Cultural Relations |first=V.H. |last=Coelho |year=1970 |accessdate=2011-09-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KD0KAQAAIAAJ |page=82}}</ref> Raja saméméhna, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], anu ngabdikasi taun 2006, miboga 4 prameswari, anu sadayana sadulur. Raja anu ayeuna, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], nikah jeung [[Jetsun Pema]], 21, masarakat biasa sarta putrina saurang pilot. == Olahraga == [[File:Bhutan archery.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Stadion Changlimithang]] keur dipaké pawai.]] Olahraga nasional Butan nyaéta [[panahan]], sarta pasanggiri dilaksanakeun sacara régulér ku raloba désa. Panahanna béda jeung standar [[cabang olimpiade|olimpiade]] saperti panempatan sasaran sarta kaayaan sakurilingna. 2 sasaran ditempatkeun kapisah 100 méter. Pamaén manah ti hiji ujung lapangan ka ujung lianna. Unggal pamaén dina hiji tim manah 2 panah per babak. Panahan tradisional Butan mangrupa acara masarakat sarta pasanggiri diatur antara désa, kota, jeung tim. Usaha pikeun ngaganggu musuh saperti nangtung di deukeutna sasaran atanapi moyokan pamanah. ''Khuru'' mangrupa olahraga lian anu ogé populér, di mana anak panah kai kalawan ujung mangrupa paku 10&nbsp;cm dialungkeun ka sasaran 10 nepi ka 20 méter jauhna. Olahraga tradisional lianna nyaéta ''[[Digor (olahraga)|Digor]]''. Olahraga lian saperti [[krikét]] miboga popularitas di Butan, utamina sanggeus dipikawanohkeunana saluran televisi ti India. [[Tim nasional krikét Butan]] mangrupa salah sahiji ti tim afiliasi anu suksés. Conto lianna di antarana [[maén bal]]. Taun 2002, tim nasional maén bal Butan maén ngalawan [[Montserrat]], nu disebut salaku [[Final nu Lian]]; pertandinganna dilaksanakeun dina poé anu sarua jeung pertandingan Brasil ngalawan Jérman dina [[Final Piala Dunya FIFA 2002|final Piala Dunya]]. Pertandingan éta dilaksanakeun di [[Stadion Changlimithang]] di Thimpu. == Atikan == Butan miboga hiji universitas kalawan 11 kampus konstituén anu kasebar sanagara, [[Universitas Karajaan Butan]]. == Patalimarga jeung Angkutan == {{utama|Angkutan di Butan}} ===Udara=== [[Gambar:Paro Airport.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]]. Bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan.]] [[Bandar Udara Internasional Paro]] nyaéta bandar udara internasional sahiji-hijina di Butan. Aya ogé bandar udara doméstik saperti [[Bandar Udara Yongphulla]] di [[Trashigang]] nu mimiti dirénovasi taun 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=13325 |title=Domestic Air Service to Take Wing Soon |first=Tshering |last=Palden |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-09-01 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Aya rancangan pikeun ngawangun sababaraha bandar udara doméstik deui di Butan saperti di [[Bathpalathang]], [[Distrik Bumthang]] jeung di [[Gelephu]], [[Distrik Sarpang]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=14069 |title=Two Domestic Airports by 2010 |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-11-26 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> ===Rél jeung karéta=== Butan heunteu miboga [[angkutan rél]]. Sanajan kitu, Butan enggeus nyieun hiji pasatujuan jeung India dina ngahubungkeun Butan beulah kidul jeung jaringan rél India kalawan ngawangun rél karéta {{convert|11|mi|0|adj=on}}, {{RailGauge|1676mm}} [[lébar jalur karéta India|trak India]], antara Hashimara di Benggala Kulon jeung Toribari di Butan. Konstruksi rél ngaliwatan Satali, Bharna Bari, jeung Dalsingpara dibayar ku India.<ref name="times2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6970997.ece |work=The Times |date=2009-12-30 |title=Isolated Buddhist kingdom of Bhutan to get its first railway link |first=Jeremy |last=Page |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd |accessdate=2011-06-10 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===Jalan=== [[Jalan Lateral]] mangrupa jalan utama nu ngahubungkeun Butan beulah wétan jeung kulon, nyambungkeun [[Phuentsholing]] di kidul-kulon ka [[Trashigang]] di wétan. Di antarana, Jalan Lateral ngaliwatan [[Wangdue Phodrang]], [[Trongsa]], sarta puseur pamukiman lianna. Jalan Lateral ogé miboga cabang ka [[Thimphu]] sarta kota utama lianna saperti [[Paro, Butan|Paro]] jeung [[Punakha]]. Jalan Lateral jeung jalan lianna di Butan miboga kualitas anu kirang ku lantaran kaayaan permukaannana, gawir, tikungan, cuaca, jeung longsor.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Sky and the Earth: A Journey into Bhutan|first=Jamie|last=Zeppa|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]]|year=2000|isbn=1-57322-815-X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=383rWqWgga8C}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=4775|title=Icy Roads Claim Lives|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2004-12-04|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=16502|title=Landslide at Dzong Viewpoint|first=Samten|last=Yeshi|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2010-08-24|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == {{portal|Géografi|Asia|Asia Kidul|Himalaya|SAARC|Butan}} * [[Ihtisar Butan]] * [[Asia Kidul]] * [[Thimpu]] {{clear}} == Cutatan == {{reflist|group=note}} {{clear}} == Rujukan== {{col|2}} {{reflist}} </div> ; Sitasi lianna * {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title=CIA — The World Factbook |work=cia.gov |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=2011-05-26 |accessdate=2011-06-22 |ref={{harvid|CIA—The World Factbook}} |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110623034614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |archivedate=23 June 2011 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228202246/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |date=2010-12-28 }} == Bacaan leuwih lajengna == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book |last=Osmani |first=Siddiqur R. |coauthors=Bajracharya, B.B.; Tenzing, S.; Wangyal, T. |title=Macroeconomics of Poverty Reduction: The Case Study of Bhutan |publisher=UNDP |year=2007 |edition=2 |location=Colombo |page=302 |url=http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |format=PDF |isbn=978-955-1416-00-3 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728143237/http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |date=2011-07-28 }} * {{cite book|last=Wangchhuk |first=Lily |title=Facts About Bhutan: The Land of the Thunder Dragon |publisher=Absolute Bhutan Books| year=2008 |location=Thimphu |isbn=99936-760-0-4}} * {{cite web |title=A Hidden and Mysterious Kingdom |work=Toplum Postasi |url=http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/9/col/85/art/1026/PageName/English |accessdate=2006-06-14 }} * {{cite news |title=A New Measure of Well-Being From a Happy Little Kingdom |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/04/science/04happ.html?ex=1129089600&en=de859301f49c121d&ei=5070&emc=eta1 |accessdate=2005-10-04 |first=Andrew C. |last=Revkin |date=2005-10-04 }} * {{cite web |title=Border tension pushes MEA allocation |work=The Tribune, Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050722073624/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |archivedate=22 July 2005 <!--DASHBot--> |deadurl=no }} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Bhutan |publisher=MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQ2kjMZ |archivedate=2009-10-31 |deadurl=yes }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028031131/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |date=2009-10-28 }} * {{cite web |title=Bhutan-China Relations |work=Bhutan News Online |url=http://www.bhutannewsonline.com/bhutan_china.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 }} * {{cite web |title=BTI 2008 — Bhutan Country Report |work= |location=Gütersloh |publisher=Bertelsmann Stiftung |year=2007 |url=http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |accessdate=2008-12-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224045249/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |date=2012-02-24 }}— [http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf PDF version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217110834/http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }} * {{cite book |author=A.P. Agarwala |title=Sikkim and Bhutan |publisher=Nest and Wings |year=2003 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xnw-2sU1KMoC |accessdate=2011-09-01 |isbn=81-7824-008-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Datta-Ray |first=Sunanda K. |authorlink=Sunanda K. Datta-Ray |title=Smash and Grab: The Annexation of Sikkim |publisher=Vikas |year=1984 |isbn=0-7069-2509-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCMuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 }} * {{cite book|author=Foning, A.R. |title=Lepcha, My Vanishing Tribe |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=81-207-0685-4}} * {{cite book|author=Rose, Leo |title=The Nepali Ethnic Community in the Northeast of the Subcontinent |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}} * {{cite book|author=Napoli, Lisa |title=Radio Shangri-La: What I Learned in Bhutan, the Happiest Kingdom on Earth |url=https://archive.org/details/radioshangrilawh0000napo |publisher=Crown |year=2011 |isbn=0-307-45302-2}} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar== {{Sister project links|voy=Bhutan}} * [http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ Bhutan.gov.bt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230224419/http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ |date=2005-12-30 }} - Portal resmi Pamaréntah Butan * {{CIA World Factbook link|bt|Bhutan}} * [http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html Bhutan Links] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410084644/http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html |date=2009-04-10 }} di [[Perpustakaan Nasional Butan]]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12480707 Bhutan profile], [[BBC News]]. * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bhutan.htm Bhutan] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * [http://www.bhutanrebirth.com/ Bhutan portal] di [[Bhutan Telecom]]. * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64215/Bhutan Bhutan], éntri ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. * {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Bhutan|Butan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Bhutan|Butan}} * [http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ Déwan Pariwisata Butan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041211095328/http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ |date=2004-12-11 }} {{Bhutan topics}} {{Countries and Territories of South Asia}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation}} {{Monarchies}} [[Kategori:Butan| ]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu dilingkung]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota Asosiasi Asia Kidul pikeun Sabilulungan Wewengkon]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Asia Kidul]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 1949]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] kdsijj0lsrdbaw4iysl5ax0t8h05r7h Téstostéron 0 33503 712430 711742 2026-08-28T23:20:34Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712430 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Téstostéron''' nyaéta [[hormon stéroid]] ti golongan [[androgén]] nu kapanggih di [[mamalia]], réptil<ref name="pmid16326949">{{cite journal | author = Cox RM, John-Alder HB | title = Testosterone has opposite effects on male growth in lizards (''Sceloporus'' spp.) with opposite patterns of sexual size dimorphism | journal = J. Exp. Biol. | volume = 208 | issue = Pt 24 | pages = 4679–87 | year = 2005 | month = Désémber | pmid = 16326949 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.01948 | url = | issn = }}</ref> birds,<ref name="pmid16671011">{{cite journal | author = Reed WL, Clark ME, Parker PG, Raouf SA, Arguedas N, Monk DS, Snajdr E, Nolan V, Ketterson ED | title = Physiological effects on demography: a long-term experimental study of testosterone's effects on fitness | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_2006-05_167_5/page/667 | journal = Am. Nat. | volume = 167 | issue = 5 | pages = 667–83 | year = 2006 | month = Méi | pmid = 16671011 | doi = 10.1086/503054 | laysummary = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083618.htm | laysource = ScienceDaily }}</ref>, jeung [[vertebrata]] lianna. Di mamalia, téstostéron utamana disékrési dina [[siki kanjut|téstis]] [[jalu]] jeung [[ovarium]] [[bikang]], sarta saeutik ti [[kelenjar adrénal]]. Ieu jat kaasup [[hormon]] séks utama pikeun jalu sarta kaasup [[stéroid anabolik]]. Pikeun lalaki, téstostéron téh minangka konci pikeun kamekaran jaringan réproduksi lalaki, kayaning téstis jeung prostat, sarta ngadorong ciri-ciri séksual sekundér sarupaning [[otot]] anu onjoy, massa [[tulang]], jeung tumuwuhna [[rambut|bulu]] awak<ref name="Mooradian_ 1987">{{cite journal | author = Mooradian AD, Morley JE, Korenman SG | title = Biological actions of androgens | journal = Endocr. Rev. | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–28 | year = 1987 | month = Pébruari | pmid = 3549275 | doi = 10.1210/edrv-8-1-1 | url = | issn = }}</ref>. Lian ti éta, téstostéron ogé ésénsial pikeun kawaluyaan awak<ref name="pmid19707253">{{cite journal | author = Bassil N, Alkaade S, Morley JE | title = The benefits and risks of testosterone replacement therapy: a review | journal = Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 427–48 | year = 2009 | month = Juni | pmid = 19707253 | pmc = 2701485 | doi = | url = | issn = }}</ref> jeung nyegah [[ostéoporosis]]<ref name="pmid19011293">{{cite journal | author = Tuck SP, Francis RM | title = Testosterone, bone and osteoporosis | journal = Front. Horm. Res. | volume = 37 | issue = | pages = 123–32 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19011293 | doi = 10.1159/000176049 | url = | issn = }}</ref>. Rata-rata, awak lalaki anu geus sawawa ngahasilkeun téstostéron sapuluh tikelna awak awéwé, tapi [[awéwé]] leuwih sénsitip ka ieu hormon<ref name="isbn0-07-135739-4">{{cite book | author = Dabbs M, Dabbs JM | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = Heroes, rogues, and lovers: testosterone and behavior | edition = | language = | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | origyear = | pages = | quote = | isbn = 0-07-135739-4 | oclc = | doi = | url =https://archive.org/details/heroesrogueslove0000dabb| accessdate = }}</ref>. Téstostéron dihasilkeun ku ampir sakabéh vertebrata. [[Lauk]] ngahasilkeun bentuk anu rada béda anu disebut [[11-ketotéstostéron]]<ref name="isbn0-87893-617-3">{{cite book | author = Nelson, Randy F. | authorlink = | editor = | others = | title = An introduction to behavioral endocrinology | edition = | language = | publisher = Sinauer Associates | location = Sunderland, Mass | year = 2005 | origyear = | pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe03ednels_k6g0/page/143 143] | quote = | isbn = 0-87893-617-3 | oclc = | doi = | url =https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe03ednels_k6g0| accessdate = }}</ref>, anapon [[serangga]] ngahasilkeun [[ékdison]]<ref name="De_Loof_2006">{{cite journal | last = De Loof A | title = Ecdysteroids: the overlooked sex steroids of insects? Males: the black box | journal = Insect Science | year = 2006 | month = Oktober | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 325–338 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2006.00101.x | first1 = Arnold}}</ref>. == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Androgén]] [[Kategori:Hormon téstis]] [[Kategori:Hormon ovarium]] [[Kategori:Stéroid anabolik]] [[Kategori:Hormon manusa]] [[Kategori:Téstostéron]] mjgvoevgvxaiczb3tw41aes62eni84m Fagosit 0 33606 712318 650376 2026-08-28T20:42:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Image:Neutrophil with anthrax copy.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mikroskop éléktron pindai|Mikrograf éléktron pindai]] hiji neutrofil keur '[[fagositosis|ngahakan]]' [[Bacillus anthracis|baksil antrax]] (oranyeu).]] '''Fagosit''' ([[basa Yunani|Yun.]]: ''phagein'', "dahar", jeung ''-cyte'', ahiran anu dina biologi nujul ka "sél"<ref name=ox>{{cite book| coauthors=Little, C., Fowler H.W., Coulson J.| title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary| publisher=Oxford University Press (Guild Publishing)| year=1983|pages=1566–67}}</ref>) nyaéta [[sél getih bodas]] anu ngajaga awak ku cara ngahakan ([[fagositosis]]) partikel asing anu dianggap pibahyaeun, [[baktéri]], jeung sél paéh atawa nu keur [[apoptosis|sakarat]]. Ieu sél penting kacida pikeun merangan inféksi katut [[imunitas (médis)|imunitasna]]<ref name=USC>{{cite web| last = Mayer| first = Gene|title=Immunology&nbsp;— Chapter One: Innate (non-specific) Immunity| work = Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook| publisher = USC School of Medicine| year = 2006|url=http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/ghaffar/innate.htm| accessdate = 12 Nopémber 2008}}</ref> pikeun sakabéh bangsa [[sato]]<ref name=Delves250>{{Harvnb|Delves|Martin|Burton|Roit|2006|p=250}}</ref> sarta geus mekar pisan dina vertebrata<ref>.{{Harvnb|Delves|Martin|Burton|Roit|2006|p=251}}</ref>. [[Léter|Saléter]] getih [[manusa]] ngandung nepi ka genep miliar fagosit<ref name=Hoff-values>{{Harvnb|Hoffbrand|Pettit|Moss|2005|p=331}}</ref>. Ieu sél munggaran dipikawanoh taun [[1882]] ku [[Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov]] nu keur nalungtik [[larva]] [[béntang laut]]<ref name= Ilya>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/mechnikov-bio.html Ilya Mechnikov], disalin 28 Nopémber 2008. Tina [http://nobelprize.org/nobelfoundation/publications/lectures/index.html Nobel Lectures], ''Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921'', Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822041214/http://nobelprize.org/nobelfoundation/publications/lectures/index.html |date=2008-08-22 }}</ref>. Pikeun papanggihanana, anjeunna dileler [[Hadiah Nobel widang Fisiologi atawa Kedokteran]] taun [[1908]]<ref name= Paul>{{cite journal|title=Ilya Ilich Metchnikoff (1845–1915) and Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915): the centennial of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|journal=Journal of medical biography|year=2008|first=FC|last=Schmalstieg|coauthors=AS Goldman|volume=16|issue=2|pages=96–103|pmid=18463079|url=http://jmb.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/16/2/96|ref=harv|doi=10.1258/jmb.2008.008006}}</ref>. Lian ti bangsa sato, fagosit ogé nyampak dina sababaraha spésiés; [[amuboid|amuba]] ogé aya nu polahna kawas fagosit makrofag, nu nuduhkeun yén sigana fagosit mucunghul dina mangsa awal évolusi mahluk hirup<ref name=amoebaphage>Janeway, Chapter: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=phagocytes,evolution&rid=imm.section.2367#2368 Evolution of the innate immune system.] tempo Bibliografi, dibuka 20 Maret 2009</ref>. Fagosit manusa jeung sato lianna disebut "profésional" atawa "teu-profésional" dumasar kana kamatihna nalika [[fagositosis]]<ref name=Ernst186>{{Harvnb|Ernst|Stendahl|2006|p=186}}</ref>. Anu profésional di antarana [[neutrofil]], [[monosit]], [[makrofag]], [[sél déndritik]], jeung [[sél mast]]<ref name=Rob>{{Harvnb|Robinson|Babcock|1998|p=187}} and {{Harvnb|Ernst|Stendahl|2006|pp=7–10}}</ref>. Anu ngabédakeunana nyaéta aya/henteuna [[molekul]] anu katelah [[reséptor (biokimia)|reséptor]] dina beungeut sélna anu bisa mikawanoh barang anu pibahyaeun, sarupaning baktéri anu sakuduna euweuh dina awak<ref name= something>{{Harvnb|Ernst|Stendahl|2006|p=10}}</ref>. Lian ti pikeun merangan inféksi, ieu sél ogé penting pikeun ngajaga sangkan jaringan angger walagri ku cara miceunan sél anu paéh atawa sakarat ku sabab geus waktuna paéh<ref name="pathogenesis">{{cite journal | author=Thompson, CB| title=Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-03-10_267_5203/page/1456| journal=Science| year=1995| volume=267| issue=5203| pages=1456–62| doi=10.1126/science.7878464| pmid=7878464 | ref=harv}}</ref>. Nalika inféksi, sinyal kimiawi ngirut fagosit ka tempat anu katarajang [[kuman|kuman/patogén]]. Sinyal kimiawi éta datangna bisa ti baktéri langsung atawa ti fagosit lianna anu keur merangan kuman. Fagosit ojah ku cara [[kémotaxis]]. Mangsa fagosit antel jeung baktéri, reséptor nu aya dina beungeutna bakal nali, anu diteruskeun ku ngasupkeun éta baktéri ka jero awak fagosit<ref name=money>Janeway, Chapter: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=migration&rid=imm.section.203#206 Induced innate responses to infection.] tempo Bibliografi, dibuka 20 Maret 2009</ref>. Sababaraha fagosit maéhan kuman nu geus 'diteureuy' maké [[spésiés oxigén réaktif|oxidan]] jeung [[oksida nitrat]]<ref name=pmid15378046>{{cite journal |author=Fang FC |title=Antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: concepts and controversies |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=820–32 |year=2004 |month=Oktober |pmid=15378046 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1004 |ref=harv}}</ref>. Sanggeus fagositosis, makrofag jeung sél déndritik bisa aub dina [[présentasi antigén]] nalika bahan-bahan anu asalna tina baktéri anu dihakan ditémbongkeun dina beungeut sélna pikeun dipikawanoh ku sél-sél sistem imun lianna. Sababaraha fagosit terus indit ka [[kelenjar limfe]] pikeun némbongkeun éta bahan asing ka sél getih bodas anu disebut [[limfosit]] anu penting pisan pikeun ngawangun imunitas<ref name=ATP>Janeway, Chapter: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=imm.chapter.553 Antigen Presentation to T Lymphocytes.] tempo Bibliografi, dibuka 20 Maret 2009</ref>. Najan kitu, kuman ogé ngalaman évolusi anu bisa nyingkahan atawa ngalawan panarajang fagosit<ref name=USC/>. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * {{MeshName|Phagocytes}} {{Commonscat|Phagocytes}} {{Getih}} {{Sistim imun}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Leukosit]] bfwlfz8cwwsym17jixg4vo0s7ys4pjg Kiribati 0 34863 712360 674272 2026-08-28T21:45:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712360 wikitext text/x-wiki :''Kadé kaliru jeung [[Kiritimati]], hiji pulo di [[kapuloan Line]] jeung bagian ti Kiribati'' {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Ribaberiki Kiribati''<br>Republic of Kiribati |conventional_long_name = Républik Kiribati |common_name = Kiribati |image_flag = Flag of Kiribati.svg |image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Kiribati.svg |image_map = Kiribati on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg |national_motto = Te Mauri, Te Raoi ao Te Tabomoa<br/>({{lang-en|Health, Peace and Prosperity}})<br><small>''Kaséhatan, Karapihan, jeung Kamakmuran''</small> |national_anthem = [[Teirake Kaini Kiribati]] |official_languages = [[basa Inggris]], [[basa Gilbert|Gilbert]] |demonym = I-Kiribati |capital = [[Tarawa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kiribatitourism.gov.ki/index.php/aboutkiribati/aboutkiribatioverview |title=Kiribati government website |publisher=Government of Kiribati |date= |accessdate=24 Jun. 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626072239/http://www.kiribatitourism.gov.ki/index.php/aboutkiribati/aboutkiribatioverview |date=2010-06-26 }}</ref> |latd=1 |latm=28 |latNS=N |longd=173 |longm=2 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Tarawa Kidul]] |government_type = [[Républik parleménter]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Kiribati|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Taneti Maamau]] |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Kiribati|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Teuea Toatu]] |area_rank = ka-186 |area_magnitude = 1 E9 |area = 811 |areami² = 313 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |percent_water = |population_estimate = 103.500 |population_estimate_year = 2010 |population_estimate_rank = ka-197 |population_census = 103.500 |population_census_year = 2010 |population_density = 135 |population_densitymi² = 350 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |population_density_rank = ka-73 |GDP_PPP = $618 yuta<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=826&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=59&pr.y=4|title=Kiribati|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=30 April 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111165801/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=826&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=59&pr.y=4 |date=11 January 2012 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6.209<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal = $147 yuta<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.479<ref name=imf2/> |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Britania Raya]] |established_date1 = 12 Juli 1979 |HDI = .515 |HDI_rank = <span style="color:gray;">teu karéngking</span> |HDI_year = 1998 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#fc0">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Dolar Kiribati]]<br>[[Dolar Australia]] |currency_code = AUD |country_code = |time_zone GMT+12 nepi ka +14 |utc_offset = +12, +13, +14 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = kénca |cctld = [[.ki]] |calling_code = 686 }} '''Kiribati''', resmina '''Républik Kiribati''', mangrupa hiji [[nagara kapuloan]] nu aya di [[Samudra Pasifik]] tengah. Populasi permanénna kirang leuwih 100.000 (2011),<ref name="IMF 2011">{{cite web|title= Kiribati: 2011 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report, Informational Annexes, Debt Sustainability Analysis, Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion, and Statement by the Executive Director for Kiribati|url= https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0|publisher= International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 11/113|date= 24 May 2011|accessdate= 4 Oct. 2011}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224064230/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 |date=24 December 2016 }}</ref> jeung diwangun ti [[Daptar pulo piboga Kiribati|32 atol]] <!-- 33 total, but minus banaba which is mentioned next--> jeung hiji pulo [[Atol karang mijil|karang mijil]], kasebar dina aréa leuwih ti 3,5&nbsp;yuta kilométer pasagi <!--spelled out per WP:MOSNUM -->(1.351.000&nbsp;mil&nbsp;pasagi). Ngaran ''Kiribati'' mangrupa palapalan lokal ti "Gilberts", dicokot ti ranté pulo utama, [[kapuloan Gilbert]]. [[Tarawa Kidul]] miboga sababaraha ''islet'' (pulo leutik) nu disambung ku rawayan ranca, aya dina kapuloan [[Tarawa]]. Kiribati merdika ti [[Britania Raya]] dina 1979. Nagara ieu mangrupa anggota [[Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]], [[Dana Monetér Internasional|IMF]], jeung [[Bank Dunya]], jeung jadi anggota pinuh [[Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] ti 1999. ==Grup kapuloan== {{utama|Distrik-distrik Kiribati}} Kiribati resmina dibagi kana distrik nepi ka kamerdikaanna. Nagara ieu ayeuna dibagi kana tilu grup kapuloan nu teu boga kagunaan administratif, kaasup hiji grup nu ngahijikeun Kapuloan Line jeung Kapuloan Phoenix (kamentrian di London, Christmas). Masing-masing pulo nu didumukan miboga déwanna sosorangan (tilu déwan di Tarawa: [[Betio]], Tarawa Kidul, Tarawa Kalér; dua déwan di [[Tabiteuea]]). Distrik aslina baheula nyaéta: * [[Pulo Banaba|Banaba]] * [[Atol Tarawa]] * [[Kapuloan Gilbert Kalér]] * [[Pulo Gilbert Tengah]] * [[Kapuloan Gilbert Kidul]] * [[Kapuloan Line]] Grup kapuloan ngawengku: * [[Kapuloan Gilbert]] * [[Kapuloan Phoenix]], [[cagar laut]] nu panggedéna kadua di dunya <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSP231103 |title=Reuters |publisher=Reuters |date=14 February 2008 |accessdate=14 May 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016123013/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSP231103 |date=16 October 2017 }}</ref><ref> {{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Christine |year=2009 |month=2 |title=First Wave |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science-news-us_2009-02-28_175_5/page/25 |journal=Science News |volume=175 |issue=5 |pages=25–29 |accessdate=29 Mar. 2009 |doi=10.1002/scin.2009.5591750125 }}</ref> ti diwangunna [[Kapuloan Chagos]] salaku hiji cagar laut. * [[Kapuloan Line]] Opat urut distrik (kaasup Tarawa) aya dina [[Kapuloan Gilbert]], nu mana kalobaannana warga tinggal. Lima pulo di [[Kapuloan Line]] teu didumukan ([[Pulo Malden]], [[Pulo Starbuck]], [[Pulo Caroline]], [[Pulo Vostok]], jeung [[Pulo Flint]]). [[Kapuloan Phoenix]] teu didumukan iwal [[Pulo Kanton]], jeung teu boga pawakilan. Pulo Banaba sorangan ayeuna didumukan, tapi jarang. Aya ogé hiji pawakilan non-pamilu ti Banaba di [[Pulo Rabi]] di Fiji. Masing-masing 21 pulo nu didumukan miboga hiji déwan lokal nu ngurus perkawis sapopoé. [[Atol Tarawa]] miboga tilu déwan: Déwan Kota Betio, Déwan Kota Te Inainano (pikeun [[Tarawa Kidul]]) jeung Déwan Eutan Tarawa (pikeun Tarawa Kalér). ==Bacaan salajengna== * ''Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu'', ku Barrie Macdonald, Institute of Pacific Studies, [[Universitas Pasifik Kidul]], Suva, Fiji, 2001. ISBN 982-02-0335-X ([[Universitas Nasional Australia|Australian National University]] Press, kahiji medal 1982) * ''A Pattern of Islands'' ku Sir Arthur Grimble, John Murray & Co, London, 1952; dipedalkeun deui dina 2011 ku Eland, London, ISBN 978-1906011-45-1 * ''Return to the Islands'' ku Sir Arthur Grimble, John Murray & Co, London, 1957 * ''The Sex Lives of Cannibals'' ku J. Maarten Troost, Broadway, 2004, ISBN 0767915305 ISBN 978-0767915304 * ''Kiribati existe'' Pp.&nbsp;29–43; y ''De Abemama a Madrid'' Pp.&nbsp;43–54 en ''Son los mares del Sur'', ku Luis Pancorbo: Maeva, Madrid, 1997, ISBN 84-86478-60-X * ''Lonely Planet Guide: South Pacific & Micronesia'' ku rupa-rupa ==Tempo ogé== *[[Komunikasi di Kiribati]] *[[Asosiasi Pramuka Kiribati]] *[[Konferénsi Parobahan Iklim Tarawa]] *[[Transportasi di Kiribati]] ==Réferénsi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{SisterLinks}} * [http://www.kiribatitourism.gov.ki/ Biro Nasional Pariwisata Nasional] * [http://www.parliament.gov.ki/ Parlemén Kiribati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706182920/http://www.parliament.gov.ki/ |date=2011-07-06 }} * [http://www.climate.gov.ki/ Portal Parobahan Iklim Nasional Kiribati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202030155/http://www.climate.gov.ki/tarawa_climate_change_conference.html |date=2012-02-02 }} ; Informasi umum *{{CIA World Factbook link|kr|Kiribati}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/kiribati.htm Kiribati] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Oceania/Kiribati|Kiribati}} * {{wikiatlas|Kiribati}} * {{wikivoyage|Kiribati}} * [http://www.phoenixislands.org Aréa Kalindung Kapuloan Phoenix] {{Kiribati}}<br> {{Nagara di Oséania}}<br> {{Austronesian-speaking}}<br> {{Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa}} [[Kategori:Kiribati| ]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon pamaké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Mikronésia]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Oséania]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1979]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Kiribati}} li8arkb5zbhk7otpdtjnqzq0pa2uikj Kanada 0 36652 712408 703667 2026-08-28T22:53:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = Canada |conventional_long_name = Kanada |common_name = Canada |image_flag = Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg |image_coat = Royal Coat of arms of Canada.svg |national_motto = ''[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]'' |national_anthem = "[[O Canada]]" |royal_anthem = "[[God Save the King]]"<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/godsave-eng.cfm| author=[[Department of Canadian Heritage]]| title=Royal anthem 'God Save The Queen'| publisher=Queen's Printer| accessdate=2011-05-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504164202/http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/godsave-eng.cfm |date=2010-05-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| last=Kallmann| first=Helmut| work=Encyclopedia of Music in Canada| title=National and royal anthems| editor=Marsh, James Harley| publisher=Historica-Dominion| url=http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002533| accessdate=2011-05-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010193142/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002533 |date=2011-10-10 }}</ref> |image_map = Canada (orthographic projection).svg |alt_map = Kanada (héjo) dina Amérika Kalér |map_width = 220px |capital = [[Ottawa]] |latd = 45 |latm=24 |latNS=N |longd=75 |longm=40 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Toronto]] |official_languages = [[Basa Inggris Kanada|Basa Inggris]] jeung [[Basa Perancis Kanada|Perancis]] |regional_languages = [[Basa Chipewyan|Chipewyan]], [[Basa Cree|Cree]], [[Basa Gwich’in|Gwich’in]], [[Inuinnaqtun]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Inuvialuktun]], [[basa Slavey|Slavey (Kalér jeung Kidul)]] sarta {{nowrap|[[Basa Dogrib|Tłįchǫ]]}}<ref>{{cite book|page=4|url=http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_act.pdf|title=Official Languages Act|first=Government of the NWT|last=|publisher=Territorial Printer|year=2004|isbn=|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110809180703/http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_act.pdf|archivedate=2011-08-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809180703/http://www.nwtlanguagescommissioner.ca/pdf/Official_Languages_act.pdf |date=2011-08-09 }}</ref> |demonym = [[Urang Kanada|Canadian]] |government_type = [[sistim parleméntér|Démokrasi parlemétér]] [[Féderalisme|féderal]] jeung [[monarki konstitusional]]<ref name=hail>{{cite journal|last=Hail|first=M|coauthors=Lange, S|title=Federalism and Representation in the Theory of the Founding Fathers: A Comparative Study of US and Canadian Constitutional Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publius_summer-2010_40_3/page/366|journal=Publius: the Journal of Federalism|date=February 25, 2010|volume=40|issue=3|pages=366–388|doi=10.1093/publius/pjq001}}</ref> |leader_title1 = [[Monarki Kanada|Raja/Ratu]] |leader_name1 = [[Charles III]] |leader_title2 = [[Gubernur Jéndral Kanada|Gubernur Jéndral]] |leader_name2 = [[Mary Simon]] |leader_title3 = [[Perdana Mentri anada|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name3 = [[Mark Carney]] |legislature = [[Parlemén Kanada|Parlemén]] |upper_house = [[Sénat Kanada|Sénat]] |lower_house = [[Majelis Handap Kanada|Majelis Handap]] |sovereignty_type = [[Konféderasi Kanada|Ngadeg]] |established_event1 = [[Undang-Undang Amérika Kalér Britania]] |established_date1 = 1 Juli 1867 |established_event2 = [[Statuta Westminster 1931|Statuta Westminster]] |established_date2 = 11 Désémber 1931 |established_event3 = [[Undang-Undang Kanada 1982|Undang-Undang Kanada]] |established_date3 = 17 April 1982 |area = 9.984.670 |areami² = 3.854.085 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = ka-2 |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |percent_water = 8,92 (891.163&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>/344.080&nbsp;mi<sup>2</sup>) <!-- |population_estimate = {{formatnum:{{CanPopCommas}} }}<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/pop/pop-h-clock-eng.htm |title = Canada's population clock |publisher = Statistics Canada (this automatically updates ONCE per day at 00:00 UTC & rounds to nearest hundred—Please do not change formula without discussing on talk page) |accessdate={{CURRENTYEAR}}–{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY}} }} </ref> |population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}} |population_estimate_rank = ka-38 --> |population_census = 35.151.728<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |title=Population size and growth in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census |date=2016-02-08 |publisher=The Daily |accessdate=2018-01-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210133245/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |date=2017-02-10 }}</ref> |population_census_year = 2016 |population_density = 3,98 |population_densitymi² = 10,2 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = ka-228 |GDP_PPP_year = 2011 |GDP_PPP = $1,391 triliun<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=94&pr1.y=17|title=Canada|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2011-11-05}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111054844/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=94&pr1.y=17 |date=2012-01-11 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-14 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $40.457<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-15 |GDP_nominal = $1,758 triliun<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-11 |GDP_nominal_year = 2011 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $51.147<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-10 |HDI_year = 2011 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,908<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=2011-11-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111152313/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |date=2011-11-11 }}</ref> |HDI_rank = ka-6 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#090;">luhur&nbsp;pisan</span> |Gini = 32,1<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html|title=Distribution of family income – Gini index|work=World Factbook|publisher=CIA|accessdate=2009-09-01}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090513124910/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |date=2009-05-13 }}</ref> |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |Gini_year = 2005 |currency = [[Dolar Kanada]] ($) |currency_code = CAD |time_zone = |utc_offset = −3,5 nepi ka −8 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = −2,5 nepi ka −7 |date_format = kk-bb-tttt, bb-kk-tttt, ''jeung'' tttt-bb-kk ([[Common Era|CE]]) |drives_on = Katuhu |cctld = [[.ca]] |calling_code = [[Nomer telepond di Kanada|+1]] |footnotes = <big>'''[[Portal:Canada|Portal Kanada]]'''</big> }} '''Kanada''' ({{lang-en|Canada}}) nyaéta hiji nagara di bagian kalér [[Amérika Kalér]] nu ngawengku [[Propinsi jeung téritori Kanada|10 propinsi jeung 3 téritori]]. Nagara ieu ngampar ti basisir [[Samudra Atlantik]] di wétan nepi ka basisir [[Samudra Pasifik]] di kulon, sarta ka kalér ka [[Samudra Arktik]], kalawan lega leuwih ti 9,9 juta kilométer pasagi.[[Wates Kanada – Amérika Sarikat|Wates daratna]] jeung [[Amérika Sarikat]] mangrupa wates darat nu pangpanjangna di dunya. == Humber College == Hiji lembaga umum anu diakrésikeun ku Dinas Pendidikan Kota Ontario. Ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji akademi anu panggedéna di Kanada, hiji lembaga inovatif anu ngarah kana atikan politéknik sareng atikan pascasarjana di Kanada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://infostudy-canada.com/humber-college|title=Humber College|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|accessdate=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226032933/http://infostudy-canada.com/humber-college |date=2020-02-26 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar nagara]] *[[Daptar inohong Kanada]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{utama|Bibliograpi Kanada}} <!-- Please use the following templates when adding references: * {{cite book |first = | last = |authorlink = |title = |edition = |publisher = |year = |isbn= |id= }} * {{cite journal |first = | last = |authorlink = |coauthors = |year = |month = |title = '''Required''' |journal = |volume = |issue = |pages = |doi = |id = |url = |accessdate = }} --> {{refbegin}} ; Sajarah * {{Cite book |title = A brief history of Canada |first = Roger E |last = Riendeau |publisher = Facts on File |year = 2007 |edition = 2nd |isbn = 9780816063352 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PP1 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025212639/http://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PP1 |date=2011-10-25 }} * {{Cite book |title = Journeys: A History of Canada |first1 = RD |last1 = Francis |first2 = Richard |last2 = Jones |first3 = Donald B |last3 = Smith |publisher = Nelson Education |year = 2009 |isbn = 9780176442446 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1 }} * {{cite book |last = Taylor |first = Martin Brook|coauthor= Owram, Doug|year = 1994|title =Canadian History|volume=1 & 2|publisher= University of Toronto Press}} ISBN 0-8020-5016-6, ISBN 0-8020-2801-2 ; Géography and climate * {{Cite book |title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas |editor = Stanford, Quentin H |edition = 6th |publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada) |isbn = 0195429281 |year = 2008 }} ; Pamaréntah jeung hukum * {{cite book |last =Malcolmson |first =Patrick |edition =4th |coauthor =Myers, Richard |year =2009 |title =The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher =University of Toronto Press |isbn =9781442600478 }} * {{cite book |last =Morton |first =Frederick Lee |coauthor = |year =2002 |title =Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |publisher =Frederick Lee |isbn =1552380467 }} ; Hubungan luar nagri jeung militér * {{cite book|last=Granatstein|first=JL|title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=z7E-j1UWuOMC&pg=PP1|year=2011|edition=2nd|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-1178-8}} ; Ékonomi * {{cite book|work=Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económicos|year=2010|title=Canada 2010|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tvLuZ2iQAqkC|publisher=OECD economic surveys|isbn=9789264083257}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025205406/http://books.google.com/books?id=tvLuZ2iQAqkC |date=2011-10-25 }} ; Demografi jeung statistik * {{Cite book |last = Statistics Canada |title = Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 |publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |year = 2008 |url = http://www65.statcan.gc.ca/acyb_r000-eng.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212162156/http://www65.statcan.gc.ca/acyb_r000-eng.htm |date=2016-02-12 }} * {{Cite book |last = Statistics Canada |title = Canada Year Book |publisher = Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |date = October 27, 2010 |id = Catalogue no 11-402-XPE |url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192951/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm |date=March 3, 2016 }} ; Budaya * {{cite book |first =Paul R |last =Magocsi |title =Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples |publisher =Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press |year =1999 |isbn =0802029388 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC }} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks|Canada}} * [http://www.gc.ca/ Loka resmi Pamaréntah Kanada] * [http://www.gg.ca/ Loka resmi Gubernur Jéndral Kanada] * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada di UCB Libraries GovPubs] * {{dmoz|Regional/North_America/Canada|Kanada}} * [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada] {{La Francophonie}} {{Countries of North America}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{G8+5}} {{NATO}} [[Kategori:Kanada| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Pasifik]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu wawatesan jeung Samudra Arktik]] [[Kategori:Monarki konstitusional]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Nagara féderal]] [[Kategori:Urut jajahan Britania]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara G8]] [[Kategori:Nagara G20]] [[Kategori:Démokrasi liberal]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota NATO]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Amérika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1867]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Kanada}} d3lwqgntjroc5xokeyjvzg1nlfbgte0 Organisasi keur Palarangan Pakarang Kimia 0 37595 712386 663034 2026-08-28T22:20:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox Organization |name = Organisasi keur<br>Palarangan Pakarang Kimia<br>''Organisation for the<br/>Prohibition of Chemical Weapons'' |image = Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons HQ in The Hague 2007.jpg |caption = Markas OPCW di [[Dén Hag]] |image = |caption = |size = |map = CWC Participation.svg |mcaption = Anggota OPCW (héjo) |headquarters = [[Dén Hag]], [[Walanda]]<br>{{Coord|52.091241|N|4.283193|E|type:landmark|display=inline,title}} |membership = 188 [[Daptar faksi Konvénsi Pakarang Kimia|nagara anggota]]<small><br>Sadaya nagara nu bagian ti [[Konvénsi Pakarang Kimia|CWC]] sacara otomatis jadi anggota.<br>7 nagara sanés anggota: Angola, Burma, Mesir, Israél, Koréa Kalér, Somalia, jeung Syria.</small> |language_title=Basa resmi |language = Basa Inggris, Perancis, Rusia, Cina, Spanyol, Arab |leader_title = [[Diréktur Jéndral]] |leader_name = [[Ahmet Üzümcü]]<ref>{{cite news|language=Basa Inggris|title=OPCW Chooses New Director-General|work=Arms Control Association|url=http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2009_11/OPCW|author=Oliver Meier and Daniel Horner|date=November 2009}}</ref> |leader_title2 = Badan resmi |leader_name2 = Konferénsi Nagara<br/>Déwan Éksekutif<br />Sékrétariat Téhnis |formation = 29 April [[1997]] |num_staff = kira-kira 500<ref name=NTI1/> |budget = €74 yuta <ref name=NTI1/> |website = [http://www.opcw.org/ opcw.org] }} '''Organisasi keur Palarangan Pakarang Kimia''' ({{lang-en|Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons}}; OPCW) nyaéta hiji [[organisasi antarpamaréntah]], markasna aya di [[Dén Hag]], [[Walanda]]. Organisasi ieu majukeun sarta mariksaan kataatan kana [[Konvénsi Pakarang Kimia]] nu ngalarang pamakéan [[pakarang kimia]] sarta méntaan pangancurannana. ==Markas== [[File:Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons HQ in The Hague 2007.jpg|thumb|Markas OPCW|right]] Dén Hag dipilih salaku lokasi markas oragnisasi ieu sanggeus lobi ti pamaréntah Walanda, ngalawan [[Wina]] jeung [[Jénéwa]].<ref>{{cite web|language=Inggris|url=http://www.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/An-Expats-View-Peter-Kaiser.htm|publisher=city of [[Dén Hag|The Hague]]|title=An Expat's View: Peter Kaiser|date=8 October 2009|accessdate=1 November 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928144246/http://www.denhaag.nl/en/residents/to/An-Expats-View-Peter-Kaiser.htm |date=28 September 2011 }}</ref> Markasna sacara resmi dibuka ku [[Ratu Beatrix]] ti Walanda dina 20 Méi 1998<ref>{{cite web|language=Inggris|url=http://www.opcw.org/file/file/hm_queen_beatrix_of_the_netherlands_opens_the_purpose_built_opcw_building/|title=HM Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands opens the purpose-built OPCW building.|accessdate=1 November 2010|publisher=OPCW}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921113109/http://www.opcw.org/file/file/hm_queen_beatrix_of_the_netherlands_opens_the_purpose_built_opcw_building/ |date=21 September 2011 }}</ref>. == Pupuhu == Organisasi ieu diluluguan ku Diréktur Jéndral, nu mana ditunjuk langsung ku konferénsi. {|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%" |- !|Nagara !Nami !Mimiti ngajabat |- |{{flag|Brasil}} |[[Jose Bustani|José Bustani]] |13 Méi 1997<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bustani v. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_2004-10_98_4/page/810|author=A Stanič|jstor=3216704|work=[[The American Journal of International Law]]|language=Inggris|volume=98|issue=4|page=810|year=2004}}</ref> |- |{{flag|Argéntina}} |[[Rogelio Pfirter]] |25 Juli 2002<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clingendael.nl/events/20080916/|title=Speech of dr. Rogelio Pfirter, Director-General of the OPCW 16 September 2008|language=Inggris|work=Netherlands Institute for International Relations|accessdate=24 April 2011|date=22 September 2008}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020641/http://www.clingendael.nl/events/20080916/ |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> |- |{{flag|Turki}} |[[Ahmet Üzümcü]] |25 Juli 2010<ref name=NTI1>{{cite web|language=Inggris|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/opcw.pdf|work=Center for Non-Proliferation Studies|title=OPCW|publisher=NTI|date=17 March 2011|accessdate=24 April 2011}}</ref> |} ==Tingali ogé== {{portal|Walanda}} *[[Konvémsi Pakarang Kimia]] * [[Nagara anggota Organisasi keur Palarangan Pakarang Kimia]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.opcw.org opcw.org] {{United Nations}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Organisasi Keur Palarangan Pakarang Kimia}} [[Kategori:Organisasi keur Palarangan Pakarang Kimia| ]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-20 dina hukum]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-21 dina hukum]] [[Kategori:Démilitérisasi pakarang kimia]] [[Kategori:Organisasi internasional multi-région]] [[Kategori:Organisasi antarpamaréntah]] [[Kategori:Organisasi internasional nu ngadeg dumasar pajangjian]] [[Kategori:Organisasi nu ngadeg taun 1997]] [[Kategori:Organisasi nu markasna di Dén Hag]] {{organisasi-stub}} pp79hmhp6gusqvdgc9lpdlwhtmrhsiv Kakaisaran Rusia 0 37755 712397 711767 2026-08-28T22:34:19Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country |native_name=Россійская Имперія <small> ([[Basa Rusia]] [[réformasi ortografi basa Rusia|Pra-réformasi]])</small><br> Российская Империя <small> ([[Basa Rusia|ru]]-[[aksara Kiril|Kiril]])</small><br>''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'' <small>([[romanisasi basa Rusia|alih aksr]])</small> |conventional_long_name=Kakaisaran Rusia |common_name=Russia | |continent = Éropa |status = Kakaisaran |government_type = [[Monarki absolut]] ku [[kabeneran ilahi raja|kabeneran ilahi]] | |year_start = 1721 |year_end = 1917 | |event_pre = [[Peter nu Ageung|Peter I]] mangku tahta |date_pre = {{OldStyleDate|7 Méi|1682|27 April¹}} |event_start = Kakaisaran dinyatakeun |date_start = {{OldStyleDate|22 Oktober|1721|11 Oktober}} |event1 = [[révolusi Désémber]] |date_event1 = {{OldStyleDate|26 Désémber|1825|14 Désémber}} |event2 = [[réformasi émansipasi 1861|Panghupusan féodalisme]] |date_event2 = {{OldStyleDate|3 Maret|1861|19 Pébruari}} |event3 = [[Révolusi Rusia 1905|Révolusi 1905]] |date_event3 = Januari–Désémber 1905 |event4 = [[konstitusi Rusia 1906|Konstitusi]] |date_event4 = {{OldStyleDate|23 April|1906|6 Méi}} |event_end = Révolusi Pébruari |date_end = {{OldStyleDate|15 Maret|1917|2 Maret}} |event_post = Révolusi Oktober |date_post = {{OldStyleDate|7 Nopémber|1917|25 Oktober}} | |p1 = Katsaran Rusia |flag_p1 = Flag of Russia.svg<!-- per precedent with Austria-Hungary article, civil ensign is posted. It's used on civil and trade ships, even more than military naval flag and leader's flag. --> |s1 = Républik Rusia |flag_s1 = Flag of Russia.svg <!-- |s2 = Uni Soviét |flag_s2 = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg --> | |s3 = Ober Ost |flag_s3 = Flag of Germany (1867–1919).svg |s4 = Préféktur Karafuto |flag_s4 = Flag of Japan.svg |s5 = Departemén Alaska |flag_s5 = Flag of the United States.svg |s6 = Républik Gugunungan Kaukasus Kalér{{!}}Kaukasus Kalér |flag_s6 = Flag of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus.svg |image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg |flag_type = Bandéra | |image_coat = Lesser Coat of Arms of Russian Empire.svg |symbol = Lambang Kakaisaran Rusia |symbol_type = Lambang| |image_map = Russian Empire (1867).svg |image_map_caption = Peta Kakaisaran Rusia{{#tag:ref|Sanggeus 1866, Alaska dijual ka Amérika Sarikat sarta Sakhalin kidul direbut Jepang, tapi Batum, Kars, Pamir, jeung wewengkon Transkaspia (Turkménistan) dipibanda.|group=n}} Héjo kolot nunjunggkeun kakawasaan maksimum Kakaisaran Rusia. Héjo ngora némbongkeun pangaruh. | |capital = [[St. Petersburg]]<br/><small>(1721–1728)</small> <br>Moskwa<br/><small>(1728–1730)</small> <br/> [[St. Petersburg]]<br/><small>(1730–1918; from 1914 [[Petrograd]])</small> |latd=59 |latm=56 |latNS=N |longd=30 |longm=20 |longEW=E | |national_motto = ''Съ нами Богъ!'' ([[Basa Rusia]] [[Réformasi ortografi Rusia|Pra-réformasi]]) <br/><small>"Gusti nyarengan urang!"</small> |national_anthem = ''Euweuh''<br />'''[[Lagu kabangsaan kakaisaran]]'''<br />''[[Боже, Царя храни!]]''<br/><small>(1833)</small><center>[[File:Bozhe, tsarya khrani!.ogg]]</center> |common_languages = Basa resmi: [[Basa Rusia]]<br />Basa wewengkon nu diakuan:<br />Basa [[Basa Finlandia|Finlandia]], [[basa Swédia|Swédia]], [[basa Polandia|Polandia]], Jérman, Romania<br />Basa kadua:<br />Basa Perancis |religion = Agama resmi:<br />[[Garéja Ortodoks Rusia|Ortodoks Rusia]]<br />Agama minoritas:<br />Yahudi, Katolik Roma, Protéstan, [[Kapercayaan kuna]], [[Islam]], [[Budha]], [[Paganisme]]<!--Kalér Jauh, Wétan Jauh--> |currency = [[Ruble Rusia|Ruble]] | |title_leader = [[Kaisar Rusia|Kaisar]] |leader1 = [[Peter nu ageung|Peter I]] (munggaran) |year_leader1 = 1721–1725 |leader2 = [[Nicholas II ti Rusia|Nicholas II]] (pangahirna) |year_leader2 = 1894–1917 |title_deputy = [[Pupuhu Déwan Para Mentri Rusia|Pupuhu Déwan Para Mentri]] |deputy1 = [[Sergei Witte]] (munggaran) |year_deputy1 = 1905–1906 |deputy2 = [[Nikolai Golitsyn]] (pangahirna) |year_deputy2 = 1917 | |legislature = [[Sénat Pamaréntahan]] |house1 = [[Déwan Nagara Kakaisaran Rusia|Déwan Nagara]] |house2 = [[Duma Nagara Kakaisaran Rusia|Duma Nagara]] | |stat_year1 = 1866 |stat_area1 = 23700000 |stat_year2 = 1916 |stat_area2 = 21799825 |stat_year3 = [[Sénsus Kakaisaran Rusia|1897]] |stat_pop3 = 125640021 |footnotes = 1: Rusia ngalajengkeun pamakéan [[kalénder Julian]] nepi ka sanggeus [[révolusi Pébruari|labuhna kakaisaran]]; ''tingali [[Pananggalan Gaya Lami jeung Gaya Anyar]]''. |today = {{flag|Rusia}} {{flag|Arménia}}<br> {{flag|Azerbaijan}}<br> {{flag|Bélarus}}<br> {{flag|Cina}}<br> {{flag|Éstonia}}<br> {{flag|Finlandia}}<br> {{flag|Géorgia}}<br> {{flag|Iran}}<br> {{flag|Kazakhstan}}<br> {{flag|Kirgizstan}}<br> {{flag|Latvia}}<br> {{flag|Lituania}}<br> {{flag|Moldova}}<br> {{flag|Polandia}}<br> {{flag|Tajikistan}}<br> {{flag|Turki}}<br> {{flag|Turkménistan}}<br> {{flag|Ukraina}}<br> {{flag|Amérika Sarikat}}<br> {{flag|Uzbékistan}}<br> {{flag|Mongolia}} }} <!-- {{History of Russia}} --> '''Kakaisaran Rusia''' ([[Réformasi ortografi basa Rusia|Ortografi Basa Rusia Pra-réformasi]]: Россійская Имперія, [[Basa Rusia|Basa Rusia Modérn]]: Российская Империя, [[romanisasi basa Rusia|alih aksara]]: ''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'') nyaéta hiji [[nagara daulat|nagara]] nu aya ti 1721 nepi ka [[Révolusi Rusia 1917]]. Nagara ieu nyaéta panerus ti [[Katsaran Rusia]] sarta nu ngaheulaan [[Républik Rusia]], nu mana diteruskeun ku [[Uni Soviét]]. Nagara ieu mangrupa [[daptar kakaisaran gedé|kakaisaran gedé]] dina sajarah dunya. Dina hiji waktu dina 1866, wewengkonna ngalintang ti [[Éropa Wétan]] terus ka [[Asia]] nepi ka [[Amérika Kalér]]. ==Tingali ogé== * [[Sajarah Rusia]] * [[Rusifikasi]] * [[Daptar Kaisar Rusia]] * [[Tahta Kakaisaran Rusia]] * [[Sénsus Kakaisaran Rusia]] * [[Panarajangan Rusia kana Sibéria]] * [[Panarajangan Rusia kana Kaukasus]] * [[Panjajahan Rusia kana Amérika]] ==Catetan== <references group="n"/> ==Rujukan== ;Catetan suku {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ;Pustaka {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title=Russia at the Barricades: Eyewitness Accounts of the August 1991 Coup |last=Bonnell |first=Victoria E. |coauthors=Ann Cooper, Gregory Freidin |year=1994 |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |location=Armonk, NY |isbn=9781563242717 |pages=371 |ref=Bonnell}} * {{cite book |title=Soviet Hieroglyphics: Visual Culture in Late Twentieth-Century Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/soviethieroglyph0000unse_e9f0 |last=Condee |first=Nancy |authorlink=Nancy Condee |year=1995 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=9780253314024 |pages=208 |ref=Condee}} * {{cite book |title=Matters of Conflict: Material Culture, Memory and the First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/mattersofconflic0000unse |last=Saunders |first=Nicholas J. |authorlink=Nicholas J. Saunders |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780415280532 |pages=224 |ref=Saunders}} {{refend}} ;Rujukan umum {{refbegin|2}} * [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]: [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html Russia] * Hingley, Ronald. ''The Tsars, 1533–1917''. Macmillan, 1968. * {{Cite journal | last=Saunders | first=David | title=Regional Diversity in the Later Russian Empire | url=https://archive.org/details/royal-historical-society-london-england-transactions_2000_10/page/143 | journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society | volume=10 | year=2000 | issue=10 | month=December | pages=143–163 | issn=0080-4401 | doi=10.1017/S0080440100000074 }} * Warnes, David. ''Chronicle of the Russian Tsars: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Russia''. Thames & Hudson, 1999. * {{ru icon}} Грибовский В.М. Государственное устройство и управление Российской империи, 1912. [http://elibrary.karelia.ru/book.shtml?levelID=012003&id=318&cType=1 Photocopy of pages] * {{ru icon}} Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Под ред. Н.А.Тройницкого. т.I. Общий свод по Империи результатов разработки данных Первой Всеобщей переписи населения, произведенной 28 января 1897 года. С.-Петербург, 1905. Таблица XII. Распределение населения по вероисповеданиям. [http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/ Archipelag.ru] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024115547/http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/ |date=2012-10-24 }} * {{1911}} {{refend}} ==Bacaan salajengna== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title=The Modernisation of Russia, 1676–1825 |last=Dixon |first=Simon |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521371001 |pages=288}} * {{cite book |title=Illustrated History of the Russian Empire: The Coronation Book |editor1-first=Nikita |editor1-last=Chakirov |year=1971 |publisher=The Russian Orthodox Youth Committee |location=Astoria, NY |pages=488}} * {{cite book |title=The Battle That Shook Europe: Poltava and the Birth of the Russian Empire |last=Englund |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Englund |year=2002 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-1860648472 |pages=288}} * Etkind, Alexander. ''Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience'' (Polity Press, 2011) 289 pages; discussion of serfdom, the péasant commune, etc. * {{cite book |title=Russia: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/russiahistory0000unse_x3z4 |last=Freeze |first=George |edition=2nd |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198605119 |pages=556}} * {{cite book |title=The Russian Empire: A Multi-Ethnic History |last=Kappeler |first=Andreas |year=2001 |publisher=Longman Publishing Group |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780582234154 |pages=480}} * {{cite book |title=Russia in the Age of Peter the Great |last=Hughes |first=Lindsey |authorlink=Lindsey Hughes |year=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |isbn=9780300082661 |pages=640}} * {{cite book |title=The Longman Companion to Imperial Russia, 1689–1917 |url=https://archive.org/details/longmancompanion00unse |last=Longley |first=David |year=2000 |publisher=Longman Publishing Group |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780582319905 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/longmancompanion00unse/page/496 496]}} * {{cite book |title=The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made |last=Moon |first=David |year=1999 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Boston, MA |isbn=9780582095083 |pages=396}} *-Velychenko S. "Identities, loyalties and service in imperial Russia: who administered the borderlands?" – Russian review, 1995, v. 54, № 2, p.&nbsp;188 – 208. * {{cite book |title=The End of Imperial Russia, 1855–1917 |url=https://archive.org/details/endofimperialrus0000wald |last=Waldron |first=Peter |year=1997 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780312165369 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/endofimperialrus0000wald/page/189 189]}} * {{cite book |title=Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History 1812–2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/enduranceendeavo00west |last=Westwood |first=J. N. |edition=5th |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199246175 |pages=656}} {{refend}} ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.rusempire.com/ Russian Empire]: Ngeunaan Kakaisaran Rusia jeung Rusia * '''{{youtube|EPgbIK002us|Film «Moscow clad in snow», 00:07:22, 1908}}''' *[http://www.governingdynamo.com/a-level-resources/2009/9/11/the-geography-of-the-russian-empire-1795-1914.html Peta Kakaisaran Rusia 1795-1914] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013072536/http://www.governingdynamo.com/a-level-resources/2009/9/11/the-geography-of-the-russian-empire-1795-1914.html |date=2014-10-13 }} {{History of Europe}} {{Colonial Empires}} {{Empires}} {{Russia topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Rusia, Kakaisaran}} [[Kategori:Urut nagara di Éropa]] [[Kategori:Urut nagara di Asia]] [[Kategori:Kakaisaran Rusia| ]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Rusia]] [[Kategori:Urut nagara Slavia]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Azerbaijan]] {{sajarah-stub}} fud25dnn2mmh51hzv1qtajzkqlnw0lc Azawad 0 38123 712333 711827 2026-08-28T21:01:55Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712333 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox former country |native_name = {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}<br/>{{lang|ar|أزواد}} |common_name = Azawad |conventional_long_name = Azawad |continent = Afrika |country = Mali |status = [[Daptar nagara baréto nu teu diakuan|Nagara tanpa pangakuan kadaulatan]] |p1 = Mali |flag_p1 = Flag of Mali.svg |s1 = Mali|flag_s1 = Flag of Mali.svg |image_flag = MNLA flag.svg |flag_alt = Bandéra Azawad |flag = Bandéra Azawad |image_coat = |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = Azawad (orthographic projection).svg |alt_map = Azawad (héjo) jeung [[Mali]] beulah kidul (kulawu kolot) |map_caption = Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA (héjo), jeung [[Mali]] beulah kidul (kulawu kolot). |capital = [[Timbuktu]] <small>(de jure)</small><br/>[[Gao]] <small>(saheulaan)</small> |latd=16 |latm=16 |latNS=N |longd=0 |longm=03 |longEW=W |common_languages = [[rungkun basa Tuareg|Tuareg]]{{·}}[[rungkun basa Songhay|Songhay]]{{·}}[[basa Fula|Fula]]<br/>[[basa Hassaniya|Arab Hassānīya]]<br/>[[basa Perancis|Perancis]] |era = [[Karusuhan Mali Kalér (2012–ayeuna)|Konflik Mali Kalér]] |government_type = Déwan Transisi Nagara Azawad<br/><small>(Conseil de Transition de l'Etat de l'Azawad, CTEA)</small> |title_leader = Présidén |leader1 = Bilal Ag Acherif |year_leader1 = 2012 |deputy1 = {{nowrap|[[Mahamadou Djeri Maïga]]}} |year_deputy1 = 2012 |title_deputy = Wakil Présidén |event_start = [[Proklamasi Kamerdikaan Azawad|Proklamasi]] |date_start = 6 April |year_start = 2012 |event1 = [[Patempuran Gao]] |date_event1 = 27 Juni 2012 |event_end = [[Ansongo]] labuh |date_end = 12 Juli |year_end = 2012 }} [[File:Azawad in context.JPG|thumb|Peta Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA: wewengkon kalawan mayoritas [[Tuareg]] ditandaan ku titik kulawu kolot, di kulon utamina dieusian ku [[Moor]], di kidul ku masarakat Sub-Sahara.]] '''Azawad''', kawanoh ogé salaku '''Nagara Merdika Azawad'''<ref name=DOI>{{cite web |url=http://www.mnlamov.net/component/content/article/169-declaration-dindependance-de-lazawad.html |title=Déclaration d'indépendence de l'Azawad |author=Bilal Ag Acherif |authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif |date=6 April 2012 |publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] |language=French |trans_title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad |accessdate=6 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018123246/http://www.mnlamov.net/component/content/article/169-declaration-dindependance-de-lazawad.html |date=18 October 2012 }}</ref> ([[rungkun basa Tuareg|Tuareg]]: {{lang|ber|ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ}}, ''{{transl|ber|Azawd}}''; {{lang-ar|دولة أزواد المستقلة}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ar.mnlamov.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=176:2012-04-06-02-18-09&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=50 |title=بيان استقلال أزواد |author=Bilal Ag Acherif |authorlink=Bilal Ag Acherif |date=6 April 2012 |publisher=[[National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad]] |language=Arabic |trans_title=Declaration of Independence of Azawad |accessdate=28 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512123642/http://ar.mnlamov.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=176%3A2012-04-06-02-18-09&catid=1%3Alatest-news&Itemid=50 |date=12 May 2012 }}</ref>, ''{{transl|ar|Dawlat Azawād al-Mustaqillah}}''; {{lang-fr|link=no|État indépendant de l’Azawad}}<ref name=DOI/>), nyaéta hiji wewengkon di [[Mali]] beulah kalér sarta ogé urut nagara [[pangakuan diplomatik|nu teu diakuan]], [[proklamasi kamerdikaan Azawad]] sacara sapihak dinyatakeun ku [[Gerakan Nasional Pangbébasan Azawad]] (MNLA) dina 2012 sanggeus hiji [[Pamberontakan Tuareg (2012)|Pamberontakan Tuareg]] nyandak [[militér Mali|Tentara Mali]] kaluar ti wewengkon ieu. Azawad, sakumaha diklaim ku MNLA, ngawengku [[Région di Mali|région]] [[région Tombouctou|Timbuktu]], [[région Kidal|Kidal]], [[région Gao|Gao]], jeung sabagian ti [[Région Mopti]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17576725 |title=Mali Tuareg rebels control Timbuktu as troops flee |date=1 April 2012 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> mibanda kira-kira 60 persén ti total wewengkon Mali. Azawad wawatesan jeung [[Burkina Faso]] di kidul, [[Mauritania]] di kulon jeung kalér-kulon, [[Aljazair]] di kalér jeung kalér-wétan, sarta [[Niger]] di wétan jeung tenggara, sareng Mali di kidul-kulon. [[Gao]] nyaéta kota panggedéna jeung ibu kota saheulaan,<ref name="gao">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/20124644412359539.html|title=Tuaregs claim 'independence' from Mali|agency=Al Jazeera|date=6 April 2012|accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref> samentara [[Timbuktu]] mangrupa kota nu pangedéna kadua, sarta diniatkeun pikeun jadi ibu kota permanén. {{Contains Tifinagh text}} {{Contains Arabic text}} ==Tingali ogé== {{portal|Afrika}} {{commons category|Azawad}} * [[Azawagh]] * [[Fron Islam Arab Azawad]] * [[Pemberontakan Tuareg (2007–2009)]] * [[Gerakan Niger pikeun Kaadilan]] * [[Daptar nagara kalawan pangakuan kawates]] ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} ==Pustaka== *{{Cite book | last=Dubois | first=Felix | last2=White | first2=Diana (trans.) | title=Timbuctoo the mysterious | publisher=Longmans |location=New York | year=1896 | url=http://www.archive.org/details/timbuctoomyster01whitgoog | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{Cite book |last = Fage |first = J. D. |authorlink = John Donnelly Fage |title = An Introduction to the History of West Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year = 1956 |location = London |pages = 22 |url = http://books.google.com/?id=RDw9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=an+introduction+to+the+history+of+west+africa#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref = harv |postscript = <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}} *{{Cite document | last=Hacquard | first=Augustin | year=1900 | title=Monographie de Tombouctou | publisher=Société des études coloniales & maritimes |place=Paris | url=http://www.archive.org/details/monographiedeto00hacqgoog | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. Also available from [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103743p Gallica]. *{{Cite book | last=Hunwick | first=J. O. | title=Encyclopaedia of Islam. Volume X | edition=2nd | year=2000 | contribution=Timbuktu |publisher=Brill | place=Leiden | url=http://www.archive.org/stream/encyclopediaofIslam10/Vol.10t-u#page/n532/mode/1up | isbn= 90-04-11211-1 | pages=508–510 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}. *{{Cite book | last=Hunwick | first= John O.| authorlink= John Hunwick | year=2003 |title= Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents | publisher=Brill| place=Leiden | isbn=0585-6914 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. First published in 1999 as ISBN 90-04-11207-3. *{{Cite book | last=Imperato | first=Pascal James | title=Mali: A Search for Direction | url=https://archive.org/details/malisearchfordir0000impe | year=1989 | publisher=Westview Press | isbn=1-85521-049-5 | unused_data=Boulder CO | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{Cite journal | last=Kaba | first=Lansine | year=1981 | title= Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591–1612) | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1981_22_4/page/457 | journal=Journal of African History | volume=22 | issue=4 | pages=457–475 | jstor=181298 | doi=10.1017/S0021853700019861 | pmid=11632225 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. *{{cite book |last=Kirkby |first=Coel |last2=Murray |first2=Christina |chapter=Elusive Autonomy in Sub-Saharan Africa |title=Asymmetric Autonomy and the Settlement of Ethnic Conflicts |url=https://archive.org/details/asymmetricautono0000well |editor1-first=Marc |editor1-last=Weller |editor2-first=Katherine |editor2-last=Nobbs |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/asymmetricautono0000well/page/97 97]–120 |isbn=978-0-8122-4230-0 |ref=harv }} *{{Citation |first=Roderick J. |last=McIntosh |title=Before Timbuktu: cities of the Elder World |work=The Meanings of Timbuktu |publisher=HSRC Press |year=2008 |pages=31–43 |url=http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/The_Meanings_of_Timbuktu_-_Chapter_3_-_Before_Timbuktu__cities_of_the_elder_world.pdf |accessdate=9 April 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927230051/https://codesria.org/IMG/pdf/The_Meanings_of_Timbuktu_-_Chapter_3_-_Before_Timbuktu__cities_of_the_elder_world.pdf |date=27 September 2020 }} *{{Cite book | last=Saad | first=Elias N. | year=1983 | title=Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900 | url=https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryoft0000saad | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-24603-2 | ref=harv | postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}. ==Tumbu kaluar== *[http://www.mnlamov.net/english.html Ramatloka MNLA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609111624/http://www.mnlamov.net/english.html |date=2012-06-09 }} {{nagara di Afrika}} [[Kategori:Tuareg]] [[Kategori:Azawad| ]] [[Kategori:Afrika Kalér]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipaséakeun di Mali]] [[Kategori:Pamisahan di Mali]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu dipasékaeun di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Arab]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu ngadeg taun 2012]] {{geo-stub}} 1ql1o5r3sj63ergww75t6oq616ropfb Wikipedia:Lua 4 41001 712305 712302 2026-08-28T19:50:09Z Nimmzo 37272 /* Lua input limitations */ Simplified "transcluded" by "(included on another page)". See the syntax of the prefix colon `:` before the title of the page in the beginning of /* Debugging */ `{{:titleOfPage}}`. Example where the HTML tag <blockquote> is optional: `<blockquote>{{:Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu}}</blockquote>` 712305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} {{WikiProject Lua/header}} {{Information page|WP:Lua}} {{Namespaces}} Lua mangrupakeun basa pamrograman nu ayeuna geus sadia di Wikipedia Sunda ngaliwatan ekstensi MediaWiki [[mw:Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto]].<br /> Kode Lua ayeuna bisa diasupkeun kana témplat wiki ku maké fungsi parser <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:}}</syntaxhighlight> dina kaca pamaké anjeun. == Halo, dunya! dina Lua == The Lua source code is stored in a wiki page with the prefix <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight> (e.g., [[Modul:Bananas]]). These individual modules are then invoked (by code <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:}}</syntaxhighlight>) on another wiki page (e.g., [[Modul:Bananas/doc]] uses the code <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}</syntaxhighlight> to print the text <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>"Hello, world!"</syntaxhighlight>). Modules are run on normal wiki pages using the <code>#invoke</code> parser function. The syntax of <code>#invoke</code> is similar to template syntax, but with some differences. The most important difference is that you need to specify a ''function name''. A function is a set of Lua instructions that takes input values, processes them, and returns an output value.<ref>You can also have multiple output values, but functions that do this are not normally meant to be accessed from wiki pages.</ref> This is much like what a template does: you give it arguments, it processes them, and you get a result.<br /> However, you can define many functions in one Lua module, whereas you can only define one template on one page. Furthermore, you can't just run a Lua module directly - you can only run one of the module's functions. The module is just a container for the functions, and doesn't do anything by itself. So there are two reasons that we need to input a function name: # We can't run a module by itself. # Without specifying a function name, Lua will not know which function it is we want to run. Run a module from your user page like this: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> For example, [[Modul:Bananas]] is the simplest possible script, providing a single function with no arguments.<br /> The function is named <code>hello</code> in lowercase. We can run this module in this way. Anjeun teu kudu masang atawa nyimpen nanaon. # Édit kaca pamaké anjeun. # Témpélkeun panggilan di handap ieu dina awal hiji baris anyar dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> {{#invoke:Bananas|hello}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="3"> <li>Klik <code>Témbongkeun sawangan</code>. Panggilan fungsi <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>hello</syntaxhighlight> dina [[Modul:Bananas]] diganti ku ieu di handap: Halo, dunya!</li> </ol> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line> Hello, world! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="4"> <li>Klik <code style="color:#bf3c2c;>Bolay</code>. Lamun dipenta, klik <code>Tinggalkeun</code>.</li> <li>Kaca pamaké anjeun tetep '''teu''' dirobah.</li> </ol> === Using arguments === Arguments are passed to modules in the same way that they are passed to templates. Note, however, that the text after the first pipe character <code>|</code> is always the function name; the first positional argument is the text after the ''second'' pipe. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi|arguménPosisional1}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> For example, another [[Modul:BananasArgs]] demonstrates how to access and use parameters.<br /> The <code>hello</code> function greets different people depending on the first positional argument. It works like this: Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mariam}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mohamed}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mariam}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mohamed}} </blockquote> ;Named arguments key=value <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi|argNgaran1=nilai1|argNgaran2=nilai2}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> The <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight>BananasArgs also has a function named <code>count_fruit</code> which uses the named arguments <code>bananas</code> and <code>apples</code> to count the number of bananas and apples we have. It can be run switching the order of the parameters: Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|apples=3|bananas=4}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|bananas=5|apples=2}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|apples=3|bananas=4}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|bananas=5|apples=2}} </blockquote> Most modules have a documentation page explaining what arguments can be used and what their effects will be. == Konsol debug: Mimiti diajar Lua == <code>Debug Console</code> dina Lua Scribunto nyaéta alat anu aman tur interaktif pikeun diajar Lua dina Wikipedia. # Klik <code>Témbongkeun sumber</code> dina kaca [[Modul:Yesno]]. # Gulung ka handap kaca nepi ka bagian <code>Debug console</code>. # Témpélkeun komentar jeung panggilan kana kotak asup <span style="color:#86888c;">kulawu</span> (di luhur tombol <code>Kosongkan</code>). <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> --[[Program Lua munggaran anjeun nu mirip Hello World]]-- print("Wilujeng sumping di " .. _VERSION .. "!") -- Ngarangkep vérsi Lua ku `..` </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="4"> <li>Pencét {{key press|Enter}} sakali pikeun ngalaksanakeun dua paréntah Lua éta.</li> <li>Hasilna bakal muncul di handap garis paréntah Lua <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>print</syntaxhighlight>:</li> </ol> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=3> Wilujeng sumping di Lua 5.1! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="6"> <li>Pencét {{key press|Up}} <code>Panah ka luhur</code> pikeun ngurilingan paréntah Lua saméméhna.</li> <li>Opsional, klik <code>Kosongkan</code> pikeun ngaberesihan ''ngan'' <code>Debug Console</code>; éditor Lua di luhur moal '''teu''' robah.</li> </ol> ; Generator HTML dina Debug console Panggil pungsi <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>hello</syntaxhighlight> dina <code>Modul:</code>Bananas: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') -- muat modul dina Debug console print(modCau.hello()) -- tampilkeun "Hello, world!" </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=3> Hello, world! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Argumén <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3,5 copy> local modCau = require('Modul:BananasArgs') local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() frame.args = {"Mariam"}; print(modCau.hello(frame)) -- "Hello, Mariam!" frame.args = {"Mohamed"}; print(modCau.hello(frame)) frame.args = {apples="3", bananas="4"}; print(modCau.count_fruit(frame)) frame.args = {bananas="5", apples="2"}; print(modCau.count_fruit(frame)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=7> Hello, Mariam! Hello, Mohamed! I have 4 bananas and 3 apples I have 5 bananas and 2 apples </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Fungsi idéntitas <code>callParserFunction</code> [[mw:Help:Extension:ParserFunctions##if|#if]] <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3 copy> local yesno = require('Modul:Yesno') -- #if yesno teras mulangkeun parameter asupanna local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() print(frame:callParserFunction("#if", yesno("Yes"), "Yes", 'henteu')) print(frame:callParserFunction("#if", yesno('teu'), "Leres", 'teu')) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=5> Yes teu </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> # Tutup <code>Modul:</code>Yesno anu dijaga anu tetep '''teu''' robah. == Request a script == Visit [[:en:Wikipedia talk:Lua]] to request help in writing a Lua script to perform a specific task on Wikipedia or another Wikimedia Foundation project. == History == [[mw:Manual:MediaWiki architecture#Magic words and templates|Sordid history]]. [[mw:Help:Extension:ParserFunctions|ParserFunctions]], [[mw:Extension:Lua|Lua extension]], wiki scripting language debated (JavaScript v. Lua), [[mw:Extension:WikiScripts]], Tim writes [[mw:Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto]] with initial support for Lua. Discussed for years, Lua was installed in 2012 for testing on [[test2wiki:|test2.wikipedia.org]], with open invitation to all editors to experiment with developing Lua modules. Lua was installed on the English Wikipedia in February 2013, after testing on mediawiki.org and Wikimedia test wikis. == About Lua == :''See also [[:File:WMF Tech Talk 2013-02-28 slides - Scribunto presentation.pdf|Brad Jorsch's short presentation for a basic example of how to convert a wikitext template into a Lua module.]]'' Lua is a scripting language which can be used to analyze data, calculate expressions, and format results using functions or object-oriented programming. Although some Lua scripts can be kept simple, for easy understanding, Lua allows complex structures including tables, dynamic functions, and associative arrays where index subscripts can be words as well as index numbers. Lua also supports recursion of re-nested functions, so care should be taken to avoid excessive complexity where other users would not understand how to maintain a Lua module. The following is an example of Lua source code for the <code>hello</code> function contained in [[Modul:Bananas]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> --[[Modul:Bananas]]-- local p = {} -- tabel modul nu diperlukeun, diinisialisasi minangka tabel kosong function p.hello() -- Nangtukeun fungsi hello. return "Hello, world!" -- Mulangkeun hasil fungsi dina wangun string. end -- Ahir fungsi. return p -- Mulangkeun tabel modul. </syntaxhighlight> A sample of Lua is highlighted by tag <code><nowiki><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> ... </syntaxhighlight></nowiki></code> placed around the Lua source code. For instructions on how to use Lua within MediaWiki (and hence Wikipedia), see [[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual]]. == Unit testing == A unit testing framework for Lua scripts on Wikipedia is available at [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]].<br /> It allows you to execute your script on a given set of inputs and verify that the expected outputs are produced.<br /> Unit tests are especially useful for rapidly detecting regressions, where modifications to a script introduce new problems. By convention, unit tests for a module like [[Modul:Bananas]] are placed in <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight> <code>Bananas</code>'''<code>/testcases</code>'''.<br /> They are executed on [[Pembicaraan Modul:Bananas/testcases]] with <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|</syntaxhighlight>'''<code>run</code>'''<syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>}}</syntaxhighlight>. Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> {{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|run}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> {{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|run}} </blockquote> Each test method must begin with <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>p:</syntaxhighlight>'''<code>test_</code>'''. An example from [[Modul:Bananas/testcases]] is below. <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=4 copy> --[[Modul:Bananas/testcases]]-- local p = require('Modul:ScribuntoUnit').new() local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') -- Didatangan kaca obrolan pikeun ngajalankeun tés. function p:test_halo() -- Tés unit pikeun [[Modul:Bananas]]. self:assertEquals('Hello, world!', modCau.hello()) end return p </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse top|title=Prinsip uji hijian}} Di konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=10 copy> local self = { assertEquals = function(_, wikitext, expected) local got = mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext) print('"' .. expected .. '": Diarepkeun') print('"' .. got .. '": Saleresna') return got == expected end } -- Pamisah `:` tanpa `self` print(self:assertEquals( '{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}', 'Hello, world!')) -- Pamisah `.` jeung `self` print(self.assertEquals(self, '{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}', 'Hello, world!')) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=13> "Hello, world!": Diarepkeun "Hello, world!": Sakuduna true "Hello, world!": Diarepkeun "Hello, world!": Sakuduna true </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> local modTest = require('Modul:Bananas/testcases') print(modTest.run(mw.getCurrentFrame())) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Lamun tésna hasil, nilai anu diarepkeun jeung nilai sabenerna teu dipintonkeun supaya tabel hasil jadi leuwih basajan: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> [[File:Yes check.svg|20px|alt=Ya|link=]]<span style="display:none">Y</span> Sakabéh tés lulus. {| class="wikitable scribunto-test-table" ! ! Ngaran ! Diarepkeun ! Saleresna |- | [[File:Yes check.svg|20px|alt=Ya|link=]]<span style="display:none">Y</span> | test_halo | | |} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Ngajalankeun [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]] langsung dina [[Modul:Bananas]] tanpa nyimpen [[Modul:Bananas/testcases]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1,3 copy> local modTest = require('Modul:ScribuntoUnit').new() local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') function modTest:test_halo() self:assertEquals('Hello, world!', modCau.hello()) end print(modTest.run(mw.getCurrentFrame())) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> HTML anu dihasilkeun sarua. {{collapse bottom}} [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]] originates from Hungarian Wikipedia.<br /> It throws real errors that are trapped using protected calls. It also has a method to compare floats within a given precision. Pikeun daptar sakabéh modul nu ngagunakeun tés unit, tingali [[Husus:NumbuKaDieu/Modul:ScribuntoUnit|nu dipaké]]. == Wikipedia-specific features == Overall: Lua can only get input as text strings passed to the <code><nowiki>{{#invoke:}}</nowiki></code> and what can be fetched via <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.title.new|mw.title.new(...)]]:getContent()</code> and <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#frame:expandTemplate|frame:expandTemplate()]]</code>. Lua output will not be preprocessed unless <code>frame:</code>'''<code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#frame:preprocess|preprocess()]]</code>''' is explicitly called, meaning that template calls and parser functions in the output will not work correctly. Langkung hade ngagunakeun fungsi '''<code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.ustring.len|mw.ustring.len]]</code>''' tibatan <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#string.len|string.len]]</code>: Di konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2,8 copy> --[[Alfabét Latin]]-- local content_lang = mw.getContentLanguage().code -- su local lang = mw.getCurrentFrame():callParserFunction("#language", content_lang) local lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp = mw.ustring.len(lang), string.len(lang), #lang print(("lang: \"%s\". Mw.ustring.len = %d String.len = %d Sharp = %d"):format(lang, lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp)) --[[Unicode]]-- lang = "اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون" -- Aksara Pégon lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp = mw.ustring.len(lang), string.len(lang), #lang print(("lang: \"%s\". Mw.ustring.len = %d String.len = %d Sharp = %d"):format(lang, lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <code>Konsol debug</code> ngarojong Unicode, tapi henteu ngarojong téks katuhu-ka-kenca: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=11> lang: "Sunda". Mw.ustring.len = 5 String.len = 5 Sharp = 5 lang: "اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون". Mw.ustring.len = 15 String.len = 29 Sharp = 29 </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> {| class="wikitable" ![[Alfabét Latin]] !Aksara !Arah !Jumlah karakter !Panjang dina bait |- |'''Sunda''' |[[Basa Sunda]]. |→ kenca ka katuhu. |5 |5 |- |[[Hurup Pégon]] |style="direction:rtl; text-align:right;" |'''اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون'''. |← '''Katuhu''' ka kenca |'''15''' ('''[[Unicode]]''') + 1 titik |<span style="color:red;">29</span> + 1 |} {{#invoke:Utf8debug|ek|اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون.}} Lua code in a wiki page is limited to '''10 s'''econds CPU time (you can look in the source code of a rendered page to see how long a template or module took to parse). Relative to standard Lua, Scribunto offers safe functions (see the [[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#Differences from standard Lua|differences]] from standard Lua). === Lua input limitations === Lua code in Scribunto is only run when the page is being parsed. Therefore, the only user input that Lua can receive is by ''page editing'' - it cannot create a box that calculates the square root of a number you type in, or recalculate a piece of the Mandelbrot set depending on which part of the parent set you click on. The Lua input can be any Wikipedia text page that can be transcluded (included on another page). This does ''not'' include graphics files (not even .SVG files, although they are actually text, unless you cut and paste it onto a Wiki text page), the list of pages listed in a [[:Kategori:Lua-based templates|category]], nor the contents of [[Wikipedia:Transclusion#Special pages|non-transcludeable]] [[Husus:IndeksAwalan/Modul:|special pages]]. === Wikitext === Transcluded Wikipedia headers frequently contain a hidden code such as <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>"UNIQ5ae8f2aa414ff233-h-3--QINU"</syntaxhighlight> which may need to be stripped out in order for them to be parsed effectively. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> print(string.reverse("UNIQ")) -- Urutan sabalikna tina "UNIQ" nyaéta "QINU" </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> QINU </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Wikilinks of the type <code><nowiki>[[Wikipedia:Pitulung</nowiki></code>'''<code><nowiki>|</nowiki></code>'''<code><nowiki>]]</nowiki></code> won't work if returned as output - they need to be written explicitly as <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>[[Wikipedia:Pitulung|</syntaxhighlight>'''<code><nowiki>Pitulung</nowiki></code>'''<syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>]]</syntaxhighlight>. Other pre-save transforms, such as replacing <code>~~<nowiki/>~~</code> with signatures, will also fail to be processed. Template transclusions, parser function calls, and variable substitutions (i.e. anything with a <code><nowiki>{{...}}</nowiki></code>) will not be processed, nor will tags such as {{tag|ref|o}} or {{tag|nowiki|o}}. === Debugging === ; Galat nu katingali dina kaca Kaca wiki [[Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu]] ngahasilkeun dua galat: <blockquote>{{:Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu}}</blockquote> {{collapse top|title=Modul:Navbar Judul teu valid}} # [[Citakan:Kotakinfo Kalurahan]] nyaur [[Citakan:Infobox settlement]] ku parameter nu teu dipikawanoh <code>|coordinates_display=</code> jeung <code>|other_code_type=</code>. # Galat Lua dina Modul:Navbar di baris 58: Judul teu valid , {{{kota}}}. ; Ngurangan masalah Pikeun misahkeun galat Lua, uji [[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]]: <blockquote>{{Cikedung, Indramayu}}</blockquote> Daptar 17 kaca nu kapangaruhan ku ieu masalah: [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]] ; Ngaréka ulang dina <code>Modul:</code>Yesno Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{Cikedung, Indramayu}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> <strong class="error"><span class="scribunto-error mw-scribunto-error-e20d3541">Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 58: Invalid title , {{{kota}}}.</span></strong> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Mariksa <code>Modul:</code>Navbar Kode patali dina [[Modul:Navbar#L-58]] nyaéta: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=5> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Nambahkeun tanda petik dina <code>title_text</code> mah ''opsional'' pikeun ngagampangkeun pesen galat. # Pasang <code>title_text</code> dina tanda petik. # PANGJAOAN: '''<span style="color:red;">ULAH</span>''' ngaklik "<s><code>Pedalkeun parobahan</code></s>" ("<s><code>Publish changes</code></s>"). <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=4> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error(cfg.invalid_title .. "\"" .. title_text .. "\"") error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Uji dina preview Dina kaca preview, pake template ieu: # Témpélkeun <code>Pratayang halaman dengan templat ini</code> (caller template): <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy>Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu</syntaxhighlight></blockquote> # Klik <code>Lihat pratayang</code> (Show preview) Pesen galat jadi: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 57: Invalid title ", {{{kota}}}". </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Ieu nuduhkeun yén koma <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>", "</syntaxhighlight> aya dina judul nu salah, nyaéta <code>, {{{kota}}}</code>. ; Ngalenyepan caller Pikeun nyaho template nu nelepon, lebetkeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=4> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error("Caller: \"" .. mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent():getTitle() .. "\"") error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Sanggeus <code>then</code>, témpélkeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=57 highlight=1 copy> error("Caller: \"" .. mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent():getTitle() .. "\"") </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Pesen galat jadi: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 57: Caller: "Citakan:Navbox". </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Akar masalah [[Citakan:kac-2]] dialihkeun ka [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]], jadi bugna lain dina modul Lua, tapi dina parameter nu dipake ku caller. Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |nami dati2=Indramayu}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Parameter Sunda <code>|nami dati2=</code> teu dipaliré sabab modul Lua ngarepkeun ngaran parameter dina basa Indonésia: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> <strong class="error"><span class="scribunto-error mw-scribunto-error-e20d3541">Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 58: Invalid title , {{{kota}}}.</span></strong> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Perhatikeun koma <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>", "</syntaxhighlight> dituturkeun ku <code>{{{kota}}}</code>. [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]] dimimitian ku: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> <noinclude>{{gabungdari|Navigasi kampung}}</noinclude> {{Navbox |name = {{{name<includeonly>|{{{nama kecamatan|{{{kecamatan|{{{distrik|{{{kapanewon|{{{kemantren|}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}, {{{nama dati2|{{{kabupaten|{{{kota}}}}}}}}}</includeonly><noinclude>|Navigasi ID Desa</noinclude>}}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Jadi nilai standar <code>|name=</code> jadi runtah nu teu disangka, nyaéta <code>, {{{kota}}}</code>. # Upami argumén <code>kemantren</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; upami henteu, mulangkeun runtuyan kosong. # Ngahasilkeun koma tuluy spasi. # Upami argumén <code>nama dati2</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; # upami henteu, upami <code>kabupaten</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; upami henteu, mulangkeun <code>{{{kota}}}</code> Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{{kemantren|}}}, {{{nama dati2|{{{kabupaten|{{{kota}}}}}}}}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Henteu aya argumén anu ditetepkeun. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> , {{{kota}}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Pemetaan parameter Sintésis {| class="wikitable" ! Sunda ! Indonésia ! Inggris |- | nami | nama | name |- | nami kacamatan | nama kecamatan | name of the district |- | [[Citakan:Kotakinfo_Kalurahan#:~:text=nami|Citakan:Kotakinfo Kalurahan]] | [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]] | [[Citakan:Navbox#:~:text=name|Citakan:Navbox]] |} ; Solusi Pake ngaran parameter basa Indonésia dina caller supaya teu kudu ngarobah modul Lua: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |kabupaten=Indramayu |nama kecamatan=Cikedung}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> HTML navbox hasilna hasil dibangkitkeun kalawan suksés: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> <div class="navbox-styles"><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000006-QINU`"'<DEL><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000000-QINU`"'<DEL></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kecamatan_Cikedung,_Kabupatén_Indramayu,_&amp;#123;&amp;#123;&amp;#123;provinsi&amp;#125;&amp;#125;&amp;#125;" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible manualcollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000002-QINU`"'<DEL><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000004-QINU`"'<DEL><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-lihat">[[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu|<abbr title="Lihat templat ini">l</abbr>]]</li><li class="nv-bicara">[[Obrolan citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu|<abbr title="Diskusikan templat ini">b</abbr>]]</li><li class="nv-sunting">[//su.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citakan:Cikedung,_Indramayu&action=edit<abbr title="Sunting templat ini">s</abbr>]</li></ul></div><div id="Kecamatan_Cikedung,_Kabupatén_Indramayu,_&amp;#123;&amp;#123;&amp;#123;provinsi&amp;#125;&amp;#125;&amp;#125;" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">[[Cikedung, Indramayu|Kecamatan Cikedung]], [[Kabupatén Indramayu]], [[{{{provinsi}}}]]</div></th></tr></table></div> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> [[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]] dimimitian ku: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> {{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |nami dati2=Indramayu |nami kacamatan=Cikedung}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2,4 copy> local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local argSundanese = {propinsi='Jawa Barat', dati2='Kabupatén', ["nami dati2"]='Indramayu', ["nami kacamatan"]='Cikedung'} print("1. Ko: " .. frame:expandTemplate{title="kac-2", args=argSundanese}) -- fails local argIndonesian = {propinsi='Jawa Barat', dati2='Kabupatén', kabupaten ='Indramayu', ["nama kecamatan"]='Cikedung'} print("2. OK: " .. frame:expandTemplate{title="kac-2", args=argIndonesian}) -- works </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> {{collapse bottom}} == Labeling converted templates == {{lua|Module:Bananas}} Please place the {{tl|lua}} template on the documentation subpage of all templates that use Lua. It will help to better communicate Lua usage and template conversions. {{clear}} == See also == * [[Husus:IndeksAwalan/Modul:]] daptar modul Lua * [[:Kategori:Lua-based templates]] &ndash; l-groups ta templates based kan Lua ; English Wikipedia-specific resources * [[:mw:Manual:Coding conventions/Lua]] &ndash; standards to improve the readability of code through consistency * [[:en:Help:Lua debugging]] &ndash; a how-to guide about debugging Lua modules * [[:en:Module:Sandbox]] provides a pseudo-namespace for experimenting with Lua modules * [[:en:Wikipedia talk:Lua]] &ndash; requests for Lua-based templates or tasks == Notes == {{reflist}} {{WikiProject Lua/header}} [[Category:Wikipedia modules]] p5hhimiog03mztffhtqho1s9v52sycw 712306 712305 2026-08-28T20:00:08Z Nimmzo 37272 /* Lua input limitations */ replaced square root of a number with F° to C° 712306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} {{WikiProject Lua/header}} {{Information page|WP:Lua}} {{Namespaces}} Lua mangrupakeun basa pamrograman nu ayeuna geus sadia di Wikipedia Sunda ngaliwatan ekstensi MediaWiki [[mw:Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto]].<br /> Kode Lua ayeuna bisa diasupkeun kana témplat wiki ku maké fungsi parser <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:}}</syntaxhighlight> dina kaca pamaké anjeun. == Halo, dunya! dina Lua == The Lua source code is stored in a wiki page with the prefix <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight> (e.g., [[Modul:Bananas]]). These individual modules are then invoked (by code <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:}}</syntaxhighlight>) on another wiki page (e.g., [[Modul:Bananas/doc]] uses the code <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}</syntaxhighlight> to print the text <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>"Hello, world!"</syntaxhighlight>). Modules are run on normal wiki pages using the <code>#invoke</code> parser function. The syntax of <code>#invoke</code> is similar to template syntax, but with some differences. The most important difference is that you need to specify a ''function name''. A function is a set of Lua instructions that takes input values, processes them, and returns an output value.<ref>You can also have multiple output values, but functions that do this are not normally meant to be accessed from wiki pages.</ref> This is much like what a template does: you give it arguments, it processes them, and you get a result.<br /> However, you can define many functions in one Lua module, whereas you can only define one template on one page. Furthermore, you can't just run a Lua module directly - you can only run one of the module's functions. The module is just a container for the functions, and doesn't do anything by itself. So there are two reasons that we need to input a function name: # We can't run a module by itself. # Without specifying a function name, Lua will not know which function it is we want to run. Run a module from your user page like this: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> For example, [[Modul:Bananas]] is the simplest possible script, providing a single function with no arguments.<br /> The function is named <code>hello</code> in lowercase. We can run this module in this way. Anjeun teu kudu masang atawa nyimpen nanaon. # Édit kaca pamaké anjeun. # Témpélkeun panggilan di handap ieu dina awal hiji baris anyar dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> {{#invoke:Bananas|hello}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="3"> <li>Klik <code>Témbongkeun sawangan</code>. Panggilan fungsi <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>hello</syntaxhighlight> dina [[Modul:Bananas]] diganti ku ieu di handap: Halo, dunya!</li> </ol> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line> Hello, world! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="4"> <li>Klik <code style="color:#bf3c2c;>Bolay</code>. Lamun dipenta, klik <code>Tinggalkeun</code>.</li> <li>Kaca pamaké anjeun tetep '''teu''' dirobah.</li> </ol> === Using arguments === Arguments are passed to modules in the same way that they are passed to templates. Note, however, that the text after the first pipe character <code>|</code> is always the function name; the first positional argument is the text after the ''second'' pipe. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi|arguménPosisional1}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> For example, another [[Modul:BananasArgs]] demonstrates how to access and use parameters.<br /> The <code>hello</code> function greets different people depending on the first positional argument. It works like this: Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mariam}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mohamed}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mariam}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|hello|Mohamed}} </blockquote> ;Named arguments key=value <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line> {{#invoke:NgaranModul|ngaranFungsi|argNgaran1=nilai1|argNgaran2=nilai2}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> The <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight>BananasArgs also has a function named <code>count_fruit</code> which uses the named arguments <code>bananas</code> and <code>apples</code> to count the number of bananas and apples we have. It can be run switching the order of the parameters: Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|apples=3|bananas=4}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|bananas=5|apples=2}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|apples=3|bananas=4}} # {{#invoke:BananasArgs|count_fruit|bananas=5|apples=2}} </blockquote> Most modules have a documentation page explaining what arguments can be used and what their effects will be. == Konsol debug: Mimiti diajar Lua == <code>Debug Console</code> dina Lua Scribunto nyaéta alat anu aman tur interaktif pikeun diajar Lua dina Wikipedia. # Klik <code>Témbongkeun sumber</code> dina kaca [[Modul:Yesno]]. # Gulung ka handap kaca nepi ka bagian <code>Debug console</code>. # Témpélkeun komentar jeung panggilan kana kotak asup <span style="color:#86888c;">kulawu</span> (di luhur tombol <code>Kosongkan</code>). <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> --[[Program Lua munggaran anjeun nu mirip Hello World]]-- print("Wilujeng sumping di " .. _VERSION .. "!") -- Ngarangkep vérsi Lua ku `..` </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="4"> <li>Pencét {{key press|Enter}} sakali pikeun ngalaksanakeun dua paréntah Lua éta.</li> <li>Hasilna bakal muncul di handap garis paréntah Lua <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>print</syntaxhighlight>:</li> </ol> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=3> Wilujeng sumping di Lua 5.1! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <ol start="6"> <li>Pencét {{key press|Up}} <code>Panah ka luhur</code> pikeun ngurilingan paréntah Lua saméméhna.</li> <li>Opsional, klik <code>Kosongkan</code> pikeun ngaberesihan ''ngan'' <code>Debug Console</code>; éditor Lua di luhur moal '''teu''' robah.</li> </ol> ; Generator HTML dina Debug console Panggil pungsi <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>hello</syntaxhighlight> dina <code>Modul:</code>Bananas: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') -- muat modul dina Debug console print(modCau.hello()) -- tampilkeun "Hello, world!" </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=3> Hello, world! </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Argumén <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3,5 copy> local modCau = require('Modul:BananasArgs') local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() frame.args = {"Mariam"}; print(modCau.hello(frame)) -- "Hello, Mariam!" frame.args = {"Mohamed"}; print(modCau.hello(frame)) frame.args = {apples="3", bananas="4"}; print(modCau.count_fruit(frame)) frame.args = {bananas="5", apples="2"}; print(modCau.count_fruit(frame)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=7> Hello, Mariam! Hello, Mohamed! I have 4 bananas and 3 apples I have 5 bananas and 2 apples </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Fungsi idéntitas <code>callParserFunction</code> [[mw:Help:Extension:ParserFunctions##if|#if]] <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3 copy> local yesno = require('Modul:Yesno') -- #if yesno teras mulangkeun parameter asupanna local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() print(frame:callParserFunction("#if", yesno("Yes"), "Yes", 'henteu')) print(frame:callParserFunction("#if", yesno('teu'), "Leres", 'teu')) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=5> Yes teu </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> # Tutup <code>Modul:</code>Yesno anu dijaga anu tetep '''teu''' robah. == Request a script == Visit [[:en:Wikipedia talk:Lua]] to request help in writing a Lua script to perform a specific task on Wikipedia or another Wikimedia Foundation project. == History == [[mw:Manual:MediaWiki architecture#Magic words and templates|Sordid history]]. [[mw:Help:Extension:ParserFunctions|ParserFunctions]], [[mw:Extension:Lua|Lua extension]], wiki scripting language debated (JavaScript v. Lua), [[mw:Extension:WikiScripts]], Tim writes [[mw:Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto]] with initial support for Lua. Discussed for years, Lua was installed in 2012 for testing on [[test2wiki:|test2.wikipedia.org]], with open invitation to all editors to experiment with developing Lua modules. Lua was installed on the English Wikipedia in February 2013, after testing on mediawiki.org and Wikimedia test wikis. == About Lua == :''See also [[:File:WMF Tech Talk 2013-02-28 slides - Scribunto presentation.pdf|Brad Jorsch's short presentation for a basic example of how to convert a wikitext template into a Lua module.]]'' Lua is a scripting language which can be used to analyze data, calculate expressions, and format results using functions or object-oriented programming. Although some Lua scripts can be kept simple, for easy understanding, Lua allows complex structures including tables, dynamic functions, and associative arrays where index subscripts can be words as well as index numbers. Lua also supports recursion of re-nested functions, so care should be taken to avoid excessive complexity where other users would not understand how to maintain a Lua module. The following is an example of Lua source code for the <code>hello</code> function contained in [[Modul:Bananas]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> --[[Modul:Bananas]]-- local p = {} -- tabel modul nu diperlukeun, diinisialisasi minangka tabel kosong function p.hello() -- Nangtukeun fungsi hello. return "Hello, world!" -- Mulangkeun hasil fungsi dina wangun string. end -- Ahir fungsi. return p -- Mulangkeun tabel modul. </syntaxhighlight> A sample of Lua is highlighted by tag <code><nowiki><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> ... </syntaxhighlight></nowiki></code> placed around the Lua source code. For instructions on how to use Lua within MediaWiki (and hence Wikipedia), see [[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual]]. == Unit testing == A unit testing framework for Lua scripts on Wikipedia is available at [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]].<br /> It allows you to execute your script on a given set of inputs and verify that the expected outputs are produced.<br /> Unit tests are especially useful for rapidly detecting regressions, where modifications to a script introduce new problems. By convention, unit tests for a module like [[Modul:Bananas]] are placed in <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>Modul:</syntaxhighlight> <code>Bananas</code>'''<code>/testcases</code>'''.<br /> They are executed on [[Pembicaraan Modul:Bananas/testcases]] with <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>{{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|</syntaxhighlight>'''<code>run</code>'''<syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>}}</syntaxhighlight>. Dina kaca pamaké anjeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" line highlight=1 copy> {{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|run}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote> {{#invoke:Bananas/testcases|run}} </blockquote> Each test method must begin with <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>p:</syntaxhighlight>'''<code>test_</code>'''. An example from [[Modul:Bananas/testcases]] is below. <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=4 copy> --[[Modul:Bananas/testcases]]-- local p = require('Modul:ScribuntoUnit').new() local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') -- Didatangan kaca obrolan pikeun ngajalankeun tés. function p:test_halo() -- Tés unit pikeun [[Modul:Bananas]]. self:assertEquals('Hello, world!', modCau.hello()) end return p </syntaxhighlight> {{collapse top|title=Prinsip uji hijian}} Di konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=10 copy> local self = { assertEquals = function(_, wikitext, expected) local got = mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext) print('"' .. expected .. '": Diarepkeun') print('"' .. got .. '": Saleresna') return got == expected end } -- Pamisah `:` tanpa `self` print(self:assertEquals( '{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}', 'Hello, world!')) -- Pamisah `.` jeung `self` print(self.assertEquals(self, '{{#invoke:Bananas|hello}}', 'Hello, world!')) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=13> "Hello, world!": Diarepkeun "Hello, world!": Sakuduna true "Hello, world!": Diarepkeun "Hello, world!": Sakuduna true </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2 copy> local modTest = require('Modul:Bananas/testcases') print(modTest.run(mw.getCurrentFrame())) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Lamun tésna hasil, nilai anu diarepkeun jeung nilai sabenerna teu dipintonkeun supaya tabel hasil jadi leuwih basajan: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> [[File:Yes check.svg|20px|alt=Ya|link=]]<span style="display:none">Y</span> Sakabéh tés lulus. {| class="wikitable scribunto-test-table" ! ! Ngaran ! Diarepkeun ! Saleresna |- | [[File:Yes check.svg|20px|alt=Ya|link=]]<span style="display:none">Y</span> | test_halo | | |} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Ngajalankeun [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]] langsung dina [[Modul:Bananas]] tanpa nyimpen [[Modul:Bananas/testcases]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1,3 copy> local modTest = require('Modul:ScribuntoUnit').new() local modCau = require('Modul:Bananas') function modTest:test_halo() self:assertEquals('Hello, world!', modCau.hello()) end print(modTest.run(mw.getCurrentFrame())) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> HTML anu dihasilkeun sarua. {{collapse bottom}} [[Modul:ScribuntoUnit]] originates from Hungarian Wikipedia.<br /> It throws real errors that are trapped using protected calls. It also has a method to compare floats within a given precision. Pikeun daptar sakabéh modul nu ngagunakeun tés unit, tingali [[Husus:NumbuKaDieu/Modul:ScribuntoUnit|nu dipaké]]. == Wikipedia-specific features == Overall: Lua can only get input as text strings passed to the <code><nowiki>{{#invoke:}}</nowiki></code> and what can be fetched via <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.title.new|mw.title.new(...)]]:getContent()</code> and <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#frame:expandTemplate|frame:expandTemplate()]]</code>. Lua output will not be preprocessed unless <code>frame:</code>'''<code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#frame:preprocess|preprocess()]]</code>''' is explicitly called, meaning that template calls and parser functions in the output will not work correctly. Langkung hade ngagunakeun fungsi '''<code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.ustring.len|mw.ustring.len]]</code>''' tibatan <code>[[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#string.len|string.len]]</code>: Di konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2,8 copy> --[[Alfabét Latin]]-- local content_lang = mw.getContentLanguage().code -- su local lang = mw.getCurrentFrame():callParserFunction("#language", content_lang) local lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp = mw.ustring.len(lang), string.len(lang), #lang print(("lang: \"%s\". Mw.ustring.len = %d String.len = %d Sharp = %d"):format(lang, lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp)) --[[Unicode]]-- lang = "اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون" -- Aksara Pégon lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp = mw.ustring.len(lang), string.len(lang), #lang print(("lang: \"%s\". Mw.ustring.len = %d String.len = %d Sharp = %d"):format(lang, lenUnicode, lenByte, lenSharp)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <code>Konsol debug</code> ngarojong Unicode, tapi henteu ngarojong téks katuhu-ka-kenca: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=11> lang: "Sunda". Mw.ustring.len = 5 String.len = 5 Sharp = 5 lang: "اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون". Mw.ustring.len = 15 String.len = 29 Sharp = 29 </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> {| class="wikitable" ![[Alfabét Latin]] !Aksara !Arah !Jumlah karakter !Panjang dina bait |- |'''Sunda''' |[[Basa Sunda]]. |→ kenca ka katuhu. |5 |5 |- |[[Hurup Pégon]] |style="direction:rtl; text-align:right;" |'''اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون'''. |← '''Katuhu''' ka kenca |'''15''' ('''[[Unicode]]''') + 1 titik |<span style="color:red;">29</span> + 1 |} {{#invoke:Utf8debug|ek|اَكسارا ڤَيڮَون.}} Lua code in a wiki page is limited to '''10 s'''econds CPU time (you can look in the source code of a rendered page to see how long a template or module took to parse). Relative to standard Lua, Scribunto offers safe functions (see the [[mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#Differences from standard Lua|differences]] from standard Lua). === Lua input limitations === Lua code in Scribunto is only run when the page is being parsed. Therefore, the only user input that Lua can receive is by ''page editing'' - it cannot create an input box that allows you to type a Fahrenheit temperature and get back the corresponding Celsius temperature when you press a button, or recalculate a piece of the Mandelbrot set depending on which part of the parent set you click on. Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local function toCelsius(tempFahrenheit) return (tempFahrenheit - 32) * 5 / 9 end print(("toCelsius(32°F) = %s°C. toCelsius(68°F) = %d°C"):format(toCelsius(32), toCelsius(68))) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="text" line start=3> toCelsius(32°F) = 0°C. toCelsius(68°F) = 20°C </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> The Lua input can be any Wikipedia text page that can be transcluded (included on another page). This does ''not'' include graphics files (not even .SVG files, although they are actually text, unless you cut and paste it onto a Wiki text page), the list of pages listed in a [[:Kategori:Lua-based templates|category]], nor the contents of [[Wikipedia:Transclusion#Special pages|non-transcludeable]] [[Husus:IndeksAwalan/Modul:|special pages]]. === Wikitext === Transcluded Wikipedia headers frequently contain a hidden code such as <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>"UNIQ5ae8f2aa414ff233-h-3--QINU"</syntaxhighlight> which may need to be stripped out in order for them to be parsed effectively. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> print(string.reverse("UNIQ")) -- Urutan sabalikna tina "UNIQ" nyaéta "QINU" </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> QINU </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Wikilinks of the type <code><nowiki>[[Wikipedia:Pitulung</nowiki></code>'''<code><nowiki>|</nowiki></code>'''<code><nowiki>]]</nowiki></code> won't work if returned as output - they need to be written explicitly as <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>[[Wikipedia:Pitulung|</syntaxhighlight>'''<code><nowiki>Pitulung</nowiki></code>'''<syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>]]</syntaxhighlight>. Other pre-save transforms, such as replacing <code>~~<nowiki/>~~</code> with signatures, will also fail to be processed. Template transclusions, parser function calls, and variable substitutions (i.e. anything with a <code><nowiki>{{...}}</nowiki></code>) will not be processed, nor will tags such as {{tag|ref|o}} or {{tag|nowiki|o}}. === Debugging === ; Galat nu katingali dina kaca Kaca wiki [[Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu]] ngahasilkeun dua galat: <blockquote>{{:Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu}}</blockquote> {{collapse top|title=Modul:Navbar Judul teu valid}} # [[Citakan:Kotakinfo Kalurahan]] nyaur [[Citakan:Infobox settlement]] ku parameter nu teu dipikawanoh <code>|coordinates_display=</code> jeung <code>|other_code_type=</code>. # Galat Lua dina Modul:Navbar di baris 58: Judul teu valid , {{{kota}}}. ; Ngurangan masalah Pikeun misahkeun galat Lua, uji [[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]]: <blockquote>{{Cikedung, Indramayu}}</blockquote> Daptar 17 kaca nu kapangaruhan ku ieu masalah: [[Special:WhatLinksHere/Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]] ; Ngaréka ulang dina <code>Modul:</code>Yesno Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{Cikedung, Indramayu}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> <strong class="error"><span class="scribunto-error mw-scribunto-error-e20d3541">Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 58: Invalid title , {{{kota}}}.</span></strong> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Mariksa <code>Modul:</code>Navbar Kode patali dina [[Modul:Navbar#L-58]] nyaéta: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=5> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Nambahkeun tanda petik dina <code>title_text</code> mah ''opsional'' pikeun ngagampangkeun pesen galat. # Pasang <code>title_text</code> dina tanda petik. # PANGJAOAN: '''<span style="color:red;">ULAH</span>''' ngaklik "<s><code>Pedalkeun parobahan</code></s>" ("<s><code>Publish changes</code></s>"). <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=4> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error(cfg.invalid_title .. "\"" .. title_text .. "\"") error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Uji dina preview Dina kaca preview, pake template ieu: # Témpélkeun <code>Pratayang halaman dengan templat ini</code> (caller template): <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy>Jatisura, Cikedung, Indramayu</syntaxhighlight></blockquote> # Klik <code>Lihat pratayang</code> (Show preview) Pesen galat jadi: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 57: Invalid title ", {{{kota}}}". </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Ieu nuduhkeun yén koma <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>", "</syntaxhighlight> aya dina judul nu salah, nyaéta <code>, {{{kota}}}</code>. ; Ngalenyepan caller Pikeun nyaho template nu nelepon, lebetkeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=54 highlight=4> local function make_list(title_text, has_brackets, displayed_links, is_mini, font_style) local title = mw.title.new(mw.text.trim(title_text), cfg.title_namespace) if not title then error("Caller: \"" .. mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent():getTitle() .. "\"") error(cfg.invalid_title .. title_text) end </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Sanggeus <code>then</code>, témpélkeun: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=57 highlight=1 copy> error("Caller: \"" .. mw.getCurrentFrame():getParent():getTitle() .. "\"") </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Pesen galat jadi: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 57: Caller: "Citakan:Navbox". </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Akar masalah [[Citakan:kac-2]] dialihkeun ka [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]], jadi bugna lain dina modul Lua, tapi dina parameter nu dipake ku caller. Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |nami dati2=Indramayu}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Parameter Sunda <code>|nami dati2=</code> teu dipaliré sabab modul Lua ngarepkeun ngaran parameter dina basa Indonésia: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=2> <strong class="error"><span class="scribunto-error mw-scribunto-error-e20d3541">Lua error in Modul:Navbar at line 58: Invalid title , {{{kota}}}.</span></strong> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Perhatikeun koma <syntaxhighlight lang="lua" inline>", "</syntaxhighlight> dituturkeun ku <code>{{{kota}}}</code>. [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]] dimimitian ku: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> <noinclude>{{gabungdari|Navigasi kampung}}</noinclude> {{Navbox |name = {{{name<includeonly>|{{{nama kecamatan|{{{kecamatan|{{{distrik|{{{kapanewon|{{{kemantren|}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}, {{{nama dati2|{{{kabupaten|{{{kota}}}}}}}}}</includeonly><noinclude>|Navigasi ID Desa</noinclude>}}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Jadi nilai standar <code>|name=</code> jadi runtah nu teu disangka, nyaéta <code>, {{{kota}}}</code>. # Upami argumén <code>kemantren</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; upami henteu, mulangkeun runtuyan kosong. # Ngahasilkeun koma tuluy spasi. # Upami argumén <code>nama dati2</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; # upami henteu, upami <code>kabupaten</code> ditetepkeun, mulangkeun nilaina; upami henteu, mulangkeun <code>{{{kota}}}</code> Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{{kemantren|}}}, {{{nama dati2|{{{kabupaten|{{{kota}}}}}}}}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Henteu aya argumén anu ditetepkeun. <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> , {{{kota}}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> ; Pemetaan parameter Sintésis {| class="wikitable" ! Sunda ! Indonésia ! Inggris |- | nami | nama | name |- | nami kacamatan | nama kecamatan | name of the district |- | [[Citakan:Kotakinfo_Kalurahan#:~:text=nami|Citakan:Kotakinfo Kalurahan]] | [[Citakan:Navigasi ID Desa]] | [[Citakan:Navbox#:~:text=name|Citakan:Navbox]] |} ; Solusi Pake ngaran parameter basa Indonésia dina caller supaya teu kudu ngarobah modul Lua: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=1 copy> local wikitext="{{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |kabupaten=Indramayu |nama kecamatan=Cikedung}}" print(mw.getCurrentFrame():preprocess(wikitext)) </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> HTML navbox hasilna hasil dibangkitkeun kalawan suksés: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line start=3> <div class="navbox-styles"><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000006-QINU`"'<DEL><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000000-QINU`"'<DEL></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kecamatan_Cikedung,_Kabupatén_Indramayu,_&amp;#123;&amp;#123;&amp;#123;provinsi&amp;#125;&amp;#125;&amp;#125;" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible manualcollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000002-QINU`"'<DEL><DEL>'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000004-QINU`"'<DEL><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-lihat">[[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu|<abbr title="Lihat templat ini">l</abbr>]]</li><li class="nv-bicara">[[Obrolan citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu|<abbr title="Diskusikan templat ini">b</abbr>]]</li><li class="nv-sunting">[//su.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citakan:Cikedung,_Indramayu&action=edit<abbr title="Sunting templat ini">s</abbr>]</li></ul></div><div id="Kecamatan_Cikedung,_Kabupatén_Indramayu,_&amp;#123;&amp;#123;&amp;#123;provinsi&amp;#125;&amp;#125;&amp;#125;" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">[[Cikedung, Indramayu|Kecamatan Cikedung]], [[Kabupatén Indramayu]], [[{{{provinsi}}}]]</div></th></tr></table></div> </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> [[Citakan:Cikedung, Indramayu]] dimimitian ku: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=3> {{kac-2 |propinsi=Jawa Barat |dati2=Kabupatén |nami dati2=Indramayu |nami kacamatan=Cikedung}} </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> Dina konsol debug [[modul:Yesno]]: <blockquote><syntaxhighlight lang="lua" line highlight=2,4 copy> local frame = mw.getCurrentFrame() local argSundanese = {propinsi='Jawa Barat', dati2='Kabupatén', ["nami dati2"]='Indramayu', ["nami kacamatan"]='Cikedung'} print("1. Ko: " .. frame:expandTemplate{title="kac-2", args=argSundanese}) -- fails local argIndonesian = {propinsi='Jawa Barat', dati2='Kabupatén', kabupaten ='Indramayu', ["nama kecamatan"]='Cikedung'} print("2. OK: " .. frame:expandTemplate{title="kac-2", args=argIndonesian}) -- works </syntaxhighlight></blockquote> {{collapse bottom}} == Labeling converted templates == {{lua|Module:Bananas}} Please place the {{tl|lua}} template on the documentation subpage of all templates that use Lua. It will help to better communicate Lua usage and template conversions. {{clear}} == See also == * [[Husus:IndeksAwalan/Modul:]] daptar modul Lua * [[:Kategori:Lua-based templates]] &ndash; l-groups ta templates based kan Lua ; English Wikipedia-specific resources * [[:mw:Manual:Coding conventions/Lua]] &ndash; standards to improve the readability of code through consistency * [[:en:Help:Lua debugging]] &ndash; a how-to guide about debugging Lua modules * [[:en:Module:Sandbox]] provides a pseudo-namespace for experimenting with Lua modules * [[:en:Wikipedia talk:Lua]] &ndash; requests for Lua-based templates or tasks == Notes == {{reflist}} {{WikiProject Lua/header}} [[Category:Wikipedia modules]] 11vtfss0sht0ngiynmq94i2z1ay7pv3 Kancil 0 42258 712338 659087 2026-08-28T21:08:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Spésiés mamalia}} {{Speciesbox | name = Kancil (''T. kanchil'') | image = Kleinkantschil im Dschungelzelt in Hellabrunn 6626.jpg | image_caption = Kancil di hiji kebon satwa [[Jérman]] | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Timmins, R. |author2=Duckworth, J.W. |date=2015 |title=''Tragulus kanchil'' |volume=2015 |page=e.T136297A61978576 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T136297A61978576.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Tragulus | species = kanchil | authority = [[Stamford Raffles|Raffles]], 1821 | synonyms = }} '''Kancil''', '''peucang melayu''', atawa ('''''Tragulus kanchil''''') nyaéta hiji spésiés [[ungulata kuku jangkep]] ti kulawarga [[Tragulidae]]. ==Sebaran== Kancil sumebar lega ampir di sakuliah [[Asia Tenggara]] ([[Indocina]], [[Myanmar]] ([[Kra Isthmus]]), [[Brunei]], [[Kamboja]], [[Yunan]] kidul, [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], [[Laos]], [[Singapura]], [[Tailan]], jeung [[Piétnam]]. ==Pedaran== [[Image:Adult Lesser mouse-deer (Tragulus kanchil), Singapore - 20141001.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Kancil di Singapura.]] Ieu sato minangka [[mamalia]] kukuan pangleutikna, ukur 45 cm/2 kg. Populasina nyirorot alatan sok dimangsa anjing liar. Najan mimitina dianggap sato anu liar peuting, horéng sok liar beurang ogé. ==Dongéng== Sato peucang atawa kancil kawentar pisan dina dongéng barudak di [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Malaysia]], sakapeung eusi caritana sarupa jeung dongéng ti Kulon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Backus |first1=Emma M. |title=Folk-Tales from Georgia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-folklore_january-march-1900_13_48/page/19 |journal=The Journal of American Folklore |date=1900 |volume=13 |issue=48 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.2307/533730 |jstor=533730 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jon C. Stott|title=A Book of Tricksters: Tales from Many Lands |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8bhVp7TiEoC&pg=PA38|date=21 September 2010|publisher=Heritage House Publishing Co|isbn=978-1-926613-69-7|page=38}}</ref><ref name="Zahari">{{cite book|author=Rahimidin Zahari|title=Sang Kancil and the snail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQRmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|publisher=ITBM|isbn=978-967-460-035-8|page=49}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.mythfolklore.net/3043mythfolklore/reading/remus/pages/10.htm |title = Uncle Remus (Myth-Folklore Online)}}</ref> ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} * ''[https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=14200130 Mammal Species of the World]'' Kusuda, S., Adachi, I., Fujioka, K., Nakamura, M., Amano-Hanzawa, N., Goto, N., et al. (2013). Reproductive characteristics of female lesser mouse deers (tragulus javanicus) based on fecal progestagens and breeding records. Animal Reproduction Science, 137(1-2), 69-73. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2012.12.008 {{Artiodactyla|R.}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q1059263}} [[Category:Tragulus]] [[Category:Mamalia Brunei]] [[Category:Mamalia Kamboja]] [[Category:Mamalia Cina]] [[Category:Mamalia Indonésia]] [[Category:Mamalia Laos]] [[Category:Mamalia Malaysia]] [[Category:Mamalia Myanmar]] [[Category:Mamalia Singapura]] [[Category:Mamalia Tailan]] [[Category:Mamalia Piétnam]] [[Category:Mamalia Kalimantan]] fhxwu6kg0gzcmrlc8ku3nm20bc0cbrl Ékosistem 0 43787 712412 673745 2026-08-28T22:57:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Refimprove|date=Maret 2016}} [[Image:Blue Linckia Starfish.JPG|thumb|[[Karang koral]] mangrupa [[ékosistem laut]] [[produktivitas (ékologi)|pangproduktifna]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hatcher|first=Bruce Gordon|year=1990|title=Coral reef primary productivity. A hierarchy of pattern and process|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-ecology-evolution_1990_5_5/page/149|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|volume=5|issue=5|pages=149–155|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(90)90221-X|pmid=21232343}}</ref>]] [[Image:River gambia Niokolokoba National Park.gif|thumb|Ékosistem [[leuweung hujan]] beunghar [[biodiversitas]]na. Ieu gambar nyaéta [[Walungan Gambia]] di [[Taman Nasional Niokolo-Koba]] nu aya di [[Sénégal]].]] '''Ékosistem''' nyaéta sistim [[ékologi]] anu kawangun ku alatan ayana hubungan [[timbal balik]] anu teu bisa dipisahkeun antara mahluk hirup jeung [[lingkungan]].{{fact}} Ékosistem ogé bisa dianggap salaku ''susunan'' unit nu lengkep sarta sajero antara unsur [[lingkungan]] nu silih pangaruhan<ref name=woo>http://woocara.blogspot.com/2015/02/pengertian-ekosistem-komponen-dan-tipe.html#ixzz3eYJeiiye</ref>. Ékosistem nyaéta gabungan tina unit [[biosistem]] nu ngalibatkeun hubungan interaksi bulak balik antara organisme jeung lingkungan fisik ku kituna aliran énérgi ka arah struktur biotik husus anu nyababkeun lumangsungna [[siklus]] matéri antara [[organisme]] jeung [[anorganisme]].{{fact}} [[Panon poé]] nyaéta sumber sakumna énergi dina ékosistem.<ref name=woo /> Dina hiji ékosistem, [[komunitas]] organisme mekar babarengan jeung lingkungan fisik.{{fact}} Organisme bakal adaptasi jeung lingkungan fisik jeung organisme sabalikna ogé bisa mangaruhan lingkungan fisik anu digunakeun pikeun tujuan hirup.{{fact}} Ayana hiji spésiés dina hiji ékosistem ditangtukeun ku tingkat kasadiaan jeung kaayaan sahiji faktor [[kimia]] jeung fisik nu kudu aya dina lingkup nu masih bisa ditolerir ku [[spésiés]] éta sorangan, tah éta nu disebut ''hukum toléransi''.{{fact}} Di handap ieu komponén nu ngabentuk ékosistem jeung tipe ekosistem.<ref name=woo /> ==Komponen nu ngabentuk ekosistem== ===Abiotik=== {{main|Abiotik}} ''Abiotik'' atawa komponén nu teu hirup nyaéta komponén fisik jeung [[kimia]] médium atawa substrat jadi tempat pikeun hirup atawa lingkungan di mana cicing.{{fact}} lolobana komponén abiotik geus variasi dina waktu jeung ruang.{{fact}} Komponén abiotik dina bentuk bahan organik, sanyawa anorganik, ogé faktor nu mangaruhan sebaran organisme, di antarana:<ref name=woo /> #[[Suhu]]:Prosés biologis ogé dipangaruhan ku suhu.{{fact}} [[Mamalia]] jeung manuk bakal butuh énérgi pikeun bisa ngatur suhu jero awak.{{fact}} #[[Cai]]:Kasadiaan cai ogé bisa mangaruhan sebaran organisme.{{fact}} Organisme kapanggih di tanah gurun adaptasi jeung kasadiaan cai di tanah gurun.{{fact}} #[[Uyah]]:Konsentrasi uyah ogé mangaruhan kasaimbangan cai di organisme ngaliwatan [[osmosis]].{{fact}} Sababaraha organisme [[terestrial]] bisa adaptasi di lingkungan jeung eusi uyah luhur.{{fact}} #[[Cahaya panonpoe]]:''Inténsitas'' jeung ''kualitas'' cahya panonpoé bisa mangaruhan prosés fotosintésis.{{fact}} Cai bisa nyerep cahaya jadi anu kajadian di lingkungan akuatik, fotosintésis lumangsung kira beungeut nu bisa ditempuh ku cahya panonpoé.{{fact}} Di tanah gurun, inténsitas cahaya bisa nyieun kanaékan anu kacida gedéna di suhu, ieu bisa ngabalukarkeun sato jeung tutuwuhan depresi.{{fact}} #[[Taneuh]] jeung [[batu]]:''Karakteristik'' taneuh anu di antarana, struktur fisik , komposisi [[mineral]], jeung limit pH sumebarna organisme nu dumasar kana eusi sumber kadaharan dina taneuh.{{fact}} #[[Iklim]]:Iklim nyaéta kaayaan cuaca di hiji wewengkon atawa daérah dina jangka panjang.{{fact}} Iklim makro antarana iklim global, lokal, jeung regional.{{fact}} Iklim mikro antarana iklim di hiji wewengkon dicicingan ku sababaraha masarakat nu tangtu.{{fact}} ===Biotik=== {{main|Biotik}} Biotik nyaéta hiji istilah nu dipaké pikeun ngagambarkeun hiji organisme.{{fact}} Komponén biotik nu mangrupa sahiji komponén ekosistem sagigireun komponén abiotik.{{fact}} Dumasar kalungguhan jeung fungsi mahluk hirup sorangan dibagi jadi dua, nyaéta hétérotrofik atawa konsumén jeung dekomposer atawa pengurai:<ref name=woo /> 1. Hétérotrofik / konsumen :Komponén [[hétérotrofik]] ngawengku organisme nu ngamangpaatkeun bahan organik nu geus disadiakeun ku organisme séjén salaku sumber dahareun. {{fact}}Komponén hétérotrofik disebut pamakéna ''makro'' atawa ''fagotrof'' alatan ukuran leutik sahiji kadaharan didahar.{{fact}} Grup hétérotrofik digolongkeun manusa, sato, mikroba jeung fungi.{{fact}} 2. Pangurai (''pengurai'') :Pangurai nyaéta organisme nu narik bahan organik nu diturunkeun tina organisme nu geus paéh.{{fact}} Pengurai disebut pamakéna makro atawa sapotrof.{{fact}} Hal ieu sabab dahareun nu dikonsumsi ukuranana leuwih gedé.{{fact}} Organisme pengurai nyerep sababaraha hasil tina dékomposisi sarta ngaleupaskeun bahan basajan nu bahanna bisa dipaké deui ku produsén teh.{{fact}} Digolongkeun kana pengurai kelas pengurai nu [[baktéri]] jeung [[fungi]].{{fact}} Aya tilu tipe dékomposisi, nyaéta: :*Aérobik: [[oksigén]] salaku akséptor éléktron atawa oksidan :*Anaérobik: oksigén teu kalibet jeung akséptor éléktron bahan organik atawa oksidan :*Férméntasi: material tacan organik anaérobik nu geus dioksidasi ogé akséptor éléktron.{{fact}} Komponén jadi tempat jeung interaksi ngawangun ekosistem ngahiji kalawan rutin.{{fact}} ==Satuan mahluk hirup dina ékosistem== *Individu mangrupa organisme hirup, contona [[manuk]].{{fact}} *Populasi nyaéta susunan mahluk hirup anu cicing dina kurun waktu nu tangtu sarta bisa baranahan, misalna populasi sireum.{{fact}} *Masarakat nyaéta kumpulan populasi nu nempatan wewengkon sarua dina hiji wanci nu lila pisan.{{fact}} *Ékosistem nyaéta kumpulan muantap masarakat saméméhna mimilukeun interaksi antara mahluk hirup.<ref>http://softilmu.blogspot.com/2014/01/pengertian-dan-komponen-ekosistem.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417183436/http://softilmu.blogspot.com/2014/01/pengertian-dan-komponen-ekosistem.html |date=2015-04-17 }}</ref> ==Tipe-tipe ékosistem== ===Ékosistem [[akuatik]] (perairan)=== Ékosistem akuatik ngawengku ékosistem (cai) tawar jeung ékosistem laut.{{fact}} Conto ékosistem tawar di antarana [[balong]], [[walungan]], [[situ]], [[ranca]], nipah péat.{{fact}} Sementara éta, ékosistem laut, contona [[bakau]], ranca payau, muhara, basisir keusik, basisir taringgul, laut déét jeung laut jero.{{fact}} ====Ékosistem tawar==== Ékosistem tawar umumna miboga ciri di handap ieu: #Salinitas (eusi uyah) nyaéta saeutik, umumna leuwih handap ti batan konséntrasi uyah organisme sél plasma nu cicing di dinya.{{fact}} #Kaayaan lingkungan kapangaruhan ku iklim jeung cuaca.{{fact}} #Variasi dina suhu antara bagian luhur jeung dasar saeutik pisan, rélatif sarua.{{fact}} #Pénétrasi cahaya dina cai kurang<ref name=you>http://www.zonasiswa.com/2014/09/ekosistem-pengertian-komponen-tipe.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622120244/http://www.zonasiswa.com/2014/09/ekosistem-pengertian-komponen-tipe.html |date=2015-06-22 }}</ref>. ====Ékosistem laut==== Ékosistem laut miboga ciri-ciri saperti di handap: #Boga salinitas luhur, nu leuwih luhur nu leuwih deukeut ka katulistiwa.{{fact}} #Mineral NaCl ngadominasi ékosistem laut nepi ka ngahontal 75%.{{fact}} #Iklim jeung cuaca teu mangaruhan ékosistem laut.{{fact}} #Aya variasi dina béda suhu antara suhu permukaan jeung jero.<ref name=you /> ===Ékosistem darat (terestrial)=== Ékosistem [[terestrial]] nu boga tipe struktur vegetasi dominan dina skala nu lega disebut biomes.{{fact}} Biome Deployment kapangaruhan ku iklim, géografi, latitude jeung luhurna lokasi permukaan laut.{{fact}} Dumasar posisi géografis, iklim, latitude jeung luhurna lokasi permukaan laut biome dibédakeun saperti kieu.<ref name=you /> ====Bioma [[gurun]]==== [[Bioma]] nu aya di beulahan dunya perenahna kira 20° -30° lintang kalér jeung lintang kidul, atawa di wewengkon tropis nu wawatesan jeung bioma padang jukut. Karakteristik bioma gurun nyaéta kieu.{{fact}} #Curah hujan leutik, 25&nbsp;cm per taun.{{fact}} #Radiasi panon poé panas pisan, évaporasi luhur, jeung suhu beurang bisa tepikeun ka 40&nbsp;°C nalika usum panas.{{fact}} #Béda suhu antara beurang jeung peuting kacida gedéna.{{fact}} ====Bioma padang jukut==== Bioma [[padang jukut]] sumebar ti wewengkon tropis nepi ka sub-tropis.{{fact}} Karakteristik bioma padang pasir nyaéta kieu.{{fact}} #Curah hujan 25–50&nbsp;cm per taun kalayan hujan nu henteu teratur.{{fact}} #Végetasi didominasi ku [[jukut]]. Jukut bioma tegalan hirup dina kaayaan nu rélatif baseuh. Ukuranana bisa tepikeun ka tilu méter, contona bluestem jeung jujukutan [[jukut India]]. Jukut anu tumuwuh dina daratan jukut bioma garing ukuranana pondok, contona grana jeung jukut munding.{{fact}} #Satona nyaéta [[bison]], [[zébra]], [[kangguru]], [[singa]], [[maung]], [[anjing liar]], [[oray rodentia]], [[simeut]] jeung [[manuk]].{{fact}} ====Bioma leuweung gugur==== Sacara umum, aya kira-kira wewengkon [[subtropis]] nu teu ukur ngalaman usum panas jeung usum tiis.{{fact}} Leuweung gugur aya ogé rupa gunung di wewengkon tropis. Karakteristik bioma leuweung gugur nyaéta kieu: #Curah hujan sedeng, nu 75 –150&nbsp;cm per taun.{{fact}} #Ngalaman opat usum, panas, gugur, tiis jeung semi.{{fact}} #Tutuwuhana lamun geus cukup kolot daunna muguran.{{fact}} #Végetasina nyaéta tangkal mapel, ek, beech, katut elm.{{fact}} #Sato nu nyicingan umumna aya [[kijang]], [[biruang]], [[rakun]], [[bajing]], jeung manuk [[caladi]].{{fact}} ====Leuweung hujan tropis==== Ieu bioma kapanggih di wewengkon katulistiwa kalawan suhu luhur kira-kira 25&nbsp;°C. Karakteristik leuweung hujan tropis nyaéta kieu: #Curah hujan bioma leuweung hujan tropis anu cukup luhur, kira-kira 200–225&nbsp;cm per taun.{{fact}} #Tutuwuhanna jangkung jeung subur ngabentuk payung nu nyababkeun lanté leuweung jadi poék jeung beueus.{{fact}} #Tutuwuhan hasna nyaéta liana jeung [[épifit]]. Conto liana nyaéta hoé sedengkeun conto épifit nyaéta [[angkrék]].{{fact}} #[[Végetasi]] didominasi ku tutuwuhan nu aktip dina fotosintésis, saperti jati, meranti, tutuwuhan nu daunna siga jarum, sarta keruing.{{fact}} #Sato ieu didominasi ku sagala rupa [[monyét]], [[céléng]], [[manuk]], [[ucing leuweung]], bajing jeung maung.{{fact}} ====Bioma taiga==== Ieu bioma aya di wewengkon kalér leuweung gugur subtropis jeung gunung tropis.{{fact}} Karakteristik bioma taiga nyaéta kieu: #Curah hujan anu kira 35&nbsp;cm per taun.{{fact}} #Bioma nu biasana diwangun ku ukur hiji spésiés tangkal, nu daunna siga jarum (contona [[pines]]).{{fact}} #Période tuwuhna flora dina usum panas antara 3 nepi ka 6 bulan.{{fact}} #Suhu dina usum handap pisan, sarta ngalaman usum nu lila.{{fact}} #Spésiés végetasi (picca), alder (alaus), birch (berula) jeung junipce (juniperus).{{fact}} #Sato kaasup [[uncal]], [[biruang hideung]], [[ajag]] jeung [[morten]].{{fact}} ====Bioma tundra==== Ieu bioma tuwuh di beulahan bumi béh kalér dina bunderan kutub kalér nu disebut tundra Arktik sedengkeun di punclut [[gunung Alpine]] mah disebutna tundra. Karakteristik bioma tundra nyaéta kieu: #Curah hujan anu kira-kira 10&nbsp;cm per taun.{{fact}} #Iklim kutub, iklim jeung usum tiis nu lila tur poék, usum semi nu panjang tur caang terus.{{fact}} #Tangkal anu jangkung, komo lamun aya rungkun nu kandel.{{fact}} #Normal kembangan tutuwuhan taunan jeung warna keuna dina jangka tumuwuh pondok.{{fact}} #Vegetasi Spaghnum, lichens (lumut kerak) jeung shrubs (perdu).{{fact}} #Sato ''muskox'', uncal, kelenci, ajag, uncal jeung domba.{{fact}} ===Ekosistem jieunan=== Ekosistem jieunan nyaéta hiji ékosistem anu dijieun ku manusa keur kaperluan maranéhanana.{{fact}} ====[[Waduk]]==== Hiji ékosistem jieunan dina bentuk panahan wangunan atawa penimbun cai pikeun sagala rupa kaperluan, saperti [[irigasi]], generasi daya.<ref name=you /> ====Leuweung industri==== Leuweung anu ngahaja dipelak ku rupa tutuwuhan industri.{{fact}} Rupa umum pepelakan anu dipelak jati, pinus, [[mahoni]], [[rasamala]], jeung résin.{{fact}} ====[[Agroékosistem]]==== Hiji ékosistem jieunan kayaning ékosistem [[pertanian]], saperti [[béas]] kairigasi, sawah tadah hujan, béas surjan, ranca, béas, sawah pasang surut, pakebonan (entéh, kopi, minyak palem, jeung karét), balong, jeung sawah<ref name=you />. ==Sumber== {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] td39wo5gklhq76pmw8t399oh4xgfx1v Polistiréna 0 46134 712355 705744 2026-08-28T21:39:36Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712355 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Polystyrene.svg|thumb|180px|Bagiean kantétan polistirene.]] [[File:Expanded polystyrene foam dunnage.jpg|thumb|Pamungkus tina polistyréné (Expanded)/EPS]] [[File:Envase de yogur.jpg|thumb|Wadah yogurt tina bahan polistyréné]] [[File:Polystyrol-IR.png|thumb|right|160px|Spéktrum transmisi Infrabeureum film polystyrene.]] '''Polystyrene''' ('''PS''')/IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ɒ|l|i|ˈ|s|t|aɪ|r|iː|n /Polistiréné (PS) mangrupa polimér aromatik sintétik anu dijieun tina ''styrene monomer''. Polistiréné wujudna bisa waé padet atawa busa-na. Sipat umum polistiréné geus jelas saperti teuas, sarta rada regas. Harga tiap kilona kawilang murah.<ref name="acc">{{cite web|title=Common Plastic Resins Used in Packaging|url=http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Education-Resources/Hands-on-Plastics/Introduction-to-Plastics-Science-Teaching-Resources/History-of-Polymers-Plastics-for-Teachers.html|work=Introduction to Plastics Science Teaching Resources|publisher=American Chemistry Council, Inc.|accessdate=24 December 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503065606/http://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Education-Resources/Hands-on-Plastics/Introduction-to-Plastics-Science-Teaching-Resources/History-of-Polymers-Plastics-for-Teachers.html |date=3 May 2012 }}</ref> Polistiréné téh aslinamah bisa hérang/transparan, tapi bisa waé maké kelir éta gumantung kabutuhan. Sok dipaké ogé pamungkus luar (seperti mungkus [[kacang]], CD, DVD jeung lain-laina), wadah (saperti "clamshell"), tutup, [[botol]], [[gelas]], jeung [[séndok]], [[garpu]] sakali paké. <ref>[http://plastics.ulprospector.com/generics/43/polystyrene-ps ulpospector]</ref> Hanjakalna polistiréné ieu lila pisan ancurna henteu ''biodegrade'' anu matak jadi bahan anu terus disawalakeun, pangpangna lamun ieu barang seug mah dipiceun samarangan ka susukan atawa got ieu plastik tangtuna bakal ngajadikeun hiji sabab banjir. Lantaran bisa mengpetan liang [[cai]]. [[file:Plastic-recyc-06.svg|Recycling-Code von Polystyrol]] ==Sajarah== Polystyrene/polistiréné kapanggih ku [[Eduard Simon]] dina taun [[1839]],<ref>[http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/plastics.htm The history of plastics]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Inventors.about.com (15 June 2010). Retrieved 25 December 2011.</ref> saurang apotékér ti [[Bérlin]]. Di storax ti [[Turki]], manéhna nyuling/ ''distilled résin'' anu asalna tina geutah tangkal sweetgum orientalis anu ngandung minyak, anu hasilna dibéré ngaran styrol. Sababaraha poé tiharita ieu Simon manggihan yén styrol jadi jelly/ngageblég ku alatan aya oksida ("Styroloxyd"). Saterusna kimiawan [[John Buddle Blyth]] anu lahir [[1845]] jeung ahli [[kimia]] urang [[Jérman]] [[Agustus Wilhelm von Hofmann]] némbongkeun yén salila ''transformation'' styrol lumangsung henteu ngabutuhkeun oksigén. Maranéhanana nyebut ieu zat métastyrol. Panalungtikan satuluyna ngébréhkeun yén ieu kimia téh sarua pisan/idéntik jeung [[Styroloxyd]]. Dina taun [[1866]] Marcelin Berthelot nalungtik ieu formasi metastyrol / Styroloxyd ti styrol salaku prosés polimérisasi. Saengeusna 80 kaliwat kakara kapanggih yén manaskeun styrol bakalngahasilkeun réaksi kantétan makromolekul, manéhna ahli kimia organik Jerman Hermann Staudinger ([[1881]]-[[1965]]) nya dingaranan waé ieu zat téh nyaéta ''polystyrene''. Pausahaan IG Farben mimiti muka pabrik polystyrene di Ludwigshafen, dina taun [[1931]], ieu bakal jadi gaganti [[séng]] dina loba kagunaan. Sukses ieu kahontal nalika tumuwuh wadah réaktor pikeun nga extruded polystyrene ngaliwatan tabung/solobong/tube dipanaskeun tuliy dipotongan, ngahasilkeun polystyrene dina bentuk pellet/guruntulan. Dina taun [[1941]], Dow Chemical nyiptakeun prosés Styrofoam.<ref>{{cite web|title=Invention of STYROFOAM™|url=http://building.dow.com/about/invention.htm|publisher=Dow Chemical|accessdate=23 December 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027100636/http://building.dow.com/about/invention.htm |date=27 October 2012 }}</ref> Saméméh taun [[1949]], insinyur kimia saengang Stastny ([[1908]]-[[1985]]) dimekarkeun pre-dilegaan manik PS ku incorporating hidrokarbon alifatik, saperti pentane. Di handap ieu mangrupa bahan baku pikeun molding bagian atawa extruding. BASF jeung Stastny diterapkeun keur patén nu dikaluarkeun dina 1949. Prosés molding ieu nunjukkeun di Kunststoff Messe [[1952]] di Düsseldorf. Produk anu ngaranna Styropor. Struktur kristal tina polystyrene isotactic ieu dilaporkeun ku [[Giulio Natta]].<ref>{{cite doi |10.1007/BF02731861}}</ref> Dina taun [[1954]], Koppers Company di [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], mekarkeun (EPS)/busa kalayan ngaran dagang Dylite.<ref>Page 207 of Rigid Plastics Foams 2nd edition by T.H. Ferrigno published in 1967.</ref> Dina taun [[1960]], [[Dart Container]], mangrupa pabrik cangkir tina bahan busa pangbadagna, order kahiji maranéhanana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Celebrating 50 Years of Excellence in People and Products|url=http://www.dartcontainer.com/web/products.nsf/pages/celebrating50timeline.html|publisher=Dart Container Corporation|accessdate=23 December 2012}}</ref> Taun [[1988]], AS mimiti ngabatesan ieu pamakéan busa polystyrene keur dipaké umum di [[Berkeley]], [[California]].<ref name="berkeley-1988">{{cite news|title=Berkeley Widens Ban on Foam Food Containers|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1988-06-16/news/mn-6881_1_foam-food-containers|accessdate=23 December 2012|newspaper=The Los Angeles Times|date=16 June 1988}}</ref> ==Golongan Polistirene== Dumasar kana sipat pisik jeung paninggalian, ieu bahan polistirene dibédakeun kana opat golongan di antarana wae: #GPPS PS (Basa Inggris: ''General Purpose Polystyrene''), katempona herang/ transparan, teuas, sarta regas. #HIPS (Basa Inggris: ''High impact Polystyrene''), rada kuat henteu regas jiga GPPS warnana bodas susu (White opaque) #EPS (Basa Inggris: ''Polystyrene Expandable''; PSE di [[Prancis]]) EPS nyaéta busa padet kalayan kombinasi unik karakteristik, kawas herang, sipat panutup/insulasi, kakuatan keur nahan. EPS dipaké dina loba aplikasi kawas papan insulasi termal di gedong, bungkusan, paragi nyimpen barang berharga jeung bungkusan dahareun.<ref>[http://www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/expanded-polystyrene.aspx plasticeurope] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918221350/http://www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/expanded-polystyrene.aspx |date=2015-09-18 }}</ref> ==Barang anu dihasilkeun== Polystyrene/polistirene lolobanaa dipaké dina mesin citakan /[[injection molding]], sistem sedot [[vacuum forming]], atawa di [[extruded]], expandedPolystyrene/polistirene dijieun maké citakan husus. Polystyrene/polistirene kopolimer ogé bisa dijieun; di dieu bahan ieu ngandung hiji ata leuwih monomers dicampurkeun kana [[stirene]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Doroudiani S, Kortschot MT|year=2004|title=Expanded Wood Fiber Polystyrene Composites: Processing-Structure-Mechanical Properties Relationships|journal=Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials|volume=17|pages=13–30|doi=10.1177/0892705704035405}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/polb.10129|title=Sorption and diffusion of carbon dioxide in wood-fiber/polystyrene composites|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-polymer-science-part-b-polymer-physics_2002-04-15_40_8/page/723|year=2002|last1=Doroudiani|first1=Saeed|last2=Chaffey|first2=Charles E.|last3=Kortschot|first3=Mark T.|journal=Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics|volume=40|page=723|issue=8}}</ref> and starch<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1177/0021955X07076532|title=Foaming of Polystyrene/ Thermoplastic Starch Blends|year=2007|last1=Mihai|first1=M.|last2=Huneault|first2=M. A.|last3=Favis|first3=B. D.|journal=Journal of Cellular Plastics|volume=43|page=215|issue=3}}</ref> ==Tingali oge== *[[Polyamide]] (Disebut ogé [[nylon]]) *[[Polycarbonate]] *[[Poliétilén]] *[[Poliétilén terephtalate]] (Katelah disebut PET biasana dipaké [[botol]], ogé [[polyester]] dipaké bahan [[baju]] *[[Polipropiléné]] *Polistiréna *[[Polyurethane]] *[[Polyvinyl chloride]] (Katelahna PVC). biasana dipaké [[bungkus]] [[kabel]] [[listrik]]. ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[http://www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/expanded-polystyrene.aspx Platicseurope] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918221350/http://www.plasticseurope.org/what-is-plastic/types-of-plastics-11148/expanded-polystyrene.aspx |date=2015-09-18 }} *[http://plastics.ulprospector.com/generics/43/polystyrene-ps ulpospector] * [http://riodb01.ibase.aist.go.jp/sdbs/cgi-bin/cre_index.cgi?lang=eng Infrarot und Ramanspektrum von Polystyrol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114222220/http://riodb01.ibase.aist.go.jp/sdbs/cgi-bin/cre_index.cgi?lang=eng |date=2013-01-14 }} * [http://www.waermedaemmstoffe.com/htm/polystyrol.htm www.waermedaemmstoffe.com] technische Informationen zu den Dämmstoffen Styropor (EPS) und Styropor (XPS) * [http://www.materialarchiv.ch/#/detail/41/expandiertes-polystyrol/ MATERIAL ARCHIV: Expandiertes Polystyrol] – Umfangreiche Materialinformationen und Bilder * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJ6-jRo1izY Spannungsrisskorrosion von PMMA und PS] Youtube Vidéo: Crazes bei PS {{pondok}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} etf9c74f5m3goq9v22lx27m4gjzv2w3 Leo Hendrik Baekeland 0 46529 712381 711721 2026-08-28T22:17:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person |image = Leo Baekeland ca 1906.jpg |image_size =x300px |caption =Portrait of Leo Baekeland in 1916. |birth_name =Leo Henricus Arthur Baekeland |birth_date =November 14, 1863 |birth_place =[[Sint-Martens-Latem]], [[Belgium]] |death_date ={{Death date and age|1944|2|23|1863|11|14}} |death_place =[[Beacon, New York]], [[United States|USA]] |known_for =naluntik [[plastik]] , [[Bakelite]], [[Novolac]] |awards = [[John Scott Medal]] <small>(1910)</small><br>[[Willard Gibbs Award]] <small>(1913)</small><br>[[Perkin Medal]] {{small|(1916)}}<ref name=Perkin/><BR>[[Franklin Medal]] <small>(1940)</small> |occupation=[[kimiawan]]/[[anu manggihan]] }} [[File:Leo Hendrik Baekeland Gravesite.JPG|250px|thumb|Kuburan-na Leo Hendrik Baekeland]] '''Léo Hendrik Baekeland'''('''Léo Henricus Arthur Baekeland''') nyaéta urang [[Amérika]] anu lahir di ({{lahirmati|[[Bélgia]]|14|10|1863|[[New York]]|23|02|1944}}) nyaéta salah saurang [[ahli kimia]]. Manéhna paling dipikawanoh ku alatan pamaggihna ngeunaan kertas ''fotografik''/Velox dina taun 1893 jeung [[Bakelite]] dina taun 1907. Kasohor ogé ku sebutan " Bapa-na [[Industri]] [[Plastik]]"<ref name=Landmarks>{{cite book|title=Landmarks of the Plastics Industry|date=1962|publisher=Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., Plastics Division|location=England|pages=13-25}}</ref>{{rp|13}} anu mana plastik [[Bakelite]] pamanggih-na kawentar, kahiji murah, ''nonflammable'', Tur sarwaguna, di mana ieu ogé engkéna mangrupa cikal bakal tina industri [[plastik]] modérn.<ref name="heritage">{{cite web |url=http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |title=Chemical Achievers: Leo Hendrik Baekeland |publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation |year=2005 |accessdate=2007-11-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203054604/http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |date=2007-02-03 }}</ref><ref name="time">{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html |title=Time 100: Leo Baekeland |first=Ivan |last=Amato |date=1999-03-29 |accessdate=2007-11-08 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106110739/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/baekeland.html |date=2007-11-06 }}</ref> ==Lalakon Hirup== '''Léo Baekeland''' gumelar di [[Sint-Martens-Latem]], [[Belgia]] dina 14 Nopémber taun 1863,<ref name=Sas>{{cite book|last1=Sas|first1=Benedikt|last2=Vocht|first2=Stanislas De|last3=Jacobs|first3=Philippe|title=Intellectual Property and Assessing its Financial Value|date=2014|publisher=Chandos Publishing|location=Kidlington|isbn=9781843347927|pages=2-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A-pfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref> ngaran bapana cobbler.<ref name=Gratzer>{{cite book|last1=Gratzer|first1=Walter|title=Giant molecules : from nylon to nanotubes|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0199562138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_rBp-R2k2FAC&pg=PT118}}</ref> Léo Baekeland dina mangsa keur leutik kénéh nganjrekna di [[Ghent, Belgium]] nepikeun ka déwasa. Baekeland lulus ti ''Ghent Municipal'' Sakola Tehnik kalawan meunang pamuji nepikeun ka dibéré béasiswa ku ieu Kota Ghent<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|102}} pikeun diajar kimia di [[''University of Ghent'']], Saterusna Baekeland asup dina taun 1880.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|13}}anu teu kungsi lila meunang gelar [[PhD]] kalayan lulus [[Suma cum laude]] dina umur anu kawilang ngora (21 taun).<ref name="Bijker">{{cite book|chapter=The Fourth Kingdom: The Social Construction of Bakelite|pages=101-198|last1=Bijker|first1=Wiebe E.|title=Of bicycles, bakelites, and bulbs : toward a theory of sociotechnical change|date=1997|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=9780262522274|edition=1st MIT Press pbk|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsbmwN8-m1cC&pg=PA138|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref>{{rp|102}}diangkat sumpahna jadi Profesor Fisika jeung Kimia di Sakola Normal ''Pemerintah Tinggi di Bruges''(1887-1889) teu kungsi lila Baekeland diangkat jadi professor kimia di Ghent dina taun 1889.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} Baekeland rimbitan jeung Céline Swarts, putri-na profesor ''Theodore Swarts'' jeung Celine (Plattéau) Swarts, dina 8 Agustus 1889. Anak tina hasil rimbitan-na nyaéta , Géorge, Nina, jeung Jenny.<ref name=NNDB>{{cite web|title=Leo Baekeland|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/363/000094081/|website=NNDB Tracking the entire world|publisher=Soylent Communications|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=Flynn/> ==Karir== Dina taun 1889 Baekeland jeung pamajikanana meunang béasiswa pikeun indit maguron luhur ka [[Inggris]] jeung [[Amérika]].<ref name=Perkin>{{cite journal|title=Perkin Medal Award|journal=The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry|date=1916|volume=8|issue=2|pages=177-190|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSpGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA178|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref>{{rp|178}}<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} maranéhna ngajugjug [[New York City]], di dieu papanggih jeung Profesor Charles F. Chandler ti [[Columbia]] University jeung [[Richard Anthony]], katut HT Anthony Ti parusahaan ''fotografi''. Nya ''Profesor'' Charles F ieu pisan anu méré pangharepan ka Baekeland pikeun netep/dumuk di Amérika Serikat<ref name=Baekeland/> Baekeland geus nyiptakeun hiji tarékah pikeun ngamekarkeun ''pelat'' ''fotografi'' ngagunakeun [[cai]] lain bahan kimia séjéna, anu geus dipaténkeun di [[Belgia]] dina taun 1887;<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|13}} <ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|127-129}} Anthony nempo kana ieu potensi Baekeland dina widang kimia sok sanajan ngorakénéh tuluy waé manéhna (Anthony ) nawarkeun pagawéan ka Baekeland. .<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|130}}<ref name=gehani>{{cite book | last = Gehani | first = R. Ray | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Management of Technology and Operations | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | year = 1998 | location = | pages = [https://archive.org/details/managementoftech0000geha/page/81 81]–82 | url =https://archive.org/details/managementoftech0000geha| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-471-17906-X}}</ref> Baekeland digawé pikeun parusahaan Antony salila dua taun, teu kungsi lila tuluy muka usaha sorangan dina taun 1891 dina widang konsultan kimia.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|130}} Tapi ieu henteu lila manéhna balik deui kana ''kertas'' foto anu geus ditaluntik leuwih jero tur ngahasilkeun di mana bisawaé gambar anu bakal dicitak bisa digedékeun ukuran-na henteu kudu maké cahaya lampu.<ref name="Chemical Age, Velox" >{{Cite book |title=This Chemical Age |chapter=XIX: Materials for To-morrow |last=Haynes |first=Williams |publisher=[[Secker and Warburg]] |location=London |year=1946 |ref=harv |pages=238–239 }}</ref> Sanggeus dua taun usaha satékah polah pikeun ngahasilkeun karya tulis anu sampurna anu dibéré judul "Velox". Nincak mangsana [[Amérika]] ngarandapan katalangsara ku alatan ''résési'' katambah teuaya ''invéstor'' atawa anu meuli kana produk anyarna. Antukna Baekeland ngayakeun gawé bareng jeung Léonard Jacobi ditululuykeun ku ngadegkeun pausahan ''(Nepera Kimia )'' di Nepera Park, [[New York]]. Saterusna ieu jadi ''suksés'' ''komérsil'' kertas fotografik<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|131-135}}<ref name=gehani/> Dina taun 1899, Jacobi, Baekeland, jeung Albert Hahn, ngajual Nepera ka Géorge éastman asalna ti éastman Kodak Co hargana $750,000.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jenkins | first = Reese V. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Images and Enterprise: Technology and the American Photographic Industry, 1839 to 1925 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1975 | location = Baltimore, MD | pages = [https://archive.org/details/imagesenterprise0000jenk/page/191 191]–201 | url =https://archive.org/details/imagesenterprise0000jenk| doi = | id = | isbn = 0801815886}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Haynes<ref name="Chemical Age, Velox" /> quotes a surprising immediate offer of $1,000,000, when Baekeland had been hoping for $50,000 at most.}} tina ieu transaksi Baekeland kabagéan kurang leuwih $215,000.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|134-136}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mercelis|first=Joris|title=Leo Baekeland's Transatlantic Struggle for Bakelite: Patenting Inside and Outside of America|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_technology-and-culture_2012-04_53_2/page/372|journal=Technology and Culture|year=2012|volume=53|issue=2|page=372|doi=10.1353/tech.2012.0067}}</ref> Tuluy waé Baekeland meuli "Snug Rock", hiji imah di Yonkers, [[New York]], di dieu Baekeland ngawangun ''laboratorium'' pribadi anu pereték/lengkep. salah sahiji katangtuan dina mangsa ngajual ieu ''Nepera'', nyaéta Baekeland kudu panuju pikeun henteu ngayakeun deui panalungtikan dina widang ''fotografi'' sahenteuna dina [[waktu]] 20 taun. Manéhna kudu nalungtik widang anu séjén. Dimimitian ku balik deui ka [[Jerman]] dina taun 1900, "geusan nyoréang deui perkara éléktrokimia" di Institut Tehnis di Charlottenburg.<ref name=Landmarks/>{{rp|14}} Dina mangsa mulang deui ka [[Amerika Serikat]], Baekeland sanajan henteu lila mantuan ''Clinton Paul Townsend'' jeung ''Elon Huntington Hooker'' ngaréngsékeun dina ngamekarkeun produksi sél éléktrolit anu hadé. Baekeland dipercaya jadi [[konsultan]] ''independen'', anu mana diamanatkeun pikeun ngawangun jeung ngoperasikeun pabrik ''percontohan''.<ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|138-139}} Baekeland ngamekarkeun sel ''diafragma'' kuat pikeun ''prosés'' ''chloralkali'', maké [[kaén]] [[tinun]] asbés dieusian ku campuran [[oksida]] [[beusi]], ramat asbés jeung beusi [[hidroksida]]. Hasil Baekeland nyampurnakeun ieu penting dina mangsa ngadeg na ''Hooker Chemical Company'' dina ngawangun salah sahiji [[pabrik]] [[elektrokimia]]pang gedéna sadunya.<ref name=Landmarks/><ref name="salt">{{cite book|last=Thomas |first=Robert E. |date=1955 |title=Salt & Water, Power & People: A Short History of Hooker Electrochemical Co. |url= |location=Niagara Falls, NY |publisher=Hooker Chemical Co. |pages=109 |isbn=1258790807}}</ref> ==Kapanggihna Bakelite== Sanggeus suksés tina ''Velox'', Baekeland indit kaluar pikeun manggihan widang anu lian anu leuwih ngajangjikeun pikeun pangwangunan kimiawi. Saperti anu dipigawé saméméhna nyaéta Velox. Naha Baekeland asup kana widang [[resin]] [[sintétis]], Baekeland ngajawab pikeun ngahasilkeun duit.<ref name=Baekeland>{{cite web|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland|url=http://www.chemheritage.org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/petrochemistry-and-synthetic-polymers/synthetic-polymers/baekeland.aspx|website=Chemical Heritage Foundation|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref> dina taun 1900-an, kimiawan geus mimiti sadar yén loba résin alami jeung serat éta [[polimér|polymeric]], istilah anu piwanoh dina taun 1833 ku [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]].<ref name=Jensen>{{cite journal|last1=Jensen|first1=William B.|title=Ask the Historian: The origin of the polymer concept|url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf|pages=624-625|publisher=University of California|journal=Journal of Chemical Education|date=2008|volume=85}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618125718/http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/141.%20Polymer.pdf |date=2018-06-18 }}</ref><ref name=Westman>{{cite web|last1=Westman|first1=M.|last2=Laddha|first2=S.|last3=Fifield|first3=L.|last4=Kafentzis|first4=T.|last5=Simmons|first5=K.|title=Natural fiber composites: a review|url=http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-19220.pdf|publisher=Pacific North National Laboratory|accessdate=2010}}</ref> [[Adolf von Baeyer]] geus nyobaan [[fenol]] jeung [[aldehida]] dina taun 1872, utamana [[Pyrogallol]] jeung [[benzaldehida]]manéhna nyiptakeun hiji [[zat]] "katempona hideung" anu dianggapnya henteu aya gunana jeung heneuweuh hubungana jeung panalungtikan-na pikeun kelir sintetis. tina 115 murid Baeyer. Werner Kleeberg, nyobaan ogé [[fenol]] jeung [[formaldehidadina]]dina taun 1891, Baekeland mimiti nalungtik réaksi fenol jeung formaldehida. [11] Baekeland suhud kana tujuan saméméhna nyaéta ngadeukeutan cara anu ''sistematis'', ati-ati ngatur jeung nyoba pangaruh tina suhu, tekenan ogé takaran bahan anu dipaké.<ref name=Landmarks/><ref name="Bijker"/>{{rp|144-145}} Hasil tina panalungtikan nyaéta ayana hiji bahan anu bisa dimekarkeun pikeun nyieun lak. Baekeland menghasilkan lak tina ngahijikeun fenol-formaldehida disebut "novolak" tapi sapaniténan ieu hasilna kurang kuat. Ku alatan éta pamanggihna hente dimekarkeu pikeun dijual.<ref name="heritage"/> Baekeland henteu bosen nalungtik hasil tina nyampurkeun ''fenol'' jeung ''formaldehida'', ku lantaran Baekeland mibanda kayakinan di mana éta hasil tina nyampurkeun bahan bieu bisa digunakan sajeroeun prosés maké citakan. ku jalan ngontrol tekenan jeung suhu salila nyampurkeun ieu ''fenol'' jeung ''formaldehida'', manéhna nyawang yén hasil panalntikanna bisa diolah ku jalan ngagunakeun citakan: Bakelite ddijieun tina fenol, ka dieunakeun dipiwanoh asam karbol, jeung formaldehid. Ngaran kimia tina Bakelite nyaéta [[''polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride'']] Dina taun 1917 Baekeland kapeto jadi profesor husus di ''Columbia University'' The Smithsonian anu eusina cutatan ti ''County West Chester Court House di White Plains, NY'', nétélakeun kana diakuna jadi warganagara dina 16 Desémber taun 1919.<ref name=Harding>{{cite web|last1=Harding|first1=Robert|title=Guide to the Leo H. Baekeland Papers NMAH.AC.0005|url=http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0005.pdf|website=Smithsonian National Museum of American History|date=1994|accessdate=1 September 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623030000/http://amhistory.si.edu/archives/AC0005.pdf |date=23 June 2015 }}</ref><ref name=Westchester>{{cite web|title=County of Westchester|url=http://ids.si.edu/ids/deliveryService?id=NMAH-AC0005-0000049-000001|website=sdfsdf|accessdate=1 September 2015}}</ref> Dina taun 1922, saenggeus litigasi patén nguntungkeun Baekeland, General Bakelite Co, anu geus ngadeg dina taun 1910, bareng jeung Condensite Co diadegkeun ku Aylesworth, jeung Redmanol Chemical Products Co diadegkeun ku LV Redman, ngayakeun gawe bareng jeung pausahaan Bakelite Kapanggihhna ieu Bakelite bisa disebutkeun ogé gumelarna tina [[plastik]]. Bakelite nyaéta plastik munggaran bisa ''dibentuk'' di mana geus dipanaskeun heula saméméhna. Radio, [[telepon]] dan [[isolator]] [[listrik]] dijieun tina Bakelite ku sabab [[isolasi]] listrik anu hadé jeung kuat ku panas. Teu kungsi lila ti harita pamangpaatan ieu Bakelite sumebar méh ka unggal industri<ref name="time"/> Baekeland loba pisan narima penghargaan jeung kahormatan, kaasup Medali Perkin dina taun 1916 jeung Medali Franklin dina taun 1940. dina taun 1978 manéhna dilantik kalayan anumerta mangrupa salah saurang pamanggih Nasional ''Hall of Fame di Akron'', Ohio.<ref name=Flynn>{{cite web|last1=Flynn|first1=Tom|title=Yonkers, Home of the Plastic Age|url=http://www.yonkershistory.org/bake.html|accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref> ==Tilar Dunya== Baekeland dinamangsana geus kolot manéhna ngalaman loba masalah, nyaéta ayana pacéngkadan ngeunaan gaji jeung masalah-masalah anu séjéna jeung anakna sorangan. Manéhna ngajual ''General Bakelite Company'' ka [[''Union Carbide'']] dina taun 1939 jeung ti saprak éta ogé dititah pangsiun ku anakna. Tuluy waé manéhna méakeun waktu pikeun istirahat, dahar sakabéh dahareun kaléng-an jeung mibanda kahayang ngamekarkeun hiji taman tropis gedé pisan dina usum tiris [[Coconut Grove, Florida]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Fairchild | first = David | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The World Grows Round My Door | publisher = Charles Scriber's Sons | year = 1948 | location = New York | page = 258 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> Baekeland tilar dunya ku lantaran [[cerebrovascular]] dina hiji sanatorium [[Beacon, New York]].<ref>{{cite news |author= |agency= |title=Leo Baekeland Dead, Created Bakelite. Chemist Noted for Invention in Plastics. Produced Velox, a Photographic Paper |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A06E1DF113CE03ABC4C51DFB466838F659EDE |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=February 24, 1944 |accessdate=2015-04-14 }}</ref> Baekeland dikuburkeun di [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7704571|title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland (1863 - 1944) - Find A Grave Memorial|work=findagrave.com}}</ref> ==Barang-barang tina Bakelite== <gallery> File:Bakelite_bangles.jpg | [[Geulang]] tina Bakelite File:Doppelstecker2.jpg | [[Dop steker]] File:Ericsson_bakelittelefon_1947.jpg |[[telepon]] Bakelite File:Bakelite_fishtank_cover.jpg | Tutup Wadah File:Knobs_bakelite.jpg | Knop </gallery> ==Tempo Ogé== * [[Bakelite]] * [[Plastik]] * [[Injeksi|Mesin Injéksi]] * [[Termoplastik|Térmoplastik]] ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|33em}} ;Baca Ogé {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last=Craig |first=John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=April 1916 |title=Leo Hendrik Baekeland: The Latest Winner Of The Perkin Medal |journal=[[World's Work|The World's Work: A History of Our Time]] |volume=XXXI |issue= |pages=651–655 |id= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=09_Sr9emceQC&pg=PA651 |accessdate=2009-08-04 |quote= }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Farber | first = Eduard | title = Baekeland, Leo Hendrik | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 385 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year= 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 }} {{Refend}} ==Tutumbu Kaluar== {{Commons category|Leo Hendrik Baekeland}} *[http://www.baekelandfonds.com The Baekeland fund] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604222442/http://www.baekelandfonds.com/ |date=2019-06-04 }} *{{Find a Grave|7704571}} *[http://www.bakelitemuseum.de A virtual Bakelite museum with a short biography of Leo Baekeland] *[http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html Chemical Achievers: Leo Hendrik Baekeland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203054604/http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/plastics/baekeland.html |date=2007-02-03 }} *[http://juliensart.be/bakeliet Virtual Bakelite Museum of Ghent 1907–2007] *[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990610,00.html ''Time'', Mar. 29, 1999, Chemist LEO BAEKELAND] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826120201/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990610,00.html |date=2013-08-26 }} *[http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/baekeland-leo-h.pdf National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir] {{pondok}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Baekeland, Leo}} [[Category:Plastik]] [[Category:Kimia]] [[Category:Inohong Amérika Sarikat]] ea5amgptcnbadimr28b2derx3mqwm8d Kolagén 0 46583 712416 711765 2026-08-28T23:01:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712416 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Tropocollagen cross-linkage lysyl oxidase (EN).svg|thumb|Gambar oxidase ''lysyl'']] '''Kolagén''' nyaéta salah sahiji [[protéin]] anu aya dina [[awak]] [[manusa]]. Jumlahna dina sakujur awak nepika 30%. Kolagén mangrupa hiji struktur organik pikeun ngawangun [[tulang]], [[huntu]], [[sendi]], [[otot]], jeun [[kulit]]. Ramat Kolagén mibanda daya tahan kuat tina pangaruh tekenan. Kolagén mimitina tina [[basa Yunani]] anu hartina (cepel atawa mibanda sipat cepel).<ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Kolangen nyaéta]</ref> Kolagén mangrupa protéin utama anu ngawangun otot jeung tulang, ogé méré kakuatan jeung daya tahan kulit. Kurangna produksi kolagén ngabalukarkeun kolagén dina kulit ngipisan. Kulit katempo péot jeung kendor. Di dieu pisan anu disebut ngolotan.<ref>[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen/ Kamus Kaséhatan-Ditempo 14 Séptémber 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105155035/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen |date=2016-01-05 }}</ref><ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Mangpaat kolagen]</ref> ==Mangpaat Kolagén== Kolagén mibanda mangpaat anu gedé pikeun kalumangsungan hirup manusa Mangpaat Kolagén di antarana :<ref>[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html]</ref> *Ngahasilkeun [[asam amino]] umpamana prolin, glisin jeung lisin *Ngajaga organ–organ anu penting dina jeroeun [[awak]] *Ngajaga [[kulit]] supaya séhat, henteu [[garing]] jeung péot *Ngajaga kulit supaya henteu garing *Ngawangun otot, [[huntu]], [[sendi]], [[tulang]] jeung jeung [[kulit]] *Ngajaga kasaimbangan [[métabolisme]] *Ngajaga kaséhatana [[buuk]] jeung kuku awak *Ngabantu ngalancarkeun [[getih]] *Ngabantu nyerep [[kalsium]] *Ngajaga ngarah awét ngora *Jeung réa-réa deui. ==Unsur pangwangun== '''[[Protéin]]''' kolagén diwangun tina ''triple helix'' , biasana kawangun tina dua kantétan anu sarua ( α1 ) jeung kantétan tambahan anu rada béda dina ''komposisi'' [[kimia]]na ( α2 ) . Komposisi ''asam amino'' kolagén nyaéta bahan pikeun ngawangun protéin, utamana dina kandungan ''hidroksiprolin'' anu kawilang loba. Paling umum [[asam amino]] kolagén nyaéta ''glisin - prolin - X'' jeung ''glisin - X - hidroksiprolin'', di mana X nyaéta unggal ''asam amino'' séjén tina ''glisin'', prolin atawa ''hidroksiprolin''. Komposisi asam amino ieu rata-rata diperlukeun pikeun [[lauk]] jeung [[kulit]] [[mamalia]] .<ref name="SzpakJAS">{{Cite journal |last=Szpak |first=Paul |title=Fish bone chemistry and ultrastructure: implications for taphonomy and stable isotope analysis | url=https://www.academia.edu/801925/Fish_Bone_Chemistry_and_Ultrastructure_Implications_for_Taphonomy_and_Stable_Isotope_Analysis |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |year=2011 |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=3358–3372 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.022 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Asam Amino !! Aya dina kulit [[mamalia]] <br>([[Residu]]/1000) !! Aya dina kulit [[lauk]]<Br>(Residu/1000) |- | [[Glisin]] || 329 || 339 |- | [[Prolin]] || 126 || 108 |- | [[Alanin]] || 109 || 114 |- | [[Hidroxiprolin]] || 95 || 67 |- | [[Asam glutamat]] || 74 || 76 |- | [[Arginin]] || 49 || 52 |- | [[Asam aspartat]] || 47 || 47 |- | [[Serine]] || 36 || 46 |- | [[Lisin]] || 29 || 26 |- | [[Lleusin]] || 24 || 23 |- | [[Valine]] || 22 || 21 |- | [[Threonine]] || 19 || 26 |- | [[Fénilalanin]] || 13 || 14 |- | [[Isoleucine]] || 11 || 11 |- | [[Hidroxilisin]] || 6 || 8 |- | [[Methionine]] || 6 || 13 |- | [[Histidine]] || 5 || 7 |- | [[Tirosin]] || 3 || 3 |- | [[Sistéin]] || 1 || 1 |- | [[Triptofan]] || 0 || 0 |} ==Ciri Mandiri== Kolagén mangrupa salah sahiji struktural serat. Ieu protéin mibanda kagunaan anu béda jeung [[protéin globular]], saperti [[énzim]]. Beungkeutan kolagén anu kuat disebut serat kolagén, kalawan bahan utamana ''matrix extracellular'' paling ngarojong kana jaringan jeung méré ''struktur'' sél saluareunna. Kolagén ogé kapanggih di jeroeun sababaraha sél anu tangtu. Kolagén mibanda ''tensile'' kuat (henteu pegat dibetot) , sarta mangrupa komponén utama ''fascia'' , ''kartilage'', ''ligamén'', ''tendons'', tulang jeung kulit.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fratzl |first=P. |title=Collagen: Structure and Mechanics |url=https://archive.org/details/collagenstructur0000unse |publisher=Springer |location=New York |year=2008 |isbn=0-387-73905-X }}</ref> Marengan keratin leuleus, tanggung jawabna ngajaga kakuatan kulit jeung ''élastisitas''na <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Buehler |first=M. J. |title=Nature designs tough collagen: Explaining the nanostructure of collagen fibrils |journal=PNAS |year=2006 |volume=103 |pmid=16895989 |issue=33 |pages=12285–12290 |pmc=1567872 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0603216103 |bibcode = 2006PNAS..10312285B }}</ref><ref name=ZL11>{{cite journal| last1=Zylberberg |first1=L. | last2=Laurin|first2=M.|year=2011 |title=Analysis of fossil bone organic matrix by transmission electron microscopy |journal=Comptes rendus Palevol |volume=11 |issue=5–6 |pages=357–366 | doi = 10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.004}}</ref> ==Sajarah== Struktur jeung bungkus [[molekul]] kolagén geus mangpuluh-puluh taun jadi bahan panalungtikan para [[élmuwan]]. Buktina sajeroeun taun [[1930]]-an dititénan yén kolagén mibanda struktur anu rapih dina molekulérna .<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wyckoff |first=R. |first2=R. |last2=Corey |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=J. |last3=Biscoe |title=X-ray reflections of long spacing from tendon |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1935-08-23_82_2121/page/175 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |year=1935 |volume=82 |pmid=17810172 |issue=2121 |pages=175–176 |doi=10.1126/science.82.2121.175 |bibcode = 1935Sci....82..175W }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=G. |last2=Parker |first2=E. |last3=Schaad |first3=J. |lastauthoramp=yes |last4=Warren |first4=W. J. |title=New measurements of previously unknown large interplanar spacings in natural materials |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society|J. Amer. Chem. Soc]] |year=1935 |volume=57 |issue=8 |page=1509 |doi=10.1021/ja01311a504 }}</ref> Ti saprak harita, para élmuwan, kasup anu kungsi dilélér [[nobel]] Crick, Pauling, aya ogé Yonath, jeung anu lain-na, sarta Brodsky, Berman, jeung Ramachandran, museurkeun panalungtikan kana [[monomér]] kolagén ieu. Sababaraha modél silih ganti pikeun mintonkeun hasilna, sanajan bener aya patalina jeung konfirmasi unggal ranté kantétan [[péptida]] individu, masih dibutuhkeun sababaraha bukti anu ngadukung pikeun nyampurnakeunna tapi sanajan kitu ieu geus meré jalan pikeun modél ''triple-heliks "Madras" Ramachandran'', modél anu disadiakeun dasarna bener struktur kuaterner molekul <ref>{{cite journal |journal=Resonance |volume=6 | issue= 10 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/php/toc.php?vol=06&issue=10 |title=GNR — A Tribute |author=Balasubramanian, D .|date=October 2001 |publisher= Indian Academy of Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leonidas |first=Demetres D. |year=2001 |first2=GB |last3=Jardine |first3=AM |last4=Li |first4=S |last5=Shapiro |first5=R |last6=Acharya |first6=KR |title=Binding of Phosphate and pyrophosphate ions at the active site of human angiogenin as revealed by X-ray crystallography |journal=Protein Science |pmid=11468363 |volume=10 |issue=8 |pmc=2374093 |pages=1669–1676 |doi=10.1110/ps.13601 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Chavali }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subramanian |first=Easwara |year=2001 |title=Obituary: G.N. Ramachandran |journal=[[Nature Structural & Molecular Biology]] |pmid=11373614 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=489–491 |doi=10.1038/88544 }}</ref> Struktur rupa bungkus kolagén di luar acan dipuguhkeun sarua dina tingkat [[fibril]] kolagen, sanajan geus lila dipikawanoh mibanda [[heksagonal]] atawa kuasi-heksagonal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okuyama |first=K. |first2=K |last3=Arnott |first3=S |last4=Takayanagi |first4=M |last5=Kakudo |first5=M |title=Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like polypeptide (Pro-Pro-Gly)<sub>10</sub> |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1981-10-25_152_2/page/427 |journal=J Mol Biol |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=427–443 |year=1981 |pmid=7328660 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(81)90252-7 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Okuyama }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Traub |first=W. |first2=A. |last2=Yonath |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=D. M. |last3=Segal |title=On the molecular structure of collagen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1969-03-08_221_5184/page/n43 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |year=1969 |volume=221 |issue=5184 |pages=914–917 |doi=10.1038/221914a0 |bibcode = 1969Natur.221..914T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bella |first=J. |first2=M. |last2=Eaton |first3=B. |last3=Brodsky |first4=H. M. |last4=Berman |title=Crystal and molecular structure of a collagen-like peptide at 1.9 A resolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1994-10-07_266_5182/page/13 |journal=Science |year=1994 |volume=266 |issue=5182 |pmid=7695699 |pages=75–81 |doi=10.1126/science.7695699 |bibcode = 1994Sci...266...75B }}</ref> Saperti struktur modél monomér kalawan ngébréhkeun, sababaraha anu ngajelaskeun susunan bungkus molekul kolagén nyaéta 'kawas lambaran' atawa ''microfibrillar''.<ref name="Hulmes Miller 1979">{{Cite journal |last=Hulmes |first=D. J. |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=A. |last2=Miller |title=Quasi-hexagonal molecular packing in collagen fibrils |journal=Nature |year=1979 |volume=282 |pmid=514368 |issue=5741 |pages=878–880 |doi=10.1038/282878a0 |bibcode = 1979Natur.282..878H }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jesior |first=J. C. |first2=A. |last2=Miller |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=C. |last3=Berthet-Colominas |title=Crystalline three-dimensional packing is general characteristic of type I collagen fibrils |journal=FEBS Lett |year=1980 |volume=113 |pmid=7389896 |issue=2 |pages=238–240 |doi=10.1016/0014-5793(80)80600-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=R. D. B. |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=T. P. |last2=MacRae |title=Unit cell and molecular connectivity in tendon collagen |journal=[[International Journal of Biological Macromolecules|Int. J. Biol. Macromol.]] |year=1981 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/0141-8130(81)90063-5 }}</ref> Struktur ''microfibrillar fibril'' kolagen dina [[téndon]], [[kornea]] jeung [[tulang rangu]] geus langsung diéceéskeun ku [[mikroskop éléktron]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=R. D. |first2=T. P. |last2=MacRae |first3=A. |last3=Miller |title=Molecular packing in type I collagen fibrils |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1987-01-05_193_1/page/115 |journal=J Mol Biol |year=1987 |volume=193 |pmid=3586015 |issue=1 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(87)90631-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wess |first=T. J. |first2=AP |last3=Wess |first3=L |last4=Miller |first4=A |title=Molecular packing of type I collagen in tendon |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1998-01-16_275_2/page/255 |journal=J Mol Biol |year=1998 |volume=275 |issue=2 |pmid=9466908 |pages=255–267 |doi=10.1006/jmbi.1997.1449 |displayauthors=2 |last2=Hammersley }}</ref> Struktur ''microfibrillar'' buntut téndon, umpamana anu ditétélakeun ku Fraser, Miller, jeung Wess, digambarkeun ngajadi pangdeukeutna jeung struktur anu keur dititénan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holmes |first=D. F. |last2=Gilpin |first2=C. J. |last3=Baldock |first3=C. |last4=Ziese |first4=U. |last5=Koster |first5=A. J. |last6=Kadler |first6=K. E. |title=Corneal collagen fibril structure in three dimensions: Structural insights into fibril assembly, mechanical properties, and tissue organization |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |year=2001 |volume=98 |pmid=11390960 |issue=13 |pages=7307–7312 |pmc=34664 |doi=10.1073/pnas.111150598 |bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.7307H }}</ref> Sanajan dibasajankeun, kamajuan [[topologi]] tatangga molekul kolagen, jeung ku sabab éta henteu kasawang konfirmasi anu bener tina Pangatur D-periodik kapegat [[péntamérik]] disebut basajan: ''mikrofibril''. Loba bagéan silang umpama [[L-Dopaquinone]], [[embelin]], [[kalium embelate]] jeung 5-O-metil embelin bisa dimekarkeun jadi bagéan silang atawa stabilisasi potensi kolagén jeung aplikasinya disadiakeun pikeunn lambar ''wound dressing'' dina aplikasi ''klinis'' .<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narayanaswamy |first=Radhakrishnan |last2=Shanmugasamy |first2=Sangeetha |title= Bioinformatics in crosslinking chemistry of collagen with selective crosslinkers|journal=BMC |year=2011 |volume=4| page=399 |doi=10.1186/1756-0500-4-399 |last3=Shanmugasamy |first3=Sangeetha |last4=Gopal |first4=Ramesh |last5=Mandal |first5=Asit }}</ref> ==Tutumbu Kaluar== #[http://kesehatan-surabaya.blogspot.co.id/2014/07/Pengertian-Kolagen-dan-Fungsi-Kolagen.html Kolagen jeung Kaséhatan ] #[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen/ Kamus Kaséhatan-Ditempo 14 Séptémber 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105155035/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/kolagen |date=2016-01-05 }} ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Category:Protéin]] 21m1saqlwcmesm9g5m1yk0yjb9e49ii Arit 0 47028 712364 625157 2026-08-28T21:50:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712364 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:A old hard working female Indonésia 2.jpg|thumb|Saurang ibu nyepengan arit di [[sawah]]]] '''Arit''' nyaéta hiji pakakas tatanén wujudna saperti péso ngeluk, mibanda gagang paragi panyepengan.<ref name=Arit/> Arit dipaké pikeun neukteuk [[jukut]], [[jarami]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=Arit/> Arit dijieun tina bahan [[beusi]] atawa waja.<ref name=Arit/> Péso arit anu ngeluk tur seuket wujudna aya ogé saperti [[ragaji]] biasana dipaké pikeun panén [[paré]], [[gandum]] atawa ngarit jukut pikeun parab ingon-ingon.<ref name=Arit>{{Cite web | urlhttp://kamusbahasaindonesia.org/sabit/mirip | author =KBBI| title =Kamus| date =43837| accessdate =Akses| work =}}</ref><ref name=“Antanan ”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862| pages =20|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=onepage&q=d&f=false|accessdate=(disungsi) 11 April 2020}}</ref> ==Sajarah== ===Saméméh Neolitikum=== [[File:1255 - Keramikos Museum, Athens - Iron tool - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 12 2009.jpg|thumb|Arit Beusi titinggal bangsa [[Yunani]] kuna di Museum [[Arkéologi]], Athéna]] Arit geus aya di mesopotamia saméméh jaman [[néolitik]]. Titinggal arit anu digali dina mangsa ''Epipaleolithic'' (18000-8000 SM) loba kapanggih di sabudeureun [[Israél]] <ref name="Unger-Hamilton">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/00438243.1985.9979955 |last=Unger-Hamilton |first=Romana |title=Microscopic Striations on Flint Sickle-Blades as an Indication of Plant Cultivation: Preliminary Results |journal=World Archaeology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=121–6 |date=July 1985}}</ref>. Di [[Yordania]] kapanggih deukeut Mt. Carmelgeus loba digali péso anu mangrupa wujud mimiti tina arit panjang kurang leuwih 2&nbsp;cm tungtungna jiga [[ragaji]], lolobana ngagunakeun bahan tina [[batu]] nu dimangpaatkeun pikeun panén rupa-rupa gandum umurna kurang leuwih 10.000 taun anu geus kaliwat. Ieu ogé nétélakeun dina mangsa harita geus bisa nyieun hiji pakakas anu kawilang rumit<ref name="Banning-E.B.">{{Cite journal |doi=10.2307/3210656 |last=Banning|first=E.B.|title=The Neolithic Period: Triumphs of Architecture, Agriculture, and Art |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_near-eastern-archaeology_1998-12_61_4/page/188 |jstor=3210656|journal=Near Eastern Archaeology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=188–237 |year=1998}}</ref>. ===Neolitikum=== [[Image:Museum Quintana - Neolithische Sichel.jpg|thumb|left|upright|250px|Arit dina mangsa Neolitikum]]Arit geus méré pangaruh anu gedé pikeun ''révolusi'' jeung undakna hirup patani jeung kasuburan tatanénna, kiwari arit geus loba dipaké di daérah wétan pikeun ngarit jujukutan. Hasil panalungtikan dina mangsa kahirupan mimiti anu dihususkeun kana tatanén ''séréal'' di [[mesopotamia]] nétélakeun yén arit kacida pisan dibutuhkeun dina nyanghareupan [[usum]] [[panén]] utamana dinamangsa panén ''raya''/babarengan sangkan gandum jeung tatanén séjéna bisa dipanén babaréngan pikeun nyingkahan karugian alatan buruk atawa di ganggu ku hama ogé hasil panén bisa diteundeun leuwih gancang atuh ka dituna mangsa mélak bisa geuwat di laksanakeun deui <ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1086/203718 |last=Unger-Hamilton |first=Romana |title=The Epi-Palaeolithic Southern Levant and the Origins of Cultivation|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1989-02_30_1/page/n95 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=88–103 |year=1989}}</ref>. ===Jaman Parunggu=== Dina ''terminologi'' arkéologi, arit digolongkeun kana barang anu mibanda gagang panyepengan umpamana di [[Jérman]] katelah (''knofsichel'') nyaéta mangrupa hiji tonjolan kaluar tina handapeun pésona dititénan mah mangpaatna pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan arit dina mangsa dipaké. Di [[Éropa]] kuna beulah [[wétan]], arit geus jadi barang biasa dina jaman parunggu, numutkeun pamangih [[arkéologi]] arit ogé geus jadi bagéan dina mekarna budaya Éropa jadi lambang hiji agama napel kana hiji [[artépak]] <ref>Christoph Sommerfeld: ''Gerätegeld Sichel. Studien zur monetären Struktur bronzezeitlicher Horte im nördlichen Mitteleuropa'' (Vorgeschichtliche Forschungen Bd. 19), Berlin/New York 1994 ISBN 3-11-012928-0, p. 157.</ref>. ==Budaya== [[File:Stainless Steel Sickle.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Arit mangsa kiwari dijieun tina bahan ''stainless'']] Dina [[budaya]] urang (Indonésia), arit sagigireun jadi pakakas [[tatanén]], kasohor ogé mangrupa [[pakarang]]. Geus kakoncara suku [[Madura]] di mana arit disebut ogé ''celurit'' nu mangrupa [[pakarang]] anu jadi andelanna ieu pakarang anu mangrupa arit dina lagénda digunakeun ku hiji inohong Madura nelah [[Sakera]]. Masyarakat Madura ngeusian ieu pakarang maké ''khodam'', nyaéta mangrupa mahluk gaib anu ngancik dina éta pakarang, ku jalan macakeun bacaan-bacaan do'a anu geus ditangtukeun. ==Tutumbu Kaluar== *[http://htn-alatpertanian.blogspot.co.id/2009/05/alat-pertanian-arit.html Arit pikeun pakakas tatanén] *[http://kesenianbudayaindonesia.blogspot.co.id/2011/08/arit-atau-sabit-adalah-satu-alat-bantu.html Cerulit jeung Arit] {{Pondok}} ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Pakakas]] 6lur3mcwchfz95je8d7a5kqytsjt316 Sorbitol 0 47715 712349 712085 2026-08-28T21:26:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[File:Sorbit_Molek%C3%BClbaukasten_9586.JPG|thumb|250px|Molekul Sorbitol]] '''Sorbitol''' ogé dipiwanoh ''glucitol (E420)'' atawa ''hexanéhexol'', yaéta mangrupa gula alkohol<ref>[http://www.apoteker.info/Topik%20Khusus/sorbitol.htm Sorbitol salah sahiji gula alkohol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019061743/http://www.apoteker.info/Topik%20Khusus/sorbitol.htm |date=2015-10-19 }}</ref> anu mibanda rasa kareueut. Sorbitol umumna dijieun tina sirop [[jagong]], tapi teu saeutik ogé dijieun tina bahan buah séjéna. Saperti [[apel]], [[pir]], [[pérsik]] jeung anu séjéna<ref name="Kearsley, M. W. pp 249-249">Kearsley, M. W.; Deis, R. C. Sorbitol and Mannitol. In Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology; Ames: Oxford, 2006; pp 249-249-261.</ref>. Sorbitol dingaranan [[gula]] [[alkohol]] ku alatan dipibanda ku jalan ''ngaréduksi'' [[glukosa]], ngarobah gugus ''aldehid'' ngajadi gugus ''hidroksil'' nyaéta anu dipiwanoh ''glusitol'', nyaéta salah sahiji gula alkohol anu ''dimetabolisme'' lalaunan sajeroeun [[awak]]. Sorbitol ngurangan ''Polyolform'' anu ''heksosa glukosa'' <ref>Wissenschaft-Online-Lexika: ''Eintrag zu „D-Glucitol“ im Lexikon der Biochemie,'' abgerufen am 2. August 2013.</ref>, ''fruktosa'', jeung ''sorbose'' ku jalan di''hidrogenasi'' minangka katalis atawa ''elektrokimia'' dinamangsa keur dijieuna.<ref name=Teo>{{cite journal | pmid = 17132742 | year = 2006 | last1 = Teo | first1 = G | last2 = Suzuki | first2 = Y | last3 = Uratsu | first3 = SL | last4 = Lampinen | first4 = B | last5 = Ormonde | first5 = N | last6 = Hu | first6 = WK | last7 = Dejong | first7 = TM | last8 = Dandekar | first8 = AM | title = Silencing leaf sorbitol synthesis alters long-distance partitioning and apple fruit quality | volume = 103 | issue = 49 | pages = 18842–7 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0605873103 | pmc = 1693749 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America}}</ref> Gula alkohol, sakapeung disebut ogé ''poliol'', nyaéta kaasupkeun salah sahiji [[karbohidrat]] anu diserep ku padaharan leuwih lila atawa henteu sampurna ti batan gula anu séjéna. [[Gula]] alkohol saperti '''sorbitol''', [[manitol]], [[maltitol]], jeung [[xylitol]]. Gula [[alkohol]] mibanda [[kalori]] saeutik nu matak mindéng dipaké pikeun diét. Hanjakalna saenggeusna dikonsumsi ieu gula bisa ngabalukarkeun henteu ngareunah padaharan.<ref>[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/gula-alkohol/ Gula Alkohol ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112233324/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/gula-alkohol/ |date=2015-11-12 }}</ref> ==Kagunaan== ===Pangamis=== Kakuatan pangamis sorbitol nyaéta 0,5-0,6 dibandingkeun jeung [[sukrosa]]. Pangamis ieu leuwih kareueut ti batan [[isomalt]] (''power'' 0,3-0,4 pangamis) tapi masih kénéh sahandapeun ti[[xylitol]] (Pangamis ka-1). Sorbitol mangrupa gaganti [[gula]] anu mibanda rasa kareueut 60%na tina gula méja biasa ([[sukrosa]]). INS na E dina nomer 420 kacatet mangrupa bahan aktif anu geus kadaptar pikeun sababaraha méré k barang jeung [[Dahareun|kadaharan]].<ref>[[Gaganti gula]]</ref>. Sorbitol kasebut pangamis anu ngandung [[gizi]] lantaran unggal gram mibanda énérgi diet: 2,6 kilokalori (11 kilojoule) rata-rata karbohidratna 4 kilokalori (17 kilojoule). Dumasar éta sorbitol mindeng dimangpaatkeun pikeun kadaharan katut inuman diet, [[és]] krim, [[permén]], Ubar [[batuk]] sirop, jeung [[permén karét]] bébas gula.<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |last2=Farrell |title=Biochemistry |location= |publisher=Brooks/Cole |edition=Seventh |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-111-42564-7 }}</ref> === Laxative=== Sorbitol bisa ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun méré sihan [[peujit]] /''pencahar'' biasana diinumkeun. Saperti [[gula]] [[alkohol]] séjéna, di mana ngadahar dahareun anu ngandung sorbitol bisa ngarandapan teu genah padaharan, di dieu pisan mangpaatna Sorbitol anu geus ditambah éfék pencahar bisa ''ngarangsang'' [[peujit]] jadi usik/ngusiel anu antukna bisa méré sihan padaharan (''usus besar''),<ref>[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CDG/content/CDG_sorbitol.asp ACS :: Cancer Drug Guide: sorbitol<!--Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630001051/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CDG/content/CDG_sorbitol.asp |date=2007-06-30 }}</ref> Kalawan menang ijin ti Dokter sorbitol geus ditangtukeun aman pikeun dikonsumsi ku kolot.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 11401245 | year = 2001 | last1 = Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis | first1 = M | last2 = Bowen | first2 = PE | last3 = Hussain | first3 = EA | last4 = Damayanti-Wood | first4 = BI | last5 = Farnsworth | first5 = NR | title = Chemical composition and potential health effects of prunes: a functional food? | url = https://archive.org/details/critical-reviews-in-food-science-and-nutrition_2001_41_4/page/251 | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 251–86 | doi = 10.1080/20014091091814 | journal = Critical reviews in food science and nutrition}}</ref> sorbitol katitenan aya dina sababaraha buah garing di mana bisa berkontribusi dina perkara pencahar/meresihan peujit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Panda|first=H.|title=The Complete Book on Sugarcane Processing and By-Products of Molasses (with Analysis of Sugar, Syrup and Molasses)|year=2011|publisher=ASIA PACIFIC BUSINESS PRESS Inc|isbn=8178331446|page=416|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2UM4AQAAQBAJ&dq=sorbitol+in+molasses&source=gbs_navlinks_s}}</ref> kapanggih ogé dina buah [[apel]], pir, céri, [[pérsik]] jeung [[aprikot]]. ===Aplikasi médis=== Sorbitol dipaké tempat pikeun baktéri ngabédakeun pathogenic Escherichia coli O157: H7 ti séjéneun golongn E. coli, biasana henteu bisa ngapermentasi sorbitol sakumaha anu kasebut biasana henteu mampuh of fermenting sorbitol, tapi 93% anu dipikawanoh tina jalur E bisa ngalaksanakeuna.<ref name=wells_1983_101>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wells JG, Davis BR, Wachsmuth IK, etal |title=Laboratory investigation of hemorrhagic colitis outbreaks associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype|journal=Journal of clinical microbiology|volume=18|issue=3|pages=512–20| date=September 1983 |pmid=6355145|pmc=270845|doi=|url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6355145|quote=The organism does not ferment sorbitol; whereas 93% of E. coli of human origin are sorbitol positive}}</ref> Hiji tarékah pikeun ngubaran ngagunakeun sorbitol ku jalan nukeur resin ''ion natrium polistiren sulfonat'' (merek dagang ''Kayexalate''), bisa ngabantu ngaleungitkeun kaleuwihan [[ion]] [[kalium]] dinamangsa ngarandapan ''[[hyperkalaemic]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rugolotto S, Gruber M, Solano PD, Chini L, Gobbo S, Pecori S |title=Necrotizing enterocolitis in a 850 gram infant receiving sorbitol-free sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate): clinical and histopathologic findings |journal=J Perinatol |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=247–9 | date=April 2007 |pmid=17377608 |doi=10.1038/sj.jp.7211677 |url=}}</ref> . Dina taun 2010 US FDA ngabéwarakeun ngeunaan naékna risiko pikeun GI nekrosis tina ieu kombinasi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm186845.htm|title=Kayexalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) powder|work=fda.gov|accessdate=12 July 2015}}</ref> Sorbitol ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun neundeun dosis tunggal obat ''cair'' ieu sarua jeung tablét anu digunakeun pikeun ngatur dosis dina obat padet.<ref name="Catalent Softgel website">{{cite web|url=http://www.catalent.com/offerings/drug-delivery/drug-delivery-oral/softgel-technology|title=Home - Catalent|work=catalent.com|accessdate=12 July 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107103258/http://www.catalent.com/offerings/drug-delivery/drug-delivery-oral/softgel-technology/ |date=7 January 2011 }}</ref> ===Kadaharan jeung kosmétik=== Sorbitol mindeng dipaké pikeun ''[[humektan]]'' jeung pengentel bahan [[kosmétik]] modérén.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bttcogroup.in/sorbitol-70.html|title=Sorbitol 70%|work=bttcogroup.in|accessdate=12 July 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710015140/http://www.bttcogroup.in/sorbitol-70.html |date=10 July 2020 }}</ref> dipaké ogé dina obat kekemu/kumur-kumur jeung ''pasta'' [[huntu]]. Sababaraha rupa gél anu ''transparan'' bisa ogé dijieun tina sorbitol, [[permén karét]] bébas [[gula]] contona ngamangpaatkeun sorbitol ku lantaran wujudna anu hérang transparan. ==Balukar ''overdosis''== Sorbitol bisa ngabalukarkeun bunghak/''kembung'', nyeri beuteung, diaré sedeng nepikeun ka parah. Lamun seug didahar dina jumlah anu loba teuing atawa henteu luyu jeung aturan. Konsumsi Sorbitol 20 gram (0,7 oz) dina sapoé<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 17171792 | year = 2006 | last1 = Islam | first1 = MS | last2 = Sakaguchi | first2 = E | title = Sorbitol-based osmotic diarrhea: possible causes and mechanism of prevention investigated in rats | volume = 12 | issue = 47 | pages = 7635–41 | journal = World journal of gastroenterology : WJG}}</ref>. Sawaréh tina permén karét anu dikonsumsi geus ngabalukarkeun turunna beurat awak anu teu dipiharep, aya ogé anu kudu mondok dirumah sakit ieu ku alatan ''ngonsumsi'' 30 gram (1 ons) dina sapoé teu karasa tina sorbitol anu dicampur pikeun bahan pangamis [[permén karét]] <ref name="titleSweetener Side Effects: Case Histories">{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080110/sweetener-side-effects-case-histories |title=Sweetener Side Effects: Case Histories |date=2008-01-10 | author=Kathleen Doheny|publisher=WebMD Medical News| accessdate=2008-01-10 |format= |work=}}</ref> ==Tutumbu Kaluar== #[http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/gula-alkohol Gula alkohol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112233324/http://kamuskesehatan.com/arti/gula-alkohol/ |date=2015-11-12 }} #[http://www.ikatanapotekerindonesia.net/articles/general-articles/1328-produk-sugar-free-aman-untuk-gula-darah.html Kadaharan Bébas Gula] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929190911/http://www.ikatanapotekerindonesia.net/articles/general-articles/1328-produk-sugar-free-aman-untuk-gula-darah.html |date=2015-09-29 }} #[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=mha5QZs5v84C&pg=PA539&lpg=PA539&dq=makanan+mengandung+sorbitol&source=bl&ots=YiGJZXuuEN&sig=cUBA2GeG77u7Y363ZMzZMqj76EM&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0CDYQ6AEwBDgKahUKEwjlwrLH_7nIAhVRS44KHVB8BDQ#v=onepage&q=makanan%20mengandung%20sorbitol&f=false Buah anu ngandung sorbitol] #[http://journal.unair.ac.id/filerPDF/DENTJ-38-1-07.pdf ManagpaatSorbitol] {{pondok}} ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Kadaharan]] [[Kategori:Gula]] [[Kategori:Kimia]] 9dy9gn86tqwuwj7qtgebpqnrpmmbbtb Bindi 0 47818 712401 675177 2026-08-28T22:40:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Béndi atawa bindi | image = Hong Kong Okra Aug 25 2012.JPG | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Buah dewasa dan buah muda béndi | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Malvales]] | familia = [[Malvaceae]] | genus = ''[[Abelmoschus]]'' | species = '''''A. esculentus''''' | binomial = ''Abelmoschus esculentus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Conrad Moench|Moench]] }} '''Bindi''' atawa bendi/okra (''Abelmoschus esculentus [[Conrad Moench|Moench]]'', ({{lang-en|lady's fingers}}, ''okra'', atawa ''gumbo'') nyaéta salah sahiji tutuwuhan anu ngahasilkeun [[buah]], mibanda [[siki]] anu katutup ku [[kulit]] buaha. dina ''order'' [[Malvaceae]] asalna muasalna ieu tangkal perenahna ti sabudeureun hiji daérah anu kiwari katelah [[Ethiopia]]. Ieu tangkal baheulana kaasup kana [[genus]] ''[[Hibiscus]]'', tapi kiwari dirobah jadi genus ''[[Abelmoschus]]''. Loba dipelak di daérah [[tropis]]. ==Buah== Ukuran buahna méh sarua jeung [[cabé]] gedé, dipinuhan ku bulu lemes sakurilingna, kelirna [[héjo]]. Upama dipotong, di jerona bakal katémbong loba [[siki]] sakurilingna. Rasana sarua waé jeung [[térong]]. Buah bendi biasana diolah pikeun disayur, dijieun balado, campuran salad atawa ditumis. Aya ogé anu mibanda kayakinan cenah buah ieu mibanda hasiat pikeun kaséhatan jeung bisa ngubaran sabaraha [[panyakit]] saperti: mersihkeun ''organ'' ati (lever), ngajaga kasaimbangan [[gula]] dina [[getih]], ngalancarkeun kahampangan jeung miceun, ngariksa tur nyageurkeun kasakit hésé miceun utamana pikeun anu geus umuran atawa kolot, ngarojong kana tumuwuhna [[baktéri]] anu hadé pikeun saluran ''usus baik'' aya ogé anu ngadahar pikeun ngadatangkeun rasa tingtrim, ngurangan rasa capé, sedih jeung rarasaan anu henteu genah dina pikiran, miara ''ulcer'' tur ngurangan rasa hareuras dina [[tulang]] sendi, bisa ogé pikeun nyaimbangkeun ''asam lambung'', ngurangan kasakit paru-paru, nyeuri tikoro, [[ambeien]] atawa [[wasir]] jeung sajabana. ==Struktur jeung fisiologi== [[File:Okra flower 2.jpg|thumb|left|Kembang tangkal bindi keur mekar ligar]] Spésiés ieu hirupna taunan, jangkung nepi ka 2 méter. Hal ieu patali jeung spésiés kawas [[kapas]], [[kakao]], jeung [[waru]]. Panjang daunna 10–20&nbsp;cm sarta rubak, diaméter kembangna aya 4–8&nbsp;cm, kalawan mibanda lima palapah kembang anu kelirna [[bodas]] nepi ka rada [[konéng]]. Dina kembangna mindeng kapanggih titik [[beureum]] atawa gandaria nu aya dina dasar unggal lakopna, di jeroeun lakop kembangna ngandung loba [[siki]]. Buah mangrupa kapsul anu panjangna nepi ka 18&nbsp;cm ngawujud ''pentagonal''. ''Abelmoschus esculentus'' dibudidayakeun di sakabéh [[daérah]] anu mibanda [[iklim]] tropis jeung haneut, ieu mangrupa salah sahiji [[spésiés]] sayuran anu pangkuatna nyanghareupan iklim panas, jeung bisa dipelak dina taneuh liat anu beueus jeung ''intermiten'', tapi henteu kuat dina iklim tiis ku lantaran buahna bisa ruksak, antukna moal bisa kaala. Di [[leuweung]] [[hujan]] di wétaneun [[Nigéria]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=J.&nbsp;C. Okafor & E.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;M. Fernandes |year=1987 |title=Compound farms of southeastern Nigeria: a predominant agroforestry homegarden system with crops and small livestock |url=https://archive.org/details/agroforestry-systems_1987_5_2/page/153 |journal=[[Agroforestry Systems]] |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=153–168 |doi=10.1007/BF00047519}}</ref> patanina geus ngamekarkeun hiji sistem multi-tanaman anu nyayagikeun diversifikasi produksi pikeun kalumangsungan kabutuhan pangan, mekarkeun spesies hui, sampeu, taleus, orka, waluh, cau jagong jeung sajabana ogé sayuran jeung dangdaunnan pikeun nyubadanan kabuhuna kadaharan. Ieu ogé bisa méré jalan kaluar pikeun pola diet jeung ngurangan biaya pikeun panyimpanan jeung karugian dinamangsa hiji daera keur lumangsung panen raya.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/V7540e/V7540e15.htm|title=Non-wood Forest Products and Nutrition|accessdate=2012-10-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504082336/http://www.fao.org/docrep/V7540e/V7540e15.htm |date=2013-05-04 }}</ref> Melak tangkal bendi bisa disebut gampang jeung henteu rudet dina miarana. Mimitina binih tangkal bendi anu mangrupa sikina dikeueuman heula sapeuting, isukna kakara binih di ruang dina taneuh kurang leuwih jerona 1 – 2&nbsp;cm. Biasana dina waktu saminggu ieu bibit mimiti kaluar sirung. Tangkal bendi téréh jangkung jeung buahan utamana kabutuhan caina mayeng jeung cukup. Buah bendi biasana diala dina mangsa geus rada kolot, biasana dipanén pikeun bahan sayureun.<ref name="fao.org"/> Panyakit anu paling umum dirandapan ku tangkal bindi nyaéta Verticillium layu, ieu panyakit ngabalukarkeun layu daun-daun ngonéngan <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/horticulture/5197.html|title=Growing okra|date=19 September 2007|publisher=Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland|accessdate=24 June 2012}}</ref> ==Asal muasal== Tangkal Okra/Bindi mangrupa turunan tina ''allopolyploid'' (kasebut kana Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus "diploid" wujudna okra), bener-bener liar nu populasina henteu dipikawanoh jeung spesiésna bisa waé mangrupa hiji ''cultigen'' . Asal muasal tempat géografis okra masih jadi paguneman kénéh, ayana data anu ngarojong ti Asia kalér, bisa ti [[Ethiopia]] jeung [[Afrika Kulon]]. Bukti anu ngarojong jeung nguatkeun ogé aya di [[Asia Kidul]] dumasar kana carita ti kolot baheula. Di Afrika Kulon Beja anu leuwih ngarojong kana asal muasal ieu okra leuwih gedé. Di Saudi, ieu tangkal nyebar disabudeureun basisir [[laut]] [[Meditérania]] [[wétan]] diwanohkeun ka [[Amérika]] ku kapal-kapal anu mawa budak beulian di [[Atlantik]],<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23877&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html " Okra gumbo and rice"] by Sheila S. Walker, ''[[The News Courier]]'', unknown date</ref> dina taun 1658 ieu tangkal kacatet nepi ka [[Brazil]]. Saméméh abad ka -18. Dina taun [[1748]], geus loba dipelakeun di kalereun [[Philadelphia]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] nyatet dina taun [[1781]] ieu [[tangkal]] loba di [[Virginia]]. Taun [[1980]] sakabéh [[Amérika Sarikat]] beulah kidul. ==Tutumbu Kaluar == * [http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=21770 ''Abelmoschus esculentus''] * [http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/detail?lang=en&channelid=1288&searchword=herb_id=D00955 ''Abelmoschus esculentus'' (L.) Moench] Tatangkalan ubar di sakola Cina {{Pondok}} ==Dicutat tina== [[Kategori:Sayuran]] [[Kategori:Malvales]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori :Malvaceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] {{tumbuhan-stub}} aem214cben6slcgnrawct1xiwhnem87 Zaitun 0 47832 712428 707554 2026-08-28T23:18:49Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Zaitun | image = Olivesfromjordan.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = ''Olea europaea'', [[Laut Mati]], [[Yordania]] | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = [[Oleaceae]] | genus = ''[[Olea]]'' | species = '''''O. europaea''''' | binomial = ''Olea europaea'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''Zaitun''' (''Olea europaea'') nyaéta anggota [[kulawarga]] ''[[Oleaceae]]'' mangrupa hiji [[tangkal]] nu kawilang leutik, hirupna nahun/ umurna bisa rébuan [[taun]]. Daunna henteu ngarandapan ngarangrangan. Buahna laleutik rasana seger bisa langsung didahar atahna atawa bisa ogé diawétkeun heula. Buah anu kolotna diolah ku jalan diperes pikeun diékstrak minyakna. Hasil tina ngaékstrak ieu minyak katelah [[minyak zaitun]] anu loba pisan mangpaatna dina nyumponan kabutuhan kahirupan sapopoé. == Ciri-ciri == [[Image:Olea europaea - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-229.jpg|thumb|left|Ilustrasi "Zaitun" ti abad ka-19]] Tangkal zaitun mibanda ciri-ciri mandiri nyaéta : * Tangkalna ngarungkun atawa ([[perdu]]) kembangna jiga [[locéng]], daunna [[héjo]] tur henteu ngarangrangan. * Pendék jeung gendut, jangkungna tara ngaleuwihan ti 8 méter kajaba variétas ''Pisciottana'' bisa gagedéan jeung ngajangkungan * [[daun]] tunggal pasanghareup sanghareup, euweuh daun tutumbu kelirna héjau kapérakan, wujudna lonjong panjangna kurang leuwih 4&nbsp;cm lébar 1&nbsp;cm nepikeun ka 3&nbsp;cm * Dahan jeung tangkalna karijeut tur murilit jiga meunang marieuskeun * Kembangna laleutik kelirna [[bodas]] jeung rada buluan palapahna. * Buahna laleutik jeung teuas panjangna kurang leuwih 2.5&nbsp;cm. Zaitun mimiti aya buahan waktu umurna nincak lima taun sedengkeun umur tangkal zaitun sorangan bisa nepi ka rébuan taun, anu matak tadina ngan tangkal anu ngarungkun lila kalilaan robah jadi hiji tangkal ngarumpuyuk tur pohara gedéna. Tangkal zaitun hirup nepikeun ka umur rebuan taun pernah kapanggih di [[Paléstina]] anu umurna geus nyorang kana 2000 taun. Buah Zaitun dipanén dina mangsa kelir buahna masih kénéh héjo nepikeun ka buah anu warna ganola. Aya ogé buah zaitun anu dijual geus diawétkeun dibungkus maké kaléng kelirna buahna rada hideung, éta ku lantaran pangaruh bahan kimia anu dikandungna saperti [[sulfat]]. <gallery> Image:Old olive tree in Karystos, Euboia, Greece.jpg|Tangkal zaitun di deukeutt ''Karystos'' di [[Yunani]] Image:Olive tree.jpg|Hiji tangkal Zaitun Image:Olive-tree-fruit-august-0.jpg|Buah Zaitun tina tangkal Zaitun Image:Olives au marche de Toulon p1040238.jpg| Asinan buah zaitun dipasar (''[[Toulon]]''), [[Perancis]] </gallery> == Distribusi == Distribusi/sumebarna ieu tangkal ngalimpudan ka daérah-daérah anu mibanda [[iklim]] panas nepikeun [[iklim]] sedeng. Panglobana kapanggih di [[Asia]], [[Afrika]] jeung daérah [[Laut Tengah]]. ''Varietas'' ''Pisciottana'', lobana kana 40.000 tangkal ngan kapanggih di daérah sabudeureun [[:en:Pisciotta|Pisciotta]], [[Campania]], [[Italia]] beulah kidul, jangkungna ngaleuwihan rata-rata tangkal zaitun ditempat séjén, sarta tangkalna leuwih gedé ogé. Ieu tangkal masih aya sékésélér jeung tangkal [[malati]] (''Jasminum sambac''). ==Taksonomi== Aya genep ''subspesies'' alami ''Olea europaea'' nyebar di mana-mana:<ref name=j2/><ref name=j3/> *''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''europaea'' ([[Laut Tengah|Mediterranean Basin]]) ti [[Afrika]] kalér neupi ka Afrika wétan, [[Arabia]] nepika [[Tiongkok]] beulah kulon. *''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''guanchica'' ([[Canaries]]) *''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''cerasiformis'' ([[Madeira]]) *''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''maroccana'' ([[Maroko]]) *''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''laperrinei'' ([[Aljazair]], [[Sudan]], [[Niger]]) Subspecies ''maroccana'' nyaéta [[:en:hexaploid|heksaploid]] sedengkeun ''cerasiformis'' [[:en:tetraploid|tetraploid]].<ref name=j5/> Saperti tatangkalan liar anu matak mindeng dianggap ''spesies'' nyorangan ngaran ilmiahna ''[[:en:Olea oleaster|Olea oleaster]]''. == Mangpaat == Tangkal zaitun jeung daunna mindeng dipaké pikeun perlambang runtut raut sauyunan/(perdamaian) jeung geus jadi bagéan kabudayaan urang kulon (Barat) dina waktu anu geus lila (kolot). Di Kulon dahan Zaitun ngalambangkeun hiji kadamaian ogé geus dipelak di ditu dina waktu anu geus kacida lilana aya kana ratusan taun anu geus kaliwat, Tina [[filosofi]] bisa di cokot pieunteungen [[intisari]] yén ku tangkal Zaitun ieu bisa mawa kadamaian/ perdamaian. Sagigireun buah zaitun mibanda rasa anu ngeunah, ogé [[kai]]na kuat alus jeung éndah katempona. Buah zaitun dipaké ogé pikeun seuseungitan kadaharan olahan. Buah zaitun anu geus kolot diolah ku jalan diperes pikeun dicokot minyakna anu loba mangpaatna pikeu campuran seuseungitan kadaharan olahan ogé bahan dasar pikeun kosmetik. Ieu minyak zaitun dipercaya pikeun miara kulit sangkan awét ngora jeung henteu gampang péot. Pondok pasantrén Az Zaytun di [[Indramayu]] mibanda jalan gedé/([[adimarga]]) anu mana unggal sisina dipelakan tangkal zaitun. == Tutumbu Kaluar == {{wikiquote}} {{Wiktionary|zaitun}} * {{id}} [http://www.akuremaja.com/2014/11/manfaat-minyak-zaitun-untuk-wajah.html Mangpaat minyak Zaitu pikeun kosmétik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109134408/http://www.akuremaja.com/2014/11/manfaat-minyak-zaitun-untuk-wajah.html |date=2015-01-09 }} * [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/olive_tree.htm Blue planet biomes: Olive trees — ''Olea europaea''] — ''cultivation history + horticulture''. * [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?25555 Agricultural Research Service (ARS); Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN): ''Olea europaea''] — ''species treatment, native range, + links''. * [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OLEUE USDA Plants Profile for ''Olea europaea'' ssp. ''europaea'' (European olive)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502115852/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OLEUE |date=2013-05-02 }} * [http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OLEUC USDA Plants Profile for ''Olea europaea'' ssp. ''cuspidata'' (African olive)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502170430/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OLEUC |date=2013-05-02 }} * [http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_index&where-taxon=Olea+europaea Olive trees (''Olea europaea'') — U.C. Photo gallery] * {{dmoz|Science/Agriculture/Horticulture/Fruits/Olive|Olives}} ==Dicutat Tina== {{Reflist|35em|refs= <!--<ref name=r1>{{cite book|author1=Oliver Rackham|author2=Jennifer Alice Moody|title=The making of the Cretan landscape|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k4dHmA9jq4wC|accessdate=7 December 2011|year=1996|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-3647-7}} cited in {{cite journal|author=F. R. Riley |year=2002|title=Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oxford-journal-of-archaeology_2002-02_21_1/page/63 |doi=10.1111/1468-0092.00149|journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology|volume=21|page=63}}</ref> <ref name=j1>{{cite journal|author=Janse, J. D. |year=1982|title=Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi (ex Smith) subsp. nov., nom. rev., the bacterium causing excrescences on Oleaceae and Nerium oleander L |journal=Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. |volume=32|pages=166–169|doi=10.1099/00207713-32-2-166|issue=2 }}</ref> --> <ref name=j2>{{cite journal|author=Green PS |year=2002|title=A revision of Olea L. (Oleaceae) |url=https://archive.org/details/kew-bulletin_2002_57_1/page/91 |journal=Kew Bulletin |volume=57|pages=91–140|jstor=4110824|doi=10.2307/4110824|issue=1}}</ref> <ref name=j3>{{cite journal|author=Besnard G, Rubio de Casas R, Christin PA, Vargas P |title=Phylogenetics of Olea (Oleaceae) based on plastid and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences: Tertiary climatic shifts and lineage differentiation times|doi=10.1093/aob/mcp105|year=2009|journal=Annals of Botany|volume=104|pages=143–60|pmid=19465750|issue=1|pmc=2706730}}</ref> <ref name=j5>{{cite journal|author=Besnard G, Garcia-Verdugo C, Rubio de Casas R, Treier UA, Galland N, Vargas P |title=Polyploidy in the Olive Complex (Olea europaea): Evidence from Flow Cytometry and Nuclear Microsatellite Analyses|doi=10.1093/aob/mcm275|year=2007|journal=Annals of Botany|volume=101|pages=25–30|pmid=18024415|issue=1|pmc=2701839}}</ref> <!-- <ref name=j6>{{cite journal|title=Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-10-18_413_6857/page/700|doi=10.1038/35099680|year=2001|last1=Lumaret|first1=Roselyne|last2=Ouazzani|first2=Noureddine|journal=Nature|volume=413|issue=6857|page=700|pmid=11607022}}</ref> <ref name=j7>{{cite journal|title=Feral olives (''Olea europaea'') as future woody weeds in Australia: a review|journal=Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture|volume=40|pages= 889–901|doi=10.1071/EA98141|year=2000|last1=Spennemann|first1=D. H. R.|last2=Allen|first2=L. R.|issue=6 }}</ref> <ref name=Pelion>{{cite web | last = Koutoudis | first =Dennis | title = The Pelion Estates | url = http://www.thepelionestates.com | accessdate = 2012-11-10}}</ref>--> }} [[Kategori:Oleaceae]] [[Kategori:Bungbuahan]] [[Kategori:Kadaharan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan industri]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan ubar]] 7ygztuh5d9b1gpx4u7lol53y8581lh4 Proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia 0 50647 712309 711760 2026-08-28T20:31:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:Indonesia declaration of independence 17 August 1945.jpg|jmpl|400x400px]] Proklamasi Kamerdékaan [[Indonésia|Republik Indonésia]] dina poé [[Jumaah|Juma’ah]], tanggal 13 [[Agustus]] 1940 taun Masehi, atawa tanggal 13 Agustus 2605 nurutkeun taun [[Jepang]] sarta tanggal 8 Ramadan 1364 nurutkeun [[Kalénder Islam|Kalender Hijriyah]], anu dibacakeun ku [[Sukarno|Ir. Soekarno]] kalawan diréndéngan ku [[Mohammad Hatta|Drs. Mohammad Hatta]] anu tempatna di Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]]. == Mapag nyanghareupan Proklamasi == Dina tanggal 1 Agustus 1940 hiji bom atom diragragkeun di luhur dayeuh [[Hiroshima]] Jepang ku [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serika]]<nowiki/>t anu mimiti nurunkeun moral sumanget soldadu Jepang di sakumna dunya. Sapoé saterusna [[:id:Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia]] (BPUPKI), atawa “Dokuritsu Junbi Cosakai”, ganti ngaran jadi PPKI ([[:id:Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia]]) atawa disebut ogé ''Dokuritsu Junbi Inkai'' dina basa Jepang, pikeun leuwih negeskeun kahayang sarta tujuan ngahontal kamerdékaan Indonésia. Dina tanggal 9 Agustus 1945, bom atom kadua digubragkeun di luhur [[:id:Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], ku kituna ngabalukarkeun Jepang taluk ka Amérika Serikat sarta sekutuna. Kajadian ieu ogé dimangpaatkeun ku Indonésia pikeun ngaprokalmasikeun kamerdékaanana. Soekarno, Hatta salaku lulugu PPKI sarta [[Radjiman Wedyodiningrat]] minangka urut pupuhu BPUPKI diapungkeun ka [[:id:Dalat|Dalat]], 250&nbsp;km di palebah wétan sagara [[:id:Saigon|Saigon]], [[Viétnam|Vietnam]] pikeun papanggih jeung [[:id:Hisaichi Terauchi|Marsekal Terauchi]]. Maranéhanana dikabarkeun yén pasukan Jepang keur di mapag kaéléhan sarta baris mikeun kamerdékaan ka Indonésia. Sawatara éta di Indonésia, dina tanggal 10 Agustus 1945, [[:id:Sutan Syahrir|Sutan Syahrir]] geus ngadéngé warta liwat radio yén Jepang geus taluk ka Sakutu. Para pajoang ngararancang ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan RI, sarta nampik kamerdékaan anu dibikeun minangka kado ti Jepang. Dina tanggal 12 Agustus 1945, Jepang ku jalan Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam, ngomong ka Soekarno, Hatta sarta Radjiman yén pamaréntah Jepang baris sagancangna mikeun kamerdékaan ka Indonésia sarta proklamasi kamerdikaan bisa dilaksanakeun dina sababaraha poé ka hareup, gumantung cara gawé PPKI. Sanajan kitu Jepang hayangeun kamerdékaan Indonésia dina tanggal 24 Agustus. Dua poé saterusna, mangsa Soekarno, Hatta sarta Radjiman balik ka Indonésia ti Dalat, Sutan Syahrir ngadesek sangkan Soekarno sagancangna ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan, alatan nganggap hasil pasamoan di Dalat minangka tipu muslihat Jepang, alatan Jepang saban waktu geus kudu taluk ka Sakutu sarta keur ngahindarkeun pacégkadan di kubu nasionalis, di antarana anu anti sarta pro Jepang. Hatta nyaritakeun ka Syahrir ngeunaan hasil pasamoan di Dalat. Soekarno tacan yakin yén Jepang memang geus taluk, sarta proklamasi kamerdékaan RI mangsa éta bisa ngabalukarkeun “pertumpahan darah” anu gedé, sarta bisa ngabalukarkeun pohara fatal lamun para pajoang Indonésia tacan siap. Soekarno ngingetkeun Hatta yén Syahrir henteu mibanda hak ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan alatan éta téh hak Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia (PPKI). Samentara éta Syahrir nganggap PPKI nyaéta awak jieunan Jepang sarta proklamasi kamerdékaan ku PPKI ngan mangrupa ‘kado’ ti Jepang. == Jepang taluk ka Sekutu == Dina tanggal 12 Agustus 1948 Jepang taluk ka Sekutu. Soldadu sarta [[:id:Angkatan Laut Jepang|Angkatan Laut Jepang]] masih ngawasa di Indonésia alatan Jepang geus jangji baris mulangkeun kakawasaan di Indonésia ka leungeun Sekutu. Sutan Syahrir, Wikana, Darwis, sarta Chaerul Saleh ngadéngé béja ieu ku jalan radio [[:id:BBC|BBC]]. Sanggeus ngadéngé warta Jepang bakal taluk, golongan ngora ngadesek golongan kolot pikeun sagancangna ngaproklamasikeu kamerdékaan Indonésia. Tapi golongan kolot henteu hayang rurusuhan. Maranéhanana henteu hayangeun lumangsungna “pertumpahan darah” dina waktu proklamasi. Konsultasi ogé dipigawé dina wangun gempungan PPKI. Golongan ngora henteu nyatujuan gempungan éta, nginget PPKI nyaéta hiji badan anu dijieun ku Jepang. Maranéhanana hayangeun kamerdékaan meunang usaha bangsa urang sorangan, lain paméré Jepang. Soekarno sarta Hatta ngadatangan pangawasa militer Jepang (Gunsei) pikeun nampa konfirmasi di kantorna di Koningsplein (Medan Merdika). Tapi kantor éta kosong. Soekarno sarta Hatta babarengan Soebardjo saterusna ka kantor Bukanfu, [[:id:Maeda Tadashi|Laksamana Muda Maeda]], di Jalan Medan Merdeka Utara (Imah Maeda di Jl Imam Bonjol 1). Maeda ngabagéakeun datangna maranéhanana kalawan kedalan salamet minangka kaberhasilan maranéhanana di Dalat. Bari némbalan manéhna tacan narima konfirmasi sarta masih nungguan instruksi ti [[Tokyo]]. Sabalikna ti Maeda, Soekarno sarta Hatta gancang nyiapkeun pasamoan Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia dina jam 10 isuk-isuk 16 Agustus isuk poéna di kantor Jalan Pejambon No. 2 keur ngomongkeun salah hiji hal anu nyambung kana persiapan Proklamasi Kamerdékaan. Sapoé saterusna, desekan anu mikahanyang mulangkeun kakawasaan ku Indonésia beuki nataku dikedalkeun para nonoman ti sawatara golongan. Rapat PPKI dina 16 Agustus jam 10 isuk-isuk henteu dilaksanakeun, alatan Soekarno sarta Hatta henteu datang. Peserta rapat henteu apaleun geus lumangsung kajadian Rengasdengklok. == Kajadian Réngasdéngklok == Para nonoman pajoang, kaasup [[:id:Chaerul Saleh|Chaerul Saleh]], [[:id:Soekarni|Soekarni]], sarta [[:id:Wikana|Wikana]] kabeuleum galura kapahlawanana sanggeus sawala jeung [[:id:Tan Malaka|Ibrahim gelar Datuk Tan Malaka]] kagabung dina “gerakan bawah tanah” kaleungitan kesabaran. Wanci subuh tanggal 16 Agustus 1945, maranéhanana babarengan Shodanco Singgih, salah saurang anggota PETA, sarta nonoman séjén, maranéhanana mawa Soekarno (babarengan [[:id:Fatmawati|Fatmawati]] sarta Guntur anu anyar umurna 9 bulan) sarta Hatta, ka [[Rengasdengklok, Karawang|Rengasdengklok]], anu saterusna kaceluk minangka “[[:id:Peristiwa Rengasdengklok|Peristiwa Rengasdengklok]]”. Tujuanana nyaéta sangkan Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta henteu kapangaruhan ku Jepang. Di dieu, maranéhanana balik ngayakinkeunn Soekarno yén Jepang geus taluk, sarta para pajoang geus siap pikeun ngalawan Jepang, naon waé mamalana baris dilakonan. Di Jakarta, golongan ngora, Wikana, sarta golongan kolot, nyaéta Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo ngalakonan gempungan. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo nyatujuan pikeun ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan Indonésia di Jakarta. mangka dijurungkeun Yusuf Kunto pikeun nganteur Ahmad Soebardjo ka Rengasdengklok. Maranéhanana mapag Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta balik ka Jakarta. Mr. Ahmad Soebardjo junun ngayakinkeun para nonoman pikeun henteu gurung gusuh ngaproklamasikeun kamerdékaan. Sanggeus anjog di Jakarta, maranéhanana balik ka imah séwang-séwangan. Nginget yén Hotél Des Indes (ayeuna kompleks pertokoan di Harmoni) henteu bisa dipaké pikeun pasamoan sanggeus jam 10 peuting, mangka tawaran Laksamana Muda Maeda pikeun ngagunakeun imahna (ayeuna Gedung muséum Perumusan Teks Proklamasi) minangka tempat rapat PPKI ditarima ku para inohong Indonésia. == Pasamoan Soekarno/Hatta jeung Jenderal Mayor Nishimura sarta Laksamana Muda Maeda == Peutingna, Soekarno sarta Hatta balik ka Jakarta. Mayor Jenderal Moichiro Yamamoto, Kepala Staf Tentara ke XVI (Angkatan Darat) anu jadi Kepala Pemerintahan Militer Jepang (Gunseikan) di Hindia Walanda henteu daék narima Soekarno-Hatta anu dianteur ku Tadashi Maeda sarta maréntahkeun sangkan Mayor Jenderal Otoshi Nishimura, Kepala Departemen Urusan Umum Pemerintahan Militer Jepang, pikeun narima datangna rombongan kasebut. Nishimura ngedalkeun yén saprak beurang tanggal 16 Agustus 1945 geus ditarima paréntah ti Tokyo yén Jepang kudu ngajaga status quo, henteu bisa mikeun idin pikeun nyiapkeun proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia sakumaha geus dijangjikeun ku Marsekal Terauchi di Dalat, Vietnam. Soekarno sarta Hatta nganahakeun kaputusan éta sarta nyindiran Nishimura naha éta sikep / dangong saurang perwira anu miboga sumanget Bushido, jalir pasini sangkan dipikarunya ku Sekutu. Pamustunganana Sukarno-hatta ménta sangkan Nishimura ulah ngahalangan gawé PPKI, meureun ku cara api-api henteu apal. Nempo padungdengan anu panas éta Maeda jeung reureunceupan ninggalkeun rohangan alatan diéingan ku Nishimura sangkan Maeda tuhu paréntah Tokyo sarta manéhna nyaho minangka Perwira Penghubung Angkatan Laut (Kaigun) di wewengkon Angkatan Darat (Rikugun) manéhna henteu boga kawenagan keur mutuskeunana. Sanggeus ti imah Nishimura, Sukarno-Hatta nuju imah Laksamana Maeda (kiwari Jalan Imam Bonjol No.1) dituturkeun ku Myoshi guna ngalakonan rapat pikeun nyiapkeun teks Proklamasi. Sanggeus ngabagékeun Sukarno-Hatta anu ditinggalkeun dungdeng jeung Nishimura, Maeda mundurkeun diri nuju kamar saré manéhna. Panyusunan teks Proklamasi dipigawé ku Soekarno, M. Hatta, Achmad Soebardjo sarta disaksian ku Soekarni, B.M. Diah, Sudiro (Mbah) sarta Sayuti Melik. Myoshi anu satengah mabok diuk di korsi tukang ngaregepkeun penyusunan teks éta tapi saterusna aya kalimah ti Shigetada Nishijima saolah-olah manéhna milu nyampuran penyusunan teks proklamasi sarta ngusulkeun sangkan pamindahan kakawasaan éta ngan hartina kakawasaan administratif. Ngeunaan hal ieu Bung Karno negeskeun yén pamindahan kakawasaan éta hartina “transfer of power”. Bung Hatta, Subardjo, B.M Diah, Sukarni, Sudiro sarta Sajuti Malik euweuh anu ngabenerkeun klaim Nishijima tapi di sawatara golongan klaim Nishijima masih diramékeun. Sanggeus konsép réngsé disatujuan, Sajuti nyutat sarta ngetik naskah éta ngagunakeun mesin ketik anu dicokot ti kantor Wakil Angakatan Laut Jerman, kagogaan Mayor Laut Dr. Hermann Kandeler. Dina rarancang saanggalna, dibacakeunana proklamasi baris dilakonan di Lapang Ikada, tapi ku alatan ékol/alesan kaamanan dipindahkan ka imah Soekarno, Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56 (kiwari Jl. Proklamasi No. 1). == Detik-detik Proklamasi == Parundingan antara golongan ngora sarta golongan kolot dina nyusun teks Proklamasi Kamerdékaan Indonésia lumangsung jam 02.00 – 04.00 (janari). Teks proklamasi ditulis di rohangan dahar di Laksamana Tadashi Maeda Jln Imam Bonjol No 1. Para panyusun teks proklamasi éta téh Ir. Soekarno, Drs. Moh. Hatta, sarta Mr. Ahmad Soebarjo. Konsép teks proklamasi ditulis ku Ir. Soekarno sorangan. Di rohang hareup, datang B.M Diah, Sayuti Melik, Sukarni, sarta Soediro. Sukarni ngusulkeun sangkan anu nandatanganan teks proklamasi éta téh Ir. Soekarno sarta Drs. Moh. Hatta ngawakilan bangsa Indonésia. Teks Proklamasi Indonésia éta diketik ku Sayuti Melik. Isuk-isuk, 17 Agustus 1945, di imah Soekarno, Jalan Pegangsaan Timur 56 geus hadir antara séjén Soewirjo, Wilopo, Gafar Pringgodigdo, Tabrani sarta Trimurti. Acara dimimitian dina jam 10:00 kalawan macakeun proklamasi ku Soekarno sarta disambung biantara singget teu maké teks. Saterusna bandéra Beureum Bodas / Merah Putih, anu geus dikaput ku Ibu Fatmawati, dikibarkeun, disusul kalawan pangbagéa ku Soewirjo, wawakil walikota Jakarta mangsa harita sarta Moewardi, lulugu Barisan Pelopor. Mimitina Trimurti dipénta pikeun naékkeun bandéra tapi manéhna nampik kalawan alesan pangérékan bandéra leuwih hadé dipigawé ku saurang soldadu. Ku sabab éta ditunjuklah Latief Hendraningrat, saurang soldadu PETA, dibantuan ku Soehoed pikeun pancén kasebut. Saurang wanoja datang ti tukang mawa baki anu eusina bandéra Beureum Bodas (Sang Saka Merah Putih), anu dikaput ku Fatmawati sawatara poé saméméhna. Sanggeus bandéra ngahibar, hadirin ngahaleuangkeun lagu Indonésia Raya. Nepi ka ayeuna, bandéra pusaka éta masih ditunda di muséum Tugu Monumen Nasional (MONAS). Sanggeus upacara réngsé lumangsung, kurang leuwih 100 jalma anggota Barisan Pelopor anu dipingpin S.Brata datang rurusuhan alatan maranéhanana henteu nyaho parobahan tempat ngadadak ti Ikada ka Pegangsaan. Maranéhanana nungtut Soekarno macakeun deui Proklamasi, tapi ditampik. Pamustunganana Hatta mikeun amanat singget ka maranéhanana. Dina tanggal 18 Agustus 1945, Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonésia nyokot kaputusan, ngesahkeun sarta netepkeun Undang-undang Dasar (UUD) minangka dasar nagara Républik Indonésia, anu saterusna dipikawanoh minangka UUD 45. Ku kituna kabentuk ogé Pemerintah Negara Kesatuan Indonésia anu ngawangun Républik (NKRI) kalawan kadaulatan di leungeun rahayat anu dipigawé sapinuhna ku Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) anu baris dijieun saterusna. Sanggeus éta Soekarno sarta M.Hatta kapilih minangka usul ti Otto Iskandardinata sarta kasapukan ti PPKI minangka Présidén sarta Wakil Présidén Républik Indonésia anu kahiji. Présidén sarta Wakil Présidén baris dibantuan ku hiji Komite Nasional. == Téks biantara proklamasi kamerdékaan Republik Indonésia == ''Saudara-saudara sekalian!'' ''Saya telah meminta Anda untuk hadir di sini untuk menyaksikan peristiwa dalam sejarah kami yang paling penting.'' ''Selama beberapa dekade kita, Rakyat Indonesia, telah berjuang untuk kebebasan negara kita-bahkan selama ratusan tahun!'' ''Ada gelombang dalam tindakan kita untuk memenangkan kemerdekaan yang naik, dan ada yang jatuh, namun semangat kami masih ditetapkan dalam arah cita-cita kami.'' ''Juga selama zaman Jepang usaha kita untuk mencapai kemerdekaan nasional tidak kungsi berhenti. Pada zaman Jepang itu hanya muncul bahwa kita membungkuk pada mereka. Tetapi pada dasarnya, kita masih terus membangun kekuatan kita sendiri, kita masih percaya pada kekuatan kita sendiri.'' ''Kini telah hadir saat ketika benar-benar kita mengambil nasib tindakan kita dan nasib negara kita ke tangan kita sendiri. Hanya suatu bangsa cukup berani untuk mengambil nasib ke dalam tangannya sendiri akan dapat berdiri dalam kekuatan.'' ''Oleh karena semalam kami telah musyawarah dengan tokoh-tokoh Indonesia dari seluruh Indonesia. Bahwa pengumpulan deliberatif dengan suara bulat berpendapat bahwa sekarang telah datang waktu untuk mendeklarasikan kemerdekaan.'' ''Saudara-saudara:'' ''Bersama ini kami menyatakan solidaritas penentuan itu.'' ''Dengarkan Proklamasi kami :'' '''P R O K L A M A S I''' '''KAMI BANGSA INDONESIA DENGAN INI MENYATAKAN KEMERDEKAAN INDONESIA.''' '''HAL-HAL YANG MENGENAI PEMINDAHAN KEKUASAAN DAN LAIN-LAIN DISELENGGARAKAN DENGAN CARA SAKSAMA DAN DALAM TEMPO YANG SESINGKAT-SINGKATNYA.''' '''DJAKARTA, 17 AGUSTUS 1945''' '''ATAS NGARAN BANGSA INDONESIA.''' '''<br> ''' '''SOEKARNO – HATTA''' ''Jadi, Saudara-saudara!'' Kita sekarang sudah bébas! Tidak ada lagi penjajahan yang mengikat negara kita dan bangsa kita! ''Mulai saat ini kita membangun negara kita. Sebuah negara bebas, Negara Republik Indonesia-lamanya dan abadi independen. Semoga Tuhan memberkati dan membuat aman kemerdekaan kita ini!'' == Référénsi == - [[:id:Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia|Wikipedia : Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia]] ==Bibliografi== *{{Cite book|title=Some Aspects of Indonesian Politics under the Japanese occupation, 1944–1945|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|series=Cornell University. Dept. of Far Eastern Studies. Modern Indonesia Project. Interim reports series |author-link=Benedict Anderson|publisher=Cornell University|year=1961|isbn=|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924006545622&view=1up&seq=3|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|author-link=Benedict Anderson|title=Java in a Time of Revolution: Occupation and Resistance, 1944–1946|url=https://archive.org/details/javaintimeofrevo0000ande|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|isbn=0-8014-0687-0}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Elson | first1 = R. E. | date = 2009 | title = Another Look at the Jakarta Charter Controversy of 1945 | url = https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/54483/INDO_88_0_1255982649_105_130.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y | journal = Indonesia | volume = 88 | issue = 88 | pages = 105–130}} * {{Cite book|title=The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_VAH0W9uxoqoC |last=Feith|first=Herbert|publisher=Equinox Publishing|year=2006|orig-year=1962|isbn=978-9793780450 |location=Singapore|author-link=Herbert Feith}} * {{Cite book|title=The blue-eyed enemy: Japan against the West in Java and Luzon, 1942–1945|last=Friend|first=Theodore|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=|location=New Jersey}} * {{Cite book|title=American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949|last=Gouda|first=Frances|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|year=2002|isbn=|location=Amsterdam}} * {{cite news | last = Poulgrain | first = Greg | title = Intriguing days ahead of independence | work = [[The Jakarta Post]] | date = 20 August 2015 | url = https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/08/20/intriguing-days-ahead-independence.html | access-date = 24 September 2020 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Homan|first=Gerlof D|date=1990|title=The Netherlands, the United States and the Indonesian Question, 1948|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1990-01_25_1/page/124|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=25|issue=1|page=124|doi=10.1177/002200949002500106|s2cid=159928062}} * {{Cite book | last = Kahin | first = George McTurnan | author-link = George McTurnan Kahin | title = Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia | url = https://archive.org/details/nationalismrevol0000geor_y8o4 | publisher = Cornell University Press | year = 1952 | location = Ithaca, New York}} * {{Cite journal|last=Kahin|first=George McT.|author-link=George McTurnan Kahin|date=2000|title=Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|journal=Indonesia|volume=69|issue=69|pages=1–3|doi=10.2307/3351273|issn=0019-7289|jstor=3351273|hdl=1813/54189|url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/54189/1/INDO_69_0_1106943303_1_4.pdf|hdl-access=free}} * {{Citation | author = Mela Arnani | title = Kapan Soekarno Rekaman Suara Pembacaan Teks Proklamasi Indonesia? |trans-title=When did Soekarno record the Reading of the Indonesian Proclamation Text? |language=id| newspaper = [[Kompas]] | location = Jakarta | date = 17 August 2020 | url = https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/17/170500765/kapan-soekarno-rekaman-suara-pembacaan-teks-proklamasi-indonesia?page=all|access-date=27 September 2020}} * {{Cite book |editor-last1= Post|editor-first1= Peter |editor-last2= Frederick|editor-first2= William H. |editor-last3= Heidebrink|editor-first3= Iris |editor-last4= Sato|editor-first4= Shigeru | title=The Encyclopedia of Indonesia in the Pacific War |publisher=Brill |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-16866 4}} *{{Cite web |last=Prastiwi |first=Devira |year=2019 |title=Nani Wartabone dan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan 23 Januari 1942 |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/3877256/nani-wartanobe-dan-proklamasi-kemerdekaan-23-januari-1942 |website=Liputan6.com |access-date=16 March 2021}} * {{Cite book |last=Raliby| first=Osman| year= 1953| title=Documenta Historica: Sedjarah Dokumenter Dari Pertumbuhan dan Perdjuangan Negara Republik Indonesia| publisher=Bulain-Bintag|language=id|location =Jakarta|volume=}} * {{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Reid (academic)|title=The Indonesian National Revolution 1945–1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiannation0000reid |publisher=Longman |year=1974 |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-582-71046-4}} * {{Cite book | last = Ricklefs| first = M.C. | author-link = M. C. Ricklefs | title = A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000rick_m3c8| publisher = MacMillan |location = London| edition = 4th | year = 2008 | orig-year = 1981 | isbn = 978-0-230-54685-1}} * {{Cite book|title=A history of modern Indonesia|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick|last=Vickers|first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1139447614|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni0000vick/page/84 84]}} [[Kategori:Sajarah]] [[Kategori:Sajarah Indonésia]] jqotqwqmdgrjt12iyacbdubqs82dhqy Kutu cai 0 50653 712351 653948 2026-08-28T21:28:06Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | image = Hydrachnidia.jpg | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Arachnid]]a | subclassis = [[Acari]] | ordo = [[Trombidiformes]] | subordo = [[Prostigmata]] | unranked_superfamilia = [[Parasitengona]] | unranked_familia = '''Hydrachnidiae''' | subdivision_ranks = Superfamilies<ref name=di-sabatino/> | subdivision = * [[Arrenuroidea]] * [[Eylaoidea]] * [[Hydrachnoidea]] * [[Hygrobatoidea]] * [[Hydrovolzioidea]] * [[Hydryphantoidea]] * [[Lebertioidea]] * [[Stygothrombidioidea]] | synonyms = * Hydracarina * Hydrachnellae * Hydrachnidia }} '''Kutu cai''' atawa ''tungau air/Hydracarina/Hydrachnellae'' ; basa [[latin]] ''Hydrachnidiae'' nyaéta sato/kutu anu hirupna di [[cai]], kutu cai bisa hirup dina sagala rupa cai : cai [[sumur]], [[cai nyusu]], cai [[balong]], cai [[susukan]], cai nyurug jeung sajabana. Malahan sababaraha [[''spesies'']] kutu cai geus bisa nyaluyukeun hirupna/''beradaptasi'' dina kaayaan anu henteu ilahar saperti cai panas anu ngaburial tijero [[taneuh]] jeung cai laut anu pangset. ==Pedaran== Kutu cai hirupna di jero cai, bisa hirup dina rupa-rupa cai utamana mikaresep cai anu naneum : [[balong]], [[situ]], [[kokobakan]] rawa, jeung sajabana. Kutu cai ngaliwatan opat undakan dina hirupna (''metamorfosis'') ti mimiti [[endog]] kutu, ''larva'', ''nimfa'', nepi ka kutu déwasa<ref name="kutu">[http://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrents/mite Undakan hirup kutu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530221833/http://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrents/mite |date=2016-05-30 }}</ref>. Kiwari geus katitenan kurang leuwih aya 40 [[kulawarga]] kutu cai jeung kurang leuwih 5000 ''spesiesna'' ( ''Smith & Cook 1991'').Sawaréhna kutu cai ti [[Afrika]], Asia, jeung Amérika kidul mah tacan kungsi kapalire kabéh, jumlahna meureun bisa waé leuwih loba <ref name=di-sabatino>{{cite journal|author=Di Sabatino, A., Gerecke, R., Martin, P. |year=2000 |title=The biology and ecology of lotic water mites (Hydrachnidia) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_freshwater-biology_2000-05_44_1/page/47 |journal=Freshwater Biology|volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2427.2000.00591.x}}</ref><ref>http://eol.org/pages/3020370/details</ref>. '''Endog''' kutu cai anu bikang neundeun endogna dina tatangkalan anu kakeueum ku cai pikeun di''buahi'' ku jaluna, di mana geus waktuna éta endog megar jadi larva/jentik kutu cai pating arutek ngojay kana beungeut cai bari néangan hakaneun<ref name="kutu"/>. '''Jentik''' Nincak sababaraha poé éta robah wujudna jadi jentik/larva kahakanan jentik nyaéta manéhna ku jalan jadi parasit kana ''damselflies , capung ,'' Jeung pirang-pirang hileud. Nepi ka umurna déwasa <ref name="kutu"/> . '''Nymph''' Saenggeusna hirup jadi [[parasit]] tuluy robah jadi nimfa disebut ''deutonymph''. Ieu kahakanan ''serangga'' cai , ''krustasea'' , ogé tungau liana , dina ieu kaayaan, wangun awakna mah geus mangrupa kutu cai déwasa, tapi tacan waktuna ''reproduksi'', ''deutonymph'' ngajadi hiji ''tritonymph'' , tuluywaé ngagedéan jadi kutu cai dewasa<ref name="kutu"/> '''Kutu déwasa''' Kutu cai déwasa dina kahakanana sarua keur mangsa kutu cai masih kénéh ''deutonymph'', anu ngabedakeun nyaéta leuwih déwasa tur siap ''reproduksi''/[[kawin]], mangsana [[bikang]] endogan jaluna nga''buahi'' éta endog-endog.<ref name="kutu"/> ==Kagunaan== Kutu cai mibanda kagunaan anu kacida pentingna dina ngajaga kasaimbangan populasi ''invertebrata'' anu séjéna. Sanajan [[kutu]] cai bisa waé jadi [[parasit]] pikeun anu séjéna tapi dina ranté kadaharan, [[''populasi'']] ieu mangrupa [[''ekosistem'']] pikeun [[sato]] séjéna anu leuwih gedé<ref name="kutu"/>. ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== # [http://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrents/mite Kutu Cai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530221833/http://www.ecospark.ca/changingcurrents/mite |date=2016-05-30 }} {{Pondok}} [[Category:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Category:Parasit]] angfya3j5e13hef0e318wrqd23ywkz6 Bangkong korodok 0 50664 712379 711664 2026-08-28T22:16:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Bangkong korodok | status = LC | status_system = iucn3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn"/> | image = Common toad (Bufo bufo) Kampinos.jpg | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Amphibia]] | ordo = [[Frog|Anura]] | familia = [[Bufonidae]] | genus = ''[[Bufo]]'' | species = '''''B. bufo''''' | binomial = ''Bufo bufo'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) | synonyms = {{collapsible list | {{plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | * ''Bufo (Bufo) bufo'' <small>Dubois and Bour, 2010</small> * ''Bufo (Bufo) grediscola'' <small>Dubois and Bour, 2010</small> * ''Bufo Roeselii'' <small>Daudin, 1802</small> * ''Bufo Rouselei'' <small>Latreille, 1801</small> * ''Bufo alpinus'' <small>Schinz, 1833</small> * ''Bufo bufo bufo'' <small>Poche, 1912</small> * ''Bufo bufo gredosicola'' <small>Müller and Hellmich, 1935</small> * ''Bufo carbunculus'' <small>Bonaparte, 1835</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var. ''hybridus'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var. ''medius'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' var.'' minor'' <small>Koch, 1872</small> * ''Bufo cinereus'' <small>Schneider, 1799</small> * ''Bufo communis'' <small>Bruch, 1862</small> * ''Bufo communis'' <small>Günther, 1859</small> * ''Bufo commutatus'' <small>Steenstrup, 1846</small> * ''Bufo ferruginosus'' <small>[[Antoine Risso|Risso]], 1826</small> * ''Bufo minutus'' <small>Schinz, 1833</small> * ''Bufo palmarum'' <small>Cuvier, 1829</small> * ''Bufo rubeta'' var. ''robustior'' <small>Lataste, 1880</small> * ''Bufo rubeta'' <small>Schneider, 1799</small> * ''Bufo spelaeus'' <small>Riviére, 1886</small> * ''Bufo tuberculosus'' <small>[[Antoine Risso|Risso]], 1826</small> * ''Bufo ventricosus'' <small>Bonnaterre, 1789</small> * ''Bufo ventricosus'' <small>Laurenti, 1768</small> * ''Bufo vinearum'' <small>Lesson, 1841</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris cinereus'' <small>Lataste, 1880</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' var. ''acutirostris'' <small>Lessona, 1877</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' var. ''obtusirostris'' <small>Lessona, 1877</small> * ''Bufo vulgaris'' <small>Laurenti, 1768</small> * ''Pegaeus bufo'' <small>Gistel, 1868</small> * ''Rana (Bufo) vulgaris'' <small>Guérin-Méneville, 1838</small> * ''Rana Bufo'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> }} }} | synonyms_ref = <ref name="DFrost"/> | range_map = Bufo bufo distribution.png | range_map_width = 240px | range_map_caption = Tempat hirup bangkong korodok (Eropa) }} '''Bangkong korodok''', basa [[latin]] ( ''Bufo bufo''), nyaéta [[bangkong]] [[ampibi]]/hirupna di darat jeung di [[cai]]<ref name="ampibi"/> anu mibanda kulit korodok/ngajarendil kawas kutil, kelir kulitna [[coklat]] aya ogé anu semu konéng, di mana pindah tempat sakapeung ku jalan ngorondang lalaunan (kawas anu karagok), mimindengna mah aclog-aclogan, bangkong korodok mangsa beurang waktuna dipaké nyumput dina liang atawa sela-sela [[batu]], [[akar]], jeung handapeun [[kalakay]]/dangdaunnan anu murag. Mangsa geus datang wanci burit/soré kakara nguniang hudang néangan hakaneun, sabangsaning [[reungit]], [[rametuk]], [[siraru]], atawa [[gegeremet]]/[[invertebrata]] jeung sajabana nepika isuk-isuk. Bangkong korodok loba kapanggih di sakuliah Indonésia malahan di luar nagara ogé loba kapanggih hirup, saperti di [[Eropa]] kajaba di [[Irlandia]], [[Islandia]], jeung sababaraha pulo di [[Mediterania]], [[Amerika kalér]], [[Afrika kidul]] ogé aya (henteu pati loba)<ref name="ampibi">[https://alamendah.org/2014/10/11/mengenal-amfibi-ciri-ciri-dan-jenis-amfibi-indonesia/ Ampibi nyaéta]</ref>. ==Pedaran== Sanajan sapopoé bangkong korodok hirupna nyorangan bari jeung nyumput, témpona datang [[usum]] begér jeung [[kawin]] mah, bangkong korodok téh barijil tina panyumputana ngarumpul dina [[balong]], sisi [[susukan]] atawa rawa-rawa di mana waé tempat anu mibanda [[cai]], kituna téh bari ramé disarada patémbal-témbal. [[Bangkong]] [[jalu]]na paheula-heula marebutkeun [[bikang]]. [[Endog]] bangkong korodok ngambang luhureun cai, laleutik hideung kawas siki sosin/selasih narapel kana tali anu ngagebay kawas kenur tina [[ager]], dina waktuna ieu endog tuluy megar jadi anak bangkong anu disebut [[buruy]]. Sababaraha bulan tiharita buruy téh ngalaman [[metamorfosis]] taya lian parobahan anu aya dina awakna dicirikeun ku bijilna suku hareup jeung tukang, éta [[buruy]] robah ngarana jadi [[bancét]]. Hirupna mimiti kaluar ti cai, pindah tihiji tempat ka tempat séjén ku jalan aclog-aclogan <ref name=iucn/><ref name="ampibi"/>. == Taxonomy == [[File:Toad shoulder girdle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Shoulder girdle|Tulang tina taktak bangkong <br>1 ''suprascapula'', 2 ''scapula'', 3 ''clavicle'', <br>4 ''procoracoid'']] Bangkong korodok téh ku ahli biologi urang [[Swedia]] [[Carl Linnaeus]] dingaranan ''[[Rana (genus)|Rana]] bufo'' dina bukuna [[''10th edition of Systema Naturae'']] taun 1758.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Carl Linnaeus|von Linné, Carl]], translated by [[William Turton]] |year=1806 |title=A General System of Nature,: Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into Their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties (Volume&nbsp;1) |publisher=Lackington, Allen, and Co |pages=648–649 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I3QZAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover}}</ref> dina ieu panalungtikana, sakabéh bangkong kumanéhna di asupkeun kana hiji genus ngarana ''Rana'', ka béhdieunakeun nincak taun 1768 saurang ''naturalis'' urang [[Austria]] ngarana [[Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti]] mertélakeun yén ieu genus kudu di jentré-jentré deui/''dipilah-pilah'', hasilna taya lian ti ieu bangkong korodok di asupkeun kana genus ''Bufo'', ngarana ''Bufo bufo''.<ref name=laurenti>{{cite book| last = Laurenti | first = J. N. | title = Specimen medicum, exhibens synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium austriacorum | year = 1768 | location = Viennae | publisher = Joan. Thom. Nob. de Trattnern | url = http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/load/img/?PPN=PPN362231184&IDDOC=281657 | language = Latin | pages = i–ii + 1–215, plates 1–5 }}</ref><ref name=zootaxa>{{cite journal| last= Dubois | first= Alain |author2=Bour, Rogér | year=2010 | title= The nomenclatural status of the nomina of amphibians and reptiles created by Garsault (1764), with a parsimonious solution to an old nomenclatural problem regarding the genus ''Bufo'' (Amphibia, Anura), comments on the taxonomy of this genus, and comments on some nomina created by Laurenti (1768) | journal= Zootaxa | volume= 2447 | pages= 1–52 }}</ref> genus bangkong korodok ieu diasupkeun kana kulawarga [[Bufonidae]].<ref name=DFrost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/ |title=Bufonidae |author=Frost, Darrel R. |date=2011-01-31 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 5.5 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |accessdate=2012-08-24}}</ref> Sababaraha [[''subspesies'']] tina ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'', bangkong kaukasia hirup tur maneuh di pagunungan kaukasus kungsi digolongkeun kana ''Bufo bufo verrucosissima''. mibanda [[genom]] leuwih gedé ti batan ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'' [[morfologi (biologi)|morfologis]] kiwari digolongkeun kana '' [[Bufo verrucosissimus]] ''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?query_src=aw_search_index&table=amphib&special=one_record&where-genus=Bufo&where-species=verrucosissimus |title=''Bufo verrucosissimus'' |author=Kuzmin, Sergius L. |date=2008-09-19 |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=2012-09-17}}</ref> aya deui bangkong anu cucukan, ieu mimitina digolongkeun kana ''Bufo bufo spinosus''. kapanggih hirup di daérah [[Mediterania]] awakna leuwih badag mibanda kulit ''spinier'' ti batan batur-baturna anu hirup dibeulah kalér [[Intergradation|intergrades]] <ref>{{cite journal |. Author = Martens, R | tahun = 1925 | title = Eine neue Eidechsengattung aus der Familie der Leposterniden | jurnal = Senckenbergiana | Volume = 7 | halaman = 170-171}}</ref> kiwari digolongkeun kana '' Bufo spinosus '' <ref>{{cite. web | url = http:? //amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query mana-scientific_name = Bufo + spinosus | title = '' Bufo spinosus '' | publisher = AmphibiaWeb | accessdate = 2012/09/17}}</ref> aya deui bangkong ''Gredos'', '' Bufo bufo gredosicola '', ngan aya hirup di daérah [[Sierra de Gredos]] wungkul, di pagunungan anu aya di [[Spanyol]] tengah. Bangkong ieu awakna kacida badag [[paratoid kelenjar]] tur awakna borontok <ref>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Müller, L. | Penulis2 = Hellmich, W. | tahun = 1935 | title = Mitteilungenyüber mati Herpetofauna der Iberischen Halbinsel. Über Salamandra salamandra almanzoris, n. ssp. und '' Bufo bufo gredosicola '', n. ssp, zwei neue Amphibienrassen aus der Sierra de Gredos |. jurnal = Zool. Anz. Leipzig | Volume = 112 | halaman = 49-57}}</ref> sakapeung mah sok di sakompétkeun jeung '' Bufo spinosus '' <ref>{{cite web | url = http: // penelitian.. amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/?action=references&id=2946 | title = '' Bufo spinosus '' Daudin, 1803 | author = Frost, Darrel R. | date = 2013/01/09 | kerja = Amfibi Spesies Dunia: sebuah Referensi online. Versi 5.6 | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | accessdate = 2013/01/24}}</ref> '' Bufo bufo '' mangrupa hiji bagéan tina sakumpulan [[''spesies'']] anu kacida loba jeung rumit, hiji ''spesies'' jeung anu séjéna aya patula patalina tur henteu mibanda wates anu jentré <ref name="iucn"/> Sababaraha ''spesies'' modérn kawasna masih kénéh aya patula patalina tina hiji kumpulan kuno . [[takson]] ti susukan preglacial. Nyaéta bangkong cucukan ('' Bufo ; spinosus ''), Bangkong kulit (''Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus]] '') jeung bangkong korodok [[Jepang]] ( '' [[katak umum Jepang|Bufo&nbsp;japonicus]] ''). Bangkong korodok Eropa ( '' Bufo&nbsp;bufo '') karék kapanggih ka dieunakeun <nama Ref = Birstein> {{cite journal | Penulis1 = Birstein, VJ | Penulis2 = Mazin, AL | tahun = 1982 | title = kromosom. polimorfisme '' Bufo bufo '': kariotipe dan pola C-pita ''. B.&nbsp;b&nbsp;verrucosissima '' | jurnal Genetica = | Volume = 59 | masalah = 2 | halaman = 93-98 | doi = 10,1007 / BF00133292}}</ref> kawasna ti wétan nepi ka kulon pangawakan bangkong kawas kieu téh nepika [[Asia]] ogé aya ngan kahalangan ku ayana gurun tengah [[Miosen]] <ref name = Garcia-Porta>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Garcia-Porta, J. | Penulis2 = Litvinchuk, SN | Penulis3 = Crochet, PA | = author4 Romano, A. | author5 = Lo-Valvo, M. | author6 = Lymberakis, P. | author7 = Carranza, S. | tahun = 2012 | title = filogénetik molekuler dan biogéografi sejarah kodok umum barat-Palearctic ( '' Bufo bufo '' spesies kompleks) | = jurnal Molecular filogénetik dan Evolusi | Volume = 63 | masalah = 1 | halaman = 113-130 | PMID = 22214922 |. doi = 10,1016 / j.ympev.2011.12.019}}</ref> hubungan taksonomina ieu [[spesies]] ogé tacan kanyahoan juntrungana. Hiji panalungtikan ''serologi'' dina taun 2011 anu diguar ka masarakat ngeunaan bangkong anu aya di [[Turki]], [[protéin]] ''serum'' [[getih]] '' Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus '' jeung '' Bufo&nbsp;spinosus ''. Kanyahoan éta dua bangkong téh henteu béda jauh ku kituna di ''synonymized'' kana golongan anu paneuri/pang anyarna <ref>{{cite journal |. Penulis1 = Tosunoğlua, Murat | Penulis2 = Taskavak, Ertan | tahun = 2001 | title = A penyelidikan serologis dari '' Bufo bufo '' (Anura, Bufonidae) populasi di Southern Marmara (Manyas, Bahkesir) dan Timur Laut Hitam (Çamhhemşin, Rize) daerah | jurnal = Italian Journal of Zoology | Volume = 68 | masalah = 2 | halaman = 165-168 | doi = 10,1080 / 11250000109356402}}</ref> Hiji panalungtikan anu diayakeun dina taun 2012 ngeunaan hubunganna [[spesies]] bangkong korodok [[Afrika]] jeung [[Eurasia]] anu aya di beulah kalér mibanda hubungan sajarah anu panjang. Tilu belas juta taun anu geus kaliwat, bangkong korodok ''[[Bufo&nbsp;eichwaldi]]'', anu kiwari hirup [[Species description|described species]] asalna ti [[Azerbaijan]] kidul jeung [[Iran]], papisah jeung garis katurunan anu utamana. Dituluykeun ku divisi anyar nyaéta ''Bufo&nbsp;spinosus'' kurang leuwih lima juta taun anu geus kaliwat mangsa [[Pyrenees]] mimiti kaangkat, ngabalukarkeun ka isolasina semenajung Iberia jeung sakabéh Eropa. Turunan anu aya di Eropa : ''Bufo&nbsp;bufo'' jeung ''Bufo&nbsp;verrucosissimus'' tulu juta taun anu geus kaliwat mangsa [[Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Recuero E. |author2=Canestrelli D. |author3=Voeroes J. |author4=Szabó, K. |author5=Poyarkov, N. A. |author6=Arntzen, J. W. |author7=Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J. |author8=Kidov A. A. |author9=Cogălniceanu, D. |author10=Caputo, F. P. |author11=Nascetti, G. |author12=Martínez-Solano, I. |year=2012 |title=Multilocus species tree analyses resolve the radiation of the widespread ''Bufo bufo'' species group (Anura, Bufonidae) |journal=Molecular Phylogénetics and Evolution |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=71–86 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.09.008 |pmid=21964513 }}</ref> Mindeng bangkong korodok hybridizes <ref name=Collins>{{cite book |title=Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia0000nick |last=Arnold |first=Nicholas |author2=Denys Ovenden |year=2002 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-219964-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reptilesamphibia0000nick/page/73 73]–74 }}</ref> == Ciri mandiri== Bangkong korodok dewasa panjangna kurang leuwih 15&nbsp;cm. Bangkong anu bikangna biasana leuwih gedé batan [[jalu]]na, ditempo tina ''spesimen'' ti beulah kidul bangkong korodok téh pangawakan leuwih baradag ti batan beulah kalér. Bangkong korodok huluna dempak bahamna lébar di luhureun biwirna mecenghul dua liang [[irung]]. Henteu mibanda [[huntu]]. Matana buleud nolol mibanda colat/hihideung panon (''iris'') kagigir kelirna [[konéng]] kawas [[tambaga]]. Tukangeun matana aya anu ngajendul nyaéta ''kelenjar parotis'', anu mibanda kandungan matak bahaya atawa racun ogé katelah [[bufotoxin]], ieu hadé pikeun ngajaga bangkong tina panarajang musuh atawa [[sato]] séjén [[Predation|predators]]. Huluna nyambung jeung awakna, henteu mibanda beuheung. Awakna némprak wangunna kawas keur cingogo anu ditahan ku dua leungeuna (suku hareupna). Sukuna anu tukang nilep ka jero kitu ogé jeung ramo-tamo sukuna. Suku anu hareup leuwih pondok batan suku anu tukangna, Ramo-ramo sukuna mibanda ''selaput''. Henteu mibanda buntut. Kulitna garing tur dipinuhan ku jendilan laleutik kawas [[kutil]]. Kelir kulitna umumna [[coklat]] sakapeung aya anu semu héjo atawa coklat kolot.<ref name=Collins/><ref name=Naish>{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2009/10/26/toads-of-the-north/ |title=Toads of the world: first, (some) toads of the north |author=Naish, Darren |publisher=Tetrapod zoology |accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref><ref name=AmphibiaWeb>{{cite web |url=http://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Bufo&where-species=bufo |title=''Bufo bufo'': Common toad |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |accessdate=2012-05-04}}</ref> Bangkong umurna kawilang panjang, bisa hirup sababaraha taun tur bisa di ingu/kukut, ieu sahenteuna geus puluhan taun kaliwat bangkong-bangkong ngahaja dipiara ku manusa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.herpconstrust.org.uk/animals/common_toad.htm |title=The common toad (''Bufo bufo'') |publisher=The Amphibian and Reptile Conservation Trust |accessdate=2012-05-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121235410/http://www.herpconstrust.org.uk/animals/common_toad.htm |date=2008-11-21 }}</ref> di alam liar, bangkong bisa hirup nepika umur 10-12 taun, umur ieu bangkong bisa kanyahoan tina jumlah [[tulang]]na ''tulang cincin pertumbuhan tahunan'' [[Phalanx bone|phalanges]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Hemelaar, A. S. M. |author2=van Gelder, J. J. |year=1979 |title=Annual growth rings in phalanges of ''Bufo bufo'' (Anura, Amphibia) from the Netherlands and their use for age determination |journal=Netherlands Journal of Zoology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=129–135 |doi=10.1163/002829680X00069 }}</ref> <gallery mode = packed heights = 130px> Common toad (Bufo bufo) swimmimg.jpg|Bangkong keur ngojay Bufo bufo.ogv|thumbtime=0:30|Aya di balong </gallery> == Tempat hirup == [[Bangkong]] anu loba kapanggih hirup taya lian [[Common Frog|common frog]] (''Rana temporaria''), tuluy [[Edible Frog|edible frog]] (''Pelophylax esculentus'') ogé [[Smooth Newt|smooth newt]] (''Lissotriton vulgaris''), Bangkong korodok mangrupa bangkong dina undakan ka opat anu loba kapanggih hirup di [[Eropa]].<ref name=Collins/> sahenteuna ieu loba kapanggih di sakuliah Eropa, kajaba di [[Islandia]] beulah kalér ku lantaran mibanda ''suhu'' anu tiis. [[Scandinavia]], [[Irlandia]] jeung sababaraha pulo [[Mediterania]]. Tayalian ti [[Malta]], [[Crete]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]] katut [[Balearic Islands]]. Beulah wétan tur ngalegaan ka [[Irkutsk]] di [[Siberia]] anu ngawengku ka beulah kidul jeung kulon [[Afrika]] di pigunungan beulah kalér [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]] jeung [[Tunisia]]. Aya deui anu kaasup baraya deukeutna hirup di [[Asia]] beulah wétan [[Jepang]].<ref name=Collins/> bangkong korodok kapireungeuh hirup jeung baranahan di dataran anu mibanda {{convert|2500|m}} utamana dibeulah kidul, ku lantaran loba kénéh leuweung jeung daérahna jemlék.<ref name=AmphibiaWeb/> ogé hirup di tegalan, taman, jeung [[kebon]]-kebon..<ref name=Collins/> == Kabiasaan dina hirup== [[File:Bufo bufo-defensive reaction1.JPG|left|thumb|alt=A common toad adopts a defensive stance|Bangkong korodok mangsa keur nyingareupan anu ngaganggu]] [[File:Užovka obojková s úlovkem (04).jpg|thumb|left|Dihakan ku oray [[Grass snake]], Czech Republic]] Bangkong korodok di mana ingkah ti hiji tempat ku jalan ngorondang lalaunan atawa ngaclog ku opat sukuna, sapopoé nyumput dina liang, handapeun [[batu]], sela-sela akar atawa handapeun dangdaunnan. di mana geus sore maju ka peuting bangkong korodok kakaran aringkah nyiar hakaneun, komo mangsa usum hujan bangkong korodok resepeun pisan. Tempo geus isuk-suk bangkong korodok baralik deui kana sayangna pikeun nyumput Kahakananna sabangsaning, [[hileud]], [[cacing]] [[taneuh]], [[silaru]], [[rametuk]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=Observer>{{cite book |title=The Observer's Book of British Wild Animals |last=Stokeo |first=W. J. |year=1980 |publisher=Frederick Warne |isbn=978-0-7232-1503-5 |pages=213–217 }}</ref><ref name=Surrey>{{cite web |url=http://www.surrey-arg.org.uk/SARG/08000-TheAnimals/SARGSpeciesData.asp?Species=Common_Toad |title=Common Toad |author=Daniel Winchester |publisher=Surrey Amphibian and Reptile Group |accessdate=2012-05-03 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512235944/http://www.surrey-arg.org.uk/SARG/08000-TheAnimals/SARGSpeciesData.asp?Species=Common_Toad |date=2013-05-12 }}</ref> néwak mangsa anu leutik ku jalan di létak ku létahna anu panjang tur cepel.<ref name=Observer/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ewart, J. P. |year=1987 |title=Neuroethology of releasing mechanisms: Prey-catching in toads |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_1987-09_10_3/page/337 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=10 |pages=337–405 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X00023128 |issue=3 }}</ref> Bangkog korodok bisa nempo hakaneun/mangsa sanajan dina poék mongkléng, di mana manusa mah teu nempo nanaon bakatning ku poék.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Larsen, Lis Olesen |author2=Pedersen, Jan Nyholm |year=1981 |title=The snapping response of the toad, ''Bufo bufo'', towards prey dummies at very low light intensities |journal= Amphibia-Reptilia |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=321–327 |doi=10.1163/156853882X00248 }}</ref> Bangkog korodok ngalaman megar/ganti kulit dina sababraha waktu.<ref name=Observer/> [[File:Bufo bufo w Bialogard Polen 080901 (1).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Infected with larvae of ''Lucilia bufonivora''|Keuna ku panyakit ''[[Lucilia bufonivora]]'', Poland]] === Baranahan === [[File:Amplexus Bufo bufo 2010-03-29.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Amplexus|Bangkong jalu nangkod kanu bikang keur [[Amplexus]]]] Bangkong korodok kaluar tina tapa [[''hibernasi'']] wanci datang usum kembang "musim semi" ngabring ngajugjug hiji tempat biasana [[balong]] atawa susukan ngadon balegér jeung kawin. Bangkong korodok ngumpul dina hiji tempat/balong anu bérésih jeung merenah bari ngarojay disarada patembalan.<ref name=Observer/> Bangkong anu déwasa geus arapal deui di mana lebah-lebahna balong paranti ngarumpul [[Spawn (biology)|spawned]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Reading, C. J. |year=1991 |title=Breeding pond fidelity in the common toad, ''Bufo bufo'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-zoology_1991-10_225_2/page/201 |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=225 |issue=2 |pages=201–211 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb03811.x |last2=Loman |first2=J. |last3=Madsen |first3=T. }}</ref> Ieu bangkong-bangkong bisa ajog katempat anu dituju ngandelkeun ''isyarat'' ''magnetik'' tina irungna. Sahenteuna ieu dikuatkeun ku hiji bukti (''eksperimen'' )kahiji bangkong ku jalan masang hiji ''alat pangindra/pelacak,'' kanyahoan ieu bangkong bisa manggihan balong paranti ngumpul jeung begér ti jarak leuwih ti tilu kilo ( dua mil ) . <ref>{{cite journal |author=Sinsch, Ulrich |year=1987 |title=Orientation behaviour of toads (''Bufo bufo'') displaced from the breeding site |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-physiology_1987-10_161_5/page/715 |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=715–727 |doi=10.1007/BF00605013 }}</ref> Bangkong jaluna datang pangheulana tur nyicingan éta tempat dina waktu mang minggu-minggu sedengkeun anu bikangna ngan datang pikeun ngendog wungkul. Bangkong jaluna raéng disarada méré tanda ka jalu séjén.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, N. B. |author2=Halliday, T. R. |year=1978 |title=Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads ''Bufo bufo'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1978-08-17_274_5672/page/683 |journal=Nature |volume=274 |pages=683–685 |doi=10.1038/274683a0 |issue=5672 }}</ref> sanajan ti kitu angger waé aya waktuna ieu bangkong jaluna pasarandog anu antukna garelut.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, N. B. |author2=Halliday, T. R. |year=1979 |title=Competitive mate searching in male common toads, ''Bufo bufo'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_animal-behaviour_1979-11_27_4/page/1253 |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=1253–1267 |doi=10.1016/0003-3472(79)90070-8 }}</ref> ku lantaran bangkong jaluna leuwih loba batan bikangna. Hiji panalungtikan anu diayakeun di [[Swedia]] manggihan bangkong bikang leuwih gedé resiko paeh batan jaluna 41 % bikangna datang ka balong paranti ngumpul biasana sataun sakali. <ref>{{cite news | title = Studies conducted at Lund University on amphibian research recently published | work = Science Letter | date = 2010-12-21 | accessdate = 2012-04-18 | url = http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-244690474.html | publisher = via [[HighBeam Research]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513112010/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-244690474.html |date=2013-05-13 }}</ref> [[File:Bufo.bufo.eggs.jpg|thumb|alt=Egg strings of common toad|Endog bangkong korodok napel dina benang]] Bangkong jaluna nangkod dina tonggong bikangna, sukuna anu hareup muntang kana palebah kelek bikangna dina basa ilmiahna disebut [[amplexus]]. Bangkong jaluna katempo leuwih sumanget, Sakapeung leuwih ti dua bangkong patangkod-tangkod, Unggal bangkong jalu usaha sabisa-bisa nangkodan bangkong anu bikangna. Ieu kaayaan kacida pisan rame, matak ripuh teu saeutik aya anu nembahan pati (paéh).<ref name=Collins/> Bangkong jalu anu bisa nangkodan bikangna pikeun di [[amplexus]] bisa nepika sababaraha poé nangkodna, Bikangna, ngaluarkeun endog anu narapel dina tali kawas ager, bari jeung di buahi ku sperma jaluna. Unggal kantétan 3.000-6.000 endog lamun di batek éta tali endog bangkong panjangna nepika 4.5 metér éta benang katétan nyangked kana tatangkalan atawa akar anu aya dina balong pamijahan.<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN |assessors=Agasyan, A.; Avisi, A.; Tuniyev, B.; Isailovic, J. C.; Lymberakis, P.; Andrén, C.; Cogalniceanu, D.; Wilkinson, J.; Ananjeva, N.; Üzüm, N.; Orlov, N.; Podloucky, R.; Tuniyev, S.; Kaya, U.|year=2009|id= 54596|title=''Bufo bufo''|version= 2014.2|downloaded=2014-10-11}}</ref><ref name=Observer/> Tali anu dibijil tina bangkong bikangna nyerep cai kalawan ukurana ngagedéan, endog bangkong megar jadi [[buruy]] dua nepika tilu minggu. mimiti megar ieu buruy téh masih kénéh narapel dina tali anu kawas ager tur ieu jadi kahakanan anu munggaran pikeun hirup buruy. di mana geus lalesot tina tali ieu buruy-buruy téh ngarojay nyarumput dina handapeun dangdaunnan atawa tatangkalan cai anu hirup dina éta balong pamijahan. Buruy bangkong korodok dina pangawakanamah sarua waé jeung bangkong séjéna ( ''Rana temporaria'') ngan bédana kelirna leuwih hideung. Buruy bangkong korodok bahamna leuwih lebar, sbabraha minggu tiharita buruy-buruy ieu mimiti ngagedéan awakna tur buntutna jadi mondokan. Nincak umur dua belas minggu buruy téh geus robah jadi bangkong leutik atawa anu katelah bancet {{ mengkonversi | 1,5 | cm | 1 | abbr = on }} tur geus bisa ninggalkeun balong anu salila ieu jadi tempat hirupna.<ref name=Observer/> === Undakan hirup bangkong=== [[File:BufoBufoTadpoles.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Tadpoles of common toad|Buruy, Germany]] Bangkong déwasa tur meujeuhna beger [[Sexual maturity|maturity]] dina umur tilu nepika tujuh taun.<ref name=Collins/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Goater, Cameron P. |author2=Semlitsch, Raymond D. |author3=Bernasconi, Marco V. |year=1993 |title=Effects of body size and parasite infection on the locomotory performance of juvenile toads, ''Bufo bufo'' |journal=Oikos |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=129–136 |jstor=3545205 |doi=10.2307/3545205 }}</ref> Setelah beberapa bulan dari infeksi cacing berat, beberapa remaja dalam sebuah penelitian yang hanya setengah berat seperti [ [ control Ilmiah | remaja control ] ] . parasit diinduksi [ [ anoreksia nervosa | anoreksia ] ] mereka menyebabkan penurunan asupan makanan dan beberapa meninggal .<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Goater, C. P. |author2=Ward, P. I. |year=1992 |title=Negative effects of ''Rhabdias bufonis'' (Nematoda) on the growth and survival of toads (''Bufo bufo'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oecologia_1992-02_89_2/page/161 |journal=Oecologia |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=161–165 |jstor=4219866 |doi=10.1007/bf00317213 }}</ref> Ditaluntik ogé ngeunaan pangaruh ngagunakeun gemuk/''pupuk'' [[nitrogén]] mangaruhan jeung henteu kana hirup bangkong ti mimiti buruy kénéh, Pikeun nyingkahan akibat goréngna ku alatan maké gemuk [[nitrogén]]nya dijieun waé hiji campuran [[amonium nitrat]]. Kanyahoan dina campuran anu geus ditangtukeun, bisa ngaronjatkeun kana waktu ''metamorfosis'' buruy.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Xu, Q. |author2=Oldham, R. S. |year=1997 |title=Lethal and sublethal effects of nitrogén fertilizer ammonium nitrate on common toad (''Bufo bufo'') tadpoles |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-environmental-contamination-and-toxicology_1997-04_32_3/page/298 |journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=298–303 |doi=10.1007/s002449900188 |pmid=9096079 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemelaar, Agnes |year=1988 |title=Age, growth and other population characteristics of ''Bufo bufo'' from different latitudes and altitudes |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=369–388 |jstor=1564332 |doi=10.2307/1564332 }}</ref> === Pindah tempat/Migrasi === [[File:Toad tunnel.jpg|thumb|alt=Tunnel for toads|Torowongan pameuntasan bangkong, Germany]] Bangkong korodok pindah tempat/migrasi milu kana aliran cai susukan, teu saeutik tina éta susukan meuntasan jajalaneun mobil, motor jeung anu leumpang. ku ieu pisan loba bangkong korodokanu paeh ku jalan kacilakaan mangsa susukana ngaliwatan luhureun jajalaneun. Di Eropa hususna loba pisan ampibi anu cilaka dijalan mangsa migrasi usum beger jeung kawin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Santos, X. |author2=Llorente, G. A. |author3=Montori, A. |author4=Carretero, M. A. |author5=Franch, M. |author6=Garriga, N. |author7=Richter-Boix, A. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating factors affecting amphibian mortality on roads: the case of the common toad ''Bufo bufo'', near a breeding place |journal=Animal Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=97–104 |publisher=The Natural Science Museum of Barcelona |url=http://abc.museucienciesjournals.cat/files/ABC-30-1-pp-97-104.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Di sababaraha tempat di [[Jerman]], [[Belgia]], [[Inggris]], [[Italia]] kaler jeung [[Polandia]], diwangun hiji torowongan anu husus dijieun paranti bangkong jeung anu séjéna meuntas jalan anu aya di luhureuna. di tempat anu séjéna, aya anu tugas husus "patroli kodok", newakan bangkong /ampibi anu aya dina pameuntasan jalan-jalan anu rame ku kandaraan di wadahan kana ember pikeun dianteurkeun kana tujuana. {{convert|5|C|F|abbr=on}}. Pada malam basah hangat yang mereka dapat terus bergerak sepanjang malam tapi jika dingin, mereka mungkin berhenti sebelumnya <ref>{{cite web |url=http://toadwatch.org |title=What we do |publisher=Toad watch: Helping toads to survive |accessdate=2012-04-30}}</ref> kitu ogé an dilakukeun ku urang Belanda pikeun ngaping bangkong-bangkong anu ngadon pindah tempat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gelder, J. J. |year=1973 |title=A quantitative approach to the mortality resulting from traffic in a population of ''Bufo bufo'' L |journal=Oecologia |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=93–95 |doi=10.1007/BF00379622 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/wv524277w3w32564/ }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Bufotoxin == Hiji substansi anu ngandung racun ayana dina kelenjar parotoid jeung kulit bangkong korodok disebutna bufotoxin ieu mimiti di wanohkeun ku [[Heinrich Otto Wieland|Heinrich Wieland]] jeung babaturanna tina taun 1922, dua puluh taun tiharita maranéhna kakara manggihan struktur tina éta racun .<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chen, K. K. |author2=Jensen, H. |author3=Chen, A. L. |title=Action of Bufotoxins |journal=Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine |date=April 1932 |volume=29 |series=7 |issue=907 |doi=10.3181/00379727-29-6141 |issn=1535-3699|quote=Wieland and Alles isolated bufotoxin from the skin of ''B. vulgaris'' or ''B. bufo bufo''.}}</ref> Sagigireun ti éta kapanggih ogé cara pikeun ngisolasi senyawa tina inti [[steroid]] bufotalin tina bangkong anu aya di Jepang ( ''Bufo japonicus ''). Dina taun 1986, para élmuwan di [[Arizona State University]] geus bisa nga sintetis bahan racun bangkong [[bufotalin]], bufalitoxin jeung bufotoxin.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pettit, G. R. |author2=Kamano, Y. |author3=Drasar, P. |author4=Inoue, M. |author5=Knight, J. C. |year=1987 |title=Steroids and related natural products. 104. Bufadienolides. 36. Synthesis of bufalitoxin and bufotoxin |journal=Journal of Organic Chemistry |volume=52 |issue=16 |pages=3573–3578 |doi=10.1021/jo00392a014 }}</ref> Rumus kimia tina bufotoxin : C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>60</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub>.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/bufotoxin |title=Bufotoxin |work=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |accessdate=2012-05-26}}</ref> Dina dosis anu saeutik bisa ngaronjatkeun gerakan jantung utamana dipaké ngabantu mangsa gubaran kasakit jantung [[gagal jantung kongestif]]. Kulit bangkong korodok mibanda racun anu baris ngabalukarkeun hiji kaayaan anu bahaya malahan nepi ka maotna.<ref name=textfiles>{{cite web |url=http://www.textfiles.com/drugs/toadtoxins.drg |title=Toad toxins |work=Textfiles.com |accessdate=2012-05-26}}</ref> Balukar tina karacunan bangkong bisa katembong tina iritasi mata, baham, irung jeung tikoro, jantung jeung ambekan/ngarenghap, [[lumpuh]] jeung jeung ker, ngacay waé, utah, [[hiperkalemia]], [[sianosis]] jeung [[halusinasi]] atawa sasar/ngalindur.<ref name=textfiles/> Tacan kapanggih ubarna.<ref name=textfiles/> Ubar pikeun sesek jeung kardiovaskular, bisa waé dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyingkahan pangaruh tina [[elektrokardiografi]]. [[Atropin]], [[fenitoin ]], [[cholestyramine]] jeung [[lidocaine]] .<ref name=textfiles/> ==Kabudayaan== [[File:Satan-traditional-arms.svg|thumb|upright|alt=Devil's coat of arms|Gambaran bangkong dina jubah tukang sihir]] Di Eropa, bangkong korodok geus heubeul dianggap hiji totondén/pertanda goréng. Aya patalina jeung alam gaib, jurig, dedemit, jeung sajabana. Meureun dumasar kana kaayaan éta bangkong korodok : hirupna bisa di darat jeung di cai,kulitna anu korodok semu hideung nimulkeun rasa geuleuh pikeun anu nempo, ngorondang lalaunan kawas anu ngadodoho, tara kanyahoan ujug-uug bijil tinu poék. Di Eropa dina [[Abad Pertengahan]], Bangkong korodok dikait-kaitkeun jeung hiji ageman [[Kristen]] ngeunaan ayana iblis jeung sétan, ku kituna nya dijieun waé jubah anu dipapaésan ku tilu bangkong ngahaja ieu dijieun mangrupakaeun hiji panangkal/panyinglas sétan .<ref>{{cite book|last=Peddle|first=S. V.|year=2007|title=Pagan Channel Islands: Europe's Hidden Heritage|publisher=Robert Hale|page=118|isbn=0-7090-8248-7}}</ref> pada mikanyaho yén bangkong korodok bisa ngabalukarkeun racun pikeun manusa, ku alatan ieu pisan bangkong korodok jadi hiji sato anu geus remen dipaké dina prak prakan ngajalankeun élmu sihir/tenung, ku alatan dianggap mibanda hiji kakuatan gaib. Malahan ngamangpaatkeun bangkong korodok anu digaringkeun pikeun diarah hampru/empedu, kotoran jeung getihna .<ref name=Witch-hunt>{{cite book |title=Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia |last=Burns |first=William E. |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32142-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=common+toad+witchcraft#v=onepage&q=common%20toad%20witchcraft&f=false }}</ref> Di sababaraha daérah percaya lamun seug aya bangkong korodok ngulampreng ka imah éta méré totonden ayana pangaruh sihir atawa anu ngadon demit .<ref name=Witch-hunt/> Dalam [[Basque Country (wilayah lebih besar )|Basque Country]], dipercaya cenah bangkong korodok téh maké jubah anu gagah/elegan. digiring-giring ku barudak anu keur dialajar elmu sihir. kurang leuwih taun 1610 jeung 1612, hiji Inkuisisi/hukum numutkeun cara-cara gereja <ref>[https://www.google.co.id/search?q=inkuisisi+artinya&oq=inkuisisi+artinya&aqs=chrome..69i57.3615j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 Inkuisisi]</ref> [[Spanyol]] [[Alonso de Salazar Frias]] ngayakeun panalungtikan ngeunaan prakték sihir di éta tempat tuluy ngadatangan hiji imah anu disangka tukang nyihir anu mibanda bangkong maké jubah TAPI NYATANA HENTEU KAPANGGIH .<ref name=Burns>{{cite book |title=Witch Hunts in Europe and America: An Encyclopedia |last=Burns |first=William E. |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32142-9 |pages=20–21 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=common+toad+witchcraft#v=onepage&q=common%20toad%20witchcraft&f=false }}</ref> These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews.<ref name=Burns/> Di Inggris aya deui dongéng ngeunaan bangkong korodok ieu nyaritakeun hiji nini-nini tukang [[sihir]], anu ditagih duit séwa [[imah]] kunu boga taneuh. lain mayar kalahka malik ngéwa ku alatan ngarasa kaganggu ku anu boga taneuh, ku jalan maké élmu sihir pikeun, ngutuk anu boga tanah jeug sakabéh harta kakayaana. Kakocap di imah nu boga taneu teu kungsi lila, tiharita pamajikana karagragan bangkong korodok nepika labuhna. Gentak éta bangkong dicokot lung dialungkeun kana [[durukan]], tapi édas éta bangkong bisa kénéh kabur sanajan awakna geus kabeuleum sawaréh. Sawatara ti éta, imah nini-nini tukang sihir téh kahuruan ogé nepika runtuh. Isukna bangkong jeung tukang sihirna geus palastra ngababatang jadi banusan, tur ébréh urut kabeuleum anu aya dina éta awak nini-nini sarua lebah-lebahna jeung bangkong korodok anu kamari kabur tina durukan. <ref>{{cite book |title=Popular romances of the West of England; or, the drolls, traditions, and superstitions of Old Cornwall, Volume 2 |last=Hunt |first=Robert |year=1865 |publisher=Hotten |page=105 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=SH9MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA105&dq=%22Popular+Romances+of+the+West+of+England%22+2nd+series#v=onepage&q=%22Popular%20Romances%20of%20the%20West%20of%20England%22%202nd%20series&f=false }}</ref> [[File:Witches'Familiars1579.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Witch feeding toads|1579 Tukang sihir keur ngamangpaatkeun bangkong]] Ciduh bangkong korodok dipercaya mibanda racun/peurah anu disebut "sweltered" cenah dipercaya bangkong morodok bisa nyiduhkeun seuneu anu ngandunung racun. Bangkong korodok sok dihubung-hubungkeun jeung setan '' [[Paradise Lost]] '', [ [ John Milton ] ] digambarkan [ [ Setan ] ] minangka katak ketika ia menuangkan racun ke [ [ Eve ] ] telinga ' s .<ref name=Witch-hunt/> Pertama Penyihir di [[William Shakespeare]] [[Macbeth]] mertélakeun sarat jeung katangtuan ngagunakeun campuran bangkong korodok tur maké parancah jeung jangjawokan:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/19259 |title=''Macbeth'', Act&nbsp;IV, Scene&nbsp;I |author=Shakespeare, William |date=1605–1606 |publisher=Poets.org }}</ref> Aya deui anu percaya cenah dina hulu bangkong korodok téh aya hiji mustika "[[toadstone]]", di mana éta mustika umpama dipaké, bakal ngabejaan anu makena lamun seug aya anu demit atawa ngaracun kamanéhna.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/folklore/ |title=Frogs: Frog myths across cultures |author=Wanner, Noel |year=2011 |work=The Exploratorium |publisher=The museum of science, art and human perception |accessdate=2012-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206085215/http://www.exploratorium.edu/frogs/folklore/ |date=2012-02-06 }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|3}} ==Tutumbu kaluar == {{Commons category|Bufo bufo}} * {{wikispecies-inline|Bufo bufo}} * Information at [http://www.herp.it/ Ampibi anu aya di Europe] * Information at [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/481.shtml BBC nature on the common toad] * Information at [http://www.astolinto.it/SchedeVA/RospoCE.php Astolinto form] {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ampibi]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] s7l9mnrovgxcj95r47npjxiwdmekitv Ipomoea 0 51352 712361 675391 2026-08-28T21:46:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712361 wikitext text/x-wiki :''"Ipomoea" ogé hiji judul [[novel]] karya [[John T. Phillifent|John Rackham]], medal ti [[Ace Books]] taun 1969.'' {{taxobox |image = Ipomoea carnea.jpg |image_caption = ''[[Ipomoea carnea]]'', disebut ''[[canudo-de-pita]]'' di [[Brazil]] |regnum = [[Plant]]ae |unranked_divisio = [[Flowering plant|Angiosperms]] |unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]] |unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]] |ordo = [[Solanales]] |familia = [[Convolvulaceae]] |tribus = [[Ipomoeeae]] |genus = '''''Ipomoea''''' |genus_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] 1753<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?6064 |title=Genus: ''Ipomoea'' L. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-10-05 |accessdate=2010-11-10}}</ref> |subdivision_ranks = Species |subdivision = More than 500, see text |synonyms = ''Acmostemon'' <small>Pilg.</small><br> ''Batatas'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Bonanox'' <small>Raf.</small><br> ''Calonyction'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Calycantherum'' <small>Klotzsch</small><br> ''Diatremis'' <small>Raf.</small><br> ''Dimerodisus'' <small>Gagnep.</small><br> ''Exogonium'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Mina'' <small>Cerv.</small><br> ''Parasitipomoea'' <small>Hayata</small><br> ''Pharbitis'' <small>Choisy</small><br> ''Quamoclit'' <small>Mill.</small><br> ''Quamoclit'' <small>Moench</small><ref name="GRIN"/> |}} '''''Ipomoéa''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɪ|p|ə|ˈ|m|iː|ə|,_|-|p|oʊ|-}}{{refn|{{OxfordDictionaries.com|accessdate=2016-01-21|Ipomoea}}}}<ref>''Sunset Western Garden Book,'' 1995:606–607</ref>) nyaéta [[genus]] pangbadagna di [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] [[tutuwuhan kembangan]] ''[[Convolvulaceae]]'', anu ngawengku 500-an [[spésiés]]. Di antarana anu kawentar nyaéta ''[[morning glory]]'', [[kangkung]] (''Ipomoea aquatica''), jeung [[hui]], jeung daun katang.<ref name="Bungbu">{{Cite book|title =Udjung Kulon: The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros| last= Hoogerwerf| first= A. | coauthors =-| year= 1970|page=31|location=National Library of the Netherlands (original from Leiden University Libraries)| publisher=Brill Archive| url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=pc4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31&dq=sophora+tomentosa+bungbulan&source=bl&ots=F2HR_Grimb&sig=ACfU3U0JnMtQmW9VQ36gztboIlgK5221VQ&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGndL0ioTuAhVS6XMBHZWOCzEQ6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=sophora%20tomentosa%20bungbulan&f=false}}disungsi – 4 Jan 2021</ref> Ieu genus sumebar di wewengkon tropis jeung subtropis. == Spésiés == {{Col-begin}} {{col-break}} * ''[[Ipomoea abrupta]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea alba]]'' <small>L.</small> – moon vine * ''[[Ipomoea alpina]]'' <small>Rendle</small> * ''[[Ipomoea amnicola]]'' <small>[[Thomas Morong|Morong]]</small> – red-center morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea aquatica]]'' <small>[[Peter Forsskål|Forssk.]]</small> – [[kangkung]] * ''[[Ipomoea arborescens]]'' <small>G.Don</small> * ''[[Ipomoea aristolochiaefolia]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea asarifolia]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea barbatisepala]]'' <small>A.Gray</small> * ''[[Ipomoea batatas]]'' <small>(L.) Lam.</small> – [[hui]] * ''[[Ipomoea batatoides]]'' <small>Benth.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea bona-nox]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea cairica]]'' – Coast morning glory, Cairo morning glory, mile-a-minute vine, Messina creeper, railroad creeper * ''[[Ipomoea calobra]]'' <small>F.Muell.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea capillacea]]'' <small>(Kunth) G.Don</small> * ''[[Ipomoea carnea]]'' – pink morning glory, ''canudo-de-pita'' ([[Brazil]]) * ''[[Ipomoea chrysocalyx]]'' <small>D.F.Austin</small> * ''[[Ipomoea coccinea]]'' – red morning glory, redstar, Mexican morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea cordatotriloba]]'' <small>L.</small> – little violet morning glory ** ''Ipomoea cordatotriloba'' var. ''torreyana'' – purple bindweed * ''[[Ipomoea cordifolia]]'' <small>Carey ex Voight</small> – héart-léaved morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea costata]]'' – rock morning glory, bush potato * ''[[Ipomoea costellata]]'' <small>Torr.</small> – crest-ribbed morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea cristulata]]'' <small>Hallier f.</small> – trans-Pecos morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea cynanchifolia]]'' <small>([[Carl Meissner|Meisn.]]) Mart.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea daturaefolia]]'' <small>[[Carl Meissner|Meisn.]]</small> * ''[[Ipomoea demerariana]]'' <small>Choisy</small> (= ''I. phyllomega''<!--- <small>(Vell.) House</small> -->) * ''[[Ipomoea diversifolia]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea dumetorum]]'' <small>Willd. ex Roemer & J.A.Schultes</small> – railwaycreeper * ''[[Ipomoea eggersiana]]'' <small>Peter</small> * ''[[Ipomoea eggersii]]'' <small>(House) D.Austin</small> – Egger's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea eriocarpa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea ghika]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea gracilis]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea graminea]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea halierca]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea hederacea]]'' – ivy-léaved morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea hederifolia]]'' – scarlet morning glory, scarlet creeper, star ipomoéa, ''trompillo'' (= ''I. coccinea'' <small>Sessé & Moc.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea horrida]]'' <small>Huber</small> * ''[[Ipomoea horsfalliae]]'' – Lady Doorly's morning glory, cardinal creeper, Prince Kuhio vine * ''[[Ipomoea imperati]]'' <small>(Vahl) Griseb.</small><ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?6064 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Ipomoea'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |accessdate=2010-11-10}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea incisa]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea indica]]'' – océanblue morning glory, blue morning glory, blue dawn flower, ''koali awa'' (Hawaii) * ''[[Ipomoea jalapa]]'' <small>(L.) Pursh.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea krugii]]'' <small>Urban</small> – Krug's white morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea lacunosa]]'' <small>L.</small> – whitestar potato, whitestar * ''[[Ipomoea leptophylla]]'' – bush morning glory, bush moonflower, manroot * ''[[Ipomoea leucantha]]''{{Verify source|date=November 2009}}<!-- hybrid? --> <small>Jacq. (''non'' Webb ex Hook., Desv. ex Ham.)</small> * ''[[Ipomoea lindheimeri]]'' <small>Gray</small> – Lindheimer's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea littoralis]]'' <small>Blume</small> – white-flowered béach morning glory<!-- Micronesica40:169. --> * ''[[Ipomoea lobata]]'' <small>(Cerv.) Thell.</small> – fire vine, Spanish flag * ''[[Ipomoea longifolia]]'' <small>Benth.</small> – pink-throated morning glory {{col-break}} {{Col-2}} * ''[[Ipomoea macrantha]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea macrorhiza]]'' <small>Michx.</small> – large-rooted morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea marginata]]'' <small>(Desr.) Verdc.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea mauritiana]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> – giant potato, ''kiribadu ala'', ''likam'' (Hawaii) * ''[[Ipomoea meyeri]]'' <small>(Spreng.) G.Don</small> – Meyer's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea microdactyla]]'' <small>Griseb.</small> – calcaréous morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea × multifida]]'' – 'Cardinal Climber' (''I. coccinea × I. quamoclit'') * ''[[Ipomoea nil]]'' – white-edged morning glory, ivy morning glory, Japanese morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea obscura]]'' – obscure morning glory, small white morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea ochracea]]'' <small>(Lindl.) G.Don</small> – fence morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea oenotherae]]'' <small>Hallier f.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea pandurata]]'' – wild potato vine, big-rooted morning glory, man-of-the-éarth, manroot * ''[[Ipomoea pes-caprae]]'' <small>(L.) R.Br.</small> (Daun katang)– béach morning glory, "[[Oxalis pes-caprae|goat's foot]]" ** ''Ipomoea pes-caprae'' ssp. ''brasiliensis'' – ''salsa-da-praia'' (Brazil) * ''[[Ipomoea plebeia]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea plummerae]]'' <small>Gray</small> – Huachuca Mountain morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea polymorpha]]'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> (= ''I. heterophylla'' <small>R.Br.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea prismatosyphon]]'' <small>Welw. * ''[[Ipomoea pubescens]]'' <small>Lam.</small> – silky morning glory (= ''I. heterophylla'' <small>Ortega</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea pulcherrima]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea purga]]'' <small>(Wender.) Hayne</small> – Vera Cruz jalap (= ''I. jalapa'' <small>auct. ''non'' L.</small>) * ''[[Ipomoea purpurea]]'' – common morning glory, purple morning glory, tall morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea quamoclit]]'' – cypress vine, cypressvine morning glory, cardinal creeper, cardinal vine, star glory, "hummingbird vine" * ''[[Ipomoea racemigera]]'' <small>F.Muell. & Tate</small> * ''[[Ipomoea repanda]]'' <small>Jacq.</small> – ''bejuco colorado'' * ''[[Ipomoea repens]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea rubens]]'' <small>Choisy</small> (= ''I. fragans''<!-- <small>(Bojer ex Choisy) Baker</small> -->) * ''[[Ipomoea rupicola]]'' <small>House</small> – cliff morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea sagittata]]'' <small>Poir.</small> – saltmarsh morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea setifera]]'' <small>Poir.</small> – ''bejuco de puerco'' * ''[[Ipomoea setosa]]'' <small>Ker Gawl.</small> – Brazilian morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea shumardiana]]'' <small>(Torr.) Shinners</small> – narrow-léaved morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea simplex]]'' <small>Thunb.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea simulans]]'' – Tampico jalap, ''purga de Sierra Gorda'' * ''[[Ipomoea sloteri]]'' – cardinal climber * ''[[Ipomoea steudelii]]'' <small>Millsp.</small> – Steudel's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea stolonifera]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea tastensis]]'' <small>Brandegee</small> from Baja California Sur * ''[[Ipomoea temascaltepecensis]]'' <small>Wilkin</small><ref name="temascaltepecensis">{{Cite journal | last = Wilkin | first = Paul | authorlink = Paul Wilkin | title = A New Species of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) from Mexico State, Mexico, and Its Evolution | url = https://archive.org/details/kew-bulletin_1995_50_1/page/93 | journal = Kew Bulletin | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 93–102 | publisher = Springer | location = Netherlands | year = 1995 | jstor = 4114611 | issn = 1874-933X | doi =10.2307/4114611}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea tenuiloba]]'' <small>Torr.</small> – spiderléaf * ''[[Ipomoea tenuirostris]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bussmann | first1 = R. W. | display-authors = etal | year = 2006 | title = Plant use of the Maasai of Sekenani Valley, Maasai Mara, Kenya | journal = J Ethnobiol Ethnomed | volume = 2 | issue = | page = 22 | pmc=1475560 | pmid=16674830 | doi=10.1186/1746-4269-2-22}}</ref> * ''[[Ipomoea tenuissima]]'' <small>Choisy</small> – rockland morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea ternifolia]]'' <small>Cav.</small> – triple-leaved morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea thurberi]]'' <small>Gray</small> – Thurber's morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea tricolor]]'' <small>Cav.</small> – Mexican morning glory, ''tlitliltzin'' (Nahuatl), ''badoh negro'' * ''[[Ipomoea triloba]]'' – [[littlebell]], Aiéa morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea tuberculata]]'' * ''[[Ipomoea tuberosa]]'' <small>L.</small> – Hawaiian woodrose * ''[[Ipomoea tuboides]]'' <small>O.Deg. & van Ooststr.</small> – Hawaii morning glory * ''[[Ipomoea turbinata]]'' <small>Lag.</small> – lilacbell * ''[[Ipomoea velutina]]'' <small>R.Br.</small> * ''[[Ipomoea violacea]]'' <small>L.</small> – béach moonflower, séa moonflower * ''[[Ipomoea wrightii]]'' – Wright's morning glory {{Col-end}} === Formerly placed here === {{Col-begin}} {{col-break}} * ''[[Ellisia nyctelea]]'' <small>(L.) L.</small> (as ''I. nyctelea'' <small>L.</small>) * ''[[Jacquemontia ovalifolia]]'' (as ''I. ovalifolia'' <small>Choisy</small>) * ''[[Jacquemontia tamnifolia]]'' <small>(L.) Griseb.</small> (as ''I. tamnifolia'' <small>L.</small>) * ''[[Merremia aegyptia]]'' <small>(L.) Urb.</small> (as ''I. aegyptia'' <small>L.</small>) * ''[[Merremia cissoides]]'' <small>(Lam.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. cissoides'' <small>(Lam.) Griseb.</small>) * ''[[Merremia discoidesperma]]'' <small>(Donn. Sm.) O'Donell</small> (as ''I. discoidesperma'' <small>Donn. Sm.</small>) * ''[[Merremia dissecta]]'' <small>(Jacq.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. dissecta'' <small>(Jacq.) Pursh</small> or ''I. sinuata'' <small>Ortega</small>) * ''[[Merremia emarginata]]'' <small>(Burm. f.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. reniformis'' <small>(Roxb.) Sweet</small>) * ''[[Merremia kingii]]'' <small>(Prain) Kerr</small> (as ''I. kingii'' <small>Prain</small>) * ''[[Merremia mammosa]]'' <small>(Lour.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. mammosa'' <small>(Lour.) Choisy</small>) * ''[[Merremia peltata]]'' <small>(L.) Merr.</small> (as ''I. nymphaeifolia'' <small>Blume</small>) * ''[[Merremia pterygocaulos]]'' <small>(Choisy) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. pterygocaulos'' <small>Choisy</small>) * ''[[Merremia quinquefolia]]'' <small>(L.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. quinquefolia'' <small>L.</small>) {{col-break}} * ''[[Merremia sibirica]]'' <small>(L.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. sibirica'' <small>(L.) Pers.</small>) * ''[[Merremia tuberosa]]'' <small>(L.) Rendle</small> (as ''I. tuberosa'' <small>L.</small>) * ''[[Merremia umbellata]]'' <small>(L.) Hallierf.</small> (as ''I. polyanthes'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> or ''I. pterodes'' <small>Choisy</small>) * ''[[Operculina aequisepala]]'' <small>(Domin) R.W.Johnson</small> (as ''I. aequisepala'' <small>Domin</small>) * ''[[Operculina hamiltonii]]'' <small>(G.Don) D.F.Austin & Staples</small> (''I. hamiltonii'' <small>G.Don</small>) * ''[[Operculina turpethum]]'' <small>(L.) Silva Manso</small> (as ''I. turpethum'' <small>(L.) R.Br.</small>) * ''[[Piper kadsura]]'' <small>(Choisy) Ohwi</small> (as ''I. kadsura'' <small>Choisy</small>) * ''[[Stictocardia macalusoi]]'' <small>(Mattei) Verdc.</small> (as ''I. macalusoi'' <small>Mattei</small>) * ''[[Stictocardia tiliifolia]]'' <small>(Desr.) Hallier f.</small> (as ''I. campanulata'' <small>L.</small>) * ''[[Turbina corymbosa]]'' <small>(L.) Raf.</small> (as ''I. burmannii'' <small>Choisy</small>) * ''[[Xenostegia medium]]'' <small>(L.) D.F.Austin & Staples</small> (as ''I. medium'' <small>(L.) Druce</small>) * ''[[Xenostegia tridentata]]'' <small>(L.) D.F.Austin & Staples</small> (as ''I. angustifolia'' <small>Jacq.</small>)<ref name="GRINSpecies"/> {{Col-end}} ==Galeri== <Gallery> File:MorningGlory5.jpgWhitestar potato (''[[Ipomoea lacunosa|I. lacunosa]]'') File:Ipomoea-barbatisepala.jpg|''[[Ipomoea barbatisepala]]'' File:Ipomoea macrantha.jpg|''[[Ipomoea macrantha]]'' File:Ipomoea marginata in Hyderabad W IMG 4988.jpg|''[[Ipomoea marginata]]'' File:Starr 050911-4400 Ipomoea ochracea.jpg|Fence morning glory (''[[Ipomoea ochracea|I. ochracea]]'') File:Ipomoea oenotherae habit.jpg|Young ''[[Ipomoea oenotherae]]'' plant File:Ipomoea pes-caprae - flower view 01.jpg|[[Ipomoea pes-caprae]] in China File:Saltmarsh Morning-glory (Ipomoea sagittata) - Sanibel Island, FL, USA 03.jpg|''[[Ipomoea sagittata]]'' in Florida </Gallery> == Rujukan == {{Commons category}} {{wikispecies}} {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://www.finegardening.com/design/articles/morning-glory-flowering-vines.aspx Fine Gardening: Morning glories and more] {{sirung-Ipomoea}} {{taxonbar}} [[Kategori:Ipomoea|*]] 40go0m6665f2fplgblq0n7rj1hpqkxr Pandanus 0 52633 712346 703359 2026-08-28T21:22:42Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Pandalus}} {{italic title}}{{taxobox | image = Pandanus utilis fruit.JPG | image_caption = Buah ''[[Pandanus utilis]]'' | regnum = [[Plantae]] | unranked_divisio = [[Angiospermae]] | unranked_classis = [[Monocotyledon]] | ordo = [[Pandanales]] | familia = [[Pandanaceae]] | genus = '''''Pandanus''''' | genus_authority = [[Sydney C. Parkinson|Parkinson]] | synonyms_ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/synonomy.do?name_id=284125|title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|publisher=Apps.kew.org|accessdate=18 December 2014}}</ref> |synonyms=*''Keura'' <small>Forssk.</small> *''Athrodactylis'' <small>J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.</small> *''Pandanus'' <small>Rumph. ex L.f. 1782 not Parkinson 1773</small> *''Dorystigma'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Eydouxia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Fisquetia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Foullioya'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Heterostigma'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Hombronia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Jeanneretia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Roussinia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Souleyetia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Sussea'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Tuckeya'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Vinsonia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Marquartia'' <small>Hassk.</small> *''Hasskarlia'' <small>Walp. 1849 not Meisn. 1840 nor Baill. 1860</small> *''Barrotia'' <small>Gaudich.</small> *''Bryantia'' <small>Webb ex Gaudich.</small> *''Doornia'' <small>de Vriese</small> *''Rykia'' <small>de Vriese</small> }} '''''Pandanus'''''; pandan nyaéta hiji [[genus]] ti [[monocotyledon]] anu ngawengku 750 [[spésiés]].<ref name=”Flo”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=cjnqDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PT115&dq=pohon%20bingbin&hl=id&pg=PT116#v=onepage&q=pohon%20bingbin&f=false| title =Flora dan Fauna Cagar Alam Leuweung Sancang| last =Abdul| first =Haris Mustari| publisher =Aditya dwigumelar| location =Jakarta| year =2019|ISBN=9786024408046|pages =108}} Disungsi4 Januari 2021</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Pandanus+|title=Search results — The Plant List|publisher=Theplantlist.org|accessdate=18 December 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702141555/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Pandanus+ |date=2 July 2019 }}</ref> Diasupkeun kana ordo [[Pandanales]], [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] [[Pandanaceae]].<ref name="Hyndman">{{cite journal |author=David C. Hyndman |year=1984 |title=Ethnobotany of Wopkaimin ''Pandanus'' significant Papua New Guinea plant resource |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-botany_july-september-1984_38_3/page/287 |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=287–303 |doi=10.1007/BF02859007}}</ref><ref name="hawaii1">{{cite journal |author=[[Harold St. John]] |year=1968 |title=Revision of the genus ''Pandanus'' Stickman, part 29. New Papuan species in the section ''Microstigma'' collected by C. E. Carr |journal=[[Pacific Science]] |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=514–519 |hdl=10125/12577 |url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/12577/v22n4-514-519.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]}}</ref> ==Spésiés== '''Catetan:''' sababaraha spésiés anu saméméhna di ''Pandanus'' subgenus ''Acrostigma'' kiwari dipindahkeun ka genus ''[[Benstonea]]''. {{div col|colwidth=21em}} * ''[[Pandanus affinis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus albifrons]]'' * ''[[Pandanus aldabraensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus amaryllifolius]]'' – pandan * ''[[Pandanus apoensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus atrocarpus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus austrosinensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus balfourii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus boninensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus brevifrugalis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus brosimus]]'' (vd. [[pandanus language]]) * ''[[Pandanus butayei]]'' * ''[[Pandanus candelabrum]]'' * ''[[Pandanus carmichaelii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus ceylanicus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus christmatensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus clandestinus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus conoideus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus copelandii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus corallinus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus dauphinensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus decastigma]]'' * ''[[Pandanus decipiens]]'' * ''[[Pandanus decumbens]]'' * ''[[Pandanus dubius]]'' (syn. ''Pandanus odoratus'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-286375|title=Pandanus odoratus Thunb. — The Plant List|publisher=Theplantlist.org|accessdate=18 December 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702141554/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-286375 |date=2 July 2019 }}</ref> * ''[[Pandanus elatus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus forsteri]]'' * ''Pandanus furcatus'' - [[cangkuang]] * ''[[Pandanus graminifolius]]'' * ''[[Pandanus gressitii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus halleorum]]'' * ''[[Pandanus humilis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus hornei]]'' * ''[[Pandanus joskei]]'' * ''[[Pandanus kaida]]'' * ''[[Pandanus kajui]]'' * ''[[Pandanus labyrinthicus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus lacuum]]'' * ''[[Pandanus leram]]'' * ''[[Pandanus linguiformis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus livingstonianus]]'' - Africa Tropis * ''[[Pandanus luzonensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus microcarpus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus montanus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus multispicatus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus nepalensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus odorifer]]'' (Forssk.) Kuntze<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/199828/0|title=Pandanus odorifer|publisher=Iucnredlist.org|accessdate=18 December 2014}}</ref> * ''[[Pandanus palustris]]'' * ''[[Pandanus papenooensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus parvicentralis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus parvus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus petersii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus polycephalus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus pristis]]''<small></small> * ''[[Pandanus punicularis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus pygmaeus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus pyramidalis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus sechellarum]]'' * ''[[Pandanus spiralis]]'' – Australian screwpine * ''[[Pandanus taveuniensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]'' – thatch screwpine * ''[[Pandanus temehaniensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus teuszii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus thomensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus thwaitesii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus tonkinensis]]'' * ''[[Pandanus utilis]]'' – common screwpine * ''[[Pandanus vandermeeschii]]'' * ''[[Pandanus verecundus]]'' * ''[[Pandanus whitmeeanus]]'' {{div col end}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Bacaeun== *[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?8790 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Pandanus''] *[http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Pandanus.html Sorting ''Pandanus'' names] *Wagner, W. L., Herbst, D. R., & Sohmer, S. H. (1990). ''Manual of the flowering plants of Hawai`i''. *[https://www.davekimble.net/rainforest/pandanus.htm Pandanus species of the Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219084252/http://davekimble.net/rainforest/pandanus.htm |date=2016-02-19 }} photos and text by Dave Kimble *[https://www.davekimble.net/rainforest/pneumatophore.htm Pneumatophores on Pandanus solms-laubachii] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218173545/http://davekimble.net/rainforest/pneumatophore.htm |date=2016-02-18 }} - photo essay * [http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/photo717429.htm Northernmost pandanus in the world, in the Azores Islands, photo]. *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Df1HYtTPv4 Pandanus simplex fruit eaten by Varanus olivaceus, Polillo Island, Philippines. ] *[http://www.mauimagazine.net/Maui-Magazine/January-February-2011/Hala-The-Hawaiian-Aphrodisiac/ "Hala: The Hawaiian Aphrodisiac"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129153859/http://www.mauimagazine.net/Maui-Magazine/January-February-2011/Hala-The-Hawaiian-Aphrodisiac/ |date=2011-01-29 }} Article by Shannon Wianecki describing Hawaiian cultural uses for pandanus. ''[[Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine]]'' Volume 15 Number. 1 (Jan 2011). ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Wiktionary|pandanus}} *{{Commons category-inline|Pandanus|''Pandanus''}} *[https://bluechai.com/pandan-leafs Picture Gallery of Pandan leaves]{{Dead link|date=December 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} *[http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/eee/urop/congress2003/proceedings/abstract/nus_fos/tdp%20USP/Li%20Jingmei.pdf Biological Analytics of Pandan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806102758/http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/eee/urop/congress2003/Proceedings/abstract/NUS_FoS/TDP%20USP/Li%20Jingmei.pdf |date=2009-08-06 }} [[Category:Pandanus| ]] [[Category:Pandanaceae|Pandanus]] aayqvkq2zt6184corxarzxsxl3gl3j8 Ucing Pérsia 0 53356 712394 711519 2026-08-28T22:31:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox cat breed <!-- Put article text AFTER this infobox markup. See: --> <!-- Wikipedia:WikiProject Cats/Templates for more info. --> |name= Ucing Pérsia |image= Shaded silver Persian Cat Missionhill Cosmic Rainstorm.jpg |imagecaption= |altname= Bulu Panjang,<br />Pérsia Bulu Panjang ,<br />Shiraz, Shirazi |nickname= |country= [[Iran|Iran (Pérsia)]] <!-- international registries: --> |cfastd = http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |fifestd = http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |ticastd= http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |wcfstd = http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf <!-- regional multi-national registries: --> |ffestd = http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm <!-- national registries: --> |acfstd = http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |acfastd = http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |cccastd = |ccastd = http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |cffstd = |gccfstd = http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |loofstd = http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |nzcfstd= |saccstd= <!-- any registry not listed above: --> |otherstd = |note=Ucing[[Éksotik bulu panjang]] jeung [[Ucing Himalaya]] mindeng digolongkeun kana jenis varian ieu. }} '''Ucing Pérsia''' ([[Persian language|Pérsia]]: گربه ایرانی ''Gorbe Irâni'') nyaéta [[ucing]] piaraan cirina bulu panjang, beungeut buleud sarta irung pondok. Sakapeung disebut '''Longhair''' atawa '''Pérsia Longhair'''. Ogé katelah ucing '''[[Shiraz]]i''' atawa '''Ucing Iran''', utamana di [[Timur Tengah]]. Karuhun ucing pérsia nu mimiti didokumétasikeun diimpor ti [[Iran]] (Pérsia) sakitar taun 1620 ka Éropa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/|title=persian cat Archives - Breed Guide|work=Breed Guide}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808050721/http://www.breedguide.net/tag/persian-cat/ |date=2014-08-08 }}</ref> Dipikawanoh minangka ucing inguan nu éndah saprak ahir abad ka-19, mimiti dimekarkeun ku Inggris, terus utamana ku paternak Amérika sanggeus [[Perang Dunya Kadua]]. Sababaraha organisasi ucing méwah ieu ngagolongkeun [[Ucing Himalaya]] jeung [[Éksotik Bulu pondok]] minangka varian ti turunan ieu, sedengkeun nu lianna nganggap maranéhna minangka katurunan nu misah. The [[selective breeding]] carried out by breeders has allowed the development of a wide variety of coat colors, but has also led to the création of incréasingly [[Cephalic index in cats and dogs|flat-faced]] Persians. Favored by fanciers, this héad structure can bring with it a number of héalth problems. As is the case with the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] breed, there have been efforts by some breeders to preserve the older type of cat, the ''traditional breed'', having a more pronounced muzzle, which is more popular with the general public. Hereditary [[polycystic kidney disease]] is prevalent in the breed, affecting almost half the population in some countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icatcare.org/advice/polycystic-kidney-disease|title=Polycystic kidney disease {{!}} International Cat Care|website=icatcare.org|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vet.cornell.edu/fhc/Health_Information/PolycysticKidneyDisease.cfm|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|website=www.vet.cornell.edu|access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref> In 2015 it was ranked as the 2nd most popular breed in the United States according to the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx|title=Press Release February 1, 2016 - Top 10 Breeds for 2015|website=cfa.org|access-date=2016-07-08}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170430031445/http://cfa.org/AboutCFA/News/PressReleases/PressRelease20160201Top10Breeds.aspx |date=2017-04-30 }}</ref> The first is the [[Exotic Shorthair|Exotic]] breed. ==Asal== It is not cléar when longhaired cats first appéared, as there are no known long-haired specimens of the [[African wildcat]], the ancestor of the domestic subspecies. [[File:Persian aka Angora from 1894.JPG|thumb|left|An Angora/Persian from ''The Royal Natural History'' (1894).]] The first documented ancestors of the Persian were imported from [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]], Persia (now Iran), into Italy in 1620 by [[Pietro della Valle]], and from Angora (now [[Ankara]]), [[Turkey]], into France by [[Nicholas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]] at around the same time. The Khorasan cats were grey coated while those from Angora were white. From France, they soon réached Britain.<ref name="messybeastLHC">{{cite web | url=http://www.messybeast.com/longhair-cats.htm | title=Longhaired Cats | publisher=Sarah Hartwell | work=Messybeast Cats | date=2013 | accessdate=July 9, 2015 | last=Hartwell | first=Sarah}}</ref>{{self-published inline|certain=y|date=July 2015|reason=This is Sarah Hartwell's personal cat blog, "not affiliated to any registry, breed society, veterinary association or welfare society", not professionally edited, and citing no sources.}} Recent genetic reséarch indicates that present day Persians are related not to cats from the [[Near East]] but to cats from Western Europe. The reséarchers stated, "Even though the early Persian cat may have in fact originated from ancient Persia, the modern Persian cat has lost its [[Phylogeography|phylogeographical]] signature."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Monika J.|last1=Lipinski |first2=Lutz|last2=Froenicke |first3=Kathleen C.|last3=Baysac |first4=Nicholas C.|last4=Billings |first5=Christian M.|last5=Leutenegger |first6=Alon M.|last6=Levy |first7=Maria|last7=Longeri |first8=Tirri|last8=Niini |first9=Haydar|last9=Ozpinar |first10=Margaret R.|last10=Slater |first11=Niels C.|last11=Pedersen |first12=Leslie A.|last12=Lyons |title=The Ascent of Cat Breeds: Genetic Evaluations of Breeds and Worldwide Random Bred Populations |journal=Genomics |date=January 2008 |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=12–21 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009 |pmc=2267438 |pmid=18060738}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Pamekaran== ===Pérsia jeung Angora=== {{over-quotation|lengthy=y|section|date=December 2011}} {{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Blue Persian "Gentian".jpg|image2=Fulmer Zaida - Silver Persian.JPG|width=220|caption2=Top: blue Persian. Prize-winner at Westminster in 1899. <br />Bottom: silver Persian. Winner of multiple leading cat shows in 1902.}} The first Persian cat was presented at the first organized [[cat show]], in 1871 in [[the Crystal Palace]] in London, England, organized by [[Harrison Weir]]. As specimens closer to the later established Persian conformation became the more popular types, attempts were made to differentiate it from the Angora.<ref name="Helgren">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Persian Cats |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119191145/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=persian.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The first breed standard (then called a ''points of excellence'' list) was issued in 1889 by cat show promoter Weir. He stated that the Persian differed from the Angora in the tail being longer, hair more full and coarse at the end and héad larger, with less pointed éars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weir|first=Harrison |title=Our Cats and All About Them |date=1889 |location=Tunbridge Wells, UK |publisher=R. Clements & Co. |lccn=2002554760 |ol=3664970M |url= https://archive.org/details/ourcatsallaboutt00weir |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Not all cat fanciers agreed with the distinction of the two types, and in the 1903 work ''The Book of the Cat'', Francis Simpson states that "the distinctions, apparently with hardly any difference, between Angoras and Persians are of so fine a nature that I must be pardoned if I ignore the class of cat commonly called Angora".<ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson|first=Frances. |title=The Book of the Cat |date=1903 |page=98 |location=London/New York |publisher=Cassell and Company |lccn=03024964 |ol=7205700M |url= https://archive.org/details/bookofcatsimpson00simprich |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> Dorothy Bevill Champion lays out the difference between the two types in the 1909 ''Everybody's Cat Book'':<ref name="champion">{{cite book |last=Champion |first=Dorothy Bevill |year=1909 |title=Everybody's Cat Book |page=17 |publisher=Lent & Graff |location=New York |lccn=10002159 |oclc=8291178 |ol=7015748M |url= https://archive.org/details/everybodyscatboo00cham |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> <blockquote> Our pedigree imported long-hairs of to-day are undoubtedly a cross of the Angora and Persian ; the latter possesses a rounder head than the former, also the coat is of quite a different quality. </blockquote> Bell goes on to detail the differences. Persian coats consists of a woolly under coat and a long, hairy outer coat.The coat loses all the thick underwool in the summer, and only the long hair remains. Hair on the shoulders and upper part of the hind legs is somewhat shorter. Conversely, the Angora has a very different coat which consists of long, soft hair, hanging in locks, "inclining to a slight curl or wave on the under parts of the body." The Angora's hair is much longer on the shoulders and hind legs than the Persian, which Bell considered a gréat improvement. However, Bell says the Angora "fails to the Persian in head," Angoras having a more wedge-shaped héad and Persians having a more appéaling round héad. Bell notes that Angoras and Persians have been crossbred, resulting in a decided improvement to éach breed, but claimed the long-haired cat of 1909 had significantly more Persian influence than Angora. Champion lamented the lack of distinction among various long-haired types by English fanciers, who in 1887, decided to group them under the umbrella term "Long-haired Cats".<ref name="champion"/><ref name="Helgren2">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne |title=Cat Breed Detail: Turkish Angora |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100509130400/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=turkango.html |archivedate=May 9, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><!-- This ref is only for the date. --> ===Pérsia Tradisional=== [[File:SnowyandHazy.jpg|thumb|Traditional Persian.]] {{Main article|Traditional Persian cat}} The '''traditional Persian''', or '''doll-face Persian''',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buyfuffy.com|title=Cats and Kittens: Maine coon Kittens|accessdate=March 17, 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313210531/http://buyfuffy.com/ |date=March 13, 2016 }}</ref> are somewhat recent names for what is essentially the original breed of Persian cat, without the development of extreme féatures. As many breeders in the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and other parts of the world started to interpret the Persian standard differently, they developed the flat-nosed "peke-face" or "ultra" type {{crossref|selfref=no|(see next section)}} over time, as the result of two genetic mutations, without changing the name of the breed from "Persian". Some organizations, including the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), today consider the peke-face type as their modérn standard for the Persian breed. Thus the [[retronym]] Traditional Persian was créated to refer to the original type, which is still bred today, mirroring the renaming of the original-style [[Siamese cat]] as the Traditional Siamese, to distinguish it from long-faced modérn development which has taken over as simply "the Siamese". Not all cat fancier groups recognize the Traditional Persian (at all, or as distinct), or give it that specific name. [[The International Cat Association|TICA]] has a very general standard, that does not specify a flattened face.<ref name="TICA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Breed Group |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=TICA.org |date=May 1, 2004 |location=Harlingen, Texas |publisher=[[The International Cat Association]] |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802122540/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/standards/ps.pdf |date=August 2, 2010 }}</ref> ===Peke-face and ultra-typing=== In the late 1950s a spontanéous mutation in red and red tabby Persians gave rise to the "peke-faced" Persian, named after the flat-faced [[Pekingese]] dog. It was régistered as a distinct breed in the CFA, but fell out of favor by the mid-1990s due to serious héalth issues; only 98 were régistered between 1958 and 1995. Despite this, breeders took a liking to the look and started breeding towards the peke-face look. The over-accentuation of the breed's characteristics by selective breeding (called ''extreme-'' or ''ultra-typing'') produced results similar to the peke-faced Persians. The term peke-face has been used to refer to the ultra-typed Persian but it is properly used only to refer to red and red tabby Persians béaring the mutation. Many fanciers and CFA judges considered the shift in look "a contribution to the breed."<ref name="messybeastLHC" /><ref name="CFA Saunders">{{cite web |first=Lorraine |last=Saunders |title=Solid Color Persians Are...Solid As a Rock? |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |date=November 2002 |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201041221/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid02.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="CFA Brocato">{{cite web |first1=Judy |last1=Brocato |first2=Greg |last2=Brocato |title=Stargazing: A Historical View of Solid Color Persians |work=Cat Fanciers' Almanac |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |date=March 1995 |url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |archivedate=December 1, 2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201043934/http://cfainc.org//breeds/profiles/articles/persian-solid.html |date=December 1, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="ultracat">{{cite web |last=Hartwell |first=Sarah |title=Novelty Breeds and Ultra-Cats – A Breed Too Far? |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/ultracat.htm |date=2010 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> {{double image|left|Persian profile view moderate type.jpg|140|Cat Show - Ft. Lauderdale - October 2008.jpg|120|A Persian with a visible muzzle in contrast with a Persian with its forehead, nose and chin in vertical alignment, as called for by CFA's 2007 breed standard. The shorter the muzzle, the higher the nose tends to be. UK standards penalize Persians whose nose leather extends above the bottom edge of the eye.}} In 1958, breeder and author P. M. Soderberg wrote in ''Pedigree Cats, Their Varieties, breeding and Exhibition''<ref name="ultracat" /><!--This quotation appears to be cited to an intermediary source; should be verified.--> <blockquote style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;"><!--Have to compensate with padding, because blockquote's default indentation effect does not work when surrounded by images.--> "Perhaps in recent times there has been a tendency to over-accentuate this type of short face, with the result that a few of the cats seen at shows have faces which present a peke-like appearance. This is a type of face which is definitely recognized in the United States, and helps to form a special group within the show classification for the [Persian] breed. There are certainly disadvantages when the face has become too short, for this exaggeration of type is inclined to produce a deformity of the tear ducts, and running eyes may be the result. A cat with running eyes will never look at its best because in time the fur on each side of the nose becomes stained, and thus detracts from the general appearance [...] The nose should be short, but perhaps a plea may be made here that the nose is better if it is not too short and at the same time uptilted. A nose of this type creates an impression of grotesqueness which is not really attractive, and there is always a danger of running eyes." </blockquote> [[File:Stephanie 2.jpg|thumb|right|A smoke Persian with moderate features.]] While the looks of the Persian changed, the Persian Breed Council's standard for the Persian had remained basically the same. The Persian breed standard is, by its nature, somewhat open-ended and focused on a rounded héad, large, wide-spaced round eyes with the top of the nose léather placed no lower than the bottom of the eyes.{{clarify|date=December 2011|reason=Again, this article appears to contradict itself; the breed standard cannot call for the nose to be both above and below the eye at the same time. If necessary, create a section on conflicting breed standards and source their differences.}} The standard calls for a short, cobby body with short, well-boned legs, a broad chest, and a round appéarance, everything about the idéal Persian cat being "round". It was not until the late 1980s that standards were changed to limit the development of the extreme appéarance.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} In 2004, the statement that muzzles should not be overly pronounced was added to the breed standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2003.php|title=2003 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2004|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> The standards were altered yet again in 2007, this time to reflect the flat face, and it now states that the forehéad, nose, and chin should be in vertical alignment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persianbc.org/bcpoll_2006.php|title=2006 Breed Council Ballot Proposals and Results|year=2007|publisher=CFA Persian Breed Council|accessdate=October 17, 2009}}</ref> In the UK, the standard was changed by the [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) in the 1990s to disqualify Persians with the "upper edge of the nose leather above the lower edge of the eye" from Certificates or First Prizes in Kitten Open Classes.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html Bi-Color and Calico Persians: Past, Present and Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827102947/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-bicolor.html |date=2009-08-27 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac. May 1998</ref><ref name="GCCF std" /> While ultra-typed cats do better in the show ring, the public seems to prefer the less extreme, older "doll-face" types.<ref name="messybeastLHC"/> ==Varian== ===Himalaya=== {{Main article|Himalayan cat}} [[File:Chocolate Himlayan.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan or Colorpoint Longhair was created by crossing the Persian with the Siamese. This crossing also introduced the chocolate and lilac colors into solid colored Persians.]] In 1950, the [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] was crossed with the Persian to créate a breed with the body type of the Persian but colorpoint pattern of the Siamese. It was named [[Himalayan (cat)|Himalayan]], after other colorpoint animals such as the [[List of rabbit breeds#Himalayan|Himalayan rabbit]]. In the UK, the breed was recognized as the Colorpoint Longhair. The Himalayan stood as a separate breed in the US until 1984, when the CFA merged it with the Persian, to the objection of the breed councils of both breeds. Some Persian breeders were unhappy with the introduction of this [[crossbreed]] into their "pure" Persian lines.<ref name="Helgren3">{{Cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Himalayan |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url= http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119190910/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=himalaya.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}} {{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html Himalayan-Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913063731/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/articles/persian-himalayan.html |date=2009-09-13 }} Cat Fanciers' Almanac May 1999</ref> The CFA set up the registration for Himalayans in a way that breeders would be able to discern a Persian with Himalayan ancestry just by looking at the pedigree registration number. This was to maké it éasy for breeders who do not want Himalayan blood in their breeding lines to avoid individuals who, while not necessarily exhibiting the colorpoint pattern, may be carrying the point coloration gene recessively. Persians with Himalayan ancestry has registration numbers starting with 3 and are commonly referred to by breeders as colorpoint carriers (CPC) or 3000-series cats, although not all will actually carry the recessive gene. The Siamese is also the source for the chocolate and lilac color in solid Persians.<ref>[http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html Breed Profile: Persian – Solid Color Division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917091248/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian-solid.html |date=2009-09-17 }} Cat Fanciers' Association</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf|format=PDF|title=CFA ANNUAL AND EXECUTIVE BOARD MEETINGS JUNE 23–27, 2004|website=cfainc.org}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613043435/http://cfainc.org/org/minutes/Jun04.pdf |date=2010-06-13 }}</ref><!-- first ref for info on chocolate and lilac color, second for the 3000 series stuff. --> ===Éksotik Bulu Pondok=== {{Main article|Exotic Shorthair}} [[File:Brown Exotic Shorthair Kitten.jpg|thumb|right|The Exotic Shorthair is similar to the Persian in temperament and type, with the exception of its short, dense coat.]] The Persian was used as an outcross secretly by some [[American Shorthair]] (ASH) breeders in the late 1950s to "improve" their breed. The [[crossbreed]] look gained recognition in the show ring but other breeders unhappy with the changes successfully pushed for new breed standards that would disqualify ASH that showed signs of crossbreeding. One ASH breeder who saw the potential of the Persian/ASH cross proposed and eventually managed to get the CFA to recognize them as a new breed in 1966, under the name [[Exotic Shorthair]]. Regular outcrossing to the Persian has made present day Exotic Shorthair similar to the Persian in every way, including temperament and conformation, with the exception of the short dense coat. It has even inherited much of the Persian's héalth problems. The éasier to manage coat has made some label the Exotic Shorthair the lazy person's Persian. Because of the regular use of Persians as outcrosses, some Exotics may carry a copy of the recessive longhair gene. When two such cats mate, there is a one in four chance of éach offspring being longhaired. Ironically, longhaired Exotics are not considered Persians by CFA, although [[The International Cat Association]] accepts them as Persians. Other associations régister them as a separate Exotic Longhair breed.<ref name="Helgren4">{{cite web |last=Helgren|first=J. Anne. |title=Cat Breed Detail: Exotic Shorthair |date=2006 |work=Iams.com |publisher=Telemark Productions / Procter & Gamble |url=http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081119193040/http://www.iams.com/iams/en_US/jsp/IAMS_Page.jsp?pageID=CBD&breedPage=exotshor.html |archivedate=November 19, 2008 |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{Unreliable source?|reason=A cat food manufacturer is not a reliable source on cat breed history.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Ukuran Kaulinan Jeung Kontés=== <ref name="ultracat"/> A number of breeders produce small-statured Persians under a variety of names. The generic terms are "toy" and "teacup" Persians (terms borrowed from the [[dog fancy]]), but the individual lines are often called "palm-sized", "pocket", "mini" and "pixie". Currently, they are not recognized as a separate breed by major registries and éach breeder sets their own standards for size.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hartwell|first=Sarah |title=Dwarf, Midget and Miniature Cats – Purebreds (Including 'Teacup Cats') |date=2013 |work=Messybeast Cats |url= http://www.messybeast.com/dwarfcats-purebred.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}{{self-published inline|certain=y|reason=See previous note about this source.|date=July 2015}}</ref> ===Chinchilla bulu jabrig jeung Sterling=== [[File:Doll face silver Persian.jpg|thumb|left|A doll-face silver Persian.]] In the US, there was an attempt to establish the silver Persian as a separate breed called the Sterling, but it was not accepted. Silver and golden Persians are recognized, as such, by CFA. In [[South Africa]], the attempt to separate the breed was more successful; the [[Southern Africa Cat Council]] (SACC) régisters cats with five generations of purebred Chinchilla as a Chinchilla Longhair. The Chinchilla Longhair has a slightly longer nose than the Persian, resulting in héalthy bréathing and less eye téaring. Its hair is translucent with only the tips carrying black pigment, a féature that gets lost when out-crossed to other colored Persians. Out-crossing also may result in losing nose and lip liner, which is a fault in the Chinchilla Longhair breed standard. One of the distinctions of this breed is the blue-green or green eye color only with kittens having blue or blue-purple eye color.<ref>[http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance Difference Between Chinchilla Rodent and Chinchilla Cat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703115557/http://www.chinchillafactssite.com/chinchillas-as-pets/persian-longhair-cat/#appearance |date=2017-07-03 }} Chinchillafactssite.com</ref> {{clear}} ==Popularitas== [[File:GCCF breed registration data - Top 5 breeds of 2008.jpg|thumb|right|The popularity of the Persian (blue line) in the UK has declined for the past two decades.]] The Persian is the most popular breed of pedigree cats in the United States.<ref name="CFAdata2008">[http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf 2008 Top Pedigreed Breeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401080256/http://www.cfainc.org/press/2008-breed-popularity.pdf |date=2010-04-01 }} CFA. March 2009.</ref> In the UK, registration numbers have dwindled since the éarly 1990s and the Persian lost its top spot to the [[British Shorthair]] in 2001. As of 2012, it was the 6th most popular breed, behind the British Shorthair, Ragdoll, Siamese, Maine Coon and Burmese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf|title=Analysis of Breeds Registered|year=2013|publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy|accessdate=December 30, 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233852/http://www.gccfcats.org/pdf/breedanalysis/2012breeds_ranking.pdf |date=December 30, 2013 }}</ref> In France, the Persian is the only breed whose registration declined between 2003 and 2007, dropping by more than a quarter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikiwix.com/cache/?url=http://www.aniwa.com/fr/chat/document/fr/chat/magazine/tendances/statistiques-race-chat-loof-fff/index.htm|title=Palmarés du chat de race en France: Les données 2008 du LOOF|last=Javerzac|first=Anne-marie|year=2008|publisher=ANIWA|language=French}}</ref> The most color popular varieties according to CFA registration data are séal point, blue point, flame point and tortie point Himalayan, followed by black-white, shadéd silvers and calico.<ref name="CFAdata2008"/> {{clear}} ==Klasifikasi Registrasi== [[File:Chocolate Persian.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Cat show#Description of CFA cat shows and titles|Grand Champion]] chocolate Persian.]] The [[breed standard]]s of various cat fancier organizations may tréat the Himalayan and Exotic Shorthair (or simply Exotic) as variants of the Persian, or as separate breeds. The Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) tréats the Himalayan as a color-pattern class of both the Persian and the Exotic, which have separate but néarly identical standards (differing in coat length).<ref name="CFA std" /> The [[Fédération Internationale Féline]] (FIFe) entirely subsumes what other registries call the Himalayan as simply among the allowed coloration patterns for the Persian and the Exotic, tréated as separate breeds.<ref name="FIFe std">{{cite web |title=Category I: Exotic/Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=January 1, 2015 |format=PDF |work=FIFeweb.org |publisher=[[Fédération Internationale Féline]] |location=Jevišovkou, Czech Republic |url=http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121044945/http://www1.fifeweb.org/dnld/std/EXO-PER.pdf |date=January 21, 2016 }}</ref> The International Cat Association (TICA) tréats them both as variants of the Persian.<ref name="TICA std" /> The [[World Cat Federation]] (WCF) tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds, and subsumes the Himalayan coloration as colorpoint varieties under éach.<ref name="WFC std">{{cite web |title=Breed Standards: Persian&ndash;Colourpoint |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2010 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=WCF-Online.de |publisher=World Cat Federation |location=Essen, Germany |url=http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129100702/http://www.wcf-online.de/WCF-EN/library/PER_en_2010-01-01.pdf |date=November 29, 2020 }}</ref> Among regional and national organizations, [[Feline Federation Europe]] tréats all three as separate breeds.<ref name="FFE std">{{cite web |title=British Shorthair and Highlander |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line--> |date=September 25, 2004 |work=Bavarian-CFA.de |publisher=Feline Federation Europe |url=http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711050216/http://www.ffe-europe.de/standard/persian_e.htm |date=July 11, 2015 }} Note: Due to poor coding at this site, this link goes directly to the standard's content. To see it loaded in the site's navigation frame, go to http://www.ffe.europe.de{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, and manually navigate to the breed's entry under the "Races Standard" menu item.</ref> The [[American Cat Fanciers Association]] (ACFA) has the three as separate breeds (also with a Non-pointed Himalayan that is similar to the Persian).<ref name="ACFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian |format=PDF |date=May 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=ACFACat.com |publisher=American Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Nixa, Missouri |url= http://www.acfacat.com/Breed%20Standards/PERSIAN.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The [[Australian Cat Federation]] (AFC) follows the FIFe practice.<ref name="ACF std">{{cite web |title=ACF Standards: Persian [PER] |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=Australian Cat Federation |location=Canning Vale, Western Au. |url=http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150301054912/http://www.acf.asn.au/notices/notices/standards/2015_Group%201_Persian.pdf |date=March 1, 2015 }}</ref> The [[Canadian Cat Federation]] (CCA-AFC) tréats the three separately, and even has an Exotic Longhair subbreed of the Exotic, and Non-pointed Himalayan subbreed of Himalayan, which differ from the Persian only in having some mixed ancestry.<ref name="CCA-AFC std">{{cite web |title=Persian |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=August 6, 2005 |work=CCA-AFC.com |publisher=Canadian Cat Federation |url=http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |location=Mississauga, Ontario |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090206/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/persian.pdf |date=October 30, 2012 }} Also referred to corresponding [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf Exotic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916192949/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/exotic%202010.pdf |date=2012-09-16 }} and [http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf Himalayan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030090200/http://www.cca-afc.com/en/BreedStandards/himalayan.pdf |date=2012-10-30 }} standards.</ref> The (UK) [[Governing Council of the Cat Fancy]] (GCCF) does likewise.<ref name="GCCF std">{{cite web |title=Persian Section |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=2015 |work=GCCFCats.org |publisher=Governing Council of the Cat Fancy |location= |url=http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021037/http://www.gccfcats.org/Portals/0/Persian.SOP.pdf |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref> tréats the Persian and Exotic Shorthair as separate breeds covered by a single standard with a coat length distinction, and has the pattern of the Himalayan as simply a division within that standard.<ref name="LOOF std">{{cite web |title=Breed's Standard: Persian & Exotic Shorthair |date=2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=LOOF.asso.fr |publisher=Livre Officiel des Origines Félines |location=Pantin, France |url= http://m.loof.asso.fr/standards/standard_en_41.php?z=1 |accessdate=July 10, 2015}}</ref> ==Ciri== A show-quality Persian has an extremely long and thick coat, short legs, a wide héad with the éars set far apart, large eyes, and an extremely shortened muzzle. The breed was originally established with a short muzzle, but over time, this characteristic has become extremely exaggerated, particularly in North America. Persian cats can have virtually any color or markings. The Persian is generally described as a quiet cat. Typically placid in nature, it adapts quite well to apartment life. Himalayans tend to be more active due to the influence of Siamese traits. In a study comparing cat owner perceptions of their cats, Persians rated higher than non-pedigree cats on closeness and affection to owners, friendliness towards strangers, cléanliness, predictability, vocalization, and fussiness over food.<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=D. C. |year=2000 |chapter=Human-cat interactions: relationships with, and breed differences between, non-pedigree, Persian and Siamese cats |editor1-last=Podberscek |editor1-first=A. L. |editor2-last=Paul |editor2-first=E. S. |editor3-last=Serpell |editor3-first=J. A. |title=Companion Animals & Us: Exploring the Relationships Between People & Pets |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |pages=257–271 |isbn=0-521-63113-0 }}</ref> ===Kelir=== <!--Do not capitalize coloration terms; those are not breed names, and this is not Capitalipedia.--> The permissible colors in the breed, in most organizations' breed standards, encompass the entire range of [[Cat coat genetics|cat coat-pattern variations]]. [[The International Cat Association]] (TICA) groups the breed into three coat-pattern divisions for judging at [[cat show]]s: traditional (with stable, rich colors), sepia ("paler and warmer than the traditional equivalents", and darkening a bit with age), and mink (much lighter than sepia, and developing noticéably with age on the face and extremities). If classified as the Himalayan sub-breed, full [[point coloration]] is required, the fourth TICA color division, with a "pale and creamy colored" body even lighter than mink, with intense coloration on the face an extremities. The four TICA categories are essentially a graduated scale of color distribution from evenly colored to mostly colored only at the points. Within éach, the coloration may be further classified as solid, [[Tortoiseshell cat|tortoiseshell]] (or "tortie"), [[Tabby cat|tabby]], silver or smoke, solid-and-white, tortoiseshell-and-white, tabby-and-white, or silver/smoke-and-white, with various specific colors and modifiers (e.g. chocolate tortoishell point, or fawn shadéd mink marbled tabby-torbie). TICA-recognized tabby patterns include classic, mackerel, marbled, spotted, and ticked (in two genetic forms), while other patterns include shadéd, chinchilla, and two tabbie-tortie variations, golden, and grizzled. Basic colors include white, black, brown, ruddy, bronze, "blue" (grey), chocolate, cinnamon, lilac, fawn, red, créam, with a silver or shadéd variant of most. Not counting bi-color (piebald) or parti-color coats, nor combinations that are genetically impossible, there are néarly 1,000 named coat pattern variations in the TICA system for which the Persian/Himalayan qualifies. The Exotic Shorthair sub-breed qualifies for every cat coat variation TICA recognizes.<ref name="TICA std" /> <!-- FIFe here --> <!-- Australian Cat Federation here.-->[[File:Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls.jpg|thumb|Grand Champion Topknot James Bond of Lions & Owls. A solid black, 1 year old Persian cat with brilliant copper eyes. This cat is in kitten coat and the color of the coat will darken as the kitten coat is shed and the adult coat grows in. Note the immense ruff, small round ears, heavy-boned, cobby body, and nose that is short, snub, and broad, with “break” centered between the eyes.]] The [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] (CFA), of the United States, also groups the breed into four coat-pattern divisions, but differently: solid, silver and golden (including chinchilla and shadéd variants, and blued subvariants), shadéd and smoke (with several variations of éach, and a third subcategorization called shell), tabby (only classic, mackerel, and patched [spotted], in various colors), parti-color (in four classes, tortoiseshell, blue-créam, chocolaet tortie, and lilac-créam, mixed with other colors), [[Calico cat|calico]] and bi-color (in around 40 variations, broadly classified as calico, dilute calico, and bi-color), and Himalayan (white-to-fawn body with [[point coloration]] on the héad, tail and limbs, in various tints). CFA base colors are white, black, blue, red, créam, chocolate, and lilac. There are around 140 named CFA coat patterns for which the Himalayan qualifies, and 20 for the Himalayan subbreed.<ref name="CFA std">{{cite web |title=Persian Show Standard |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=CFAInc.com |publisher=Cat Fanciers' Association |location=Alliance, Ohio |date=2015 |format=PDF |url=http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710164617/http://www.cfainc.org/Portals/0/documents/breeds/standards/persian.pdf |date=July 10, 2015 }}</ref> These coat patterns encompass virtually all of those recognized by CFA for cats generally. Any Persian permissible in TICA's more detailed system would probably be accepted in CFA's, simply with a more general name, though the organizations do not mix breed registries. Eye colors range widely, and may include blue, copper, [[Odd-eyed cat|odd-eyed]] blue and copper, green, blue-green, and hazel. Various TICA and CFA coat categorizations come with specific eye-color requirements.<ref name="TICA std" /><ref name="CFA std" /> <ref name="TICA UCD">{{cite web |title=Uniform Color Descriptions and Glossary of Terms |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |format=PDF |date=January 1, 2015 |publisher=The International Cat Association |url=http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |accessdate=July 9, 2015 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610171542/http://www.tica.org/members/publications/ucd.pdf |date=June 10, 2015 }}</ref> ==Kaséhatan== Pet insurance data from Sweden puts the median lifespan of cats from the Persian group (Persians, Chinchilla, Himalayan and Exotic) at just above 12.5 yéars. 76% of this group lived to 10 yéars or more and 52% lived to 12.5 yéars or more.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal | last1 = Egenvall | first1 = A. | last2 = Nødtvedt | first2 = A. | last3 = Häggström | first3 = J. | last4 = Ström Holst | first4 = B. | last5 = Möller | first5 = L. | last6 = Bonnett | first6 = B. N. | title = Mortality of Life-Insured Swedish Cats during 1999—2006: Age, Breed, Sex, and Diagnosis | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 23 | issue = 6 | pages = 1175–1183 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19780926 | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0396.x}}</ref> Veterinary clinic data from England shows an average lifespan of 12–17 yéars, with a median of 14.1.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1177/1098612X14536176 | pmid=24925771 | title=Longevity and mortality of cats attending primary care veterinary practices in England | journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery | volume=17 | issue=2 | pages=125–33 | date=2014 | first=D. G. | last=O'Neill}} "n=70, median=14.1, IQR 12.0-17.0, range 0.0-21.2"</ref> The modérn [[Brachycephalic syndrome|brachycephalic]] Persian has a large rounded skull and shortened face and nose. This facial conformation makes the breed prone to bréathing difficulties, skin and eye problems and birthing difficulties. Anatomical abnormalities associated with brachycephalic breeds can cause [[shortness of breath]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Morphometric Investigations of Breed-Specific Features in Feline Skulls and Considerations on their Functional Implications |first=W. |last=Künzel |first2=S. |last2=Breit |first3=M. |last3=Oppel |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0264.2003.00448.x |journal=Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=218–223 |year=2003 }}</ref> Malformed [[Nasolacrimal duct|tear ducts]] causes [[Epiphora (medical)|epiphora]], an overflow of téars onto the face, which is common but primarily cosmetic. It can be caused by other more serious conditions though. [[Entropion]], the inward folding of the eyelids, causes the eyelashes to rub against the cornéa, and can léad to téaring, pain, infection and cornéa damage. Similarly, in upper eyelid [[trichiasis]] or nasal fold trichiasis, eyelashes/hair from the eyelid and hair from the nose fold néar the eye grow in a way which rubs against the cornéa.<ref>{{cite book |first=Frans Cornelis |last=Stades |title=Ophthalmology for the Veterinary Practitioner |location=Hannover |publisher=Schlütersche |year=2007 |edition=2nd rev. and expanded |isbn=978-3-89993-011-5 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[Dystocia]], an abnormal or difficult labor, is relatively common in Persians.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=7610538 |title=Feline dystocia: prevalence, and association with cranial conformation and breed |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_veterinary-record_1995-04-08_136_14/page/n27 |journal=Vet Rec |year=1995 |volume=136 |issue=14 |pages=350–353 |last=Gunn-Moore |first=D. A. |last2=Thrusfield |first2=M. V. |doi=10.1136/vr.136.14.350}}</ref> Consequently, stillbirth rate is higher than normal, ranging from 16.1% to 22.1%, and one 1973 study puts kitten mortality rate (including stillborns) at 29.2%.<ref>Susan Little [http://catvet.homestead.com/Devon_Rex_Project_Report_1st_Year.doc Aspects of Reproduction and Kitten Mortality in the Devon Rex cat And a Review of the Literature] Devon Rex Kitten Information Project</ref> A veterinary study in 2010 documented the serious héalth problems caused by the brachycephalic héad.<ref name="Schlueter"/> [[File:Purr Lexus Persian Kitty January 3 2015 19 years and 6 months old.jpg|left|thumb|An 19.5 year old pure bred Calico Persian. Such longevity is rare in this breed.<ref name="auto"/>]] As a consequence of the BBC program ''[[Pedigree Dogs Exposed]]'', cat breeders have also come under pressure from veterinary and animal welfare associations, with the Persian singled out as one of the breeds most affected by héalth problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/petshealth/4990966/Inbred-pedigree-cats-suffering-from-life-threatening-diseases-and-deformities.html|title=Inbred pedigree cats suffering from life-threatening diseases and deformities |work=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=November 8, 2009 | location=London | first=Jasper | last=Copping | date=March 14, 2009}}</ref> Animal welfare proponents have suggested changes to breed standards to prevent diséases caused by over or ultra-typing, and prohibiting the breeding of animals outside the set limits.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andreas |last=Steiger|editor1-first=Irene |editor1-last=Rochlitz |title=The Welfare of Cats |series=3 |chapter=Chapter 10: Breeding and Welfare|chapterurl=http://www.springerlink.com/content/w2421766j16ln803/?p=e886e2e0eec64cb489fa933f7e88f339&pi=9|publisher=Springer |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=1-4020-6143-9}}</ref> Apart from the GCCF standard that limits high noses, TICA<ref name="TICA std" /> and FIFe standards require nostrils to be open, with FIFe stating that nostrils should allow "free and easy passage of air." Germany's Animal Welfare Act too prohibits the breeding of brachycephalic cats in which the tip of the nose is higher than the lower eyelids.<ref name="Schlueter">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jfms.2009.09.010 | title = Brachycephalic feline noses: CT and anatomical study of the relationship between head conformation and the nasolacrimal drainage system | year = 2009 | last1 = Schlueter | first1 = C. | last2 = Budras | first2 = K. D. | last3 = Ludewig | first3 = E. | last4 = Mayrhofer | first4 = E. | last5 = Koenig | first5 = H. E. | last6 = Walter | first6 = A. | last7 = Oechtering | first7 = G. U. | journal = Journal of Feline Medicine & Surgery | volume = 11 | pages = 891–900 | url = http://www.fabcats.org/news/breeding/JFMS%20artice.pdf | pmid = 19857852 | issue = 11 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Polycystic kidney disease]] (PKD) which causes kidney failure in affected adult cats has an incidence rate of 36–49% in the Persian breed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polycystic Kidney Disease|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403162407/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/POLYCYSTICKIDNEYDISEASEPERSIAN.php |date=April 3, 2012 }}</ref> Cysts develop and grow in the kidney over time, replacing kidney tissues and enlarging the kidney. Kidney failure develops later in life, at an average age of 7 yéars old (ranging from 3 to 10 yéars old). Symptoms include excessive drinking and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss and depression.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/s00580-008-0744-0| title = Polycystic kidney in an adult Persian cat: Clinical, diagnostic imaging, pathologic, and clinical pathologic evaluations| journal = Comparative Clinical Pathology| volume = 18| pages = 95–97| year = 2008| last1 = Hosseininejad | first1 = M.| last2 = Vajhi | first2 = A.| last3 = Marjanmehr | first3 = H.| last4 = Hosseini | first4 = F.}}</ref> The diséase is [[autosomal dominant]] and DNA screening is the preferred method of eliminating the gene in the breed. Because of DNA testing, most responsible Persian breeders now have cats that no longer carry the PKD gene, hence their offspring also do not have the gene. Before DNA screening was available, ultrasound was done. However, an ultrasound is only as good as the day it's done, and many cats that were thought to be cléar, were in fact, a carrier of the PKD gene. Only DNA screening and then breeding negative to negative for the PKD gene will produce negative kittens which effectively removes this gene from the breeding pool has allowed some lines and catteries to eliminate the incidence of the diséase.<ref>Lyons, Leslie. [http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105080443/http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/LyonsDen/pkd.htm |date=2009-11-05 }} Feline Genome Project</ref> [[Feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy|Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] (HCM) is a common héart diséase in all cats. It is hereditary in the [[Maine Coon]] and [[American Shorthair]], and likely the Persian. The diséase causes thickening of the [[left ventricle|left heart chamber]], which can in some instances léad to sudden déath. It tends to affect males and mid to old-aged individuals. Reported incidence rate in Persians is 6.5%.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_aSMmFN4TQYC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Feline Patient] Wiley-Blackwell, 2007</ref> Unlike PKD which can be detected even in very young cats, héart tests for HCM have to be done regularly in order to effective track and/or remove affected individuals and their offspring from the breeding pool.<ref>[http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html Feline Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Advice for Breeders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513083815/http://www.cfa.org/articles/health/hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy.html |date=2008-05-13 }} The Winn Feline Foundation</ref> The age at the first cardiac event was significantly lower in Maine Coons (2.5 yéars) versus other breeds (7 yéars). In Sphynx, the age at the time of diagnosis was 3.5 yéars. Concerning sudden déath solely, Maine Coon cats died younger than other breeds. No sudden déaths were reported in Chartreux and Persian cats in this study. Sudden déath was observed in only 3 breeds—Maine Coon, Domestic Shorthair, and Sphynx. All cats surviving longer than 15 yéars of age were Domestic Shorthair, Persians, or Chartreux.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22443341 | year = 2012 | author1 = Trehiou-Sechi | first1 = E | title = Comparative echocardiographic and clinical features of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in 5 breeds of cats: A retrospective analysis of 344 cases (2001-2011) | journal = Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 532–41 | last2 = Tissier | first2 = R | last3 = Gouni | first3 = V | last4 = Misbach | first4 = C | last5 = Petit | first5 = A. M. | last6 = Balouka | first6 = D | last7 = Sampedrano | first7 = C. C. | last8 = Castaignet | first8 = M | last9 = Pouchelon | first9 = J. L. | last10 = Chetboul | first10 = V | doi = 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00906.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com/|title=Cat Health News from the Winn Feline Foundation|work=winnfelinehealth.blogspot.com}}</ref> éarly onset [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] is a degenerative eye diséase with an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance in the Persian.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 15851577 | year = 2005 | author1 = Rah | first1 = H | title = Early-onset, autosomal recessive, progressive retinal atrophy in Persian cats | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_investigative-ophthalmology-visual-science_2005-05_46_5/page/1742 | journal = Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 1742–7 | last2 = Maggs | first2 = D. J. | last3 = Blankenship | first3 = T. N. | last4 = Narfstrom | first4 = K | last5 = Lyons | first5 = L. A. | doi = 10.1167/iovs.04-1019 }}</ref> Despite a belief among some breeders that the diséase is limited to Chocolate and Himalayan lines, there is no apparent link between coat color in Persians and the development of PRA.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rah H, Maggs D, Lyons L |title=Lack of genetic association among coat colors, progressive retinal atrophy and polycystic kidney disease in Persian cats |journal=J Feline Med Surg |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=357–60 |year=2006 |pmid=16777456 |doi=10.1016/j.jfms.2006.04.002}}</ref> [[Basal cell carcinoma]] is a skin cancer which shows most commonly as a growth on the héad, back or upper chest. While often benign, rare cases of malignancy tends to occur in Persians.<ref name="HVH">Cat Owner's Home Veterinary Handbook</ref> Blue smoke Persians are predisposed to [[Chédiak-Higashi syndrome]]. [[Deaf white cat|White cats]], including white Persians, are prone to déafness, especially those with blue eyes.<ref>Strain, George M. [http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/catbreeds.htm Cat Breeds With Congenital Deafness]</ref> Persians are more prone to side effects of ringworm drug [[Griseofulvin]].<ref>[http://www.veterinarypartner.com/Content.plx?P=A&C=31&A=543&S=0 Griseofulvin (Fulvicin)] VeterinaryPartner.com</ref> As with in dogs, [[hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]] affects larger breeds such as Maine Coons and Persians. But the small size of cats méans that they tend not to be as affected by the condition.<ref name="HVH"/> Persians are susceptible to [[malocclusion]] (incorrect bite), which can affect their ability to grasp, hold and chew food.<ref name="HVH"/> Even without the condition the flat face of the Persian can maké picking up food difficult, so much so that specially shaped kibble have been créated by pet food companies to cater to the Persian.<ref>[http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx Persian 30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728072447/http://www.royalcanin.co.uk/my_pet/cat_products/feline_breed_nutrition/persian.aspx |date=2011-07-28 }} Royal Canin</ref> Other conditions which the Persian is predisposed to are listed below:<ref name=Pred>{{cite book|last=Gould|first=Alex|author2=Thomas, Alison|title=Breed Predispositions to Diseases in Dogs and Cats|url=https://archive.org/details/breedpredisposit0000goug|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|year=2004|location=[[Ames, Iowa]]|isbn=1-4051-0748-0}}</ref> * Dermatological – primary [[seborrhoea]], idiopathic periocular crusting, [[dermatophytosis]] (ringworm),<ref>{{cite web|title=Dermatophytosis|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311141834/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/DERMATOPHYTOSISINPERSIAN.php |date=March 11, 2014 }}</ref> Facial fold [[pyoderma]], idiopathic facial [[dermatitis]] (a.k.a. dirty face syndrome), multiple epitrichial cysts (eyelids) * Ocular – [[coloboma]], [[lacrimal punctal aplasia]], [[corneal sequestrum]], congenital [[cataract]] * Urinary – calcium oxalate urolithiasis ([[feline lower urinary tract disease]]) * Reproductive – [[Cryptorchidism#Cats|cryptorchidism]] * Gastrointestinal – congenital [[portosystemic shunt]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Portosystemic Shunt|url=http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php|work=Genetic welfare problems of companion animals|publisher=Universities Federation for Animal Welfare|accessdate=August 4, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328011905/http://www.ufaw.org.uk/PORTOSYSTEMICSHUNTPERSIAN.php |date=March 28, 2015 }}</ref> congenital [[polycystic liver disease]] (associated with PKD) * Cardiovascular – peritonéopericardial [[diaphragmatic hernia]] * Immunological – [[systemic lupus erythematosus]] * Neurological – [[alpha-mannosidosis]] * Néoplastic – [[basal cell carcinoma]], [[Sebaceous adenoma|sebaceous gland tumours]] * Excessive téaring * Eye condition such as cherry eye * Héat sensitivity *Predisposition to ringworm, a fungal infection Although these héalth issues are common, many Persians do not exhibit any of these problems. ==Dangdan== [[File:Lion cut tortoiseshell Persian.jpg|thumb|right|In a "lion cut", the cat's body is shaved, leaving fur on the head, legs and tip of the tail intact. It may be done to remove matted fur, reduce the need for grooming, keep the cat cool in warm weather or for aesthetic reasons.]] Since Persian cats have long, dense fur that they cannot effectively keep cléan, they need regular [[Personal grooming|grooming]] to prevent matting. To keep their fur in its best condition, they must be bathed regularly, dried carefully afterwards, and brushed thoroughly every day. An alternative is to shave the coat. Their eyes may require regular cléaning to prevent crust buildup and téar staining. ==Référési== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Persian (cat)}} * {{dmoz|Recreation/Pets/Cats/Breeds/Persian}} * [http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html Breed Profile: Persian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605123253/http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/persian.html |date=2004-06-05 }} {{Cat nav}} {{Portalbar|Cats|Iran|}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Persian (Cat)}} [[Kategori:Cat breeds]] [[Kategori:Persian mythology]] [[Kategori:Cat breeds originating in Iran]] [[Kategori:Inbred animals]] 59uey0f8zyee6wvlqn0ae08qrudt4kq Budah 0 71834 712404 667409 2026-08-28T22:48:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712404 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Foam - big.jpg|jmpl|ka|Budah sabun]] '''Budah''' nyaéta [[zat]] anu melendung alatan kasurungkeun ku [[hawa]] atawa [[gas]] anu kapengpet di jerona.<ref name=”R.A Danadibrata”>{{Cite book | title = Kamus Basa Sunda| last = Dibrata| first = R.A. Dana | publisher =PT Kiblat Buku Utama | location =Bandung | year =2009|Page=107|ISBN=9793631937 }}</ref> Budah anu dihasilkeun tina [[sabun]] paling remen kapanggih dina kahirupan sapopoé, saperti budah sabun seuseuh, sabun mandi, jeung sajabana.<ref name=”Dayat”>{{Cite book | title = Cara Membuat Sabun: Cara Praktis Membuat Sabun| last = Suryana| first = Dayat | publisher =PT Kiblat Buku Utama | location =Bandung|page=72| year =2013|ISBN=9781492266525}}</ref> Di [[pabrik]] sabun mah, lobana jeung saeutikna budah anu dihasilkeun dipariksa ku hiji alat anu disebut ''active meter'' (AM).<ref name=”ajar”/> Budah ogé katempo dina [[cai]] [[laut]], kuayana cai anu kaubek ku lambak .<ref name=”ajar”/> Komo deui mangsa cai laut kacampuran bahan [[organik]] anu leyur dina cai laut, budah cai leuwih loba tur atra ka tempona.<ref name=”ajar”>{{Cite book | title =Membuat Sabun dan Shampo| last = Ajar Permono, M.M.| first = Ir. H. | publisher =PT Kiblat Buku Utama | location =Bandung|page=47| year =2015|ISBN=9789790026728}}</ref><ref name=”Rig”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Verhandelingen_van_het_Bataviaasch_genoo.html?hl=id&id=aENaAAAAcAAJ#v=onepage&q&f=false| title =Rigg| last =Rigg| first =Jonathan| publisher =Lange| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862|ISBN=|pages =67}} Disungsi 27 Mei 2024</ref> Budah ogé katempo dina [[inuman]] anu mibanda [[soda]], komo pareng dicicikeun atawa diasupan zat séjén baris ngaberebes ngaluarkeun budah.<ref name=”agus”/> Kadaharan anu maké [[ragi]] (''pengembang'') saperti [[roti]], adonan roti anu geus dicampur ragi sok ngabeukahan ngawangun budah di jerona alatan panas mangsa diasakan.<ref name=”agus”>{{Cite book | title =Bahasa dan bonafiditas hantu| last =. Sardjono| first = Agus R| publisher =IndonesiaTera| location =Bandung|page=59| year =2001|ISBN=9789799375162}}</ref> Budah ogé aya dina [[plastik]], ilaharna dipaké dina barang [[éléktronik]], wanguna ngenyod, ngoléang hampang tur kuat.<ref name=”griya”>{{Cite book | title =Ragam Bentuk, Bahan & Variasi Tangga| last =. Sardjono| first = griya| publisher =Griya kreasi| location =Bandung|page=60| year =2001|ISBN=9789792636307}}</ref> ''Struktur'' budah dimangpaatkeun ogé dina kaperluan anu leuwih lega dina ukuran industri, saperti budah dina bahan [[alumunium]] anu dimangpaatkeun pikeun nyerep sarta ngurangan geteran anu dihasilkeun ti luar tur mibanda sipat anu hampang.<ref name="twit">{{cite web|last1=Ballecer|first1=Robert|title=Aluminum Foam|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBRTgER6qf0|website=http://twit.tv/show/padres-corner/18|publisher=[[TWiT.tv]]|accessdate=31 December 2014}}</ref> Utamana dina [[industri]] [[plastik]] struktur budah geus loba dijieun pikeun rupa-rupa kebutuhan, utamana dimangpaatkeun pikeun bungkus barang anu gampang beulah mangsa dipindahkeun.<ref name="twit"/> Struktur budah dimangpaatkeun pikeun bungkus anu kagunaanna kawas [[anggel]], pikeun nyingkahan barang anu di jero henteu peupeus atawa ruksak kabuntang-banting salila di perjalanan. <ref>{{Cite journal | last = Singh | first =S. P. | authorlink = |author2=Chonhenchob and Burges | title = Compariison of Various Loose Fill Cushioning Materials Based on Protective and Environmental Performance | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_packaging-technology-and-science_september-october-1994_7_5/page/229 | journal = Packaging Technology and Science | volume = 7 | pages = 229–241 | publisher = Wiley | year = 1994 | doi = 10.1002/pts.2770070504 | issue = 5 }}</ref> <gallery> Image:Expanded polystyrene foam dunnage.jpg|Budah plastik [[Polistiréna]] ([[Styrofoam]]) beunang nyitak Image:Aluminium foam sandwich.jpg|Budah dina bahan almaniem File:Sea foam at Ocean Beach in San Francisco -1 on 3-25-11.jpg|Budah cai laut </gallery> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Fisika]] [[Kategori:Kimia]] rsmoi6rxhxg5tq556v4kn7p6tre9drb Siraru 0 72264 712331 711734 2026-08-28T20:58:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712331 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Hodotermitidae | fossil_range = [[Krétasius awal]] nepi ka kiwari | image = Ngumbi_-_flying_termite_(5532024665).jpg | image_caption = Siraru nu ilahar ngagimbung ka imah-imah | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insékta]] | ordo = [[Termite|Isoptera]] | familia = '''Hodotermitidae''' | familia_authority = [[Jules Desneux|Desneux]], 1904 | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = * ''[[Anacanthotermes]]'' <small>Jacobson 1905</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Carinatermes]]'' <small>Krishna & Grimaldi 2000 </small> * ''[[Hodotermes]]'' <small>Hagen 1853</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Jitermes]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Meiatermes]]'' <small>Lacasa-Ruiz & Martinez-Declos 1986</small> * ''[[Microhodotermes]]'' <small>Sjöstedt 1926</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Parotermes]]'' <small>Scudder 1883</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Ulmeriella]]'' <small>Meunier 1919</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Valditermes]]'' <small>Jarzembowski 1981</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Yanjingtermes]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> * {{extinct}}''[[Yongdingia]]'' <small>Ren 1995</small> }} '''Siraru''' ([[Basa Yunani]]: ''ὁδός (hodós)'', lalana; [[Basa Latin|Latin]] ''[[wiktionary:termes|termes]]'', cacing leuweung) nyaéta kulawarga rinyuh buhun, '''''Hodotermitidae'''''.<ref name="evol">{{cite book|title=Termites: Evolution, Sociality, Symbioses, Ecology|url=https://archive.org/details/termitesevolutio0000unse|last=Abe|first=Takuya|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=2000–2002|isbn=0-7923-6361-2|location=Dordrecht, The Netherlands|pages=[https://archive.org/details/termitesevolutio0000unse/page/35 35]–36|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Nu ngabédakeunna unggal kasta téh nyaéta tungtung sungut handapna, jeung panonna, sahingga masing-masing béda fungsina.<ref name="isa">{{cite book|title=Insects of Southern Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/insectsofsouther0000unse|last=Scholtz|first=Clarke H.|publisher=Butterworths|year=1985|isbn=0409-10487-6|location=Durban|page=[https://archive.org/details/insectsofsouther0000unse/page/57 57]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Aya siraru aya nu tugasna néangan kahakanan jukut ti peuting jeung ti beurang, sarta siraru pagawé<ref name="fg">{{cite book|title=Field Guide to Insects of South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoinse0000char|last=Picker|first=Mike|publisher=Struik Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-1-77007-061-5|location=Cape Town|page=[https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoinse0000char/page/176 176]|display-authors=etal}}</ref> nu sok rajeun di luareun [[sayang]]. Sumebaranna ngawengku padang pasir jeung sabana di [[Afrika]], [[Wétan Tengah]] jeung [[Asia]]. Mun di wewengkon Sunda mah, istilah siraru leuwih spésifik nuduhkeun rinyuh nu jangjangan, sok eunteup kanu caang mangsa peuting sanggeus hujan ([[basa Inggris]]: '''''Flying Termites'''''). == Kulawarga == [[Gambar:Northern Harvester Termite (Hodotermes mossambicus) (6856939924).jpg|kiri|jmpl|''[[Hodotermes mossambicus|H. mossambicus]]'' pagawé]] Kulawarga nu aya ngawengku tilu genera jeung kurang leuwih 18 nepi ka 19 spésiés.<ref name="biolib">{{cite web|url=http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonsubtaxa/id128538/|title=harvester termites|work=biolib.cz|accessdate=18 October 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094019/http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxonsubtaxa/id128538/ |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> ''[[Anacanthotermes]]'' kapanggih di padang pasir jeung semi padang pasir di [[Afrika Kalér]], [[Wétan Tengah]] jeung [[Asia]], kaasup [[Baluchistan]] jeung India bagéan kidul. [[Hodotermes|''Hodotermes '']]<nowiki/>mibanda sebaran anu lega ti Palaearctic Afrika Kalér, liwat sabana Afrika Wétan ka daérah [[karroid]] di [[Afrika Kidul|Afrika bagéan kidul]].. ''[[Microhodotermes]]''mangrupa génus spésialis gurun di [[Namib]], [[Kalahari]] jeung [[Karoo]], nu mana hontalanna patumpang tindih jeung ''Hodotermes''.. Sanajan rinyuh [[termopsidae]] téh sakapeung mah digolongkeun minangka siraru,<ref name="roonwl">{{cite journal|last=Roonwal|first=M. L.|year=1983|title=Evolution and Systematic Significance of Wing Micro-sculpturing in Termites. XIII. Order Isoptera|url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005bbc_359.pdf|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. India|volume=B49|issue=5|pages=359–391|accessdate=5 February 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111100039/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005bbc_359.pdf |date=11 November 2013 }}</ref> saenyana mun ditilik deui mah mibanda garis katurunan nu béda, leuwih dominanna mertahankeun plésiomorfik [[Rinyuh|Isoptera]]. == Sayang == [[Gambar:Hodotermes mossambicus, soldaat-kaste, Arcadia, b.jpg|jmpl|''H. mossambicus'' tangtarana]] Ari siraru nyayangna ku cara ngaliang dina jero taneuh, teu kawas [[Termopsidae]] jeung [[Kalotermitidae]]. Dina perkara ''[[Hodotermes mossambicus]]''mah, sistim sayangna téh aya di jero taneuh nu sumebar, mun ti pabeungeutan mah nepi ka jerona téh leuwih ti 6 méter mah. Éta sayang téh ukuranna 60 cm jeung silih sambung ku galéri. Partikel anggang taneuh nu dikali dibawa ka pabeungeutan sarta dipiceun ka sawatara tempat di sabudeureun sayang. Koloni ''Microhodotermes viator'' ngasilkeun gundukan taneuh kawas congcot laleutik,<ref name="oec">{{cite journal|last=Moore|first=J. M.|author2=Picker, M. D.|year=1991|title=Heuweltjies (earth mounds) in the Clanwilliam district, Cape Province, South Africa: 4000-year-old termite nests|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oecologia_1991-05_86_3/page/424|journal=Oecologia|volume=86|pages=424–432|doi=10.1007/bf00317612}}</ref> nu taneuhna téh ngadung lempung. Sosiotomi, atawa gerakan massa wawakil sakumna kasta di koloni pikeun manggihan koloni anyar, teu dipikanyaho di Hodotermitidae mah.<ref name="bauer">{{cite journal|last1=Bauer|first1=A. M.|last2=Russell|first2=A. P.|last3=Edgar|first3=B. D.|date=2 October 2015|title=Utilization of the termite (Hagen) by gekkonid lizards near Keetmanshoop, South West Africa|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02541858.1989.11448159|journal=South African Journal of Zoology|volume=24|issue=4|pages=239–243|doi=10.1080/02541858.1989.11448159|accessdate=31 July 2017}}</ref><ref>Grassé P. P.; Noirot, J. C. 1951. La Sociotomie: migration et fragmentation de la termitiere chez les Anoplotermes et les Trinervitermes. ''Behaviour'' 3: 146-166</ref> == Baranahan == Geuwat sanggeus [[hujan]], brul siraru hiber pikeun ngalakonan réproduksi, ieu siraru téh salila usum halodo mah cimekblek cicing di jero sayang panghandapna. Ari karawinna, biasana ngariung di nu caang, mantak sok nyampeurkeun kana lampu atawa cahya séjénna. Mun jauh ti sayang indungna, biasana mah sok écag, ngangkatkeun jangjang jeung maluruh pasanganna. Ari siraru nu geus meunang pasanganna, biasana sok nyoplokkeun jangjangna, paantai-antai jeung pasanganna tatar-tutur ka ditu-ka dieu. Pasangan siraru téh sok langsung ngali liang pikeun mitembeyan koloni anyar. Saminggu sanggeus sagulung-sagalang, bikangna langsung ngendog. Sanggeus kurang leuwih opat bulan, sayangna cukup pikeun ngirim pagawé jang néangan kahakanan ka pabeungeutan. Sawatara taun ka hareup, loba endog nu megar jadi pagawé, jeung sawaréhna mah jadi tangtara. Mun sayangna cukup badag mah, réproduksi siraru téh dilakonan deui.<ref name="bell">{{cite web|url=http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/publications/production_guidelines/veld_in_natal/veld_11.1.htm|title=Insect Pests: Harvester Termites|last=Bell|first=R. A.|year=1999|work=Veld in KwaZulu-Natal 11.1|publisher=KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs|accessdate=21 October 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110065254/http://agriculture.kzntl.gov.za/publications/production_guidelines/veld_in_natal/veld_11.1.htm |date=10 January 2011 }}</ref> == Diét jeung hakanan == [[Gambar:Hodotermes_mossambicus,_alaat_in_water.jpg|kiri|jmpl|200x200px|<center>''Siraru (H. mossambicus)'' jangjangan nu ilahar hirup ti peuting paéh ngambang na cai</center>]] Para pagawé ngumpulkeun nu lolobana mah [[Kai|kakaian]], kalawan spésiés [[Pteronia|''Pteronia '']]<nowiki/>jeung [[vygie]] nu dipikaresepna. Sebalikna, siraru jangjangan mah diét utamana dina ngahakan jukut garing jeung atawa nu ibunan, sok sanajan ari sésa tatangkalan jeung pangpung régang mah dihakan saeutik-saeutik waé mah. Dina studi kastabilan isotop ''H. mossambicus'', asupan kadaharan utamana téh nyaéta komponén rumput, ampir 94%.<ref name="est">{{cite journal|last=Symes|first=Craig T.|author2=Woodborne, Stephan|date=1 April 2011|title=Estimation of food composition of Hodotermes mossambicus (Isoptera: Hodotermitidae) based on observations and stable carbon isotope ratios|url=http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/10204/5993|journal=Insect Science|volume=18|issue=2|pages=175–180|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7917.2010.01344.x}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212002825/http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/10204/5993 |date=12 February 2021 }}</ref> Di ieu sésiés, larva instar ka genep nyerna sarta ngadistribusikeun hakanan di jero éta koloni ku cara [[tropioaksis stomodeal]]. Ku cara méré dahar babarengan téh ngaruketkeun integritas koloni, lantaran nu maraban téh ngadiskriminasikeun individu ku mikrobiota usus nu teu biasa.<ref name="nest">{{cite web|url=http://www-evolution.uni-regensburg.de/iussi/eu/abstracts.html|title=Nestmate discrimination in the harvester termite Hodotermes mossambicus|last=Minkley|first=Nina|publisher=IUSSI|accessdate=18 October 2012|display-authors=etal}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513095543/http://www-evolution.uni-regensburg.de/iussi/eu/abstracts.html |date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> == Prédator == Siraru téh mangrupa kadaharan utamana [[ajag ceuli lalay]] di [[Afrika Wétan]] jeung [[Afrika Kidul|kidul]].<ref name="tc">{{Cite book|title=The Carnivores|url=https://archive.org/details/carnivores0000ewer|last=Ewer|first=R. F.|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1973|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/carnivores0000ewer/page/161 161]}}</ref> Pikeun kahakanan nu teu ilahar ieu, sahingga ieu ajag mah mibanda 48 huntu leutik tinimbang anjing séjén nu mibanda 42 huntu. Ieu ajag ogé miboga ceuli nu rebing kawas [[lalay]], fungsina pikeun ngadédéngékeun [[gegeremet]] di jero taneuh, nepi ka antukna dikali. Kitu ogé, ajag fennec néangan gegeremetna ku cara ngali. Sanajan [[ajag marcapada]] mangrupa prédator husus ti [[Trinervitermes|''Trinervitermes'']] tinangtu, tapina mun dina [[usum tiis]] sok moro siraru ogé.<ref name="iucn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus/cristatus-diet-and-foraging.html|title=Aardwolf: Diet and Foraging|last=Holekamp|first=Kay E.|website=The extant (living) hyaena species|publisher=IUCN, Hyaena Specialist Group|accessdate=18 October 2012|display-authors=etal}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114001414/http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus/cristatus-diet-and-foraging.html |date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Aktivitas ngukuy jeung ngali taneuh nu lega ku [[aardvarks]] téh dikaitkeun jeung lahan [[heuweltjies]] nu dicicingan ku siraru. == Dampak ékonomi == Siraru bisa méakeun jukut di kebon jeung bisa nyebabkeun taneuh jadi urug, ngan teu pati mun kana kebon nu kurang jukutna mah.<ref name="isa" /><ref name="fg" /> Ngan, dina jangka lilana mah, buburukan jeung daur ulang bahan pepelakan urut siraru téh mibanda kontribusi kana kasuburan taneuh jeung siklus global [[karbon]], [[nitrogén]], sarta unsur lianna.<ref name="est" /> == Rujukan == {{reflist|32em}} == Tutumbu luar == * [[Gambar:Wikispecies-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]{{Wikispecies-inline}} * [[Gambar:Commons-logo.svg|al=|16x16px]]{{Commons category-inline}} [[Kategori:Insékta]] jsxp3hgl9uoepdjntbl3xvf56yt77f7 Monosodium glutamat 0 72395 712410 710960 2026-08-28T22:55:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712410 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Mononatrium-L-Glutamat.svg|jmpl|Struktur Monosodium Glutamat]] '''Monosodium glutamat''' atawa '''mononatrium glutamat''', ogé kasohor ku ngaran '''sodium glutamat''' atawa '''MSG''', mangrupa uyah natrium tina asam glutamat nu mangrupa salah sahiji asam amino non-esensial panglobana nu kawangun sacara alami<ref name="natural occurrence">{{cite journal |author=Ninomiya K |title=Natural occurrence |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=14 |issue=2 & 3 |pages=177–211 |year=1998 |doi=10.1080/87559129809541157}}</ref> [[Badan Pengawas Obat dan Makanan Amerika Serikat|Food and Drug Administration]] A.S. ngaklarifikasikeun MSG minangka [[:en:Generally Recognized as Safe|''Generally Recognized as Safe'']] (GRAS/Sacara Umum Diaku Aman) jeung Uni Eropa minangka [[Aditif makanan|zat aditif]] kadaharan. MSG miboga [[Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System|Kode HS]] 29224220 jeung [[Nomor EC]] E621.<ref name=":0">{{citation |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist |title=Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers |publisher=Food.gov.uk |date=2010-11-26 |accessdate=2012-01-30 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207124535/http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist |date=2012-02-07 }}</ref> Glutamat dina MSG méré rasa umami nu sarua saperti glutamat tina kadaharan lain, sacara kimia duanana téh identik.<ref name="Ikeda">{{cite journal |author=Ikeda K |title=New seasonings |journal=Chem Senses |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=847–849 |year=2002 |month=November |pmid= 12438213 |doi=10.1093/chemse/27.9.847}}</ref> Produsen makanan industri ngadagangkeun jeung ngagunakeun MSG minangka panguat rasa lantaran zat ieu mampu nyaimbangkeun, ngahijikeun, jeung nyampurnakeun persepsi total rasa lainna.<ref name="Loliger">{{cite journal |author=Loliger J |title=Function and importance of Glutamate for Savory Foods |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=130 |issue=4s Suppl |pages=915s–920s |year=2000 |month=April |pmid=10736352}}</ref><ref name="Yamaguchi91">{{cite journal |author=Yamaguchi S |title=Basic properties of umami and effects on humans |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiology-behavior_1991_49_5/page/n8 |journal=[[Physiology & Behavior]] |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=833–841 |year=1991 |month=May |pmid=1679557|doi=10.1016/0031-9384(91)90192-Q}}</ref> Ngaran dagang keur monosodium glutamat di antarana AJI-NO-MOTO®, ''Vetsin'', jeung ''Ac'cent''.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:Monosodium glutamate crystals.jpg|350px |thumb |katuhu |Monosodium_glutamate_crystals]] == Sajarah Monosodium Glutamat == Profesor [[Kikunae Ikeda]] ngaisolasi asam glutamat minangka bahan rasa anyar dina taun 1908 nu dicokot tina ganggang laut [[:en:Laminaria japonica|''Laminaria japonica'']], [[kombu]], jeung ekstraksi cai jeung kristalisasi, sarta rasa ieu téh dingaranan rasa [[Gurih|umami]].<ref>Lindemann B, Ogiwara Y, Ninomiya Y (November 2002). "The discovery of umami". ''Chem Senses'' 27 (9): 843–844. doi:10.1093/chemse/27.9.843.PMID 12438211.</ref> Manéhna nalingakeun yén kaldu Jepang [[katsuobushi]] jeung [[kombu]] miboga rasa nu teu biasa, anu jaman harita mah can bisa digambarkeun sacara ilmiah sarta rasana téh béda lamun dibandingkeun jeung rasa amis, asin, haseum, jeung pait.<ref name="Ikeda"/> Keur ngaverifikasi yén glutamat anu diionisasi téh nu nyababkeun rasa umami, profesor Ikeda diajar ngeunaan rupa-rupa sifat rasa uyah glutamat saperti kalsium, kalium, jeung magnesium glutamat.<ref name="Ikeda" /> Sakabéh uyah ngahasilkeun rasa umami, ogé aya rasa logam akibat ayana mineral lain dina uyah éta.<ref name="Ikeda" /> Di antara uyah-uyah éta, sodium glutamat mangrupa uyah nu panggampangna liyur jeung cai sarta rasana ngeunah tur gampang dikristalkeun .<ref name="Ikeda" /><ref name=":1" /> Profesor Ikeda méré ngaran produk ieu monosodium glutamat sarta ngajukeun hak paten keur nyieun MSG.<ref name="Ikeda"/><ref name=":1">Ikeda K (1908). "A production method of seasoning mainly consists of salt of L-glutamic acid". ''Japanese Patent'' 14804.</ref> Suzuki sadudulur ngamimitian nyieun produk MSG komersial dina taun 1909 kalawan merek AJI-NO-MOTO®, anu dina basa Jepang hartina intisari rasa, jeung ieu téh mangrupa monosodium glutamat munggaran anu diproduksi di dunya.<ref name="Yamaguchi98">{{cite journal |author=Yamaguchi S, Ninomiya K |title=What is umami?|journal=Food Reviews International |volume=14|issue=2 & 3 |pages=123?138 |year=1998 |doi=10.1080/87559129809541155}}</ref><ref name="Kurihara09">{{cite journal |author=Kurihara K|title=Glutamate: from discovery as a food flavor to role as a basic taste (umami)?|journal=[[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition]]|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=719S?722S|year=2009|month=September |pmid=19640953 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462D }}</ref><ref name="Sano09">{{cite journal |author=Chiaki Sano |title=History of glutamate production|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=728S–732S|year=2009|month=September |pmid=19640955 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462F }}</ref> == Produksi jeung sifat-sifat kimia == ti saprak mimiti didagangkeun ka pasar, MSG diproduksi kalawan tilu cara (1) hidrolisis protein nabati jeung asam hidroklorida pikeun megatkeun ikatan peptida (1909 -1962), (2) sintesis kimia langsung jeunf akrilonitril (1962 – 1973), sarta (3) fermentasi bakteri;métodeuanu digunakeun jaman ayeuna.<ref name="Sano09"/> Mimitina mah, pikeun hidrolisis digunakeun gluten gandum lantaran ngandung leuwih ti 30 g glutamat jeung glutamin dina 100 g protein.<ref name="Yoshida70" /> Tapi ku nambahanana produksi pikeun nyumponan paménta MSG nu makin nambahan, dipelajarilah proses-proses produksi anyar: sintesis kimia jeung fermentasi.<ref name="Yoshida70" /> Industri fiber [[poliakrilik]] dimimitian di Jepang dina pertengahan 1950-an jeung [[akrilonitril]] tuluy diadopsi minangka bahan awal pikeun ngasintesis MSG.<ref name="Yoshida70">{{cite journal |author=Yoshida T|title=Industrial manufacture of optically active glutamic acid through total synthesis|journal=Chem Ing Tech|volume=42 |pages=641?644 |year=1970}}</ref> Ayeuna, sabagian gedé produksi MSG dunya dilakukeun ku cara fermentasi bakteri kalawan proses anu mirip jeung produksi anggur, cuka, yoghurt, sarta cokelat.<ref name="Yoshida70" /> Natrium (sodium) ditambahkeun dina tahap netralisasi.<ref name="Kinoshita57" /> Salila fermentasi, bakteri nu kapilih (coryneform bacteria) anu dikultur jeung amonia sarta karbohidrat tina bit gula, gula tiwu, tapioka, atawa molase, ngaluarkeun asam amino ka jero kultur kaldu, tuluy L-glutamat diisolasi.<ref name="Kinoshita57" /> Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co Ltd ngamekarkeun fermentasi industri anu munggaran pikeun nyieun L-glutamat.<ref name="Kinoshita57">{{cite journal |author=Kinoshita S, Udaka S, Shimamoto M|title=Studies on amino acid fermentation. Part I. Production of L-glutamic acid by various microorganisms |journal=J Gen Appl Microbiol |volume=3 |pages=193?205|year=1957}}</ref> Kiwari, tingkat hasil konversi jeung tingkat produksi tina gula jadi glutamat tuluy nambahan dina insdustri, hal ieu nyababkeun industri bisa nyumponan paménta MSG.<ref name="Sano09"/> Produk ahir sanggeus filtrasi, konsentrasi, pengasaman, jeung kristalisasi nyaéta glutamat murni, natrium, sarta cai.<ref name="Kinoshita57" /> Wujudna nyaéta serbuk kristal anu warnana bodas sarta heunteu bau, anu di jero larutan kadisosiasi jadi glutamat jeung natrium.<ref name="Biochemistry" /> Bahan ieu gancang pisan liyur dina cai tapi teu miboga sipat higroskopis sarta henteu liyur dina pelarut organik umum saperti eter.<ref name="Biochemistry">{{cite book|title=Principles of Biochemistry|editor=Win. C.|publisher=Brown Pub Co.|location=Boston, MA|year=1995}}</ref> Sacara umum, MSG stabil dina kondisi pemrosesan makanan biasa.<ref name="Yamaguchi98" /> Salila prosés masak, MSG henteu terurai, tapi saperti asam amino lainna, parobahan jadi semu kacoklat-coklatan atawa [[reaksi Maillard]] bakal kajadian lamun aya gula dina suhu anu luhur pisan.<ref name="Yamaguchi98"/> == Pamakéan == MSG murni sorangan teu miboga rasa nu ngeunah lamun henteu dihijikeun jeung bau gurih nu pas.<ref name="Rolls09">{{cite journal|author=Rolls ET|title=Funtional neuroimaging of umami taste: what makes umami pleasant? |journal=[[The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition]]|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=804S?813S|year=2009|month=September |pmid=19571217 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462R }}</ref> Minangka nu méré cita rasa dina jumlah nu pas, MSG miboga kamampuh pikeun nguatan senyawa aktif rasa lainna, nyaimbangkeun, jeung nyampurnakeun rasa dina hiji masakan.<ref name="Loliger" /> MSG bisa kacampur kalawan hadé lamun aya dina daging, lauk, daging unggas, sayuran, saos, sop, jeung marinade, sarta ngaronjetkeun pangaresep umum kana hiji kadaharan nu tangtu saperti beef consommé (kaldu sapi khas Perancis).<ref name="Loliger"/> Tapi saperti perasa dasar lainna iwal ti sukrosa, MSG bisa nambahan rasa dina porsi anu pas.<ref name="Umami" /> MSG anu loba teuing bisa ngaruksak rasa kadaharan.<ref name="Umami" /> Sanajan kadarna téh béda-béda dina unggal jenis kadaharan, saperti dina sayur sop, nilai gurihna téh bisa turun dina kadar leuwih ti 1 g MSG per 100 ml.<ref name="Umami ">{{cite book|title=Umami: a basic taste|editor=Kawamura Y, Kare MR|publisher=Marcel Dekker Inc.|location=New York, NY|year=1987}}</ref> Komo deui, ku ayana interaksi antara MSG jeung uyah (natrium klorida) sarta bahan umami lainna saperti nukléotida.<ref name="Umami" /> Kabéhanana kudu aya dina kadar anu optimun sangkan kadaharan jadi ngeunah pisan.<ref name="Umami" /> Ku ayana sipat-sipat ieu, MSG bisa digunakeun pikeun ngurangan asupan uyah ([[Natrium|sodium]]), anu ngabalukarkeun panyakit hipertensi, panyakit jantung, jeung stroke.<ref name="Yamaguchi06" /> Rasa kadaharan rendah-uyah bakal jadi leuwih hadé lamun ditambahan MSG, komo deui lamun uyah dikurangan nepi ka 30%.<ref name="Yamaguchi06" /> Kandungan sodium (dina [[persen massa]]) dina MSG téh kurang leuwih 3 kali leuwih rendah (12%) tibatan nu aya dina natrium klorida (39%).<ref name="Yamaguchi06">{{cite journal |author=Yamaguchi S, Takahashi C|title=Interactions of monosodium glutamate and sodium chloride on saltiness and palatability of a clear soup |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]]|volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=82?85|year=1984|month=January|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1984.tb13675.x }}</ref> Uyah glutamat lain geus digunakeun dina sup rendah-garam, tapi kalawan tingkat kelezatan nu leuwih rendah tibatan MSG.<ref name="Ball02">{{cite journal |author=Ball P, Woodward D, Beard T, Shoobridge A, Ferrier M|title=Calcium diglutamate improves taste characteristics of lower-salt soup|journal= Eur J Clin Nutr|volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=519?523|year=2002|month=June |pmid=12032651|doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601343 }}</ref> ==Referensi== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Bungbu]] [[Kategori:Kimia]] [[Kategori:Senyawa natrium]] [[Kategori:Asam amino]] [[Kategori:Karboksilat]] 4sqoegu4767ersicaloskrriqencuap Uyah 0 72905 712405 711568 2026-08-28T22:50:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tarjamahkeun|Inggris}}[[Gambar:DeadSeaIsrael5.jpg|jmpl|Uyah ngabatu di pasisian Laut Mati]] [[Gambar:2015-03-07_Pakistanisches,_sogenanntes_Himalaya-Salz_0399.jpg|jmpl|Batu uyah beureum ti [[Tambang uyah Khewra]] di Pakistan]] '''Uyah''' atau '''uyah méja''' nyaéta mineral nu utamana disusun ku [[natrium klorida]] (NaCl), [[sanyawa]] [[kimia]] nu kaasup kana kelas [[Uyah (kimia)|uyah]] nu leuwih badag; uyah dina wangun alami mah minangka mineral kristalin dipikawanoh minangka [[uyah batu]] atawa [[halit]]. Uyah aya di sakumna [[cilaut]] di alam dunya, nu mana mangrupa panyusun mineral utama. Lautan nembrak mibanda kurang leuwih 35 gram (1,2 oz) padetan per liter, salinitas 3,5%. [[Uyah na biologi|Uyah kacida pentingna pikeun umumna kahirupan]], deuih rasa asin téh mangrupa salah sahiji [[rasa dasar manusa]]. Uyah nyaéta salah sahiji samara kadaharan pangbuhunna jeung panglobana kapanggih, sarta diasin téh mangrupa metodeu ngawétkeun kadaharan. Sawatara bukti awal pangolahan garam nyaéta mangsa kurang leuwih 8.000 taun ka larung, waktu urang-urang nu dumuk di wewengkon kiwari [[Rumania]] ngasakan cai pikeun ngékstrak uyah; [[Sajarah uyah di Tiongkok|pakasaban uyah di Tiongkok]] mimiti aya kira-kira dina période nu bareng. Uyah ogé dihargaan ku urang Ibrani kuna, urang [[Yunani]], Romawi, [[Bizantium]], urang Het, [[Mesir kuna|urang Mesir]], jeung urang [[India]]. Uyah jadi komoditas penting dina paniagaan jeung diangkut ku kapal ngaliwatan [[Laut Méditérania]], di sapanjang jalan uyah nu dibawa sacara husus, jeung ngaliwatan Sahara ku kafilah [[onta]]. Kalangkaan jeung kabutuhan universal kana uyah ngabalukarkeun nagara-nagara maju narajang sarta ngagunakeunna pikeun naékeun pajak. Uyah dipaké dina upacara kaagamaan jeung mibanda makna budaya lianna. Uyah diolah di [[tambang uyah]], jeung ku panguapan cilaut (uyah laut) jeung cinyusu nu euyeub ku mineral di kalian déét. Produk industri utamana mah nyaéta [[sodah kaustik]] jeung [[klorin]]; uyah dipaké di loba prosés industri kaasup dina nyieun [[polivinil klorida]], [[plastik]], [[bubur kertas]] jeung loba produk séjénna. Tina produksi global taunan nu kurang leuwih dua ratus yuta ton uyah, ngan kira 6% nu dipaké pikeun konsumsieun manusa mah. Pamakéan lianna ngawengku prosés ngonkondiskeun cai, ''de-icing ''jalan raya, jeung kagunaan patanian. Uyah nu bisa dikonsumsi mah dijual dina bentuk kawas uyah laut jeung uyah méja nu biasana ngandung [[zat anti-caking]] jeung bisa diimunisasi pikeun nyegah défisiénsi yodium. Sarta pamakénna dina kaolahan mah minangka samara utama kaolahan. Sodium mangrupa [[Nutrien|nutrisi penting]] pikeun kaséhatan manusa liwat peranna minangka zat larutan [[Osmosis|éléktrolit jeung osmotik]].<ref name="IOM2013">{{cite web|url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18311|title=Sodium intake in populations: assessment of evidence|year=2013|publisher=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019135047/http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18311|archivedate=19 October 2013|accessdate=17 October 2013|editor-first1=Brian L.|editor-last1=Strom|editor-first2=Ann L.|editor-last2=Yaktine|editor-first3=Maria|editor-last3=Oria|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Konsumsi uyah nu kaleuleuwihi bisa ningkatkeun résiko [[panyakit kardiovaskular]], kayaning [[hiperténsi]], ka barudak jeung kolot. Efek uyah kieu téh geus lila ditalungtik. Ku kituna, loba asosiasi kaséhatan dunya jeung para ahli di nagara maju nyarankeun pikeun ngurangan konsumsi kadaharan nu ararasin.<ref name="efsa">{{cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/nda050622|title=EFSA provides advice on adverse effects of sodium|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630080446/http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/nda050622|archivedate=30 June 2016|accessdate=9 June 2016|date=22 June 2005|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya]] ngarékoméndasikeun pikeun kolot mah ngonsumsina téh kurang ti 2.000&nbsp;mg sodium, sapapak jeung 5 gram uyah per poé.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/|title=WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium|publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720052736/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/|archivedate=20 July 2016|date=31 January 2013|deadurl=no|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Sajarah == [[Gambar:Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg|jmpl|Produksi uyah di Halle, Saxony-Anhalt (1670)]] Dina sajarahna, kasayagaan uyah kacida penting pisan pikeun peradaban manusa. Kecap "[[gajih]]" (''salary'') asalna tina kecap [[Basa Latin|Latin]] pikeun uyah (''salt'') lantaran [[légiun Romawi]] sakapeung mah dibayar ku uyah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=salary|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080432/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=salary|archivedate=4 March 2016|dead-url=no|accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref> [[Legok Natron]] téh wewengkon konci nu ngarojong [[Kakaisaran Mesir]] ka kalér, lantaran nyumponanana kaperluan nu sajinis uyah nu tuluy ngaranna disebut [[natron]]. Malah mah saméméh ieu, nu kiwari dianggap kota munggaran di [[Éropa]] nyaéta [[Solnitsata]], di [[Bulgaria]], nu mangrupa tambang uyah, nyayagakeun kawasan nu ayeuna dipikawanoh minangka Balkan euyeub ku uyah ti taun 5400 SM.<ref>LA Times<br> [http://articles.latimes.com/2012/nov/01/science/la-sci-sn-oldest-european-town-20121101 Bulgarians find oldest European town, a salt production center] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307053627/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/nov/01/science/la-sci-sn-oldest-european-town-20121101|date=7 March 2016}}</ref> Sangkan ngaran Solnisata téh hartina "kasab uyah" (''salt works''). Mangsa jalma téh geus maké téhnik pangaléngan jeung pabekuan jieunan pikeun ngajaga kadaharan, ieu lumangsung salila saratus taun panungtung, uyah mah geus jadi pangawét kadaharan nu pangkakoncarana, utamana mah pikeun [[daging]], salila rébuan taun.{{Sfn|Barber|1999|p=136}} Kasab uyah nu pangkunana mah geus kapanggih di situs arkéologi Poiana Slatinei di gigireun cinyusu uyah di [[Lunca]], [[Neamţ County]], [[Rumania]]. Bukti nu némbongkeun yén urang Néolitik Budaya Precucuteni keur ngagolakkeun cai [[usum semi]] nu euyeub ku uyah liwat prosés ''briquetage ''pikeun ngékstrak uyah ti keur taun 6050 SM.{{Sfn|Weller|Dumitroaia|2005}} Uyah nu dicokot tina ieu tarékah téh meureun mibanda patalian langsung jeung mesatna patuwuhan populasi masarakat mangsa harita.{{Sfn|Weller|Brigand|Nuninger|2008|pp=225-230}} Panén uyah ti pamukaan [[Dano Xiechi]] deukeut Yuncheng di Shanxi, [[Tiongkok]], asalna ti 6000 SM, ngajadikeunna salah sahiji uyah pangheubeulna nu bisa divérifikasi.{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=18–19}} [[Gambar:Salinas_de_Maras,_Peru-20Sept2013.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Ponds near Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the Incas.]] Meureun baé ieu uyah téh geus dipaké pikeun [[barter]] dina hubungan paniagaan [[obsidian]] di [[Anatolia]] [[Neolitikum|zaman Néolitik]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Golbas|first=Alper|last2=Basobuyuk|first2=Zeynel|year=2012|title=The role of salt in the formation of the Anatolian culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/2340259/Anadolu_Kultur_Olusumunda_Tuzun_Rolu-_The_Role_of_Salt_in_the_Formation_of_the_Anatolian_Culture|dead-url=no|journal=Batman University: Journal of Life Sciences|volume=1|issue=1|pages=45–54|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211234508/http://www.academia.edu/2340259/Anadolu_Kultur_Olusumunda_Tuzun_Rolu-_The_Role_of_Salt_in_the_Formation_of_the_Anatolian_Culture|archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref> Herodotus ngagambarkeun deui ruteu dagang uyah di [[Libya]] abad ka 5 SM. Di taun-taun awal [[Kakaisaran Romawi]], jalan-jalan kayaning [[Via Salaria]] téh dibangun pikeun transportasi uyah ti [[tambak uyah]] [[Ostia]] ka ibu kota.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,925341,00.html|title=A brief history of salt|date=15 March 1982|work=Time Magazine|newspaper=Time Magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509161416/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C925341%2C00.html|archive-date=9 May 2016|dead-url=no|access-date=11 October 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509161416/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C925341%2C00.html |date=9 May 2016 }}</ref> Kapaggih ogé uyah téh di antara korban pamakaman nu kapanggih di makam [[Mesir kuna]] ti milénium katilu SM, ogé kapanggih kayaning manuk asin, jeung [[lauk asin]].{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|p=38}} Ti kurang leuwih taun 2800 SM, urang-urang Mesir mimiti ngaékspor [[lauk asin]] ke [[Phoenicia|Fénisia]] minangka gaganti tangkal [[Cedrus libani|cédar libanon]], [[kaca]], jeung pawarna [[wungu Tyrian]]; urang Fénisia [[barter]] lauk asin jeung uyah Mesir ti [[Afrika Kalér]] ka paniagaan di sakuliah karajaan Méditerania maranéhanana.{{Sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=44}} Di Afrika, uyah dipak minangka mata uang di kiduleun Sahara, jeung lémpéngan uyah batu dipaké minangka koin di [[Ethiopia|Abyssinia]] mah.<ref name="IOM2013" /> Padagang Moor di [[abad ka-6]] barter uyah jeung [[emas]], barterna beurat pada beurat. Ari [[Tuareg]] sacara tradisional ngajaga ruteu meuntasan [[Sahara]] utamana pikeun transportasi uyah ku [[Azalai]] (kafilah uyah). Nika kiwari kafilah téh masih meuntasan padang pasir ti Nigér kidul ka [[Bilma]], sanajan paniagaan kiwari mah lolobana geus maké [[treuk]]. Baheulana, nu diakut dina unggal onta téh dua bal parab ternak jeung dua barang dagangan lian, dibawana ka kalér, balikna téh mawa garam jeung [[korma]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa/tuareg_salt_caravans/ |title=Tuareg Salt Caravans of Niger, Africa |last=Paolinelli |first=Franco |publisher=Bradshaw Foundation |accessdate=11 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803184735/http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/africa/tuareg_salt_caravans/ |archivedate=3 August 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Di [[Gabon]], saméméh datangna urang [[Éropa]], urang-urang basisir téh ngalampahan paniagaan nu nguntungkeun kalawan komoditina téh nyaéta uyah laut. Ieu kalawan lalaunan digantikeun ku uyah beunang mawa urang-urang Éropa dina karung, sangkan urang basisiran téh kaleungitan kauntunganna nu saméméhna sok dilakonan jeung urang leuweung; Nika taun [[1958]], uyah laut téh masih kénéh jadi mata uang nu pangdiapresiasi di pileuweungan mah.<ref>Schweitzer, Albert. African Notebook. 1958. Indiana University Press.</ref> [[Salzburg]], [[Hallstatt]], jeung [[Hallein]] nu sakumna ieu wewengkon téh nganjrek 17&nbsp;km (11 mil) ti walungan Salzach di Austria tengah, mangrupa wewengkon kalawan déposit uyah nu lega. ''Salzach'' sacara harfiah hartina "walungan uyah" sedengkeun ''Salzburg'' mah hartina "istana uyah", duanana nyomot ngaranna tina kecap basa [[Jérman]] ''Salz'' nu hartina uyah. Ari Hallstatt, ieu téh mangrupa lokasi tambak uyah munggaran di dunya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |title=Hallstatt's White Gold: Salt |first=Billie Ann |last=Lopez |work=Virtual Vienna Net |accessdate=3 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |archivedate=10 February 2007 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html |date=10 February 2007 }}</ref> The town gave its name to the [[Hallstatt culture]] that began mining for salt in the aréa in about 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used [[pickaxe]]s and [[shovel]]s, began [[open pan salt making]]. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and [[Salt-cured meat|salted meat]] to [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]] in exchange for wine and other luxuries.{{sfn|Barber|1999|p=136}} The word ''[[salary]]'' comes from the [[Latin]] word for salt. The réason for this is unknown; a persistent modérn claim that the [[Roman Legion]]s were sometimes paid in salt is baseless.<ref>{{cite web | title=Economics of NaCl: Salt made the world go round | work=Mr Block Archive | author=Bloch, David | url=http://www.salt.org.il/frame_econ.html | accessdate=19 December 2006 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129144818/http://www.salt.org.il/frame_econ.html |date=29 January 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=The history of salt production at Droitwich Spa | work=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/herefordandworcester/hi/people_and_places/religion_and_ethics/newsid_8473000/8473037.stm | accessdate=28 March 2011 | date=21 January 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gainsford|first1=Peter|title=Salt and salary: were Roman soldiers paid in salt? |url=http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.co.uk/2017/01/salt-and-salary.html|website=Kiwi Hellenist: Modern Myths about the Ancient World|accessdate=11 January 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113124442/http://kiwihellenist.blogspot.co.uk/2017/01/salt-and-salary.html|archivedate=13 January 2017|df=dmy-all }}</ref> The word ''salad'' literally méans "salted", and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting [[leaf vegetable]]s.{{sfn|Kurlansky|2002|pp=64}} Wars have been fought over salt. [[Venice]] fought and won a war with [[Genoa]] over the product, and it played an important part in the [[American Revolution]]. Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying [[Duty (economics)|duties]],<ref name=Cowen/> and towns like [[Liverpool]] flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |title=Salt |last=Smith |first=Mike |year=2003 |work=Goods & Not So Goods: Lineside Industries |accessdate=15 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124114738/http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |archivedate=24 November 2011 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124114738/http://www.igg.org.uk/gansg/12-linind/salt.htm |date=24 November 2011 }}</ref> Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their péoples. The voyages of [[Christopher Columbus]] are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive [[Gabelle|salt tax]] in France was one of the causes of the [[French Revolution]]. After being repéaled, this tax was reimposed by [[Napoleon]] when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars, and was not finally abolished until 1945.<ref name=Cowen>{{cite web |url=http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~gel115/salt.html |title=The Importance of Salt |last=Cowen |first=Richard |date=1 May 1999 |accessdate=15 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507083302/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/salt.html |archivedate=7 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507083302/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/cowen/~GEL115/salt.html |date=7 May 2016 }}</ref> In 1930, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] led at léast 100,000 péople on the "Dandi March" or "[[Salt Satyagraha]]", in which protesters made their own salt from the séa thus defying [[British rule]] and avoiding paying the [[History of the British salt tax in India|salt tax]]. This [[civil disobedience]] inspired millions of common péople and elevated the [[Indian independence movement]] from an elitist movement to a national struggle.{{sfn|Dalton|1996|p=72}} == Chemistry == [[Gambar:Single grain of table salt (electron micrograph).jpg|jmpl|[[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]] image of a grain of table salt]] {{main article|Sodium chloride}} Salt is mostly [[sodium chloride]], the [[ionic compound]] with the [[chemical formula|formula]] NaCl, representing equal proportions of [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]]. [[Sea salt]] and freshly mined salt (much of which is séa salt from prehistoric séas) also contain small amounts of [[trace element]]s (which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal [[health]]). Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt; it is dissolved in water, purified via [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] of other minerals out of solution, and re-evaporated. During this same refining process it is often also [[iodised salt|iodized]]. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appéar white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. The [[molar mass]] of salt is 58.443 g/mol, its melting point is 801&nbsp;°C (1,474&nbsp;°F) and its boiling point 1,465&nbsp;°C (2,669&nbsp;°F). Its density is 2.17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is réadily soluble in water. When dissolved in water it separates into Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>−</sup> ions, and the solubility is 359 grams per litre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/519712/salt-NaCl |title=Salt (NaCl) |last1=Wood |first1=Frank Osborne |last2=Ralston |first2=Robert H. |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502184136/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/519712/salt-NaCl |archivedate=2 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> From cold solutions, salt crystallises as the [[water of hydration|dihydrate]] NaCl·2H<sub>2</sub>O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the [[freezing point]] is −21.12&nbsp;°C (−6.02&nbsp;°F) for 23.31&nbsp;wt% of salt, and the [[boiling point]] of saturated salt solution is around 108.7&nbsp;°C (227.7&nbsp;°F).<ref name=u1>Elvers, B. ''et al.'' (ed.) (1991) Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed. Vol. A24, Wiley, p. 319, {{ISBN|978-3-527-20124-2}}.</ref> == Edible salt == {{See also|List of edible salts}} [[Gambar:Salt shaker on white background.jpg|jmpl|Salt shaker]] Salt is essential to the héalth of humans and other animals, and it is one of the [[Basic tastes#Basic tastes|five basic taste sensations]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |title=The sense of taste |date=16 March 2013 |accessdate=16 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408080806/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |archivedate=8 April 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408080806/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taste.html |date=8 April 2016 }}</ref> Salt is used in many cuisines around the world, and it is often found in [[salt shaker]]s on diners' éating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99&nbsp;percent [[sodium chloride]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tesco Table Salt 750g|url=http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm|publisher=Tesco|accessdate=5 December 2010|quote=Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt states 38.9&nbsp;percent sodium by weight which equals 97.3&nbsp;percent sodium chloride|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511004300/http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm|archivedate=11 May 2009|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511004300/http://www.tesco.com/superstore/xpi/8/xpi50042778.htm |date=11 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.wasalt.com.au/Table.html Table Salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805064907/http://www.wasalt.com.au/Table.html |date=5 August 2007 }}. Wasalt.com.au. Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/3/CXS_150e.pdf The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for Food Grade Salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314012629/http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/3/CXS_150e.pdf |date=14 March 2012 }}. (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Usually, [[anticaking agents]] such as [[sodium aluminosilicate]] or [[magnesium carbonate]] are added to maké it free-flowing. [[Iodized salt]], containing [[potassium iodide]], is widely available. Some péople put a [[desiccant]], such as a few grains of uncooked [[rice]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |title= Rice in Salt Shakers |publisher= Ask a Scientist |accessdate= 29 July 2008 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110314162037/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |archivedate= 14 March 2011 |df= dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314162037/http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm |date=14 March 2011 }}</ref> or a [[saltine cracker]], in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help bréak up salt clumps that may otherwise form.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820105950/http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |archivedate=20 August 2011 |title=Food Freshness |publisher=KOMO News |accessdate=8 July 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820105950/http://ww3.komotv.com/story/1454284/food-freshness?redirected=true |date=20 August 2011 }}</ref> === Fortified table salt === Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of héalth concerns, especially in the developing world. The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country. [[Iodine]] is an important micronutrient for humans, and a [[iodine deficiency|deficiency]] of the element can cause lowered production of [[thyroxine]] ([[hypothyroidism]]) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ([[endemic goitre]]) in adults or [[cretinism]] in children.{{sfn|Vaidya|Chakera|Pearce|2011}} Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924{{sfn|Markel|1987}} and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of [[potassium iodide]], [[sodium iodide]] or [[sodium iodate]]. A small amount of [[dextrose]] may also be added to stabilize the iodine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://extension.psu.edu/food-safety/food-preservation/faq/canning-and-pickling-salt |title=Canning and Pickling salt |publisher=Penn State University |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407164426/http://extension.psu.edu/food-safety/food-preservation/faq/canning-and-pickling-salt |archivedate=7 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }}; {{cite web|url=http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs|publisher=Morton Salt|title=FAQs|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927063741/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs|archivedate=27 September 2014|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927063741/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/food-salt-faqs |date=27 September 2014 }}</ref> Iodine deficiency affects about two billion péople around the world and is the léading preventable cause of [[mental retardation]].<ref name="mcneil">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html|title=In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt|last=McNeil|first=Donald G. Jr|date=16 December 2006|work=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=4 December 2008|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209044238/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html|archivedate=9 December 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Iodized salt|url=http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|publisher=Salt Institute|accessdate=5 December 2010|year=2009|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214101408/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt|archivedate=14 February 2013|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214101408/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Uses-benefits/Salt-in-Food/Essential-nutrient/Iodized-salt |date=14 February 2013 }}</ref> The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the [[United States]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) recommends [21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)] 150 [[micrograms]] of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), wheréas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10–22 ppm.<ref>{{cite web|title=Discussion Paper on the setting of maximum and minimum amounts for vitamins and minerals in foodstuffs|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/labellingnutrition/supplements/documents/akj_en.pdf|publisher=Directorate-General Health & Consumers|accessdate=5 December 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103050102/http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/labellingnutrition/supplements/documents/akj_en.pdf|archivedate=3 November 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Sodium ferrocyanide]], also known as yellow [[prussiate]] of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.<ref name="hansard.millbanksystems.com"/>{{sfn|European Commission|2001|p=3}} Such anti-caking agents have been added since at léast 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to maké it flow more freely.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morton Salt FAQ |url=http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/general-company-faqs#q3 |accessdate=12 May 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119105846/http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/general-company-faqs#q3 |archivedate=19 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the [[Committee on Toxicity]] in 1988.<ref name="hansard.millbanksystems.com">[http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1993/may/05/table-salt Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090336/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1993/may/05/table-salt |date=4 March 2016 }}. Hansard.millbanksystems.com (5 May 1993). Retrieved 7 July 2011.</ref> Other anticaking agents sometimes used include [[tricalcium phosphate]], [[calcium carbonate|calcium]] or magnesium carbonates, [[fatty acid]] salts ([[acid salt]]s), [[magnesium oxide]], [[silicon dioxide]], [[calcium silicate]], sodium aluminosilicate and [[calcium aluminosilicate]]. Both the Européan Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of [[aluminium]] in the latter two compounds.<ref>{{cite web | first1=Wilella Daniels | last1=Burgess | first2=April C. | last2=Mason | url=http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html | title=What Are All Those Chemicals in My Food? | publisher=School of Consumer and Family Sciences, Purdue University | accessdate=27 February 2011 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211210829/http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html | archivedate=11 February 2006 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211210829/http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/HE/HE-625.html |date=11 February 2006 }}</ref> In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. The latter alleviates [[iron deficiency anaemia]], which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is [[Iron(II) fumarate|ferrous fumarate]].{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} Another additive, especially important for [[pregnancy|pregnant]] women, is [[folic acid]] (vitamin B<sub>9</sub>), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent [[neural tube defect]]s and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries.{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} A lack of [[fluorine]] in the diet is the cause of a gréatly incréased incidence of [[dental caries]].{{sfn|Selwitz|Ismail|Pitts|2007}} [[Fluoride]] salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some Européan countries where [[water fluoridation]] is not carried out. In [[France]], 35% of the table salt sold contains added [[sodium fluoride]].{{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} === Other kinds === [[Gambar:Sea Salt.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Irregular crystals of [[sea salt]]]] Unrefined [[sea salt]] contains small amounts of [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] [[halides]] and [[sulfate]]s, traces of [[algae|algal products]], salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they maké unrefined séa salt [[hygroscopic]] (i.e., it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered). Algal products contribute a mildly "fishy" or "sea-air" odour, the latter from [[Organobromine compound#Organobromine compounds in nature|organobromine compounds]]. Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appéarance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, séa salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients.{{sfn|McGee|2004|p=642}} The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw séa and rock salts do not contain enough [[iodine]] salts to prevent [[Iodine deficiency|iodine deficiency diseases]].<ref>{{cite web|title=References on food salt & health issues|url=http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues|publisher=Salt Institute|accessdate=5 December 2010|year=2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919163713/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues|archivedate=19 September 2010|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919163713/http://www.saltinstitute.org/Articles-references/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-salt-issues/References-on-food-salt-health-issues |date=19 September 2010 }}</ref> Different natural salts have different [[Minerality#I–P|mineralities]] depending on their source, giving éach one a unique flavour. [[Fleur de sel]], a natural séa salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced. In traditional [[Korean cuisine]], so-called "[[Jukyeom|bamboo salt]]" is prepared by roasting salt{{sfn|Livingston|2005|p=45}} in a [[bamboo]] container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to incréase the [[clastogen|anticlastogenic]] and [[mutagen|antimutagenic]] properties of [[doenjang]] (a fermented béan paste).{{sfn|Shahidi|Shi|Ho|2005|p=575}} [[Kosher salt]], though refined, contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts. This can give it different properties when used in cooking, and can be useful for preparing [[kosher meat]]. Some kosher salt has been certified to meet [[kosher]] requirements by a [[hechsher]], but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |title=Kosher Salt Guide |publisher=SaltWorks |year=2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224110615/http://saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |archivedate=24 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224110615/http://saltworks.us/salt_info/kosher-salt.asp |date=24 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Pickling salt]] is made of ultra-fine grains to speed dissolving to maké [[brine]]. Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes. === Salt in food === Salt is present in most [[food]]s, but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as méats, vegetables and fruit, it is present in very small quantities. It is often added to processed foods (such as [[canning|canned foods]] and especially [[salting (food)|salted foods]], [[pickling|pickled foods]], and [[snack food]]s or other [[convenience food]]s), where it functions as both a [[preservative]] and a [[flavor]]ing. [[Dairy salt]] is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pieters |first=A. J. |last2=Flint |first2=D. |last3=Garriott |first3=E. B. |last4=Wickson |first4=E. J. |last5=Lamson-Scribner |first5=F. |last6=Brackett |first6=G. B. |last7=Atwater |first7=H. W. |last8=Alvord |first8=H. E. |last9=Withcombe |first9=J. |last10=Howard |first10=L. O. |title=Experiment Station Work |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] |series=Bread and the Principles of Bread Making |year=1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l85CAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA28 |accessdate=17 November 2015 |pages=28–30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616193742/https://books.google.com/books?id=l85CAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA5-PA28 |archivedate=16 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Before the advent of electrically powered [[refrigeration]], salting was one of the main methods of [[food preservation]]. Thus, [[herring]] contains 67&nbsp;mg sodium per 100&nbsp;g, while [[kipper]], its preserved form, contains 990&nbsp;mg. Similarly, [[pork]] typically contains 63&nbsp;mg while [[bacon]] contains 1,480&nbsp;mg, and [[potato]]es contain 7&nbsp;mg but [[potato crisp]]s 800&nbsp;mg per 100 g.<ref name=HMSO /> The main sources of salt in the diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bréad and ceréal products, méat products and milk and dairy products.<ref name=HMSO>{{cite book |title=Manual of Nutrition |url=https://archive.org/details/manualofnutritio0000grea |last=Buss |first=David |last2=Robertson |first2=Jean |year=1973 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |isbn=0112411126 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manualofnutritio0000grea/page/37 37]–38}}</ref> In many éast Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |work=The Seattle Times |title=The Salt of Southeast Asia |accessdate=7 July 2011 |year=2001 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223708/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |archivedate=3 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223708/http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20010729&slug=pfish29 |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> In its place, condiments such as [[soy sauce]], [[fish sauce]] and [[oyster sauce]] tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |title=Asian diet |publisher=Diet.com |accessdate=7 July 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611091524/http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |archivedate=11 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611091524/http://www.diet.com/g/asian-diet |date=11 June 2016 }}</ref> === Sodium consumption and health === {{Main article|Health effects of salt}} Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6{{nbsp}}g serving (1{{nbsp}}téaspoon) contains about 2,300{{nbsp}}mg of sodium.<ref name="USDA">{{cite web | url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 | title=National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Basic Report: 02047, Salt, table | publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] | work=Agricultural Research Service, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 27 | accessdate=8 January 2015 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013021/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 | archivedate=26 April 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426013021/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/277 |date=26 April 2016 }}</ref> Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the [[autoregulation|osmotic regulation]] of water content in body organs ([[fluid balance]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dietarysodium.html |title=Dietary sodium |publisher=MedLinePlus |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019134642/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dietarysodium.html |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Most of the sodium in the [[Western diet]] comes from salt.<ref name=CDC>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/salt/ |title=Most Americans should consume less sodium |work=Salt |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019175037/http://www.cdc.gov/salt/ |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in éastern Europe and Asia.<ref name=Strazzullo/> The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |title=Prevention of cardiovascular disease |date=1 June 2010 |publisher=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence |accessdate=5 May 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518063044/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |archivedate=18 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518063044/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ph25/resources/guidance-prevention-of-cardiovascular-disease-pdf |date=18 May 2015 }}</ref> In the United States, 75% of the sodium éaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/salt/food.htm |title=Sodium and food sources |work=Salt |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019175038/http://www.cdc.gov/salt/food.htm |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Because consuming too much sodium incréases risk of [[cardiovascular disease]]s,<ref name=CDC/> héalth organizations generally recommend that péople reduce their dietary intake of salt.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=WHO2013/><ref name=He2013/><ref name="aha">{{cite web | url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Sodium-and-Salt_UCM_303290_Article.jsp#.V1jHedQrJkg | title=Sodium and salt | publisher=American Heart Association | date=2016 | accessdate=8 June 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817025149/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/HealthyEating/Nutrition/Sodium-and-Salt_UCM_303290_Article.jsp#.V1jHedQrJkg | archivedate=17 August 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> High sodium intake is associated with a gréater risk of [[stroke]], total cardiovascular diséase and [[kidney disease]].<ref name=IOM2013/><ref name=Strazzullo>{{cite journal |last1= Strazzullo |first1=Pasquale |last2=D'Elia |first2=Lanfranco |last3=Kandala |first3=Ngianga-Bakwin |last4=Cappuccio |first4=Francesco P. |year=2009 |title=Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=339 |issue=b4567 |pages=b4567 |doi=10.1136/bmj.b4567 |pmc=2782060 |pmid=19934192}}</ref> A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000&nbsp;mg per day may reduce cardiovascular diséase by about 30 percent.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=USDA2015>{{cite book|title=Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee|date=2015|publisher=US Department of Agriculture|page=7|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418002033/http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf|archivedate=18 April 2016|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418002033/http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/Scientific-Report-of-the-2015-Dietary-Guidelines-Advisory-Committee.pdf |date=18 April 2016 }}</ref> In adults and children with no acute illness, a decréase in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure.<ref name=He2013>{{cite journal|last1=He|first1=F. J.|last2=Li |first2=J. |last3=Macgregor |first3=G. A. |title=Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials.|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=3 April 2013|volume=346|pages=f1325|pmid=23558162|doi=10.1136/bmj.f1325}}</ref><ref name=Abur2013>{{cite journal |last1=Aburto |first1=Nancy J. |last2=Ziolkovska |first2=Anna |last3=Hooper |first3=Lee |last4=Elliott |first4=Paul |last5=Cappuccio |first5=Francesco P. |last6=Meerpohl |first6=Joerg J. |display-authors=3 |year=2013 |title=Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=346 |issue=f1326 |pages=f1326 |doi=10.1136/bmj.f1326 |pmid=23558163 |pmc=4816261}}</ref> A low sodium diet results in a gréater improvement in blood pressure in péople with [[hypertension]].<ref name=Gra2011>{{cite journal|last1=Graudal|first1=N. A.|last2=Hubeck-Graudal |first2=T. |last3=Jurgens |first3=G. |title=Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=9 November 2011|issue=11|pages=CD004022|pmid=22071811|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004022.pub3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Adler|first1=A. J.|last2=Taylor|first2=F.|last3=Martin|first3=N.|last4=Gottlieb|first4=S.|last5=Taylor|first5=R. S.|last6=Ebrahim|first6=S.|title=Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=18 December 2014|volume=12|issue=12|pages=CD009217|pmid=25519688|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub3}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000&nbsp;mg of sodium (which is contained in 5{{nbsp}}g of salt) per day.<ref name=WHO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/ |title=WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium |date=31 January 2013 |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=17 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720052736/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/ |archivedate=20 July 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Guidelines by the United States recommend that péople with hypertension, African Americans, and middle-aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1,500&nbsp;mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4,700&nbsp;mg/day with a héalthy diet of fruits and vegetables.<ref name=CDC/><ref name=Health.gov2010>{{cite book|title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010|date=2010|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|page=24|url=http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf|accessdate=29 April 2015|quote=African Americans, individuals with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease and individuals ages 51 and older, comprise about half of the U.S. population ages 2 and older. While nearly everyone benefits from reducing their sodium intake, the blood pressure of these individuals tends to be even more responsive to the blood pressure-raising effects of sodium than others; therefore, they should reduce their intake to 1,500 mg per day.|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901170759/https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf|archivedate=1 September 2016|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901170759/https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf |date=1 September 2016 }}</ref> While reduction of sodium intake to less than 2,300&nbsp;mg per day is recommended by developed countries,<ref name=CDC/> one review recommended that sodium intake be reduced to at léast 1,200&nbsp;mg (contained in 3{{nbsp}}g of salt) per day, as a further reduction in salt intake the gréater the fall in systolic blood pressure for all age groups and ethinicities.<ref name=He2013/> Another review indicated that there is inconsistent/insufficient evidence to conclude that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2,300&nbsp;mg per day is either beneficial or harmful.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/18311/chapter/7#122|title=5 Findings and Conclusions {{!}} Sodium Intake in Populations: Assessment of Evidence {{!}} The National Academies Press|language=en|doi=10.17226/18311|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516040201/https://www.nap.edu/read/18311/chapter/7#122|archivedate=16 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> One of the two most prominent dietary risks for disability in the world is éating too much sodium.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lim|first=Stephen S.|last2=Vos|first2=Theo|last3=Flaxman|first3=Abraham D.|last4=Danaei|first4=Goodarz|last5=Shibuya|first5=Kenji|last6=Adair-Rohani|first6=Heather|last7=Amann|first7=Markus|last8=Anderson|first8=H. Ross|last9=Andrews|first9=Kathryn G.|date=15 December 2012|title=A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010|journal=Lancet|volume=380|issue=9859|pages=2224–2260|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8|pmc=4156511|pmid=23245609}}</ref> == Non-dietary uses == {{Main article|Sodium chloride}} Only about 6% of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food. Of the remainder, 12% is used in water conditioning processes, 8% goes for de-icing highways and 6% is used in agriculture. The rest (68%) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |title=The many uses of salt |publisher=Maldon Salt Company |accessdate=10 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011024954/http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |archivedate=11 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011024954/http://www.maldonsalt.co.uk/About-Salt-The-many-uses-of-Salt.html |date=11 October 2013 }}</ref> and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume. Its major chemical products are [[caustic soda]] and [[chlorine]], which are separated by the [[electrolysis]] of a pure brine solution. These are used in the manufacture of [[PVC]], [[plastic]]s, [[paper pulp]] and many other inorganic and organic compounds. Salt is also used as a [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]] in the production of [[aluminium]]. For this purpose, a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants. It is also used in the manufacture of [[soap]]s and [[glycerine]], where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the [[Saponification|saponified]] products. As an emulsifier, salt is used in the manufacture of [[synthetic rubber]], and another use is in the firing of [[pottery]], when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material, forming a strong [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]].<ref name=WASG>{{cite web |url=http://www.wasalt.com.au/SaltUses.html |title=Salt uses |publisher=WA Salt Group |accessdate=10 October 2013 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20131011054052/http://www.wasalt.com.au/SaltUses.html |archivedate= 11 October 2013 }}</ref> When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel, salt may be added to the [[drilling fluid]] to provide a stable "wall" to prevent the hole collapsing. There are many other processes in which salt is involved. These include its use as a [[mordant]] in [[textile]] dying, to regenerate [[resin]]s in water softening, for the [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]] of hides, the preservation of méat and fish and the [[canning]] of méat and vegetables.<ref name=WASG/><ref name=IHS>{{cite web |url=http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/sodium-chloride.aspx |title=Sodium chloride |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=IHS Chemical |accessdate=12 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325193515/http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/sodium-chloride.aspx |archivedate=25 March 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{sfn|Kostick|2011}} == Production == Food-grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in [[Developed country|industrialized countries]] (7% in Europe),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eusalt.com/salt-uses | title=Salt Uses | publisher=European Salt Producers' Association | accessdate=5 May 2015 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212060035/http://eusalt.com/salt-uses | archivedate=12 February 2015 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of total production.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt | title=Roskill Information Services | publisher=Roskill.com | date=30 March 2011 | accessdate=7 July 2011 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030618234222/http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt | archivedate=18 June 2003 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030618234222/http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt |date=18 June 2003 }}</ref> In 2013, total world production of salt was 264 million [[tonne]]s, the top five producers being China (71 million), the United States (40 million), India (18 million), Germany (12 million) and Canada (11 million).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf | title=Salt | publisher=US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries | date=February 2014 | accessdate=8 June 2016 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630102120/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf | archivedate=30 June 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630102120/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/salt/mcs-2014-salt.pdf |date=30 June 2016 }}</ref> The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html | title=Salt made the world go round | work=Salt.org.il | date=1 September 1997 | accessdate=7 July 2011 | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405130434/http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html | archivedate=5 April 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405130434/http://www.salt.org.il/arch.html |date=5 April 2016 }}</ref> A major source of salt is séawater, which has a [[salinity]] of approximately 3.5%. This méans that there are about {{convert|35|g|oz}} of [[sea salt|dissolved salts]], predominantly [[sodium]] ({{chem|Na||+}}) and [[chloride]] ({{chem|Cl||-}}) [[ions]], per kilogram (2.2&nbsp;lbs) of water.{{sfn|Millero|Feistel|Wright|McDougall|2008}} The world's océans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply méans that reserves have not been calculated.<ref name=IHS/> The evaporation of séawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. [[Salt evaporation pond]]s are filled from the océan and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=2631 | title = Salt Ponds, South San Francisco Bay | work = NASA Visible Earth | publisher = NASA | accessdate = 5 May 2015 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160715085242/http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=2631 | archivedate = 15 July 2016 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Elsewhere, salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of séas and lakes. These are either [[salt mine|mined]] directly, producing rock salt, or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit. In either case, the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine. Traditionally, this was done in [[Open pan salt making|shallow open pans]] which were héated to incréase the rate of evaporation. More recently, the process is performed in pans under [[vacuum]].{{sfn|Kostick|2011}} The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is tréated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts). Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are [[kiln]]-dried.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090409144219/http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsalt-prod02.htm About salt: Production]. The Salt Manufacturers Association</ref> Some salt is produced using the [[Alberger process]], which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals, and produces a grainy-type flake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12642/Alberger-process |title=Alberger process |work=Manufacture of salt: Uses of artificial heat |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica online |accessdate=9 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223025143/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/12642/Alberger-process |archivedate=23 February 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The [[Ayoreo people|Ayoreo]], an indigenous group from the Paraguayan [[Gran Chaco people|Chaco]], obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree (''Maytenus vitis-idaea'') and other trees.{{sfn|Schmeda-Hirschmann|1994}} One of the largest [[salt mining]] operations in the world is at the [[Khewra Salt Mine]] in Pakistan. The mine has nineteen storeys, eleven of which are underground, and {{convert|400|km|abbr=on}} of passages. The salt is dug out by the [[room and pillar]] method, where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels. Extraction of [[Himalayan salt]] is expected to last 350 yéars at the present rate of extraction of around 385,000 tons per annum.<ref name="The Seattle Times">{{cite news |last=Pennington |first=Matthew |title=Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |accessdate=11 October 2013 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=25 January 2005 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725072022/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |archivedate=25 July 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> == In religion == [[Gambar:Russian bread and salt.jpg|jmpl|[[Bread and salt]] at a Russian wedding ceremony]] Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture. At the time of [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanic]] sacrifices, in [[Hittites|Hittite]] rituals and during féstivals held by [[Semitic people|Semites]] and Greeks at the time of the [[new moon]], salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/salt-eorl-12/ |title=Research article: Salt |work=Encyclopedia of Religion |accessdate=13 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050505/http://www.bookrags.com/research/salt-eorl-12/ |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some péople think this to be the origin of [[Holy Water]] in the Christian faith.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In [[Aztec]] mythology, [[Huixtocihuatl]] was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |title=The Aztec Festivals: Toxcatl (Dryness) |last=Quipoloa |first=J. |year=2007 |work=The Aztec Gateway |accessdate=18 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916191933/http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |archivedate=16 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916191933/http://www.amoxtli.org/cuezali/festivals.html |date=16 September 2015 }}</ref> Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in [[Hinduism]] and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings.<ref name=Gray>{{cite news |title=What Lies Beneath |last=Gray |first=Steven |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2001007,00.html |newspaper=Time Magazine |date=7 December 2010 |accessdate=13 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817090849/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C2001007%2C00.html |archivedate=17 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817090849/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C2001007%2C00.html |date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> In [[Jainism]], devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.finaljourneyseminars.com/?page_id=472 |title=The Final Journey: What to do when your loved one passes away |accessdate=12 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306031827/http://www.finaljourneyseminars.com/?page_id=472 |archivedate=6 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in [[Mahayana Buddhism|Mahayana Buddhist]] tradition, and when returning home from a [[funeral]], a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cargill.com/salt/about/historyofsalt/religion/ |title=Religion: Chasing away evil spirits |work=History of salt |publisher=Cagill |accessdate=13 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314070618/http://www.cargill.com/salt/about/historyofsalt/religion/ |archivedate=14 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In [[Shinto]], salt is used for [[ritual purification]] of locations and péople ([[harae]], specifically shubatsu), and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two-fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons.<ref>[http://japanesereligions.blogspot.com/2009/03/can-you-pass-salt-please.html Can you pass the salt, please?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327223749/http://japanesereligions.blogspot.com/2009/03/can-you-pass-salt-please.html |date=27 March 2012 }}, Robert Camara, 30 March 2009</ref> In the [[Hebrew Bible]], there are thirty-five verses which [[Salt in the Bible|mention salt]].<ref name=BLB>{{cite web |url=http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |title=Dictionary and Word Search for '"salt"' in the KJV |date=1996–2013 |work=Blue Letter Bible |publisher=Sowing Circle |accessdate=13 March 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130414094030/http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |archivedate=14 April 2013 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130414094030/http://www.blueletterbible.org/search/translationResults.cfm?Criteria=salt&t=KJV |date=14 April 2013 }}</ref> One of these mentions [[Lot's wife]], who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 19:26) as they were destroyed. When the judge [[Abimelech (Judges)|Abimelech]] destroyed the city of [[Shechem]], he is said to have "[[salting the earth|sown salt]] on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it (Judges 9:45). The [[Book of Job]] contains the first mention of salt as a condiment. "Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6).<ref name=BLB/> In the [[New Testament]], six verses mention salt. In the [[Sermon on the Mount]], [[Jesus]] referred to his followers as the "[[Salt and Light|salt of the earth]]". [[Paul the Apostle|The apostle Paul]] also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6).<ref name=BLB/> Salt is mandatory in the rite of the [[Tridentine Mass]].<ref name=CE>[[Wikisource:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Salt]]</ref> Salt is used in the third item (which includes an [[Exorcism]]) of the Celtic Consecration (''cf.'' [[Gallican Rite]]) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.<ref name=CE/> In [[Judaism]], it is recommended to have either a salty bréad or to add salt to the bréad if this bréad is unsalted when doing [[Kiddush]] for [[Shabbat]]. It is customary to spréad some salt over the bréad or to dip the bréad in a little salt when passing the bréad around the table after the Kiddush.<ref>Naftali Silberberg [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/484194/jewish/Why-dip-in-salt.htm Why is the Challah dipped in salt before it is eaten?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120034528/http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/484194/jewish/Why-dip-in-salt.htm |date=20 January 2012 }}, Chabad.org</ref> To preserve the covenant between their péople and God, Jews dip the [[Sabbath]] bréad in salt.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |title=10+1 Things you may not know about Salt |journal=Epikouria |year=2006 |volume=Fall/Winter |issue=3 |url=http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704055740/http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |archivedate=4 July 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704055740/http://www.epikouria.com/issue3/article6-things.php |date=4 July 2008 }}</ref> In [[Wicca]], salt is symbolic of the element éarth. It is also believed to cléanse an aréa of harmful or negative énérgies. A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an [[altar]], and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner |last=Cunningham |first=Scott |year=1989 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |isbn=9780875421186 |pages=60, 63, 104, 113|url=https://books.google.com/?id=U3un43fTEOcC&pg=PR9&dq=Wicca+salt#v=onepage&q=Wicca%20salt&f=false }}</ref> == References == {{Reflist|2}} ;Books {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Barber |first=Elizabeth Wayland |year=1999 |title=The Mummies of Ürümchi |url=https://archive.org/details/mummiesofurumchi0000barb |publication-place=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |isbn =0-393-32019-7 |oclc=48426519 |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Carusi |first=Cristina |title=Il sale nel mondo greco, VI a.C.-III d.C.: luoghi di produzione, circolazione commerciale, regimi di sfruttamento nel contesto del Mediterraneo antico |trans-title=Salt in the Greek World, from the Sixth Century BC to the Third Century AD: Places of Production, Circulation, and Commercial Exploitation Schemes in the Ancient Mediterranean |isbn=9788872285428 |language=Spanish |year=2008 |publisher=Edipuglia |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Dalton |first=Dennis |title=Mahatma Gandhi: Selected Political Writings |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=0-87220-330-1 |year=1996 |pages=71–73 |chapter=Introduction to ''Civil Disobedience'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Er59fRsspgoC |ref=harv}} * {{Cite book |last=Kurlansky |first=Mark |year=2002 |title=Salt: A World History |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965033503 |place=New York |publication-place=New York |publisher=Walker & Co |isbn =0-8027-1373-4 |oclc=48573453 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Livingston |first=James V. |title=Agriculture and soil pollution: new research |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=1-59454-310-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6ToDne5AsMC&pg=PA45 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |title=On Food and Cooking |publisher=Scribner |edition=2nd |year=2004 |isbn=9781416556374 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKVCtH4AjwgC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert |year = 1996 |title=Neptune's Gift |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0801854699}} * {{cite book |last1=Shahidi |first1=Fereidoon |last2=Shi |first2=John |last3=Ho |first3=Chi-Tang |title=Asian functional foods |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=2005 |isbn=0-8247-5855-2 |ref=harv}} {{Refend}} ;Other publications {{Sister project links|wikt=salt|commons=Salt|b=Cookbook:Salt|s=Littell's Living Age/Volume 4/Issue 34/Salt in Abyssinia|v=Extra info on food consumption#Salt/potassium intake|n=no|q=no}} {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal | last1 = Caldwell | first1 = J. 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H. | last2 = Ismail | first2 = A. I. | last3 = Pitts | first3 = N. B. | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60031-2 | title = Dental caries | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_january-6-12-2007_369_9555/page/51 | journal = The Lancet | volume = 369 | issue = 9555 | pages = 51–9 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17208642| pmc = | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Selwitz|Ismail|Pitts|2007}} --> * {{Cite journal | last1 = Strazzullo | first1 = P. | last2 = d'Elia | first2 = L. | last3 = Kandala | first3 = N. -B. | last4 = Cappuccio | first4 = F. P. | title = Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: Meta-analysis of prospective studies | doi = 10.1136/bmj.b4567 | journal = BMJ | volume = 339 | pages = b4567 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19934192| pmc =2782060 | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Strazzullo|d'Elia|Kandala|Cappuccio|2009}} --> * {{Cite journal | last1 = Vaidya | first1 = B. | last2 = Chakera | last3 = Pearce | doi = 10.2147/DDDT.S12894 | title = Treatment for primary hypothyroidism: Current approaches and future possibilities | journal = Drug Design, Development and Therapy | pages = 1–11 | year = 2011 | pmid = 22291465| pmc = 3267517| ref = harv | volume=6}} <!-- {{sfn|Vaidya|Chakera|Pearce|2011}} --> * {{Cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=Olivier |last2=Dumitroaia |first2=Gheorghe |url=http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/weller/ |title=The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania |journal=Antiquity |volume=79 |issue=306 |date=December 2005 |ref=harv }} * {{Cite conference |last1=Weller |first1=Olivier |last2=Brigand |first2=Robin |last3=Nuninger |first3=Laure |title=Spatial Analysis of Salt Springs Exploration in Moldavian Pre-Carpatic Prehistory (Romania) |conference=Spatial dynamics of settlement and natural resources: toward an integrated analysis over the long term from Prehistory to Middle Ages. University of Burgundy, Dijon, 23–25 June |publisher=ArchæDyn |year=2008 |url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/41/60/26/PDF/archaedyn2008_weller_brigand_etal.pdf |ref=harv }} * {{Cite book | last1 = Westphal | first1 = G. | last2 = Kristen | first2 = G. | last3 = Wegener | first3 = W. | last4 = Ambatiello | first4 = P. | last5 = Geyer | first5 = H. | last6 = Epron | first6 = B. | last7 = Bonal | first7 = C. | last8 = Steinhauser | first8 = G. | last9 = Götzfried | first9 = F. | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4 | chapter = Sodium Chloride | title = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | year = 2010 | isbn = 3527306730 | pmid = | pmc = | ref=harv}} <!-- {{sfn|Westphal|Kristen|Wegener|Ambatiello|2010}} --> {{Refend}} == External links == {{portal|Kulinér}} * [http://www.hagley.org/librarynews/introducing-carol-litchfield-collection-history-salt The Carol Litchfield Collection on the History of Salt], [[Hagley Museum and Library|Hagley Library]] [[Kategori : sambara]] rog6ibfck80ff0bjhhxkof8mjm8nvbm Indung suku 0 72978 712433 650648 2026-08-28T23:22:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712433 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo anatomi | Name = {{PAGENAME}} | Latin = Hallux; Digitus primus pedis | GraySubject = | GrayPage = | Image = Egyptian foot shape.png| Caption = Ramo pangjerona (kénca) nyaéta indung suku. | Precursor = | System = | Artery = | Vein = | Nerve = | Lymph = | MeshName = | MeshNumber = | }} '''Indung suku''' atawa '''jempol suku''' nyaéta ramo pangbadagna nu dina suku jalma. ari di [[tétrapoda]] mah indung suku téh mangrupa ramo pangjerona (médial). Di sawatara jalma mah indung suku téh lain mangrupa [[ramo]] pangjangkungna. Ari indung suku diitung minangka digitus I. Jalma nus sok [[nyékér]] atawa sok maké [[Sendal capit|sendal]] mah indung suku jeung [[ramo suku]] kaduana téh biasa anggang, teu cara nu sok maké [[sapatu]], indung suku jeung ramo suku kaduana téh padémpét. == Rasio ramo == {{utama|Rasio ramo}} Umumna indung suku jalma téh leuwih panjang batan ramo kadua. Ieu mangrupa ciri titilar dina [[manusa]], nu mana [[Génétika|gén]] [[Dominan (génétik)|dominan]] nyumebabkeun ramo kadua leuwih panjang ("[[ramo morton]]") sedengkeun génotipe homozigot résésif aya kalawan ciri nu leuwih umum: indung suku nu leuwih panjang.<ref>{{OMIM|189200|Toes&nbsp;— relative lengths of first and second}}</ref> Jalma nu kaserang panyakit génétik [[fibrodisplasia osifikans progresiva]] hasna mibanda indung suku pondok nu jiga tibalik ka tukang atawa médial. Dina [[manuk]] nu kaserang [[anisodaktili]] atawa [[heterodaktili]], ramo sukuna pahareup-hareup atawa malik ka tukang, sahingga ngamumkinkeun ngerewek jeung nyéngclé == Évolusi == Nalika [[jempol]] [[leungeun]] sok disebut minangka salah sahiji cap tawisan manusa, ramo leungeun tetep baé dianggap satengah primitif jeung sabenerna mah aya disakumna [[primata]]. Di manusa mah, cap ramo nu pangditurunkeunna mah nyaéta indung suku. <ref>{{cite journal | ref = harv | last1 = Lovejoy | first1 = C. Owen | last2 = Suwa | first2 = Gen | last3 = Simpson | first3 = Scott W. | last4 = Matternes | first4 = Jay H. | coauthors = White, Tim D. | title = The Great Divides: Ardipithecus ramidus Reveals the Postcrania of Our Last Common Ancestors with African Apes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-10-02_326_5949/page/102 | journal = Science | year = 2009 | month = October | volume = 326 | issue = 5949 | page = 102 | doi = 10.1126/science.1175833 }}</ref> == Patologi == Masalah umum patali jeung indung suku nyaéta kabentukna ''haluks valgus'' (ngagedéanna sendi indung suku). Dina ndung suku ogé panyakit nu paling mindeng eunteup téh nyaéta [[kékéongeun]] (kuku nu tumuwuh ka jero kulit sisieun kuku) jeung [[hihileudeun]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tempo ogé == * [[Podiatri]] * [[Kékéongeun]] == Pranala luar == * ''[http://www.ocpm.edu/hallux Textbook of Hallux Valgus and Forefoot Surgery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809120409/http://www.ocpm.edu/hallux/ |date=2011-08-09 }}'', teks lengkap online dalam format PDF [[Kategori:Anatomi]] [[Kategori:Ramo]] {{anatomi-stub}} tiymbywfv4eknmq3haeyxwo2pi5vp7r Hihileudeun 0 73001 712444 617912 2026-08-28T23:37:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712444 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo Panyakit | Name = Hihileudeun | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ær|ə|ˈ|n|ɪ|k|i|ə}}| Image = Paronychia.jpg | Caption = [[Dérmatologi]], [[ubar geuwat]]|| Field = [[Dérmatologi]], [[ubar geuwat]]| DiseasesDB = 9663 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|L|03|0|l|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|681.02}}, {{ICD9|681.11}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 001444 | eMedicineSubj = derm | eMedicineTopic = 798 | MeshID = D010304 | }} '''Hihileudeun''' (''paronychia'') nyaéta [[Kékéongeun|panyakit kuku]] nu mangrupa [[inféksi]] [[baktéri]] atawa [[hapur]] nu sok narajang kana [[kuku]] [[leungeun]] atawa kuku [[suku]], nu mana kuku jeung kulit patepung di gigir atawa puhu [[ramo]]. Inféksi bisa datang ujug-ujug (hihileudeun parna) atawa hihileudeun kronis.<ref name="pmid18297959">{{cite journal|date=February 2008|title=Acute and chronic paronychia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2008-02-01_77_3/page/339|journal=Am Fam Physician|volume=77|issue=3|pages=339–46|doi=|pmid=18297959|vauthors=Rigopoulos D, Larios G, Gregoriou S, Alevizos A}}</ref><ref name="pmid11277548">{{cite journal|author=Rockwell PG|date=March 2001|title=Acute and chronic paronychia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2001-03-15_63_6/page/1113|journal=Am Fam Physician|volume=63|issue=6|pages=1113–6|doi=|pmid=11277548}}</ref> Istilah hihileudeun téh meureun asalna mah dipaké pikeun nyebutkeun kaayaan kuku atawa kulit ramo nu hideung kawas hileud atawa méh sarupa jeung hileud. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Panyakit kuku]] [[Kategori:Panyakit]] fu7o9v96hly8285eal2si5lz4qnfqvy Tatu 0 73003 712382 536540 2026-08-28T22:18:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo Panyakit | Name = Tatu | Image = Xraymachine.JPG | alt = | Caption = [[Tuur]] jelema nu [[misalah]] keur diriksa ku [[radiologi]]. | field = | DiseasesDB = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|S00}}-{{ICD10|T88}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|800}}-{{ICD9|999}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = | MeSH =D014947 | GeneReviewsNBK = | GeneReviewsName = }} '''Tatu''' ({{Lang-id|luka}}; {{Lang-en|injury}}) nyaéta tapak gedé dina [[Anatomi manusa|anggahota awak]] nu dibalukarkeun ku [[pakarang]], [[Bedil|kabedil]], kasogok, keuna ku barang-barang teuas, lantaran [[cilaka]] séjén nepi ka baloboran [[getih]], buncunur, potong tulang, gudawang atawa nyéréngéh.<ref name="kamus">{{cite book|url=|title=Kamus Basa Sunda R.A. Danadibrata|last=Danadibrata|first=R.A.|date=1 Desember 2009|publisher=Kiblat Buku Utama|isbn=9793631937|location=Bandung|page=234}}</ref> ==Jenis umum== * [[Kaduruk]] nyaéta tatu nu dibalukarkeun ku barang nu panas atawa seuneu sacara langsung. * [[Misalah]] atau dislokasi sendi, tatu dina [[sendi]]. * [[Potong tulang]] atawa fraktur, tatu dina [[tulang]]. * [[Raheut]] mangrupa tatu dina kulit nu ngabalukarkeun baloboran getih atawa lécét. * [[Geuneuk]] nyaéta getih wuwung dina jeroeun kulit, katémbongna kulit téh jadi wungu. * [[Bareuh]] nyaéta ngabadaganna bagéan awak lantaran kapeupeuh atawa kacongcong. == Klasifikasi == [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya]] (WHO) mengembangkan klasifikasi médis [[International Classification of External Causes of Injury|''International Classification of External Causes of Injury'']] (ICECI). Dina ieu sistim, tatu diklasifikasikeun dumasar: * mékanismei tatu; * banda / zat nu nyumebabkeun tatu; * tempat kajadianna; * aktivitas nalika tatu; * peran tujuan manusa; * jeung modul tambahan. Ieu kodeu-kodeu ngamumkinkeun idéntifikasi distribusi tatu dina populasi tinangtu jeung idéntifikasi kasus pikeun panalungtikan nu leuwih wincik ngeunaan panyabab sarta upaya panyegahan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/adaptations/iceci/en/|title=International Classification of External Causes of Injury (ICECI)|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|accessdate=2014-03-24}}</ref><ref>Robertson, LS (2015) Injury Epidemiology: Fourth Edition. Free online at www.nanlee.net</ref> Biro Statistik Tanaga Kerja Amérika Sarikat ngembangkeun Sistim Klasifikasi Kacilakaan Kerja jeung Penyakit (OIICS). Dina ieu sistem tatu, diklasifikasikeun dumasar: * alam, * bagéan awak nu keuna, * sumber utama jeung sumber sékunder, * acara atawa éksposur OIICS mimiti dipedal taun [[1992]] sarta geus diperbarukeun sababaraha kali ti saprak dipedalna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwn.cdc.gov/wisards/oiics/|title=Occupational Injury and Illness Classification System|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|accessdate=2014-03-24}}</ref> ''Orchard Sports Injury Classification System'' (OSICS) mah dipaké pikeun nglasifikasikeun tatu nu ngamumkinkeun panalungtikan ngeunaan tatu dina widang [[olahraga]] tinangtu.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rae|first1=K|last2=Orchard|first2=J|date=May 2007|title=The Orchard Sports Injury Classification System (OSICS) version 10|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-journal-of-sport-medicine_2007-05_17_3/page/201|journal=Clin J Sport Med.|volume=17|issue=3|pages=201–4|doi=10.1097/jsm.0b013e318059b536|pmid=17513912}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Tatu]] 80ypyfa3tznvbme1cb90bf16oqp77k5 Gelas kertas 0 73062 712422 711597 2026-08-28T23:10:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712422 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Paper cup DS.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas polos]] [[File:Insulated paper cup cutaway.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Gelas kertas nu dilapisan pikeun ngawadahan cipanas, nu gelasna geus disoéhkeun]] '''Gelas kertas''' nyaéta [[gelas sakali paké]] nu dijieun tina bahan [[kertas]], ari biasana mah sok dilapisan ogé ku palastik pikeun ngajaga si cairanna téh henteu miis atawa nyerep kana kertasna.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://innsupplies.com/disposable/paper-cups |title=Takeaway Cups For Hot Drinks |publisher=innsupplies.com|accessdate=2015-02-19}}</ref><ref>Kennedy, Garry: [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html Dixie Cup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207050741/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/apollo.glossary.html |date=2016-12-07 }} entry, Apollo Glossary, NASA. Retrieved 2012-02-06.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.toiletpaperworld.com/tpw/product.asp?strSku=SCC+P510J&bShowSkuGroup=true|title=Paper Products & Dispensers |publisher=Toiletpaperworld.com|accessdate=2007-06-09}}</ref> Ieu gelas kertas téh meureun baé aya nu dijieunna tina [[kertas daur ulang]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Wind Makes Food Retailers Greener|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060211/food.asp|publisher=Science News|date=2006-02-11|last=Raloff|first=Janet}}</ref> jeung deuih ieu gelas geus lumbrah dipaké di sakuliah dunya. ==Sajarah== Gelas kertas geus kacatet ti keur mangsa [[kakaisaran Cina]], nu mana kertas kapanggih dina abad ka-2 SM.<ref name="Tsien">{{Cite journal |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |authorlink=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |series=Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume= 5 part 1|title=Paper and Printing|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|page=38}}</ref> Gelas kertas dipikawanoh minangka ''chih pei'' jeung dipakéna téh pikeun nyicikeun ci [[entéh]].<ref name="Paper and Printing"/> Ieu gelas téh dijieun dina rupa-rupa ukurang jeung warna-warni, sarta dihias ku desain dékoratif. Bukti tékstual gelas kertas bijil dina déskripsi ngeunaan harta milik kulawarga Yu, ti kota [[Hangzhou]].<ref name="Paper and Printing">{{cite book|title=Science and Civilisation in China: Paper and Printing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx-9mS6Aa4wC&pg=PA122|year=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-08690-5|author=Joseph Needham|page=122|quote=At this time téa was served from baskets made of rushes which held... a set of several tens of paper cups (chih pei) in different sizes and colors with delicate designs}}</ref> Gelas kertas modérn dikembangkeun dina [[abad ka-20]]. Awal abad ka-20 geus guyub pikeun silih babagi cai tina sumber cai [[keran]] di sekolah atawa di tong cai dina [[karéta api]]. Pamakéan babarengan kieu téh nyumebabkeun masalah kaséhatan masarakat. Salah sahiji hal nu disidik-sidik téh nu pentingna mah nyaéta hasil studi ku Alvin Davison, profesor biologi di Lafayette College, nu dipedal kalawan judul "''Death in School Drinking Cups''" di Majalah Technical World dina bulan [[Agustus]] [[1908]], dumasar panalungtikan nu dipilampahna di éaston, di sakola umum Pennsylvania. Éta artikel dicitak deui jeung didistribusikeun ku Massachusetts State Board of Héalth dina bulan [[Nopémber]] [[1909]].<ref name=Dixie>{{cite web|url=http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html|title=Dixie Cup Company History|publisher=Lafayette College Libraries|date=August 1995}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112065042/http://academicmuseum.lafayette.edu/special/dixie/company.html |date=2011-11-12 }}</ref> Based on these concerns, and as paper goods (especially after the 1908 invention of the Dixie Cup) became chéaply and cléanly available, local bans were passed on the shared-use cup. One of the first railway companies to use disposable paper cups was the [[Lackawanna Railroad]], which began using them in 1909. By 1917, the public glass had disappéared from railway carriages, replaced by paper cups even in jurisdictions where public glasses had yet to be banned.<ref>{{White-Passenger-1985|volume=2|page=432}}</ref> Paper cups are also employed in hospitals for héalth réasons. In 1942 the Massachusetts State College found in one study that the cost of using washable glasses, re-used after being sanitized, was 1.6 times the cost of using single-service paper cups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.lww.com/ajnonline/Citation/1942/02000/Uses_for_Paper_Cups_and_Containers.11.aspx|title=Uses for Paper Cups and Containers|author=Beulah France|journal=The American Journal of Nursing|volume=42|issue=2|date=February 1942|pages=154–156|doi=10.2307/3416163|jstor=3416163}}</ref> These studies, as well as the reduction in the risk of cross-infection, encouraged the use of paper cups in hospitals. ===Dixie cups=== {{redirect|Dixie cup|the type of naval headgear|Sailor cap|the band|The Dixie Cups}} Dixie Cup is the [[brand name]] for a line of disposable paper cups that were first developed in the United States in 1907 by Lawrence Luellen, a lawyer in [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], who was concerned about germs being spréad by péople sharing glasses or dippers at public supplies of drinking water. Luellen developed an ice-cooled water-[[vending machine]] with disposable cups,<ref name=Dixie /> and with another Bostonian, [[Hugh Moore (businessman)|Hugh Moore]], embarked on an [[advertising campaign]] to educate the public and to market his machine, principally to railroad companies. Professor Davison's study was instrumental in abolishing the public glass and opening the door for the paper cup. Soon, the devices, which would dispense cool water for one cent, became standard equipment on trains. [[File:Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pa (66342).jpg|thumb|Dixie Cup Company, Easton, Pennsylvania]] The Dixie Cup was first called "Health Kup", but from 1919 it was named after a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindler's Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to call itself the Dixie Cup Corporation and move to a factory in [[Wilson, Pennsylvania]]. Atop the factory was a large water tank in the shape of a cup.<ref>[http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg Former Dixie Cup Factory, Wilson, Pa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204642/http://media.lehighvalleylive.com/easton_impact/photo/11646305-large.jpg |date=2016-03-03 }} (photograph)</ref> In 1957, Dixie merged with the [[American Can Company]]. The [[James River Corporation]] purchased American Can's paper business in 1982. The assets of James River are now part of [[Georgia-Pacific]], a subsidiary of [[Koch Industries]], the second largest privately owned company in the United States. In 1983, production moved to a modérn factory in Forks, Pennsylvania. The original factory in Wilson has sat vacant ever since. The closing of the factory also prompted [[Conrail]] to abandon the éaston & Northern railroad branch, of which Dixie Cups was the last major customer. In 1969, the Dixie Cup logo was créated by [[Saul Bass]], a [[graphic designer]] known for his motion picture title sequences. The [[coupon collector's problem]] is sometimes called the Dixie cup problem. ==Pabrik== [[File:Dixie Cup 20090904.jpg|thumb|right|200px| The world's largest "paper" cup in front of what was once the Lily-Tulip manufacturing company, later [[Sweetheart (company)|Sweetheart Cup Company]].<ref>[http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm Lily-Tulip Cup Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609165420/http://thelibrary.springfield.missouri.org/lochist/postcards/lily-tulip_cup_corporation.cfm |date=2010-06-09 }}, Springfield-Greene County Library, Springfield, Missouri</ref> Made of poured concrete, the cup stands about {{convert|68.1|ft}} tall.]]The base paper for paper cups is called "cup board", and is made on special multi-ply [[paper machine]]s. It has a barrier coating for waterproofing. The paper needs high stiffness and strong [[wet strength|wet sizing]]. The cup board grade has a special design for the cup manufacturing processes. The mouth roll forming process requires good elongation properties of the board and the plastic coating. A well formed mouth roll provides stiffness and handling properties in the cup. The basis weights of the cup boards are 170–350 g/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="PST">{{cite book |last1=Savolainen|first1=Antti|authorlink1= |last2= |first2= |editor1-first= |editor1-last= |editor1-link= |others= |title=Paper and Paperboard Converting|url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Papermaking Science and Technology |volume=12 |date= |month= |year= 1998|publisher= Fapet OY|location=Finland |isbn=952-5216-12-8 |oclc= |doi= |id= |page= |pages= 170–172|chapter=6 |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= |bibcode= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp=}}</ref> To meet hygiene requirements, paper cups are generally manufactured from virgin (non-recycled) materials.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} The one exception to this is when the paper cup féatures an extra insulating layer for héat retention, which never comes into contact with the beverage, such as a corrugated layer wrapped around a single-wall cup. ===Tahan cai=== Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard. Cups for cold drinks could not be tréated in the same way, as condensation forms on the outside, then soaks into the board, making the cup unstable. To remedy this, cup manufacturers developed the technique of spraying both the inside and outside of the cup with wax. Clay- and wax-coated cups disappéared with the invention of [[polyethylene]] (PE)-coated cups; this process covers the surface of the board with a very thin layer of PE, waterproofing the board and welding the séams together. In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.<ref name="yle.fi">{{cite news|title=Suomalainen yritys teki sen – kahvin, rasvan ja oluen kestävät muovittomat ihmepahvit lähtevät maailmalle: "Kiinnostus on valtavaa"|trans-title=A Finnish company made it - plastic-free miracle board that can withstand coffee, fat and beer: "We have received huge interest"|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9717592|accessdate=1 September 2017|agency=YLE}}</ref> in 2017, the Newport Béach CA company [http://www.smartplanettech.com/ Smart Planet Technologies], launched "[https://www.recup.earth/ reCUP]" for the UK market, a recyclable paper cup using a polyethylene and mineral-blended coating, that is engineered to be recycled through traditional paper recycling systems.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/markets/coffee-and-paper-cups/smart-planet-technologies-commercially-launches-recup-uk-05-12-2017|title=Smart Planet Technologies commercially launches reCUP in UK|date=2017-12-05|work=Packaging News|access-date=2018-01-06|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Printing on paper cups=== Originally paper cups were printed using rubber blocks mounted on cylinders, with a different cylinder for éach colour. Registration across different colours was very difficult, but later [[flexographic|flexography]] plates became available and with the use of mounting systems it became éasier to register across the colours, allowing for more complex designs. Printing flexographic has become idéal for long runs and manufacturers generally use this method when producing over a million cups. Machines such as [[Comexi Group|Comexi]] are used for this, which have been adapted to take the extra large reels that are required by paper cup manufacturers. Ink technology has also changed and where [[solvent]]-based inks were being used, water-based inks are instéad being utilised. One of the side effects of solvent-based inks is that hot drink cups in particular can smell of solvent, wheréas water-based inks have eliminated this problem. Other methods of printing have been used for short runs such as [[offset printing]], which can vary from anything from 10,000 to 100,000 cups. Offset printing inks have also been developed and although in the past these were solvent based, the latest [[Soy ink|soya-based inks]] have reduced the danger of cups smelling. The latest development is '''Direct-printing''', which allows printing on very small quantities, typically from 1,000 cups, and is used by companies including [[Brendos ltd]] offering small quantities in short léad times. [[Rotogravure]] can also be used, but this is extremely expensive and is normally only utilised for items requiring extremely high quality printing like ice créam containers. ==Balukar lingkungan== ===Daur ulang=== Most paper cups are designed for a single use and then disposal. Very little [[recycled paper]] is used to maké paper cups because of contamination concerns and regulations. Since most paper cups are [[plastic coating|coated with plastic]] (polyethylene), then both composting and recycling of paper cups is uncommon because of the difficulty in separating the polyethylene in the recycling process of said cups. As of 2016, there are only two facilities in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] able to properly recycle PE-coated cups; in the absence of such facilities, the cups are taken to landfill or incinerated. A UK-based business group [[James Cropper (company)|James Cropper]] have developed the world’s first facility for the effective recycling of the estimated 2.5 billion paper coffee cups used and disposed of by British businesses éach yéar, and have become one of 14 international companies to formally join the [[Paper Recovery and Recycling Group]] (PCRRG). James Cropper's Reclaimed Fibre Facility was opened by HM The Queen in July 2013, and recovers both the plastic and paper from the cups; ensuring nothing is wasted from the recycling process.<ref name="pcuc"/> Although paper cups are made from renewable resources (wood chips 95% by weight), paper products in a landfill might not decompose, or can reléase [[methane]], if decomposed [[anaerobic digestion|anaerobically]]. A [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach, CA]] company, Smart Planet Technologies has developed a process for modifying the polyethylene coating on paper cups and folding cartons so they are engineered for recyclability. [[Orange Coast College]] in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa, CA]] has begun a program to use cups made with this technology to capture and sell the fibers to fund scholarships for their students.<ref>http://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/tn-dpt-me-occ-cups-20160809-story.html</ref> In 2017, the Finnish board manufacturer [http://www.kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards Kotkamills] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323050158/http://kotkamills.com/en/products/consumerboards |date=2018-03-23 }} launched a new kind of cup (food service) board which uses no wax or plastic for waterproofing, and thus can be recycled as part of the normal paper and board waste stréam, [[Biodegradation|biodegraded]], or even [[compost]]ed in small quantities.<ref name="yle.fi"/> The manufacture of paper usually requires [[inorganic chemical]]s and créates water [[effluent]]s. Paper cups may consume more non-renewable resources than cups made of [[polystyrene foam]] (whose only significant effluent is [[pentane]]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Management Accounting: The Cornerstone of Business Decisions|url=https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1|author1=Don R. Hansen |author2=Maryanne M. Mowen |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005|publisher=Thomson South-Western|isbn=0-324-23484-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/managementaccoun0000hans_s4d1/page/503 503]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services: An Input-output Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend|author1=Chris T. Hendrickson |author2=Lester B. Lave |author3=H. Scott Matthews |last-author-amp=yes |year=2006|publisher=Resources for the Future|isbn=1-933115-23-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/environmentallif0000hend/page/5 5]}}</ref> ===Kertas vs palastik=== A [[life cycle inventory]] of a comparison of paper vs plastic cups shows environmental effects of both with no cléar winner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hocking |first=M. B. |title=Paper Versus Polystyrene: A Complex Choice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1991-02-01_251_4993/page/504 |journal=Science |volume=251 |issue=4993n |pages=504–5 |date=1 February 1991 |doi=10.1126/science.251.4993.504 |pmid=17840849}}</ref> [[Polyethylene]] (PE) is a petroleum-based coating on paper cups that can slow down the process of [[biodegradation|biodegrading]] of the paper it coats. [[Polylactic acid]] (PLA) is a [[Biodegradable plastic|biodegradable bio-plastic]] coating used on some paper cups. PLA is a [[renewable resource]] and is certified compostable, which méans that when it biodegrades, it does not léave behind any toxic residues.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting| title=Composting| accessdate=2013-10-15}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205305/http://www.natureworksllc.com/The-Ingeo-Journey/End-of-Life-Options/Composting |date=2013-10-29 }}</ref> Although PLA-lined cups are the only paper cups which can be composted fully, they can contaminate the waste stréam, reportedly making other recycled plastics unsaléable.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/apr/26/waste.pollution |title=Sustainable bio-plastic can damage the environment |accessdate=2017-06-21}}</ref> All paper cups can only be recycled at a specialised tréatment facility regardless of the lining.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.save-a-cup.co.uk/paper_cups.php |title=Paper Cup Recycling |accessdate=2012-02-01}}</ref> A number of cities – including [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Oregon]] — have banned [[Polystyrene#Extruded polystyrene foam|XPS foam]] cups in take-out and fast food restaurants.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.portlandmercury.com/portland/Content?oid=29552&category=34029 |title=The Coming Cup-tastrophe |last=Helfrich |first=M. William |last2=Sanders |first2=Justin Wescoat |date=2003-08-13 |publisher=The Portland Mercury}}</ref> ===Émisi=== A study of one paper coffee cup with sleeve (16 ounce) shows that the [[carbon dioxide emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]] is about {{convert|0.11|kilogram}} per cup with sleeve – including paper from trees, materials, production and shipping.<ref name="aei">{{cite web |title=Report of the Alliance for Environmental Innovation |url=http://www.edf.org/documents/523_starbucks.pdf |publisher=edf.com |accessdate=Feb 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920012738/https://business.edf.org//files/2014/03/starbucks-report-april2000.pdf |date=September 20, 2015 }}</ref> ===Ngurangan habitat tatangkalan=== The [[habitat loss]] from one 16 ounce paper coffee cup with a sleeve is estimated to be 0.09 square meters (0.93 square feet).{{dubious|date=June 2016}}<ref>{{cite web |title=ecological effects of a paper cup |url=http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |publisher=ecofx.org |accessdate=February 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809164818/http://ecofx.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_cup |date=August 9, 2010 }}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}} Over 6.5 million trees were cut down to maké 16 billion paper coffee cups used by U.S. in 2006, using {{convert|4|e9USgal|m3}} of water and resulting in {{convert|253|e6lb|kg}} of waste. Overall, US Americans use 58% of all paper cups worldwide, amounting to 130 billion cups.<ref name="pcuc">{{cite web |title=Paper Cups = Unsustainable Consumption |url=http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |publisher=aboutmyplanet.com |accessdate=February 6, 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606213828/http://www.aboutmyplanet.com/environment/paper-unsustainable/ |date=June 6, 2008 }}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}}<ref name=Spitzer2009>{{cite web |last=Spitzer |first=Nina |title=The impact of disposable coffee cups on the environment |url=http://www.sheknows.com/living/articles/810025/the-impact-of-disposable-coffee-cups-on-the-environment |accessdate=21 November 2012}}</ref>{{rs|date=June 2016}} ==Tutup== [[File:Hot Stopper in the lid of a paper coffee cup with a cardboard sleeve.jpeg |thumb|upright|A paper coffee cup with a plastic lid and "splash stick"]] Paper cups may have various types of lids. The paper cups that are used as containers for yogurt, for example, generally have two types of lids: a plastic press-on, reséalable, lid used for large "family size" containers, {{convert|250-1000|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}, where not all of the yogurt may be consumed at any one time and thus the ability to re-close the container is required and héat-séal [[tin foil|foil]] lids used for small "single serving" containers, {{convert|150-200|ml|usfloz|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Yoghurt: science and technology|url=https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami|author1=Adman Y. Tamime |author2=Richard K. Robinson |lastauthoramp=yes |year=1999|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|isbn=1-85573-399-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/yoghurtsciencete0000tami/page/97 97]}}</ref> Hot drinks sold in paper cups may come with a plastic lid, to keep the drink hot and prevent spillage. These lids have a hole through which the drink can be sipped. The plastic lids can have many féatures including peel back tabs, raised walls to protect the foam of gourmet hot drinks and embossed text.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/05/the-rise-of-the-plastic-disposable-coffee-cup-lid/238573/ | title=The Rise of the Plastic, Disposable Coffee Cup Lid | publisher=The Atlantic | date=9 May 2011 | accessdate=3 March 2017}}</ref> In 2008, [[Starbucks]] introduced shaped plastic "splash sticks" to block the hole, in some of their stores, after customer complaints about hot coffee splashing through it.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/advertising/adtrack/2008-04-13-ad-track_N.htm | title=Starbucks splash stick says no to sploshing | publisher=USA Today | date=14 March 2008 | accessdate=21 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/ct-starbucks-little-green-sticks-mystery-solved-20160311-column.html | title=Solving the mystery of Starbucks little green sticks | publisher=Chicago Tribune | date=11 March 2016 | accessdate=21 April 2016 | author=Johnson, Steve}}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== *[[Complong]] *[[Gelas palastik]] ==Rujukan== === Cutatan === {{Reflist|2}} === Bibliografi === {{commons category|Paper cups}} * {{cite book|title=Chinese Paper Folding for Beginners|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon|author=Maying Soong|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chinesepaperfold0000soon/page/6 6]–7|year=2002|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=0-486-41806-5}} – how to maké a paper cup out of a square of paper using [[origami]] * [http://www.mathematische-basteleien.de/cup.htm A mathematically annotated folding instruction for paper cups] * {{cite journal|title=Relative merits of polystyrene foam and paper in hot drink cups: Implications for packaging|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=15|issue=6|date=November 1991|doi=10.1007/BF02394812|pages=731–747|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/b55256333584v60n/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite journal|title=Reusable and disposable cups: An energy-based evaluation|journal=Environmental Management|publisher=Springer New York|volume=18|issue=6|date=November 1994|doi=10.1007/BF02393618|pages=889–899|author=Martin B. Hocking|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/c275588280002wp8/}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book|title=Why Didn't I Think of That? : Bizarre Origins of Ingenious Inventions We Couldn't Live Without|url=https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free|author1=Allyn Freeman |author2=Bob Golden |lastauthoramp=yes |chapter=Little Dipper|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whydidntithinkof00free/page/183 183]–184|year=1997|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=0-471-16511-5}} – the Dixie Cup [[Kategori:Wadah cairan]] [[Kategori:Gelas]] [[Kategori:Produk kertas]] [[Kategori:Kertas]] [[Kategori:Produk sakali paké]] c4h36df4b27gksvl6lpeugc0trerymx Ki ciat 0 73357 712395 697951 2026-08-28T22:32:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712395 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | image = Fic septic 141115-0338 ipb.JPG | image_width = 270px | image_caption = Ki ciyat, ''Ficus septica'' <br>di Darmaga, [[Bogor]] | regnum = [[Plantae]] | unranked_divisio = [[Angiospermae]] | unranked_classis = [[Eudikotil]] | unranked_ordo = [[Rosidae]] | ordo = [[Rosales]] | familia = [[Moraceae]] | genus = ''[[Ficus]]'' | subgenus = ''Sycomorus'' | section = ''Sycocarpus'' | species = '''''F. septica''''' | binomial = ''Ficus septica'' | binomial_authority = [[Nicolaas Laurens Burman|Burm.f.]], 1768<ref>{{aut|[[Nicolaas Laurens Burman|Burman, N.L.]]}} 1768. [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/123275#page/466/mode/1up ''Flora Indica: cui accedit series zoophytorum Indicorum, nec non prodromus florae Capensis'': 226.] Amstelaedami :Apud Johannem Schreuderum ;1768.</ref> | synonyms= {{Collapsible list | {{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | * ''Ficus verrucosa'' * ''Ficus leucantatoma'' * ''Ficus venosa'' * ''Ficus leucopleura'' * ''Ficus leucosticta'' * ''Ficus rapiformis'' * ''Ficus radiata'' * ''Ficus hauilii'' * ''Covellia stictocarpa'' * ''Ficus geminifolia'' * ''Ficus oldhamii'' * ''Ficus philippinensis'' * ''Ficus casearia'' * ''Ficus didymophylla'' * ''Ficus laxiramea'' * ''Ficus kaukauensis'' * ''Ficus brunea'' * ''Ficus linearis'' * ''Ficus laccifera'' }} }} }} '''Ki ciyat''' atawa '''ki ciat''' ('''''Ficus septica''''') nyaéta [[tutuwuhan]] nu asalna tina kulawarga [[Moraceae]], kalawan masih kénéh barayana [[tangkal]] [[caringin]].<ref name="Buku1">{{Cite book|title =Buku Pintar Tanaman Obat: 431 jenis tanaman penggempur aneka penyakit| last= Damayanti| first= Dewi| coauthors =dr Prapti utami, Novi Widianti, Nina Wulandari, Agung Sugiarto, Tinton Dwi Putra| year= 2008|page=63|location=Jakarta| publisher=AgroMedia| isbn=9789790061941|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=iO0ldwKoXvQC&pg=PA21&dq=bawang+batak+khasiat&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinj4f98pXvAhVYAXIKHSO8B40Q6AEwAXoECAUQAg#v=onepage&q=bawang%20batak%20khasiat&f=false}}</ref> <ref name=Nuttige/> Kasebut tatangkalan liar (henteu ngahaja dipelak), tangkalna [[ngarungkun]] teupati gedé, remen katempo hirup di sisi [[leuweung]], sisi [[wahangan]], [[tegal]]an, sisi [[gunung]], jeung tempat séjéna.<ref name=Nuttige/> Lamun seug pites atawa katurih, tangkal ki ciyat sok ngaluarkeun [[geutah]] kelirna [[bodas]] semu [[konéng]].<ref name=Lin11/> Ieu geutah sok dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran [[raheut]] sarta panyakit kulit séjena, nyeri [[beuteung]], kitu deui weureu (''keracunan''), geutah tangkal ki ciyat aya disakabéh bagéan [[tangkal]], [[daun]], jeung [[akar]]na.<ref name=Nuttige/><ref name=”Flo”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=cjnqDwAAQBAJ&lpg=PT115&dq=pohon%20bingbin&hl=id&pg=PT116#v=onepage&q=pohon%20bingbin&f=false| title =Flora dan Fauna Cagar Alam Leuweung Sancang| last =Abdul| first =Haris Mustari| publisher =Aditya dwigumelar| location =Jakarta| year =2019|ISBN=9786024408046|pages =108}} Disungsi4 Januari 2021</ref> Ki ciyat sok disebut ogé kuciat mibanda ngaran [[daérah]] nubéda, saperti: urang [[Jawa]] nyebutna ''awar-awar'', di [[Bali]] disebutna tangkal ''bar-abar'', urang [[Ambon]] nyebutna ''sirih popar'', urang [[Bugis]] nyebutna ''dausalo'', di [[Makasar]] disebut ''tobo-tobo'', Urang [[Ternaté]], minahasa nyebutna ''tagalolo''.<ref name=Nuttige>{{aut|[[Karel Heyne|Heyne, K.]]}}. 1987. ''Tumbuhan Berguna Indonesia'' '''II''': 695-6. Badan Litbang Kehutanan, Departemen Kehutanan. Jakarta. (versi berbahasa [[Belanda]] [http://archive.org/stream/denuttigeplanten02heyn#page/68/mode/2up -1916- '''2''':68-9; sebagai ''Ficus leucantatoma'' Poir.])</ref><ref name=”M. ”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=wXsADgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75&dq=daun+Pandanus+Furcatus&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw3-Smi5bXAhXHPY8KHVzvCeQQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=daun%20Pandanus%20Furcatus&f=false| title =Kamus Penyakit dan Tumbuhan Obat IndonesiaM. Sangat, Ervizal A. M. Zuhud, Ellyn K. Damayanti| last =M. Sangat, Ervizal A. M. Zuhud, Ellyn K. Damayanti| first =Harini | publisher =Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia| location =Jakarta| year =2018|ISBN=9786024331283|pages =75}} Disungsi19 .Juni 2022</ref> == Ciri mandiri == [[Gambar:Fic septic 141115-0339 ipb.JPG|jmpl|kiri|180px|Pucuk daun ki ciyat]] [[Tangkal]]na ngarungkun, ajeg, jangkungna 1-5 [[meter|m]]<ref name=steenis/>, sanajan kitu ieu ki ciyat nu hirup dileuweungmah jangkungna bisa nepika 25 [[Meter|m]].<ref name=bergcorner05>{{cite book|author=Berg, C.C. & Corner E.J.H.|year=2005|title= Flora Malesiana|chapter=Moraceae|series=I|volume=17|issue=6|isbn= 1-930723-40-7}}</ref>. Regang jeung tangkalna buleud, kelirna héjo, di jero aya haténa (bagéan nu kosong) utamana numasih kénéh ngora kawas tangkal [[kaliki]].<ref name=steenis>{{aut|[[Cornelis Gijsbert Gerrit Jan van Steenis|van Steenis, C.G.G.J.]]}} 1981. Flora, untuk sekolah di Indonesia. PT Pradnya Paramita. Jakarta. Hal. 177.</ref> [[Daun]]a rubak gedéna 9-30 × 9–16 [[cm]] semu buleud, mencos ka tungtungna.<ref name=steenis/> Dauna bijil tina régang, sapasang (pasanghareup-sanghareup), panjang cupat daun 2,5-5 [[sentimeter|cm]]. Kelirna héjo kolot, mibanda tulang daun semu bodas lobana 6-12 tulang, tungtung dauna rata.<ref name=steenis/> [[Buah]]na ngaranggeuy, dina saranggeuy aya 3~4 aya ogé buahna nu ngan sacupat.<ref name=steenis/> Cupatna pondok, kalawan mibanda daun ''pelindung'' kelirna héjo ngora aya ogé nu héjo kolot.<ref name=steenis/> == Tempat hirup atawa ékologi == [[Gambar:Fic septic 141115-0346 ipb.JPG|jmpl|kiri|180px|Buah ki ciyat]] Ki ciyat loba kapanggih hirup ti mimiti pulo [[Ryukyu]] [[kalér]] , [[Taiwan]], [[Pulo-pulo Solomon]] nepika [[Vanuatu]], sarta [[Queensland]] di [[Australia]] beulah kalér.<ref name=Prosea12/> Tangkal ki ciyat remen katempo hirup di sisi leuweung, dina sagala kaayaan [[taneuh]] ti imimiti 1800 m dpl.<ref name=Prosea12>{{aut|Rojo, J.P., F.C. Pitargue, & M.S.M. Sosef}}. 1999. ''Ficus'' L. <u>in</u> Padua, L.S., N. Bunyapraphatsara, & R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Eds.) ''Plant Resources of South-East Asia'' '''12'''(1) - Medicinal and poisonous plants 1: 288. Prosea Foundation, Bogor.</ref> Sakapeung katembong hirup sisi [[jalan]], sisi [[susukan]], tegalan .<ref name=steenis/> ''Ficus septica'' kembangna sok di eunteupan nyiruan ku [[spesies]] [[agonid]] tina [[genus|marga]] ''[[Ceratosolen]]''.<ref name=Lin11/> nu mana ieu nyiruan tara eunteup dina sambarangan tangkal, malahan aya [[spesies]] ''Ficus'' nu sok dieunteupan ngan ku saspesies nyiruan wungkul.<ref name=Lin11/> Pikeun spesies ''Ficus septica'', kanyahoan sok dieunteupan ku tilu spesies nyiruan, hasil panalungtikan nudiayakeun di Taiwan kidul<ref name=Lin11>{{cite journal|author=Lin, R.-C., Yeung, C.K.-L., Fong, J.J., Tzeng, H.-Y. & Li, S.-H.|year=2011|title= The lack of pollinator specificity in a dioecious fig tree: sympatric fig-pollinating wasps of ''Ficus septica'' in southern Taiwan |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biotropica_2011-03_43_2/page/200|journal= Biotropica |volume= 43|pages= 200-07|doi=10.1111/j.1744-7429.2010.00686.x}}</ref> sarta dua spesies di [[Filipina]].<ref name=Conchou14>{{cite journal|author=L. Conchou, L. Cabioch, L. J. V. Rodriguez, F. Kjellberg|year=2014|title= Daily rhythm of mutualistic pollinator activity and scent emission in ''Ficus septica'': Ecological differentiation between co-occurring pollinators and potential consequences for chemical communication and facilitation of host speciation |journal= PLoS ONE |volume= 9|pages=e103581|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0103581}}</ref> Sagigireun dieunteupan nyiruan, buah ki ciyat ogé jadi kadaharan pikeun 22 [[spesies]] sato, 14 spesiesna tayalian ti [[lalay]]. [[Lalay]] nu sok ngakan bungbuahan atawa [[codot]] (''Megachiroptera'') ogé mangrupa ''vektor'' pikeun nyebarna siki tangkal Ki ciyat ka tempat séjén nu leuwih jauh.<ref name=Shanahan01>{{cite journal|author=Shanahan, M.; Compton, S. G.; So, S. & Corlett, R.|year=2001|title= Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review |journal= Biological Reviews |volume= 76|issue=4|pages= 529-72|doi=10.1017/S1464793101005760|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20091026232430/http://us.geocities.com/mikeshanahan/figglobalreview.pdf PDF fulltext|pmid=11762492}}</ref> [[Spesies]] lalay nu sok ngakan buah ki ciyat, tayalian: {{Div col | colwidth= 300px }} * ''[[Cyclopsitta diophthalma]]'' * ''[[Ptilinopus]]'' * ''[[Oriolus chinensis]]'' * ''[[Phalanger orientalis]]'' * ''[[Phalanger vestitus]]'' * ''[[Spilocuscus maculatus]]'' * ''[[Colobus guereza]]'' * ''[[Rattus rattus]]'' * ''[[Cynopterus brachyotis]]'' * ''[[Cynopterus horsfieldii]]'' * ''[[Cynopterus sphinx]]'' * ''[[Cynopterus titthaecheilus]]'' * ''[[Dobsonia moluccense]]'' * ''[[Dobsonia minor]]'' * ''[[Macroglossus minimus]]'' * ''[[Macroglossus sobrinus]]'' * ''[[Nyctimene aello]]'' * ''[[Nyctimene albiventer]]'' * ''[[Ptenochirus jagori]]'' * ''[[Rousettus amplexicaudatus]]'' * ''[[Syconycteris australis]]'' {{Div col end}} == Mangpaat == [[Geutah]]na, dipercaya mibanda hasiat pikeun ngubaran rupa-rupa kasakit.<ref name=Prosea12/> Di [[Filipina]], daunna dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran [[rematik]], ogé pikeun ''ngarangsang'' kaluarna késang (''sudorifika'') pikeun ngurangan kasakit nyeri [[sirah]]. Getahna peuheur/tajam, bisa ngabalukarkeun bisul lamun seug keuna kana kulit.<ref name=aut/> Tapi bisa ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran [[herpes]], [[kurap]] atawa panyakit [[kulit]] séjénna nu geus hésé diubaran.<ref name=aut>{{aut|[[Rumphius|Rumpf, G.E.]]}} 1743. ''Herbarium Amboinense: plurimas conplectens arbores, frutices, ...'' [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10353#page/249/mode/1up Pars '''III''': 153], [http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10353#page/251/mode/1up Tab. 96]. Amstelaedami :apud Franciscum Changuion, Hermannum Uttwerf. MDCCXLIII.</ref> [[Akar]]na sok dipaké naplokan palebah nu raheut atawa ngubaran kulit nu kabeuleum, kitu deui [[cai]] pangulubanna dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran hésé kahampangan (''diuretika'').<ref name=Prosea12/><ref name=aut/> Di [[Papua Nugini]], daunna dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran [[salésma]] [[pilek]], [[batuk]], [[galingging]], sarta panyakit anu dibalukarkeun kuayana [[bakteria]] sarta .<ref name=Prosea12/> Sagigireun kitu, akarna dimangpaatkeun pikeun [[antidota]] tayalian ngubaran weureu (''keracunan''), umpana baé weureu tas ngadahar lauk, kapiting, hui [[gadung]], jeung sajabana.<ref name=Prosea12/> Carana, ieu akar dicampur jeung akar [[cau]] suanggi ditambah akar [[eurih]]. Baheula geutah ki ciyat sok dipaké ngubaran nyeri [[ceuli]], carana geutah ki ciyat dipanaskeun heula di mana geus tiis tuluy dikecerkeun kana liang ceuli nu nyeri.<ref name=Nuttige/> Akarna bisa ogé dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran raheut, kayaning kacugak atawa kasura ku cucuk lauk nu aya peurahan.<ref name=Nuttige/><ref name= A.>{{Cite book | title =Udjung Kulon: The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros| first = A. | last =Hoogerwerf| publisher = Brill Archive| location =Universitas Muhamadiyah Surakarta| year =1970| pages =32|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=pc4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31&dq=sophora+tomentosa+bungbulan&source=bl&ots=F2HR_Grimb&sig=ACfU3U0JnMtQmW9VQ36gztboIlgK5221VQ&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGndL0ioTuAhVS6XMBHZWOCzEQ6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=sophora%20tomentosa%20bungbulan&f=true|accessdate=(disungsi – 20 Fébruari 2025)}}</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Ficus septica}} * Australian Trop. RF. Plants: [http://keys.trin.org.au/key-server/data/0e0f0504-0103-430d-8004-060d07080d04/media/Html/taxon/Ficus_septica.htm ''Ficus septica''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129063730/http://keys.trin.org.au/key-server/data/0e0f0504-0103-430d-8004-060d07080d04/media/Html/taxon/Ficus_septica.htm |date=2014-11-29 }} (identifikasi) * CCRC UGM: [http://ccrc.farmasi.ugm.ac.id/?page_id=67 Awar-awar (''Ficus septica'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520020647/http://ccrc.farmasi.ugm.ac.id/?page_id=67 |date=2018-05-20 }} (sifat kimia dan khasiat) [[Kategori:Ficus]] [[Kategori:Ubar]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan ubar]] [[Kategori:Moraceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] 4d9kym6b0uw50j11dqunveuf5dgk99w Panon majemuk 0 73749 712413 710600 2026-08-28T22:57:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712413 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:FLY_EYE.jpg|ka|jmpl|Panon majemuk laleur, ditempo ku mikroskop éléktron]] '''Panon majemuk '''nyaéta panon nu boga rébuan reséptor warna individual. Gambar nu dicandak mangrupa kombinasi input tina rébuan omatidia nu aya dina permukaan konveks, nu maneuh ka arah nu beda-beda. Ku sabab eta, pohara téh gancang pisan leumpang jauh lamun kuurang hayang dicekel. Dibandingkeun panon biasa, panon majemuk bisa moto gambar dina jihat sawangan nu leuwih lega, jeung bisa gancang ngadétéksi gerakan, jeung dina sababaraha kasus bisa nempo polarisasi [[cahya]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.suss-microoptics.com/downloads/Publications/Miniaturized_Imaging_Systems.pdf|format=PDF|doi=10.1016/S0167-9317(03)00102-3|title=Miniaturized imaging systems|month=June|year=2003|journal=Microelectronic Engineering|volume=67–68|issue=1|pages=461–472|author1=Völkel, R|author2=Eisner, M|author3=Weible, K. J}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001225326/http://www.suss-microoptics.com/downloads/Publications/Miniaturized_Imaging_Systems.pdf |date=2008-10-01 }}Parameter <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#x7C;month=</code> yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan ([//id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantuan:Galat_CS1%23parameter_ignored bantuan]) [[Kategori:Halaman dengan rujukan yang menggunakan parameter yang tidak didukung]]</ref> Sabab lénsa individual anu leutik pisan, pangaruh [[difraksi]] ngawates resolusi nu dicandak. Ieu bisa nungkulan ku ngaronjatna jumlah jeung ukuran lénsa. Panon majemuk bisa digolongkeun jadi dua golongan: panon oposisi, nu kabentuk sababaraha gambar tibalik, jeung panon superposisi, nu ngabentuk kalangkang nu orientasina tegak tunggal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gaten|first=Edward|title=Optics and phylogeny: is there an insight? The evolution of superposition eyes in the Decapoda (Crustacea)|year=1998|journal=Contributions to Zoology|volume=67|issue=4|pages=223–236|url=http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/ctz/vol67/nr04/art01#FIGURE1}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209170222/http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/ctz/vol67/nr04/art01#FIGURE1 |date=2013-02-09 }}</ref> Panon majemuk nu ilahar aya dina artropoda, jeung anu hadir dina anelida jeung sababaraha moluska bivalvia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ritchie|first=Alexander|title=''Ainiktozoon loganense'' Scourfield, a protochordate? from the Silurian of Scotland|year=1985|journal=Alcheringa|volume=9|page=137|doi=10.1080/03115518508618961|issue=2}}</ref> Panon majemuk saperti dina [[Arthropoda|artropoda]] bisa tumuwuh ku panambahan omatidia anyar.<ref name="Mayer2006">{{Cite journal|last=Mayer|first=G.|year=2006|title=Structure and development of onychophoran eyes: What is the ancestral visual organ in arthropods?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arthropod-structure-development_2006-12_35_4/page/231|journal=Arthropod Structure and Development|volume=35|issue=4|pages=231–245|doi=10.1016/j.asd.2006.06.003|pmid=18089073}}</ref> == Galeri == <gallery> File:Calliphora vomitoria Portrait.jpg|Panon majemuk File:Sarcophagid fly Portrait.jpg|Panon majemuk dina laleur File:Volucella pellucens head complete Richard Bartz.jpg| </gallery> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} gea2a7u64t8u5zxb9y2jbiuo71gkrod Gunung Tambora 0 75519 712363 675708 2026-08-28T21:49:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox mountain|name=Gunung Tambora|long_d=118|age=[[Pleistosen|Pleistosen Akhir]]—[[Holosen]]|last_eruption=1967<ref name="gvp1">{{cite web|title=Tambora|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=|work=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]]|accessdate=2006-10-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220220824/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04= |date=2013-02-20 }}</ref>|type=[[Gunung api strato]] [[trakibasalt]]-[[trakiandesit]]|region=[[Kabupaten Dompu]] dan [[Kabupaten Bima|Bima]], [[Nusa Tenggara Barat]], [[Indonesia]]|location=Semenanjung Sanggar, [[Sumbawa]]|elevation_m=2850|coordinates={{coord|8|15|0|S|118|0|0|E|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}|long_EW=E|long_s=0|long_m=0|lat_NS=S|photo=Caldera Mt Tambora Sumbawa Indonesia.jpg|lat_s=0|lat_m=15|lat_d=8|label_position=|label=Tambora|map_size=|map_relief=|map_caption=Lokasi Gunung Tambora di Indonesia|map_alt=|map=Indonesia|photo_caption=[[Kaldera]] Gunung Tambora|volcanic_arc=[[Busur Sunda]]}}{{Location map+|Indonesia Sumbawa|width=250|float=right|label=[[Sumbawa]]|caption=Kaldera Tambora dapat dilihat pada semenanjung Pulau Sumbawa bagian utara.|places={{Location map~|Indonesia Sumbawa |lat_deg=-8.25 |lon_deg= 118.0 |mark=Arrows 12x12 s.svg |marksize=12 |label=Gunung Tambora |label_width = 8 |label_size= 70 |position= top }}}} '''Gunung Tambora''' (atawa '''Tomboro''' ) mangrupa Gunung Strato aktif anu aya di [[ Pulo Sumbawa |Pulo Sumbawa]], [[Nusa Tenggara Kulon|Nusa Tenggara Barat]], [[Indonésia]] . Gunung ieu ayana di dua [[kabupaten]], [[ Dompu Kab |Kabupaten Dompu]] anu bagianana aya lereng palebah [[kulon]] jeung [[kidul]] jeung [[ Kabupaten Bima |Kabupaten Bima]] anu bagianana aya lereng palebah [[wétan]] sareng [[kalér]]. Gunung Tambora kabentuk kusabab [[Subduksi|ngaréduksi zona]] aktif di handapeunana. Baheula, jangkungna Gunung Tambora ngahontal sakitar 4,300 [[Méter|m]] <ref name="Stothers1984a">{{Cite journal|last=Stothers|first=R. B.|date=1984|title=The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1984-06-15_224_4654/page/1191|journal=[[Science]]|volume=224|issue=4654|pages=1191–1198|doi=10.1126/science.224.4654.1191}}</ref> anu ngajadikeun gunung ieu mangrupikeun puncak anu pangluhurna di Indonésia dina jaman baheula. Aktivitas vulkanik gunung éta puncakna dina letusan April 1815, nu nepi ka skala na tujuh VEI.<ref name="Degens1989">{{Cite journal|last=Degens|first=E. T.|last2=Buch|first2=B.|year=1989|title=Sedimentological events in Saleh Bay, off Mount Tambora|journal=Netherlands Journal of Sea Research|volume=24|issue=4|pages=399–404|doi=10.1016/0077-7579(89)90117-8}}</ref> Letusan vulkanik panggedéna saprak letusan Taupo dina taun 181.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003">{{Cite journal|last=Oppenheimer|first=C.|year=2003|title=Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_progress-in-physical-geography_2003-06_27_2/page/230|journal=Progress in Physical Geography|volume=27|issue=2|pages=230–259|doi=10.1191/0309133303pp379ra}}</ref> Sora letusan kacatet kadangu ka pulo [[Sumatra|Sumatra,]] leuwih ti 2.000 km ka kulon. Hujan abu vulkanik lumangsung di [[Kalimantan]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Pulo Jawa|Jawa]], sarta [[Maluku]]. Letusan éta sahenteuna 71.000 urang jeung 11,000—12,000 diantarana nu jadi korban langsung. Sababaraha panalungtik merkirakeun jumlah korban jiwa nepi 92,000 jalma, tapi inohong ieu téh diragukeun sabab dianggap gédé teuing.<ref name="Tanguy1998">{{Cite journal|last=Tanguy|first=J.-C.|last2=Scarth|first2=A.|last3=Ribiére|first3=C.|last4=Tjetjep|first4=W. S.|date=1998|title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database|url=https://archive.org/details/bulletin-of-volcanology_1998-09_60_2/page/137|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|volume=60|issue=2|pages=137–144|doi=10.1007/s004450050222}}</ref> Letusana ogé ngabalukarkeun parobahan iklim dunya dina waktu éta. Taun saterusna (1816) ieu mindeng disebut minangka ''taun tanpa usum panas'' jeung cuaca robah drastis di [[Amérika Kalér]] jeung [[Éropa]] alatan lebu anu dihasilkeun. Kajadian ieu ngabalukarkeun gagal panén jeung maot tina tatanén masa anu dina gilirannana ngabalukarkeun ogé wabah kalaparan dina abad ka-19. Grup arkéolog dina hiji penggalian taun 2004 di wewengkon Gunung Tambora, manggihan sesa budaya anu dikubur 3 méter di handap endapan piroklastik ti tahun 1815. Papanggihan ieu mindeng disebut minangka ''Pompeii Wétan'' alatan kasaruaan jeung Kota [[Pompeii]] di Italia nu dikubur ku bahan vulkanik. == Géografi == [[Gambar:Tambora_volc.jpg|ka|jmpl|300x300px|pamandangan gunung tambora jeung sabudeureunana]] [[Gambar:Mount_Tambora_Volcano,_Sumbawa_Island,_Indonesia.jpg|ka|jmpl|300x300px|Kawah anu aya di puncak gunung Tambora]] Gunung Tambora anu perenahna di Pulo Sumbawa nu mangrupa bagian tina [[Kapuloan Sunda Leutik|Nusa Tenggara pulo]]. Gunung ieu mangrupa bagian ti busur Sunda, tali [[Pulo|pulo vulkanik]] nu ngabentuk ranté kidul pulo Indonesia.<ref name="Foden1986">{{Cite journal|last=Foden|first=J.|date=1986|title=The petrology of Tambora volcano, Indonesia: A model for the 1815 eruption|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(86)90079-X|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=27|issue=1–2|pages=1–41}}</ref> Tambora ngabentuk semenanjungna sorangan di pulo Sumbawa disebut Sanggar semenanjung. Di sisi kalér samenanjung, aya pulo flores, jeung ka kidul aya teluk Saléh jeung panjang 86 km sarta rubak 36 km. Di mimiti teluk Saleh, aya hiji pulo leutik disebut Mojo. Salian seismologis jeung volcanologis anu observasi aktivitas vulkanik, gunung Tambora nyaéta hiji wewengkon panalungtikan ilmiah ahli ngeunaan jaman baheula jeung [[biologi]]. Gunung ieu ogé metot wisatawan naek gunung jeung aktivitas [[Sato|satwa]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.sinarharapan.co.id/feature/hobi/2003/0430/hob1.html|title=Hobi Mendaki Gunung - Menyambangi Kawah Raksasa Gunung Tambora|publisher=Sinar Harapan|language=[[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesia]]|date=2003|access-date=14 November}}</ref> Dompu jeung Bima nyaéta hiji kota nu aya pangdeukeutna ka gunung. Dina léréng gunung Tambora, aya sababaraha desa. Di wétan aya désa sanggar. Di kaler, désa Doro Peti jeung Pesanggrahan désa. Di kulon, aya désa Calabai. Aya dua jalur pikeun ngahontal téh nutupan kaldéra gunung Tambora. Kahiji jalan dimimitian ti désa Doro Mboha nu aya dina tenggara sisi gunung Tambora. Rute nu kieu diaspal jalan ngaliwatan perkebunan [[Jambu monyét|jambu kacang]] nepi ka pamustunganana ngahontal jangkungna 1150 [[Méter|m]] di luhur permukaan laut. Rute ieu tungtungna di bagian kidul téh nutupan kaldéra jeung jangkungna 1950 nu [[Méter|m]] nu bisa kahontal ku pertengahan jalur.<ref name="vsimain">{{Cite web|url=http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static/volcano/tambora/main.html|title=Tambora, Nusa Tenggara Barat|last=Aswanir Nasution|publisher=Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi Indonesia|language=dalam [[bahasa Indonesia]]|accessdate=13 November}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120305/http://merapi.vsi.esdm.go.id/?static%2Fvolcano%2Ftambora%2Fmain.html |date=2007-09-29 }}</ref> Lokasi ieu biasana dipaké salaku hiji kemah pikeun niténan aktivitas vulkanik sabab éta ngan nyokot hiji jam pikeun ngahontal téh nutupan kaldéra. Nu kadua rute dimimitian ti désa Pancasila dina sisi kaler gunung Tambora. Lamun ngagunakeun rute ieu, mangka téh nutupan kaldéra ngan bisa kahontal ku suku. == Footnotes == {{Reflist|2}} == Daftar pustaka == <div style="font-size: 90%"> * C. R. Harrington (ed.). ''Taun tanpa usum panas?: iklim dunya di 1816'', Ottawa: Canadian Museum Alam, 1992. ISBN 0-660-13063-7 * Henry jeung Elizabeth Stommel. ''Gunung Cuaca: Carita 1816, Taun tanpa usum Panas'', Newport RI. 1983. ISBN 0-915160-71-4 </div> == Tumbu luar == * {{Cite web|url=http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Indonesia/framework.html|title=Gunung berapi dan vulkanik Indonesia|website=Cascades Volcano Observatory|publisher=USGS|5=accessdate 2006-03-19}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903224428/http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Indonesia/framework.html |date=2013-09-03 }} * {{Cite web|url=http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html|title=Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia|website=Volcano World|publisher=Departmen Geosains di Universitas Negara Oregon}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702155632/http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |date=2007-07-02 }} * {{Cite web|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04=|title=Tambora|website=Global Volcanism Program|publisher=[[Institusi Smithsonian]]}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220220824/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0604-04= |date=2013-02-20 }} * View ti WikiSatellite di [http://www.wikimapia.org/maps?ll=-8.25,118&spn=0.4,0.6&t=h WikiMapia] [[Kategori:Koordinat aya dina Wikidata]] od2cpjtucaxx4g618n3tqyfotu0iz6b Norépinéfrin 0 75540 712411 556914 2026-08-28T22:56:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox drug | drug_name = | IUPAC_name = (R)-4-(2-amino-1-hidroksiétil)bénzéna-1,2-diol |synonyms = {{ubl|NE, NA,| Noradrénalin,| (''R'')-(–)-Norépinéfrin,| l-1-(3,4-Dihidroksifenil)-2-aminoétanol}} |image = Norepinephrine.svg | width = 180 |image2 = Norepinephrine ball-and-stick model.png |source_tissues = [[locus coeruleus]]; [[sistem saraf simpatétik]]; [[adrenal medulla]] |target_tissues = system-wide |receptors = [[Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor|α<sub>1</sub>]], [[Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor|α<sub>2</sub>]], [[Beta-1 adrenergic receptor|β<sub>1</sub>]], [[Beta-3 adrenergic receptor|β<sub>3</sub>]] |agonists = [[obat simpatomimétik]], [[klonidin]], [[isoprénalin]] |antagonists = [[Antidéprésan trisiklik]], [[beta blocker]], [[antipsikotik]] |precursor = [[dopamin]] |biosynthesis = [[dopamin béta-monooksigenase|dopamin β-monooksigenase]] |metabolism = [[Monoamin oksidase A|MAO-A]]; [[COMT]] | CAS_number = 51-41-2 | PubChem= 439260 | ChemSpiderID = 388394 | IUPHAR_ligand = 505 | KEGG = C00547 | DrugBank = DB00368 }} '''Noradrénalin''' '''(NA),''' disebut ogé '''norépinéfrin''' '''(NE),''' nyaéta [[Sanyawa organik|zat kimia organik]] di kulawarga katékolamin anu boga guna dina [[Uteuk|otak]] jeung awak salaku [[hormon]] jeung neurotransmitter. Ngaran "noradrénalin" diturunkeun tina akar [[basa Latin]] anu hartina "dina/gigireun ginjal".<ref name="BMJ">{{Cite journal|date=Feb 2000|title='Where name and image meet'—the argument for 'adrenaline'|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_2000-02-19_320_7233/page/506|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=320|issue=7233|pages=506–9|doi=10.1136/bmj.320.7233.506|pmc=1127537|pmid=10678871}}</ref> Bagian awak anu ngahasilkeun atawa kapangaruhan ku ieu zat disebutna '''noradrénergik.''' Fungsi umum norépinéfrin nyaéta pikeun ngeprak otak jeung awak pikeun ojah. Nalika [[saré]], norépinéfrin pangsaeutikna dikalurkeun, nambahan nalika nyaring, sarta bakal beuki undak nalika nyanghareupan bahya atawa setrés, anu katelah réspon gelut-atawa-kabur. Dina uteuk, norépinéfrin matak ngahudang gairah, rancingeus, jeung awas/waspada. Norépinéfrin nambahan ketug jantung jeung tekenan getih, ngaleupaskeun [[glukosa]] tina [[énergi]] simpenan, nambahan aliran getih kana otot rangka, ngurangan aliran getih kana sistem cerna, sarta nyegah mukana kandung kemih sarta motilitas cerna. == Wangun == Norépinéfrin téh kaasup katékolamin jeung fenetilamin.<ref name="PubChem">{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/439260|title=Norepinephrine|website=PubChem|accessdate=6 November 2015}}</ref> Strukturna béda ti [[Adrénalin|épinéfrin]] ukur dina gugus métil anu napel dina nitrogénna, anu dina norépinéfrin mah métilna diganti ku [[hidrogén]].<ref name="PubChem" /> Awalan ''nor-'' diturunkeun tina singketan kecap "normal", anu nandakeun [[demétilasi]] sanyawana.<ref name="gaddum-apology">{{Cite journal|last=Gaddum JH|date=June 1956|title=The Prefix 'Nor' in Chemical Nomenclature|url=|journal=Nature|language=|volume=177|issue=1046|pages=1046|bibcode=1956Natur.177.1046G|doi=10.1038/1771046b0|pmid=}}</ref> {{multiple image <!-- Essential parameters -->|align=center|direction=horizontal <!-- Extra parameters -->|header=|header_align=|header_background=|footer=|footer_align=|footer_background=|background color=|image1=Norepinephrine structure.svg|caption1=Wangun norépinéfrin|alt1=Diagram kimia wangun molekul norépinéfrin.|width1=200|image2=Epinephrine structure.svg|caption2=Wangun épinéfrin|alt2=Diagram kimia wangun molekul épinéfrin.|width2=200|image3=Brenzcatechin.svg|caption3=Wangun katékol|alt3=Diagram kimia wangun molekul katékol.|width3=136}} == Rujukan == <references group=""></references> {{hormon}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Hormon]] [[Kategori:Neurotransmiter]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] 4ac6fm5s5md5kja4dwa6b5e4ddazqqk Kortisol 0 75593 712380 711575 2026-08-28T22:17:09Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chembox | IUPACName = 11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione | ImageFile = Cortisol2.svg | ImageSize = | ImageFile1 = Cortisol-3D-balls.png | ImageSize1 = | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | CASNo = 50-23-7 | PubChem = 5754 | DrugBank = DB00741 | ChemSpiderID = 5551 | ChemSpiderID_Comment = | UNII = WI4X0X7BPJ | KEGG = D00088 | ChEBI = 17650 | ChEMBL = 389621 | SMILES = O=C4\C=C2/[C@]([C@H]1[C@@H](O)C[C@@]3([C@@](O)(C(=O)CO)CC[C@H]3[C@@H]1CC2)C)(C)CC4 | StdInChI = 1S/C21H30O5/c1-19-7-5-13(23)9-12(19)3-4-14-15-6-8-21(26,17(25)11-22)20(15,2)10-16(24)18(14)19/h9,14-16,18,22,24,26H,3-8,10-11H2,1-2H3/t14-,15-,16-,18+,19-,20-,21-/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey = JYGXADMDTFJGBT-VWUMJDOOSA-N }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C = 21 | H = 30 | O = 5 | MolarMass = 362.460 g/mol }} }} '''Kortisol''' nyaéta hormon stéroid dina kelas hormon glukokortikoid. Lamun dipaké natambaan, mangka katelahna hidrokortison. Dina awak manusa, kortisol dihasilkeun ku [[Zona fasikulata|zona fasikulata]] dina [[Adrenal cortex|adrenal cortex]] jero [[Kelenjar adrénal|kelenjar adrénal]].<ref name="About">{{Cite web|url=http://stress.about.com/od/stresshealth/a/cortisol.htm|title=Cortisol and Stress: How to Stay Healthy|last=Scott E|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2011-11-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101171556/http://stress.about.com/od/stresshealth/a/cortisol.htm |date=2012-11-01 }}</ref> Kortisol dileupaskeun dina kaayaan setrés jeung kadar glukosa-getih kurang. Pancénna pikeun nambahan [[Gula getih|gula getih]] ngaliwatan glukonéogenesis, pikeun suprési [[Imunisasi|sistim imun]], sarta pikeun ngarojong [[métabolisme]] [[Lemak|gajih]], [[Protéin|protein]], sarta [[karbohidrat]].<ref name="Marieb">{{Cite book|title=Human Anatomy & Physiology|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys08edunse|publisher=Benjamin Cummings|year=2010|isbn=978-0-321-60261-9|location=San Francisco}}</ref> Kortisol ogé nurunkeun laju pembentukan tulang.<ref name="pmid6690287">{{Cite journal|date=February 1984|title=Cortisol decreases bone formation by inhibiting periosteal cell proliferation|url=https://archive.org/details/endocrinology_1984-02_114_2/page/477|journal=Endocrinology|volume=114|issue=2|pages=477–80|doi=10.1210/endo-114-2-477|pmid=6690287}}</ref> == Sato == Dina sato, kortisol mindeng dipaké salaku indikator setrés anu bisa diukur tina [[getih]],<ref name="Staaveren">{{Cite journal|last=van Staaveren, N., Teixeira, D.L., Hanlon, A. and Boyle, L.A.|year=2015|title=The effect of mixing entire male pigs prior to transport to slaughter on behaviour, welfare and carcass lesions|journal=PLoS One|volume=10|issue=4|pages=e0122841|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022841V|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122841|pmc=4382277|pmid=25830336}}</ref> [[ciduh]],<ref name="Ruis">{{Cite journal|year=1997|title=The effect of mixing entire male pigs prior to transport to slaughter on behaviour, welfare and carcass lesions|journal=PLoS One|volume=10|issue=4|pages=e0122841|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022841V|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122841|pmc=4382277|pmid=25830336}}</ref> [[cikiih]],<ref name="Schalke">{{Cite journal|year=2007|title=Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=105|issue=4|pages=369–380|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002}}</ref> [[bulu]],<ref name="Accorsi">{{Cite journal|date=January 2008|title=Cortisol determination in hair and faeces from domestic cats and dogs|journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology|volume=155|issue=2|pages=398–402|doi=10.1016/j.ygcen.2007.07.002|pmid=17727851}}</ref> jeung [[Tai|taina]].<ref name="Accorsi" /> <ref name="Messmann">{{Cite journal|date=December 1999|title=Measurement of glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in faeces of domestic livestock|journal=Zentralblatt für Veterinarmedizin. Reihe A|volume=46|issue=10|pages=621–31|pmid=10638300}}</ref> == Baca ogé == * Kortison, hormon * Reséptor glukokortikoid mémbran == Rujukan == <references group=""></references> == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/925c5612-4ecd-461b-bb52-173189b86299.aspx Kortisol MS Spéktrum] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121113144240/http://www.acb.org.uk/docs/NHLM/Cortisol.pdf Kortisol: analyte karangan ilmiah] - The Association pikeun Biokimia klinis na Kedokteran Laboratorium [[Kategori:Glukokortikoid]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] {{Hormon}} 7nhtel4aeqg7o1als0nwcby2ovknjl5 Turuwiseun 0 76685 712387 711508 2026-08-28T22:21:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712387 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:StyeUpper2017.jpg|jmpl|Turuwiseun di luhur]] <!--{{Kotakinfo Panyakit | name = Stye | synonyms = Sty, hordeolum<ref name=Pub2016/> | image = Stye02.jpg | caption = An external stye on the upper eyelid | field = [[Ophthalmology]], [[optometry]] | pronounce = Stye {{IPAc-en|s|t|aɪ}}, hordeolum {{IPAc-en|h|ɔːr|ˈ|d|iː|ə|l|ə|m}} | symptoms = Red tender bump at the edge of the eyelid<ref name=Pub2016/> | complications = | onset = Any age<ref name=Fer2016/> | duration = Few days or weeks<ref name=Lind2017/> | types = | causes = Usually [[bacterial infection]] by ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''<ref name=Lind2017/> | risks = | diagnosis = | differential = [[Chalazion]]<ref name=NIH2010/> | prevention = | treatment = [[Warm compresses]], [[antibiotic]] eye ointment<ref name=AFP2015/><ref name=EM2013/> | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = | deaths = }}--> <!-- Definition and symptoms --> '''Turuwiseun''', sok disebut ogé '''bintitan''', nyaéta [[inféksi]] [[baktéri]] dina [[kalenjar minyak]] na [[kongkolak panon]].<ref name="NIH2010">{{cite web|url=https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye|title=Eyelid Disorders Chalazion & Stye|website=NEI|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018231753/https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye|archivedate=18 October 2016|accessdate=14 October 2016|date=4 May 2010|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018231753/https://nei.nih.gov/faqs/eyelid-disorders-chalazion-stye |date=18 October 2016 }}</ref> Ieu ngabalukarkeun bijilna melentis beureum dina tungtung kongkolak panon.<ref name="Pub2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024863/|title=Hordeolum (Stye)|website=PubMed Health|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908184822/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMHT0024863/|archivedate=8 September 2017|accessdate=14 October 2016|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref><ref name="AFP2015">{{cite journal|last1=Carlisle|first1=RT|last2=Digiovanni|first2=J|date=15 July 2015|title=Differential Diagnosis of the Swollen Red Eyelid.|journal=American Family Physician|volume=92|issue=2|pages=106–12|pmid=26176369}}</ref> Ari bagian luarna ogé bisa kapangaruhan jadi [[bareuh]].<ref name="Lind2017" /> <!-- Cause and diagnosis --> Nu nyebabkeunana mah biasana nyaéta inféksi bakteri ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''.<ref name="Lind2017">{{cite journal|author=Lindsley K, Nichols JJ, Dickersin K|date=2017|title=Non-surgical interventions for acute internal hordeolum|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=1|pages=CD007742|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007742.pub4|pmc=5370090|pmid=28068454}}</ref><ref name="EM2013">{{cite journal|last1=Deibel|first1=JP|last2=Cowling|first2=K|date=May 2013|title=Ocular inflammation and infection.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_emergency-medicine-clinics-of-north-america_2013-05_31_2/page/387|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=31|issue=2|pages=387–97|doi=10.1016/j.emc.2013.01.006|pmid=23601478}}</ref> Nu internalna disababkeun ku inféksi [[kalenjar meibomian]] sedengkeun nu ékternalna mah ku inféksi [[kalenjar Zeis]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> Kalasi di sisi séjén mangrupa kalenjar minyak kapeungpeuk tanpa inféksi.<ref name="NIH2010" /> Biasana mah ayana di tengah kongkolak panon tanpa karasa [[nyeri]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> <!-- Prevention and treatment --> Biasana melentisna téh sok leungit tanpa kudu dikukumaha dina sawatara poé atawa minggu mah.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Rékomendasi sangkan téréh cageur pikeun di[[komprés haneut]].<ref name="AFP2015" /> Bisa ogé maké [[antibiotik]] salep panon.<ref name="EM2013" /> Sok sanajan ieu saran téh dirékomendasikeun, nyatana mah bisa miparna kana turuwiseun.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Frékuénsi bijilna turuwiseun mah teu jelas.<ref name="Fer2016" /> Lantara bisa narajang ka sakabéh umur.<ref name="Fer2016">{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017: 5 Books in 1|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323448383|page=1219|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1219|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018212146/https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1219|archivedate=2016-10-18|df=}}</ref> == Tanda jeung gejala == [[Gambar:External_hordeolum.jpg|jmpl|Turuwiseun di kongkolak panon handap]] Tanda munggaran nyaéta melentis konéng dina tengah-tengah bareuhna nu tuluy jadi [[nanah]].<ref name="Med">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/article.htm#tocc|title=What are the signs and symptoms of a sty?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407042355/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/article.htm#tocc|archivedate=2010-04-07|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Gejala séjén turuwiseun nyaéta: * Melentis dina [[kongkolak panon]] luhur atawa handap * Bareuh di sabudeureun nu melentis dina panon * [[Nyeri]] mata * Beureum * Ngaginyel dina nu bareuh * Ngageleng dina kongkolak mata * Mata karasa panas * Kongkolak panon lembap * Ateul hayang ngagisik bola mata * Tetempoan saru * Panon jiih kaluar cairan * Iritasi panon<ref name="eMed">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page3_em.htm|title=Stye Symptoms|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406032634/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page3_em.htm|archivedate=2010-04-06|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> * Sénsitifitas cahya * Soéh * Teu genah ngiceup<ref name="MayoCli">{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sty/DS00257/DSECTION=symptoms|title=Symptoms|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307022459/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sty/DS00257/DSECTION%3Dsymptoms|archivedate=2010-03-07|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> * Asa aya nu asup kana mata === Komplikasi === Komplikasi turuwiseun jarang pisan kajadianna. Ngan, mimindengna mah komplikasi turuwiseun téh lanjutan tina [[kalasi]] nu nyumebabkeun kalainan wangun kosmétik, iritasi kornéa, jeung sok ngabutuhkeun pangangkatan jeung pambedahan.<ref name="Medicine E">{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/798940-followup|title=Hordeolum and Stye: Follow-up|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409110728/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/798940-followup|archivedate=2010-04-09|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Bisa ogé bijilna komplikasi téh tina pambedahan nu teu bener, jeung komona mah tina gangguan tumuwuhna bulu mata, kalainan wangun kongkolak panon atawa [[fistula]] kongkolak panon. Turuwiseun badag bisa ngaganggu tetempoan hiji jalma. Sélulitis kongkolak panon nyaéta komplikasi poténsial séjén tina turuwiseun, nu mangrupa inféksi umum kongkolak panon. Tumuluyna tarajangan nepi ka inféksi sistemik (nyumebar ka saawak-awak), ieu jarang pisan jeung deuih ngan sawatara conto tina sumebarna ieu panyakit nu pernah kacatet siga kieu.<ref name="MedicineNet2">{{cite web|url=http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf|title=What is the prognosis (outcome) of a sty?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412081320/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf|archivedate=2010-04-12|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520090900/http://www.medicinenet.com/sty/page2.htm#tocf |date=2007-05-20 }}</ref> == Asbab == MImindengna mah turuwiseun téh ku lantaran kapeungpeukna [[kalenjar minyak]] di dasar [[bulu mata]]. Turuwiseun dialaman ku sakabéh umur. Turuwiseun bisa dipicu ku gizi buruk, kurang saré, kurang berséka, kurang cai jeung gigisik waé. Mindeng kajadian turuwiseun téh alatan inféksi stafilokokus dina mata, jeung bisa disababkeun ku [[blepharitis]] atawa [[immunoglobulin]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Diseases of the Human Body|url=https://archive.org/details/diseasesofhumanb0000tamp_s1x3|last=Tamparo|first=Carol|last2=Lewis|first2=Marcia|publisher=F.A Davis Company|year=2011|isbn=978-0-8036-2505-1|location=Philadelphia, PA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diseasesofhumanb0000tamp_s1x3/page/504 504]}}</ref> Sapaké anduk jeung batur ulah pati digedékeun pikeun nyingkahan sumebarna inféksi antar individu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html|title=Are styes contagious? -Doctors Lounge(TM)|work=doctorslounge.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216170949/http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html|archivedate=2010-02-16|deadurl=no|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909010029/http://www.doctorslounge.com/pediatrics/forums/backup/topic-18060.html |date=2017-09-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html|title=Are Styes Contagious?|work=iVillage|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603043329/http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html|archivedate=2009-06-03|deadurl=yes|df=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603043329/http://yourtotalhealth.ivillage.com/are-styes-contagious.html |date=2009-06-03 }}</ref> == Nyingkahan == Nyingkahan turuwiseun ruket patalina jeung berseka anu bener. Kukumbah leungeun nu bener bisa ngurangan résiko teu ngan saukur kaserang ku turuwiseun tapi ogé jenis inféksi séjénna. Hudang saré téh antelkeun waslap haneut kana kongkolak mata samet samenit atawa dua menit mah, ieu bisa ngurangan résiko turuwiseun sarta ngaleyurkeun eusi kalenjar minyak kongkolak panon. jeung nyegah kapeungpeuk.<ref name="MedicineHealthE">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page13_em.htm#sty_prevention|title=Prevention|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410064556/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page13_em.htm#sty_prevention|archivedate=2010-04-10|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Pikeun nyegah ngagedéanna turuwiseun, dianjurkeun ulah maké kosmétik, komo kosmétik anu batur mah. Deuih kudu bisa ngajaga parabot nu patali jeung panon, sarta kudu mupus kosmétik di mana mangsa rék saré téh. == Ngubaran == Biasana mah turuwiseun téh sok cageur sorangan dina saminggu dua minggu mah, tanpa kudu dikukumaha.<ref name="Lind2017" /> Utamana mah dikompres ku ci haneut. Bisa ogé ku cara ngabersihan turuwiseun maké cai atawa disabunan jeung disampoan nu teu nyumbabkeun iritasi kana mata pikeun ngabersihan kokotor nu ngerak. Ngabersihanna kudu lalaunan jeung saheulaanan keur dibersihan mah panon téh ditutup pikeun nyegah cidra mata.<ref name="MediHealth">{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page8_em.htm#Medical%20Treatment|title=Medical Treatment|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411054952/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/sty/page8_em.htm#Medical%20Treatment|archivedate=2010-04-11|accessdate=2010-04-06|deadurl=no|df=}}</ref> Wayahna pikeun nu katarajang turuwiseun mah ulah waka maké riasan panon (contona ''eyeliner''), losyen, jeung ulah maké lénsa kontak, lantaran ieu bisa turuwiseun beuki parna sarta bisa nyumbabkeun inféksi (sakapeung mah bika kornéa). Jeung deuih ulah nojos nu bareuhna ku sorangan, sabab bisa inféksi serius. Ubar jang ngaleungitkeun nyeri [[asétaminofén]] bisa dipaké. === Antibiotik === Geus kabuktian yén pamakéan [[antibiotik]] salep mata téh lain alus..<ref name="EM2013" /> Sanajan salep ophthalmic [[erythromycin]] sakapeun direkoméndasikeun.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2018-11-19|title=Medscape: Medscape Access|url=http://www.emedicine.com/oph/TOPIC606.HTM|deadurl=no|journal=Emedicine.com|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804164715/http://www.emedicine.com/oph/topic606.htm|archivedate=2008-08-04|df=}}</ref> Antibiotik lian, kayaning [[chloramphenicol]] atawa [[amoxicillin]] sok direkomendasikeun ogé.<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic415.htm eMedicine - Periorbital Infections : Article by R Gentry Wilkerson, MD.<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403202017/http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic415.htm|date=2007-04-03}}</ref> Chloramphenicol dipaké kalawan hadé hasilna ampir di sakuliah dunya, ngan ngandung kahawatiran di Amérika Sarikat mah ngeunaan [[anemia aplastik]], nu jarang kajadian bisa fatal akibatna. Antibiotik dibéré ka jalma nu katarajang loba turuwiseun atawa turuwiseunna teu daékeun cageur, jeung pikeun jalma nu miboga [[blepharitis]] atawa [[rosacea]]. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} <br /> [[Kategori:Panyakit mata]] 3n600z9n7uzms5y9touebk9686zz042 Adamantan 0 85491 712414 681107 2026-08-28T22:58:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712414 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox bordered" style="border-collapse:collapse; width:22em; text-align:left; ;" |+ id="5" style="text-align:center;" |Adamantan | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[File:Adamantane_acsv.svg|al=Skeletal formula of adamantane|160x160px|Skeletal formula of adamantane]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[File:Adamantane_3D_ball.png|al=Ball-and-stick model of the adamantane molecule|163x163px|Ball-and-stick model of the adamantane molecule]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;" |[[File:Adamantane.JPG|al=Small white crystals of adamantane|220x220px|Small white crystals of adamantane]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Names |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |[[Preferred IUPAC name]] <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Adamantane<ref name="iupac2013"><cite class="citation book">''Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry : IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 (Blue Book)''. Cambridge: [[Royal Society of Chemistry|The Royal Society of Chemistry]]. 2014. p.&nbsp;169. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.1039/9781849733069-FP001|10.1039/9781849733069-FP001]]. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/978-0-85404-182-4|<bdi>978-0-85404-182-4</bdi>]]. <q>The retained names adamantane and cubane are used in general nomenclature and as preferred IUPAC names.</q></cite></ref></div></div> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |[[Chemical nomenclature#Systematic name|Systematic IUPAC name]] <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Tricyclo[3.3.1.1<sup>3,7</sup>]decane</div></div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Identifiers |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[CAS Registry Number|CAS Number]]</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.commonchemistry.org">[http://www.commonchemistry.org/ChemicalDetail.aspx?ref=281-23-2 281-23-2]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">3D modél ([[JSmol]])</div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)">[https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=C1C3CC2CC%28CC1C2%29C3 Interactive image]</span> * <span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)">[https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=C1C2CC3CC1CC%28C2%29C3 Interactive image]</span> </div> |- |[[ChEBI]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.ebi.ac.uk">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=40519 CHEBI:40519]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ChEMBL]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.ebi.ac.uk">[https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/ChEMBL1614830 ChEMBL1614830]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[File:X_mark.svg|pra=|alt=&#9746;|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ChemSpider]] |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="www.chemspider.com">[http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.8883.html 8883]</span><sup>&nbsp;[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup> </div> |- |[[ECHA InfoCard|<span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span>]] |[https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.005.457 100.005.457] |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[PubChem]] <abbr title="<nowiki&gt;Compound ID</nowiki&gt;">CID</abbr></div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/9238 9238]</span> </div> |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[CompTox Chemicals Dashboard|CompTox Dashboard]] <span style="font-weight:normal">(<abbr title="<nowiki&gt;U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</nowiki&gt;">EPA</abbr>)</span></div> |<div class="plainlist"> * <span title="comptox.epa.gov">[https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/DTXSID5022017 DTXSID5022017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510020045/https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/DTXSID5022017 |date=2019-05-10 }} [[File:Blue_pencil.svg|pra=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q351461#P3117|al=Edit this at Wikidata|atek|nirbing|10x10px|Edit this at Wikidata]]</span> </div> |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/C10H16/c1-7-2-9-4-8(1)5-10(3-7)6-9/h7-10H,1-6H2<sup>&nbsp;[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;ORILYTVJVMAKLC-UHFFFAOYSA-N<sup>&nbsp;[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div></div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">InChI=1/C10H16/c1-7-2-9-4-8(1)5-10(3-7)6-9/h7-10H,1-6H2</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">Key:&nbsp;ORILYTVJVMAKLC-UHFFFAOYAG</div></div> </div> |- | colspan="2" |<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;">[[Simplified molecular-input line-entry system|SMILES]]</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">C1C3CC2CC(CC1C2)C3</div> * <div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:11px; line-height:120%;">C1C2CC3CC1CC(C2)C3</div> </div> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Properties |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Chemical formula]]</div> |<span title="Carbon">C</span><sub>10</sub><span title="Hydrogen">H</span><sub>16</sub> |- |[[Molar mass]] |<span class="nowrap">136.238</span>&nbsp;g·mol<sup>−1</sup> |- |Appéarance |White to off-white powder |- |[[Density]] |1.08 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (20&nbsp;°C),<ref name="lowt">{{cite journal|last1=Windsor|first1=C G|last2=Saunderson|first2=D H|last3=Sherwood|first3=J N|last4=Taylor|first4=D|last5=Pawley|first5=G S|year=1978|title=Lattice dynamics of adamantane in the disordered phase|journal=Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics|volume=11|issue=9|pages=1741–1759|bibcode=1978JPhC...11.1741W|doi=10.1088/0022-3719/11/9/013}}</ref> solid |- |[[Melting point]] | 270&nbsp;°C (518&nbsp;°F; 543&nbsp;K) séaled tube |- |[[Boiling point]] |Sublimes |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Aqueous solution|Solubility in water]]</div> |Poorly soluble |- |[[Solubility]] in other solvents |Soluble in hydrocarbons |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Refractive index]] (''n''<sub>D</sub>)</div> |1.568<ref name="bagriy_1"><cite class="citation book">Bagrii, E.I. (1989). [https://books.google.com/books?id=8RA2AAAAIAAJ&dq=isbn=502001382X ''Adamantanes: synthesis, properties, applications''] (in Russian). Nauka. pp.&nbsp;5–57. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/5-02-001382-X|<bdi>5-02-001382-X</bdi>]].</cite><templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles></ref> |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Structure |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Crystal structure]]</div> |[[Cubic crystal system|cubic]], [[space group]] Fm3m |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Coordination geometry]]</div> |4 |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">[[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|Dipole moment]]</div> |0 [[Debye|D]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Hazards |- |Main [[Worker safety and health|hazards]] |Flammable |- |[[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]] <span style="background:moccasin; line-height:85%;">[[CLP Regulation#Implementation|<small title="Per CLP Regulation, outdated per 1 June 2017. Replaced by GHS data">''(outdated)''</small>]]</span> |24/25/28/37/45 |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;" |Related compounds |- |<div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Related compounds:</div> |[[Memantine]]<br /><br />[[Rimantadine]]<br /><br /> [[Amantadine]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba;" |<div style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their [[standard state]] (at 25&nbsp;°C [77&nbsp;°F], 100&nbsp;kPa).</div></div> |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[File:X_mark.svg|pra=|alt=&#9746;|14x14px]]<span style="display:none">N</span>&nbsp;<span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion">[//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=477241894&page2=Adamantane verify]</span>&nbsp;([[wikipedia:WikiProject Chemicals/Chembox validation|what is]]&nbsp;<sup>[[File:Yes_check.svg|pra=|alt=&#9745;|7x7px]]<span style="display:none">Y</span>[[File:X_mark.svg|pra=|alt=&#9746;|8x8px]]<span style="display:none">N</span></sup>&nbsp;?) |- style="background:#f8eaba; border-top:2px solid transparent;" | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox#References|Infobox&nbsp;references]] |- style="background:#f8eaba;" | style="width:40%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-right:1px solid transparent;" | | style="width:60%; max-height:1px; border-top:2px solid transparent; border-left:1px solid transparent;" | |} '''Adamantan''' atawa '''adamantana''' nyaéta [[sanyawa kimia]] [[kristal]]in tanwarna anu bauna kawas [[kamper]], boga [[rumus kimia]] C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16,</sub> mangrupa [[sikloalkana]] sarta [[diamondoid]] pangbasajanna. [[Molekul]] adamantan diwangun ku gabungan tilu cingcin [[siklohéksana]] anu disusun dina konfigurasi "leungeun korsi". Adamantan téh anu pangstabilna ti antara sakabéh [[isomér]] anu boga rumus C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>. Susunan spasial [[atom]] [[karbon]] dina molekul adamantan sarua jeung dina kristal [[Berlian|inten]], anu matak éta ogé ngaranna diturunkeun tina [[Basa Yunani]] ''adamantinos'' (patali jeung baja atawa [[Berlian|inten]]).<ref>Alexander Senning. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl4sdCYrq3cC&pg=PA6 ''Elsevier's Dictionary of Chemoetymology'']. Elsevier, '''2006''', p. 6 {{ISBN|0-444-52239-5}}.</ref> == Sajarah jeung sintésis == Taun [[1924]], H. Decker ngusulkeun ayana adamantan, anu ku anjeunna disebut '''''decaterpene''''' ('''dékaterpéna''').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Decker H.|year=1924|title=Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. Innsbruck, 21–27 September 1924|journal=Angew. Chem.|volume=37|issue=41|pages=795|doi=10.1002/ange.19240374102}}</ref> Sintésis laboratorium munggaran dicoba taun [[1924]] ku [[kimia]]wan [[Jérman]] Hans Meerwein ku ngaréaksikeun [[formaldehida]] jeung diétil malonat ku ayana piperidin. Lainna ngahasilkeun adamantan, Meerwein kalah meunang 1,3,5,7-tétrakarbométoksibisiklo[3.3.1]nonana-2,6-dion. Sanyawa anu jadi katelah "éster Meerwein" ieu dipaké dina sintésis adamantan jeung turunanana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radcliffe|first=Marc D.|last2=Gutierrez|first2=Alberto|last3=Blount|first3=John F.|last4=Mislow|first4=Kurt|author-link4=Kurt Mislow|year=1984|title=Structure of Meerwein's ester and of its benzene inclusion compound|url=http://www.oci.uzh.ch/efiles/OCVII/ja00315a037.pdf|dead-url=yes|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=106|issue=3|pages=682–687|doi=10.1021/ja00315a037|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809064625/http://www.oci.uzh.ch/efiles/OCVII/ja00315a037.pdf|archive-date=2011-08-09|access-date=2010-05-26}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809064625/http://www.oci.uzh.ch/efiles/OCVII/ja00315a037.pdf |date=2011-08-09 }}</ref> D. Bottger nyobaan nyieun adamantan maké éster Meerwein salaku prékursor. Hasilna, trisiklo-[3.3.1.1<sup>3,7</sup>], lain adamantan, tapi turunanana.<ref>S. Coffey, S. Rodd (ed.) Chemistry of Carbon Compounds. Vol 2. Part C. Elsevier Publishing Co.: New York. 1969</ref> Kungsi ogé aya nu nyoba nyintésis adamantan maké floroglusinol sarta turunan [[siklohéksanon]], tapi sarua gagal.<ref name="cr64">{{Cite journal|last=Fort, Raymond C. Jr.|last2=Schleyers, Paul Von R.|year=1964|title=Adamantane: Consequences of Diamondoid Structure|journal=Chem. Rev.|volume=64|issue=3|pages=277–300|doi=10.1021/cr60229a004}}</ref> [[Gambar:Meerweins_Ether.png|kiri|jmpl| Éster Meerwein]] Adamantan munggaran disintésis ku Vladimir Prelog taun [[1941]] ti éster Meerwein.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1941|title=Über die Synthese des Adamantans|journal=Berichte|volume=74|issue=10|pages=1644–1648|doi=10.1002/cber.19410741004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|year=1941|title=Über eine neue, ergiebigere Darstellung des Adamantans|journal=Berichte|volume=74|issue=11|pages=1769–1772|doi=10.1002/cber.19410741109}}</ref> Lian ti hasilna anu ukur saeutik 0,16%, carana ogé henteu praktis. Métode ieu dipaké pikeun nyintésis sababaraha turunan adamantan.<ref name="cr64"/> [[Gambar:Adamantane_synthesis_by_Prelog.png|pus|600x600px]] Métode Prelog diropéa taun [[1956]]. Hasil dekarboksilasi ngalobaan ku ditambahan jalur Heinsdecker (11%) jeung réaksi Hoffman (24%) nepi ka hasilna jadi 6.5%.<ref>Stetter, H., Bander, O., and Neumann, W., Ber., 89, 1922 (1956).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=McKervey|first=M|year=1980|title=Synthetic approaches to large diamondoid hydrocarbons|journal=Tetrahedron|volume=36|issue=8|pages=971–992|doi=10.1016/0040-4020(80)80050-0}}</ref> Métode sintésis anu leuwih hadé kapanggih taun [[1957]] ku Paul von Ragué Schleyer: disiklopentadiéna mimitina dihidrogenasi dibantu katalis (platinum diokida) laju dirobah jadi adamantan maké asam Lewis (aluminium klorida) salaku katalis lianna. Ieu métode ngaronjatkeun hasilna jadi 30–40% sarta nyadiakeun sumber adamantan anu leuwih kahontal; anu laju ngarojong kana karakterisasi adamantan sarta masih dipaké dina prakték di laboratorium.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schleyer, P. von R.|year=1957|title=A Simple Preparation of Adamantane|journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume=79|issue=12|pages=3292–3292|doi=10.1021/ja01569a086}}</ref><ref>{{OrgSynth|author=Schleyer, P. von R.|author2=Donaldson, M. M.|author3=Nicholas, R. D.|author4=Cupas, C.|title=Adamantane|collvol=5|collvolpages=16|year=1973|prep=cv5p0016}}</ref> Sintésis adamantan ngaronjat jadi 60%<ref name="app">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-FtXsmeX8oC&pg=PA50|pages=48–55|last=Mansoori, G. Ali|title=Molecular building blocks for nanotechnology: from diamondoids to nanoscale materials and applications|publisher=Springer|year=2007|isbn=0-387-39937-2}}</ref> jeung 98% maké katalis ultrasora jeung [https://books.google.com/books?id=SRzrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90&lpg=PA90&dq=high+yield+adamantane+synthesis&source=bl&ots=zyQmvWNBcr&sig=ffr4kix0Mv0Ia7OmTZDWCLDjmDs&hl=fi&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjq-5zQ-NTMAhURb5oKHVVGB1MQ6AEIKDAB#v=onepage&q=high%20yield%20adamantane%20synthesis&f=false katalis ultrasora jeung asam super]. [[Gambar:Adamantane_synthesis.png|pus|600x600px]] == Kelimpahan alam == Saméméh disintésis, adamantan diisolasi tina minyak bumi ku kimiawan Céko: S. Landa, V. Machacek jeung M. Mzourek taun [[1932]].<ref name="landa">{{Cite journal|last=Landa, S.|last2=Machácek, V.|year=1933|title=Sur l'adamantane, nouvel hydrocarbure extrait de naphte.|url=http://cccc.uochb.cas.cz/5/0/0001/|journal=Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun.|volume=5|pages=1–5|doi=10.1135/cccc19330001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Landa, S.|title=Title unknown|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jh8hAQAAMAAJ|year=1933|ref=CITEREFLandaABC1933|last2=Machacek, V.|last3=Mzourek, M.|last4=Landa, M.|journal=Chim Ind. Spec. Publ. Vol. 506 (Abstracts of the 12th Conference of Industrial Chemistry, Prague, Sept. 1932); Chem. Abstr. 1933. Vol. 27. P. 5949.}}</ref> Aranjeunna maké distilasi fraksionasi anu misahkeun komponé molekul organik tina minyak bumi dumasar kana titik golakna. Nepi ka kiwari, sumber alami adamantan masih ngandelkeun minyak bumi; kandunganana antara 0,0001% nepi ka 0,03%, saeutik teuing pikeun produksi komérsil mah.<ref name="msu_pr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.msu.su/rus/teaching/oil/spezprakt-adam.html|title=Synthesis of adamantane|language=Russian|accessdate=2009-12-11}} Special practical problem for the students of IV year. Department of Petroleum Chemistry and Organic Catalysis [[Moscow State University|MSU]].</ref><ref name="bagriy_2">{{Cite book|last=Bagriy EI|chapter=Methods for hydrocarbon adamantane series|title=Adamantane: Synthesis, properties, application|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RA2AAAAIAAJ&dq=isbn=502001382X|location=Moscow|publisher=Nauka|year=1989|pages=58–123|isbn=5-02-001382-X}}</ref> == Pasipatan pisik == Adamantan murni tanwarna, kristalin padet nu bauna kawas kamper. Henteu leyur dina cai, tapi leyur dina [[pelarut organik]] nonpolar.<ref name="himicheskaya entsiklopediya">{{Cite web|url=http://www.chemport.ru/chemical_encyclopedia_article_18.html|title=Adamantane|website=Encyclopedia of Chemistry|language=Russian|accessdate=2009-12-11}}</ref> Salaku hidrokarbon, adamantan boga titik léé anu kaasup luhur (270&nbsp;°C), bandingkeun jeung séjén hidrokarbon anu beurat molekulna sapantar: kampéna (45&nbsp;°C), limonéna (-74&nbsp;°C), osiména (50&nbsp;°C), terpinéna (60&nbsp;°C), twistana (164&nbsp;°C), atawa hidrokarbon liniér C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>22</sub> dékana (-28&nbsp;°C). Ahéngna, adamantan kalah nyublim lalaunan dina hawa kamar.<ref name="j1">{{Cite journal|last=Vijayakumar, V.|displayauthors=etal|year=2001|title=Pressure induced phase transitions and equation of state of adamantane|journal=J. Phys.: Condens. Matter|volume=13|issue=9|pages=1961–1972|bibcode=2001JPCM...13.1961V|doi=10.1088/0953-8984/13/9/318}}</ref> Adamantan bisa disuling maké saab cai.<ref name="bagriy_2"/> === Wangun === [[Gambar:Adamantane_molecular_parameters.png|ka|jmpl]] Molekul adamantan diwangun ku tilu cingcin siklohéksana anu ngahiji dina konformasi korsi. Paraméter molekular dicindekkeun maké difraksi éléktron jeung kristalografi sinar-X. Panjang beungkeut karbon-karbonna 1,54 Å, ampir sarua jeung dina [[inten]], anapon jarak karbon-[[hidrogén]]<nowiki/>na 1,112 Å.<ref name="bagriy_1"/> == Tata ngaran == Dumasar kana aturan tata ngaran sistimatis, adamantan disebut trisiklo[3.3.1.1<sup>3,7</sup>]dékana. Sanajan kitu, IUPAC ngajak maké ngaran "adamantana".<ref name="iupac2013"/> [[Gambar:Adamantane_numbering.svg|kiri|100x100px]] == Analog adamantan == Loba molekul niron wangun kandang kawas adamantan, kayaning fosfor trioksida P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6,</sub> arsétrioksida aaAsO<sub>6</sub> fosfor pentoxikse a <sub>4</sub>O<sub>1</sub> = (PO) <sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> fosfor pentasulfide a <sub>4</sub>S<sub>1</sub> = (PS)<sub>4</sub>S<sub>6</sub> sarta héksamétilénatétramina C<sub>6</sub>N<sub>4</sub>H<sub>12</sub> = N<sub>4</sub>(CH<sub>2)</sub><sub>6.</sub><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vitall, J. J.|year=1996|title=The Chemistry of Inorganic and Organometallic Compounds with Adamantane-Like Structures|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_polyhedron_1996-05_15_10/page/1585|journal=[[Polyhedron (journal)|Polyhedron]]|volume=15|issue=10|pages=1585–1642|doi=10.1016/0277-5387(95)00340-1}}</ref> Anu sohor di antarana tétramétilénadisulfotétramina, atawa nu katelah "tétramina", hiji rodéntisida anu geus dicaram di loba nagara ku sabab bahya ogk pieeun manusa Analog silikon tina adamantan, sila-adamantan, disintésis taun [[2005]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer, Jelena|last2=Baumgartner, Judith|last3=Marschner, Christoph|year=2005|title=Synthesis and Structure of Sila-Adamantane|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-11-04_310_5749/page/825|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=310|issue=5749|pages=825|doi=10.1126/science.1118981|pmid=16272116}}</ref> <gallery class="center"> Gambar: Adamantane acsv.svg|<nowiki> </nowiki>Adamantana Gambar: Hexamine.svg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Héksamétiléntétramina]] Gambar: Phosphorus-pentoxide-2D-dimensions.svg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Fosfor péntoksida]] Gambar: Phosphorus-pentasulfide-2D-dimensions.png|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Fosfor péntasulfida]] Gambar: Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine.png|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Tétramétiléndisulfotétramina]] Gambar: Tetrodotoxin.svg|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Tétrodotoksin]] Gambar: Arsenicin A.png|<nowiki> </nowiki>[[Arsénisin A]] </gallery> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} {{stimulan}} [[Kategori:Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes]] [[Kategori:Chembox image size set]] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] jiwpq0d4ikg3v8p4kee81ir7i4itp5m Léptin 0 87919 712371 667811 2026-08-28T22:06:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox_gene}} {{Infobox protein family |Symbol=Léptin |Name=Leptin |image=PDB 1ax8 EBI.jpg |width= |caption=Wangun protéin obés léptin-E100.<ref name="pmid9144295">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang F, Basinski MB, Beals JM, Briggs SL, Churgay LM, Clawson DK, DiMarchi RD, Furman TC, Hale JE, Hsiung HM, Schoner BE, Smith DP, Zhang XY, Wery JP, Schevitz RW | title = Crystal structure of the obese protein leptin-E100 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1997-05-08_387_6629/page/206 | journal = Nature | volume = 387 | issue = 6629 | pages = 206–09 | date = May 1997 | pmid = 9144295 | doi = 10.1038/387206a0 | bibcode = 1997Natur.387..206Z }}</ref> |Pfam=PF02024 |Pfam_clan=CL0053 |InterPro=IPR000065 |SMART= |PROSITE= |SCOP=1ax8 |TCDB= |OPM family= |OPM protein= |PDB={{PDB2|1ax8}}}} '''Léptin''' (tina Yunani λεπτός ''leptos'', "ipis") nyaéta [[hormon]] anu utamana dijieun ku [[sél adiposa]] jeung peujit leutik nu ngabantuan ngatur kasaimbangan énérgi ku ngahalangan [[lapar]]. Hormon ieu meta dina reséptor di [[hipotalamus]].<ref name="pmid16932309">{{Cite journal|year=2006|title=Drug Insight: the role of leptin in human physiology and pathophysiology – emerging clinical applications|journal=Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab|volume=2|issue=6|pages=318–27|doi=10.1038/ncpendmet0196|pmid=16932309}}</ref> Dina [[Obésitas|obesitasna]], sénsitipitas kana leptin jadi ngurangan (siga résisténsi [[insulin]] dina [[Diabétes tipeu 2|diabetes 2]]) anu balukarna henteu mampuh ngadeteksi kawareg najan simpenan énérni geus pon kitu ogé kadar léptinna.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2014|title=Advances in understanding the interrelations between leptin resistance and obesity|journal=Physiology & Behavior|volume=130|pages=157–69|doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.04.003|pmid=24726399}}</ref> Najan pangaturan simpenan lemak dianggap salaku fungsi utamana, léptin ogé boga peran dina prosés fisiologis séjénna,<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1616504716300556 Article in "Mammalian Biology"]</ref> sakumaha kabukti ku loba loka sintésisna di saluareun sél lemak jeung sababaraha tipeu sél lian ti sél hipotalamik anu boga reséptor leptin. Pancén lianna ieu digarali kénéh. <ref name="pmid7624777">{{Cite journal|date=July 1995|title=Weight-reducing effects of the plasma protein encoded by the obese gene|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-07-28_269_5223/page/543|journal=Science|volume=269|issue=5223|pages=543–46|bibcode=1995Sci...269..543H|doi=10.1126/science.7624777|pmid=7624777}}</ref> <ref name="pmid7624778">{{Cite journal|date=July 1995|title=Recombinant mouse OB protein: evidence for a peripheral signal linking adiposity and central neural networks|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-07-28_269_5223/page/546|journal=Science|volume=269|issue=5223|pages=546–49|bibcode=1995Sci...269..546C|doi=10.1126/science.7624778|pmid=7624778}}</ref> <ref name="pmid7624776">{{Cite journal|date=July 1995|title=Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob/ob mice|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1995-07-28_269_5223/page/540|journal=Science|volume=269|issue=5223|pages=540–43|bibcode=1995Sci...269..540P|doi=10.1126/science.7624776|pmid=7624776}}</ref> <ref name="pmid7584987">{{Cite journal|date=November 1995|title=Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob RNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects|journal=Nat. Med.|volume=1|issue=11|pages=1155–61|doi=10.1038/nm1195-1155|pmid=7584987}}</ref> <ref name="pmid7769141">{{Cite journal|date=June 1995|title=Evidence against either a premature stop codon or the absence of obese gene mRNA in human obesity|journal=J. Clin. Invest.|volume=95|issue=6|pages=2986–88|doi=10.1172/JCI118007|pmc=295988|pmid=7769141}}</ref> <ref name="pmid8532024">{{Cite journal|year=1996|title=Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=334|issue=5|pages=292–95|doi=10.1056/NEJM199602013340503|pmid=8532024}}</ref> == Pangaruh == [[Gambar:Fatmouse.jpg|al=Two white mice both with similar sized ears, black eyes, and pink noses: The body of the mouse on the left, however, is about three times the width of the normal-sized mouse on the right.|jmpl| Babandingan beurit anu henteu bisa ngahasilkeun léptin, jadina [[Obésitas|obesitas]], [[lapar]], jeung létoy (kénca), jeung beurit normal (katuhu). ]] ; Perenah aksi : Léptin ''langsung'' bereaksi jeung [[reséptor léptin]] dina [[Mémbran sél|mémbran]] rupa-rupa [[Sél (biologi)|sél]] dina [[waruga manusa]], pon kitu ogé [[vertebrata]] sacara umum. Reséptor leptin kaasup [[reséptor sitokin tipe I]] ''single-transmembrane-domain''.<ref name="pmid18821585">{{Cite journal|year=2008|title=Leptin signaling in breast cancer: an overview|journal=Journal of Cellular Biochemistry|volume=105|issue=4|pages=956–64|doi=10.1002/jcb.21911|pmid=18821585}}</ref> Léptin ogé boga pancén jeung pangaruh ka hormon lianna, régulator énérgi, alajengna, léptin berinteraksi jeung [[hormon]] séjén jeung régulator énergi, ''langsung'' nyapih efek tina [[insulin]], [[glukagon]], faktor tumuwuh kawas insulin, [[hormon pertumbuhan]], [[glukokortikoid]], [[sitokin]], jeung [[metabolit]]. <ref name="Margetic">{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Leptin: a review of its peripheral actions and interactions|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2002-11_26_11/page/1407|journal=Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.|volume=26|issue=11|pages=1407–33|doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0802142|pmid=12439643}}</ref> ; Pungsi : Pungsi ''utama'' léptin nyaéta régulasi/pangaturan massa [[jaringan adiposa]] ngaliwatan pangaruh anu dimédiasi hipotalamus séntral dina [[lapar]], pamakéan [[énérgi pangan]], [[Olah Raga|olah raga]] jeung [[Homéostasis énérgi|kasaimbangan énérgi]]. Luareun [[uteuk]], dina périfér awak, fungsi ''sekundér'' léptin nyaéta: modulasi pangaluaran énérgi, modulasi métabolisme antara fétal jeung maternal, ngaktipkeun sél imun, jeung paktor pertumbuhan. == Sajarah == Léptin kapanggih ku [[Jeffrey Freidman]] taun [[1994]]<nowiki/>sanggeus puluhan taun panalungtikan ku séjén lembaga ti [[1950-an]] maké modél mencit obés.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://centennial.rucares.org/index.php?page=Discovery_Leptin|title=The Rockefeller University » Hospital Centennial|website=centennial.rucares.org|language=en|accessdate=2018-10-11}}</ref> == Rujukan == <references /> == Tutumbu kaluar == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060627212342/http://neuroendo.org.uk/index.php/content/view/8/11/ Leptin: uteuk anjeun, napsu jeung obesitas ku British Society of Neuroendocrinology] * [http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/bodyweight/leptin.html Leptin ku Colorado State University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026031421/http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/bodyweight/leptin.html |date=2011-10-26 }} - ilustrasi hadé, ngan geus lila teu dimutahirkeun * [http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=154 Leptin di 3Dchem.com], pedaran jeung diagram wangunna {{hormon}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Obésitas]] [[Kategori:Hormon péptida]] jvqw993rtclf5mc2bxttrheangt6x2o Werner Heisenberg 0 88174 712417 711737 2026-08-28T23:03:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Heisenberg}} {{Infobox scientist | name = Werner Heisenberg | image = Bundesarchiv Bild183-R57262, Werner Heisenberg.jpg | caption = Heisenberg taun 1933 | birth_name = Werner Karl Heisenberg | birth_date = {{birth date|1901|12|5|df=y}} | birth_place = [[Würzburg]], [[Karajaan Bavaria]], [[Kakaisaran Jérman]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1976|02|1|1901|12|5|df=y}} | death_place = [[Munich]], Bavaria, [[Jérman Kulon]] | resting_place = [[Munich Waldfriedhof]] | nationality = [[Jérman]] | fields = [[Fisika téorétis]] | workplaces = {{plainlist| * [[Univérsitas Göttingen]] * [[Univérsitas Copenhagen]] * [[Univérsitas Leipzig]] * [[Univérsitas Bérlin]] * [[Univérsitas Munich]]}} | thesis_title = On stability and turbulence of liquid flows | thesis_year = 1923 | alma_mater = {{plainlist| * [[Univérsitas Munich]] * [[Univérsitas Göttingen]]}} | doctoral_advisor = [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] | academic_advisors = {{plainlist| * [[Niels Bohr]] * [[Max Born]]}} | doctoral_students = {{plainlist| * [[Felix Bloch]] * [[Edward Teller]] * [[Rudolf E. Peierls]] * [[Reinhard Oehme]] * [[Friedwardt Winterberg]] * Peter Mittelstaedt * [[Șerban Țițeica]] * [[Ivan Supek]] * [[Erich Bagge]] * [[Hermann Arthur Jahn]] * Heimo Dolch * [[Hans Heinrich Euler]] * Edwin Gora * Bernhard Kockel * Arnold Siegert * Wang Foh-san * Karl Ott * Bary F. Malik}} | notable_students = {{plainlist| * [[William Vermillion Houston]] * [[Guido Beck]] * [[Ugo Fano]] * [[Ettore Majorana]] * [[Herbert Wagner (fisikawan)|Herbert Wagner]]}} | known_for = {{collapsible list|title= |[[Prinsip kateupastian]]|[[Pambagi Heisenberg]]|[[Jalan asup Heisenberg ka mékanika matriks]]|[[Feromagnet Heisenberg]]|[[Grup Heisenberg]]|[[Bates Heisenberg]]|[[Mikroskop Heisenberg]]|[[Modél Heisenberg (klasik)]]|[[Modél Heisenberg (kuantum)]]|[[Gambaran Heisenberg]]|[[Isospin]]|[[Mékanika matriks]]|[[Lagrange Euler-Heisenberg]]|[[Rumus Kramers-Heisenberg]]|[[Modél bootstrap]]|[[Aljabar-C*]]|[[Interaksi patukeran]]|[[Masalah Mott]]|[[Persamaan Heisenberg–Langevin]]|[[Fluktuasi kuantum]]|[[Resonansi (kimia)]]|[[Matriks-S]]|[[Téori matriks-S]]|[[Pamanggihan neutron#Modél inti proton–neutron|Modél inti proton–neutron]]|[[Proyék pakarang nuklir Jérman|''Uranprojekt'']]}} | influences = | influenced = {{plainlist| * [[Robert Döpel]] * [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker]]}} | spouse = {{marriage|Elisabeth Schumacher|29 April 1937|}} | children = 7 (contona [[Jochen Heisenberg|Jochen]] jeung [[Martin Heisenberg|Martin]]) | awards = {{Plainlist| * [[Medali Matteucci]] <small>(1929)</small> * [[Medali Barnard pikeun Jasa ka Élmu]] <small>(1930)</small> * [[Hadiah Nobel widang Fisika]] <small>(1932)</small> * [[Medali Max Planck]] <small>(1933)</small> * [[Anggota Asing Royal Society]] <small>(1955)</small><ref name=formemrs/> * [[Anggota Asing Akademi Sains Nasional Amérika Serikat]] <small>(1961)</small>}} | signature = Werner Heisenberg signature.svg }} '''Werner Karl Heisenberg''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aɪ|z|ən|b|ɜr|ɡ}};<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/heisenberg "Heisenberg"]. ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈvɛɐ̯nɐ ˈhaɪzn̩ˌbɛɐ̯k|lang}}; 5 Désémber 1901 – 1 Pébruari 1976) nyaéta [[fisika téorétis|fisikawan téorétis]] [[Bangsa Jérman|Jérman]] jeung salah saurang pionir konci [[mékanika kuantum]]. Anjeunna medalkeun panalungtikna taun 1925 dina [[Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen|makalah terobosan]]. Dina runtuyan makalah sanggeusna jeung [[Max Born]] sarta [[Pascual Jordan]], sapanjang taun nu sarua, [[mékanika matriks|formulasi matriks]] mékanika kuantum ieu diguar sacara ''substansial''. Anjeunna dipikawanoh ku [[prinsip kateupastian|prinsip kateupastian Heisenberg]], nu dipedalkeun taun 1927. Heisenberg dibéré anugrah [[Hadiah Nobel widang Fisika]] 1932 "pikeun jasana nyiptakeun mékanika kuantum".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/index.html |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date= |accessdate=7 Désémber 2012}} Sumber ieu ngajéntrékeun Heisenberg sabenerna narima Hadiah Nobel 1932 dina 1 tahun saanggeusna, dina 1933.</ref> Anjeunna ogé ngabuat kontribusi penting kana téori [[Dinamika fluida|hidrodinamika]] [[arus turbulen]], [[inti atom]], [[feromagnétisme]], [[sinar kosmis]], jeung [[partikel subatom]], sarta anjeunna miboga peran penting dina ngarencanakeun [[réaktor nuklir]] Jérman Kulon kahiji di [[Karlsruhe]], bareng jeung [[réaktor panalungtik]] di [[Munich]], dina taun 1957. Anjeunna jadi élmuwan pupuhu di [[proyék pakarang nuklir Jérman|proyék pakarang nuklir Nazi Jérman]] salila mangsa [[Perang Dunya II]]. Anjeunna indit ka Copenhagen nu dijajah Jérman, tempat anjeunna tepang jeung ngadiskusikeun proyék Jérman sareng [[Niels Bohr]]. Saanggeus Perang Dunya II, anjeunna ditunjuk jadi diréktur [[Institut Kaiser Wilhelm Institute pikeun Fisika]], nu engkéna digentos ngaranna jadi [[Institut Max Planck Institute pikeun Fisika]]. Anjeunna jadi diréktur di ieu institut nepi ka pindah ka Munich taun 1958, pas ieu institut dikembangkeun jeung digentos ngaranna [[Max Planck Society|Institut Max Planck pikeun Fisika jeung Astrofisika]]. Heisenberg ogé jadi présidén [[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft|Déwan Panalungtikan Jérman]], pupuhu Komisi Fisika Atom, pupuhu Nucléar Physics Working Group, jeung présidén [[Yayasan Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref name=formemrs/> == Pedalan == === Bibliografi === * {{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=David C. |title=Werner Heisenberg : A Bibliography of His Writings |publisher=Whittier |edition=2nd |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-57604-115-4 }} * {{cite web |last=Cassidy |first=David C. |title=Werner Heisenberg: A Bibliography of His Writings, 1922–1929, Expanded Edition |url=http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016175541/http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm |date=2012-10-16 }} * {{harvnb|Mott|Peierls|1977}} * {{cite book |first=Anna |last=Ludovico |title=Effetto Heisenberg. La rivoluzione scientifica che ha cambiato la storia |publisher=Armando |location=Roma |year=2001 |isbn=978-88-8358-182-3 |page=224 }} * {{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Blum |first2=Helmut |last2=Heisenberg |first3=Anna |last3=Ludovico |title=Per Heisenberg |publisher=Aracne |location=Roma |year=2006 |isbn=978-88-548-0636-8 |page=96 |url=}} === Artikel petingan === {{refbegin|25em}} * {{cite journal |first1=A. |last1=Sommerfeld |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Eine Bemerkung über relativistische Röntgendubletts und Linienschärfe |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=393–398 |year=1922 |bibcode=1922ZPhy...10..393S |doi=10.1007/BF01332582 }} * {{cite journal |first1=A. |last1=Sommerfeld |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Die Intensität der Mehrfachlinien und ihrer Zeeman-Komponenten |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=131–154 |year=1922 |doi=10.1007/BF01328408 |bibcode=1922ZPhy...11..131S }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Über Phasenbeziehungen bei den Bohrschen Modellen von Atomen und Molekeln |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=44–55 |year=1923 |doi=10.1007/BF01340032 |bibcode=1923ZPhy...14...44B }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Die Elektronenbahnen im angeregten Heliumatom |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=16 |pages=229–243 |year=1923 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243790902 |issue=9|bibcode=1924AnP...379....1B }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=1–31 |year=1924 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243790902 |bibcode=1924AnP...379....1B }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmmen (Diss.) |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=577–627 |year=1924 |doi=10.1002/andp.19243791502 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1924AnP...379..577H}} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |title=Über den Einfluss der Deformierbarkeit der Ionen auf optische und chemische Konstanten. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=388–410 |year=1924 |doi=10.1007/BF01327603 |bibcode=1924ZPhy...23..388B }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über eine Abänderung der formalin Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman-Effekte |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=291–307 |year=1924 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01327336|bibcode=1924ZPhy...26..291H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=879–893 |year=1925 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01328377|bibcode=1925ZPhy...33..879H |title-link=Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen }} Makalahna diterima dina 29 Juli 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&&pg=PA261 12 "Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah kahiji dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |first2=P. |last2=Jordan |title=Zur Quantenmechanik |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=858–888 |year=1925 |doi=10.1007/BF01328531 |bibcode=1925ZPhy...34..858B }} Makalah ieu ditarima dina 27 Séptémber 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&pg=PA277#v=onepage "On Quantum Mechanics"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah kadua dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=Born |last2=Heisenberg |first2=W. |first3=P. |last3=Jordan |title=Zur Quantenmechanik II |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=35 |pages=557–615 |year=1926 |bibcode=1926ZPhy...35..557B |doi=10.1007/BF01379806 |issue=8–9 }} Makalah ieu ditarima dina 16 Novémber 1925. [Tarjamahan basa Inggris di: {{harvnb|van der Waerden|1968|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8KLMGqnZCDcC&pg=PA321 15 "On Quantum Mechanics II"]}}] Makalah ieu mangrupa makalah katilu dina trilogi kawentar nu medalkeun formulasi [[mékanika matriks]] dina mékanika kuantum. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=43 |pages=172–198 |year=1927 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01397280 |issue=3–4 |ref=harv|bibcode=1927ZPhy...43..172H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=49 |pages=619–636 |year=1928 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01328601 |issue=9–10 |ref=harv|bibcode=1928ZPhy...49..619H }} * {{cite journal |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |first2=W. |last2=Pauli |title=Zur Quantendynamik der Wellenfelder |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=56 |pages=1–61 |year=1929 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1930ZPhy...56....1H |doi=10.1007/BF01340129 |issue=1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |first2=W. |last2=Pauli |title=Zur Quantentheorie der Wellenfelder. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=59 |pages=168–190 |year=1930 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1930ZPhy...59..168H |doi=10.1007/BF01341423 |issue=3–4 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=77 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–11 |year=1932 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01342433 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1932 I}}|bibcode=1932ZPhy...77....1H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=78 |pages=156–164 |year=1932 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01337585 |issue=3–4 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1932 II}}|bibcode=1932ZPhy...78..156H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne. III |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=80 |pages=587–596 |year=1933 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01335696 |issue=9–10 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1933 III}}|bibcode=1933ZPhy...80..587H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=Werner |title=Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=90 |issue=3–4 |pages=209–231 |year=1934 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01333516 |ref=harv|bibcode=1934ZPhy...90..209H }} Panulis nu disebut dina makalah nyaéta Leipzig. Makalah ieu ditarima dina 21 Juni 1934. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über die 'Schauer' in der Kosmischen Strahlung |journal=Forsch. Fortscher. |volume=12 |pages=341–342 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1936 Forsch. Fortscher.}}}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |first2=H. |last2=Euler |title=Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=98 |issue=11–12 |pages=714–732 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1936ZPhy...98..714H |doi=10.1007/BF01343663 |ref=harv}} Panulis nu disebut dina makalah nyaéta Leipzig. Makalah ieu ditarima dina 22 Désémber 1935. Tarjamahan ti makalah ieu geus dikeureuyeuh ku W. Korolevski jeung H. Kleinert: [https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0605038v1 arXiv:physics/0605038v1]. * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur Theorie der 'Schauer' in der Höhenstrahlung |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=101 |pages=533–540 |year=1936 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01349603 |issue=9–10 |ref={{harvid|Heisenberg|1936 Z. Phys.}}|bibcode=1936ZPhy..101..533H }} * W. Heisenberg ''Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern'', ''Ber. Sächs, Akad. Wiss.'' Volume 89, 369; ''[[Die Naturwissenschaften]]'' Volume 25, 749–750 (1937) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung |journal=Verh. Stsch. Physical. Ges. |volume=18 |page=50 |year=1937 |authormask=1}} * {{cite journal |title=Die Absorption der durchdringenden Komponente der Höhenstrahlung |doi=10.1002/andp.19384250705 |year=1938 |last1=Heisenberg |first1=W. |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=425 |issue=7 |pages=594–599 |bibcode = 1938AnP...425..594H |authormask=1}} * W. Heisenberg ''Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern'', ''Nuovo Cimento'' Volume 15, 31–34; ''Verh. Dtsch. physik. Ges.'' Volume 19, 2 (1938) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. I |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=120 |pages=513–538 |year=1943 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01329800 |issue=7–10|bibcode=1943ZPhy..120..513H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. II |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=120 |pages=673–702 |year=1943 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01336936 |issue=11–12|bibcode=1943ZPhy..120..673H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. III |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=123 |issue=1–2 |pages=93–112 |year=1944 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01375146|bibcode=1943ZPhy..123...93H }} * W. Heisenberg ''Zur Theorie der Supraleitung'', ''Forsch. Fortschr.'' Volumes 21/23, 243–244 (1947); ''Z. Naturforsch.'' Volume 2a, 185–201 (1947) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Das elektrodynamische Verhalten der Supraleiter |journal=Z. Naturforsch. |volume=3a |issue=2 |pages=65–75 |year=1948 |authormask=1|bibcode=1948ZNatA...3...65H |doi=10.1515/zna-1948-0201 }} * {{cite journal |first1=M. |last1=von Laue |last2=Laue |first2=W. |title=Das Barlowsche Rad aus supraleitendem Material |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=124 |pages=514–518 |year=1948 |bibcode=1948ZPhy..124..514H |doi=10.1007/BF01668888 |issue=7–12 }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Zur statistischen Theorie der Tubulenz |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=124 |pages=628–657 |year=1948 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01668899 |issue=7–12|bibcode=1948ZPhy..124..628H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=On the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]] |volume=195 |pages=402–406 |year=1948 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1948.0127 |issue=1042|bibcode=1948RSPSA.195..402H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Bemerkungen um Turbulenzproblem |journal=Z. Naturforsch. |volume=3a |pages=434–7 |year=1948 |authormask=1|bibcode=1948ZNatA...3..434H |doi=10.1515/zna-1948-8-1103 |doi-broken-date=2019-02-19 }} * {{cite journal |first=W. |last=Heisenberg |title=Production of mesons showers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1949-07-09_164_4158/page/65 |journal=Nature |volume=164 |pages=65–67 |year=1949 |doi=10.1038/164065c0 |authormask=1 |issue=4158|bibcode=1949Natur.164...65H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Die Erzeugung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen |journal=Nuovo Cimento |volume=6 |issue=Suppl |pages=493–7 |year=1949 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF02822044|bibcode=1949NCim....6S.493H }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Über die Entstehung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=126 |pages=569–582 |year=1949 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF01330108 |issue=6|bibcode=1949ZPhy..126..569H }} * W. Heisenberg ''On the stability of laminar flow'', ''Proc. International Congress Mathematicians'' Volume II, 292–296 (1950) * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Bermerkungen zur Theorie der Vielfacherzeugung von Mesonen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1952_39_3/page/69 |journal=[[Die Naturwissenschaften]] |volume=39 |page=69 |year=1952 |authormask=1 |doi=10.1007/BF00596818 |issue=3 |bibcode=1952NW.....39...69H}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Mesonenerzeugung als Stosswellenproblem |journal=Z. Phys. |volume=133 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–79 |year=1952 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1952ZPhy..133...65H |doi=10.1007/BF01948683}} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=The production of mesons in very high energy collisions |journal=Nuovo Cimento |volume=12 |issue=Suppl |pages=96–103 |year=1955 |authormask=1|bibcode=1955NCim....2S..96H |doi=10.1007/BF02746079 }} * {{cite journal |last=Heisenberg |first=W. |title=Development of concepts in the history of quantum theory |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=389–394 |year=1975 |authormask=1 |bibcode=1975AmJPh..43..389H |doi=10.1119/1.9833}} Bahan artikel ieu dipréséntasikeun Heisenberg dina kuliah di Univérsitas Harvard. {{refend}} === Buku === * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NzMBh4ZxKJsC |year=1949 |isbn=978-0-486-60113-7 |origyear=1930 |publisher=Dover |authormask=1 |others=Panarjamah [[Carl Eckart|Eckart, Carl]]; Hoyt, F.C. }} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Das Naturbild der heutigen Physik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sm0YAAAAIAAJ |year=1955 |publisher=Rowohlt |authormask=1 |series=Rowohlts Enzyklopädie |volume=8}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Philosophic Problems of Nuclear Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWs5PQAACAAJ |year=1966 |publisher=Fawcett |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsbeyondenc0000heis |year=1971 |publisher=Harper & Row |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |first2=Jürgen |last2=Busche |title=Quantentheorie und Philosophie: Vorlesungen und Aufsätze |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtgWAQAAMAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Reclam |isbn=978-3-15-009948-3 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Philosophical problems of quantum physics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC4pAAAAYAAJ |year=1979 |publisher=Ox Bow |isbn=978-0-918024-14-5 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Tradition in Science |year=1983 |publisher=Seabury Press. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven |year=1988 |publisher=Ullstein Taschenbuchvlg. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Encounters with Einstein: And Other Essays on People, Places, and Particles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FI9KD4jLPckC |year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02433-2 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |first2=Filmer |last2=Northrop |title=Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science (Great Minds Series) |year=1999 |publisher=Prometheus |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Der Teil und das Ganze: Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28mmSwAACAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Piper |isbn=978-3-492-22297-6 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |editor1-first=Helmut |editor1-last=Rechenberg |title=Deutsche und Jüdische Physik |year=1992 |publisher=Piper |isbn=978-3-492-11676-3 |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven |year=2007 |publisher=Hirzel. |authormask=1}} * {{cite book |first=Werner |last=Heisenberg |title=Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJjuAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-120919-2 |edition=reprint |authormask=1 |series=Harper Perennial Modern Classics}} <small>([https://archive.org/details/PhysicsPhilosophy téks penuh vérsi 1958]) </small> == Rujukan budaya == Heisenberg jadi inspirasi di balik "Heisenberg", [[alter égo]] [[Walter White (Breaking Bad)|Walter White]], [[protagonis]] utama ''[[Breaking Bad]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theweek.com/articles/459448/beyond-breaking-bad-meet-real-heisenberg|title=Beyond Breaking Bad: Meet the real Heisenberg|last=Conradt|first=Stacy|date=1 Oktober 2013|website=''[[The Week]]''|access-date=21 Maret 2019}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == * [[Daftar pamanggih jeung invéntor Jérman]] * ''[[The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory]]'' == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Bacaan lanjutan == {{refbegin|60em}} * Born, Max ''The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121019194414/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1954/born-lecture.pdf Kuliah Nobel] – 11 Désémber 1954. * Cassidy, David C. ''Werner Heisenberg : A Bibliography of His Writings, Second, Expanded Edition'' (Whittier, 2001) * {{cite journal|last=Cassidy|first=David C.|title=Heisenberg, Uncertainty and the Quantum Revolution|journal=Scientific American|pages=106–112|date=May 1992|url=http://web.williams.edu/chemistry/epeacock/EPL_CHEM_361/LEC_NOTES_F06/Lec4.Heisppr.pdf|bibcode=1992SciAm.266e.106C|volume=266|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0592-106|via=|issue=5}} * Dörries, Matthias ''Michael Frayn's 'Copenhagen' in Debate: Historical Essays and Documents on the 1941 Meeting Between Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg'' (Univérsitas California, 2005) * Fischer, Ernst P. ''Werner Heisenberg: Das selbstvergessene Genie'' (Piper, 2002) * Heisenberg, Werner "A Scientist's case for the Classics" (Harper's Magazine, Méi 1958, p. 25–29) * Heisenberg, Werner ''Across the Frontiers'' (Harper & Row, 1974) * Kleint, Christian and Gerald Wiemer ''Werner Heisenberg im Spiegel seiner Leipziger Schüler und Kollegen'' (Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2005) * {{cite book|author=Medawar, Jean: Pyke, David|title=Hitler's Gift: The True Story of the Scientists Expelled by the Nazi Regime|location=New York|pages=|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2012|type=paperback|isbn=978-1-61145-709-4}} * Papenfuß, Dietrich, [[Dieter Lüst]], and Wolfgang P. Schleich ''100 Years Werner Heisenberg: Works and Impact'' (Wiley-VCH, 2002) * [[Thomas Powers|Powers, Thomas]], "The Private Heisenberg and the Absent Bomb" (ulasan Werner jeung Elisabeth Heisenberg, ''My Dear Li: Correspondence, 1937–1946'', diédit ku Anna Maria Hirsch-Heisenberg jeung ditarjamahkeun ti basa Jérman ku Irene Heisenberg, Yale University Press, 312 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXIII, no. 20 (22 Désémber 2016, pp. 65–67. "Heisenberg, [[Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker]], and... [[Karl Wirtz]] [during World War II led] an effort [to prevent] a complete shutdown [of work toward a German atom bomb], which would condemn young physicists to military service... or takeover by Nazi extremists who might think an atomic bomb could still give Hitler a complete victory." (p. 66.) Desiring on ethical grounds to prevent the introduction of nucléar wéapons into the world, the key German nucléar physicists "'agreed... not to deny [the feasibility of] an atomic bomb, but... to [argue] that it could not be implemented within a realistic time frame...'" (p. 67.) * Rechenberg, Helmut und Gerald Wiemers ''Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), Schritte in die neue Physik'' (Sax-Verlag Beucha, 2001) * [[Richard Rhodes|Rhodes, Richard]] ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'' (Simon jeung Schuster, 1986) * Schiemann, Gregor ''Werner Heisenberg'' (C.H. Beck, 2008) * von Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich and Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ''Werner Heisenberg'' (Hanser, Carl GmbH, 1977) * {{cite journal|last=Walker|first=Mark|title=National Socialism and German Physics|url=|journal=Journal of Contemporary Physics|volume=24|pages=63–89|year=1989|bibcode=1978Natur.272..738M|doi=10.1038/272738a0|via=|issue=5655}} * {{cite book|author=Walker|first=Mark|title=Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb|publisher=Perseus|year=1995|isbn=|location=|pages=}} * {{cite journal|last=Walker|first=Mark|title=German Work on Nuclear Weapons|url=|journal=Historia Scientiarum; International Journal for the History of Science Society of Japan|volume=14|issue=3|pages=164–181|via=|year=2005}} {{refend}} == Tutumbu luar == {{commons|Werner Heisenberg}} * [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Heisenberg,+Werner Bibliografi Catatan pikeun Werner Heisenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100804001541/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FHeisenberg%2C+Werner |date=2010-08-04 }} ti [[Perpustakaan Digital Alsos pikeun Isu Nuklir]] * Biografi ''[[Arsip Sajarah Matematika MacTutor|MacTutor]]: [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Heisenberg.html Werner Karl Heisenberg]'' * [http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/ Heisenberg/Uncertainty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016175541/http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/bibliography/contents.htm |date=2012-10-16 }} biografi nu ditingalikeun ku [[Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat]]. * [http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/people/heisenberg.html Participant Konci: Werner Heisenberg] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920182447/http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/people/heisenberg.html |date=2012-09-20 }} – ''Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'' * [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-bio.html Biografi Nobelprize.org] * [http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/cou/ger/weap/wmd/nuc/sci/wh-ment30.html Werner Heisenberg: Mentor Fisika Atom] * {{cite web |title=Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg |date=16 June 1970 |publisher=Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat, Perpustakaan & Arsip Niels Bohr |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5027.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126113055/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/5027.html |date=26 January 2013 }} * {{cite web |title=Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg |date=30 November 1962 |publisher=Institut Fisika Amérika Serikat, Perpustakaan & Arsip Niels Bohr |url=http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4661_1.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126121339/http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4661_1.html |date=26 January 2013 }} * {{PM20|FID=pe/007478}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Heisenberg, Werner}} [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1901]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Fisikawan Jérman]] iz764qrs9xwg0uyg1onlzetg0gmvv3i Owa 0 98189 712424 676042 2026-08-28T23:13:30Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox|name=Gibbons<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=178–181|id=12100752}}</ref><ref name=Mootnick>{{cite journal | last = Mootnick | first = A. |author2=Groves, C. P. | year = 2005 | title = A new generic name for the hoolock gibbon (Hylobatidae) | url = https://archive.org/details/international-journal-of-primatology_2005-08_26_4/page/971 | journal = International Journal of Primatology | issue = 4 | pages = 971–976 | doi = 10.1007/s10764-005-5332-4 | volume = 26}}</ref>|display_parents=2|taxon=Hylobatidae|authority=[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1870|fossil_range={{Fossil range|8|0}}<small>Late [[Miocene]]–Recent</small>|image=Hylobates lar pair of white and black 01.jpg|image_caption=[[Lar gibbon]]s (''Hylobates lar'')|type_genus=''[[Hylobates]]''|type_genus_authority=[[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811|subdivision_ranks=Genera|subdivision=* ''[[Hylobates]]'' * ''[[Hoolock]]'' * ''[[Nomascus]]'' * ''[[Symphalangus]]'' * †''[[Bunopithecus]]'' * †''[[Junzi imperialis|Junzi]]'' <br> '''sister:''' [[Hominidae]]|range_map=Distribución hylobatidae.png|range_map_caption=Distribution in Southeast Asia|range_map_alt=}} {| class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%" ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |Gibbons<ref name="MSW3"><cite class="citation book" id="CITEREFGroves2005">[[Colin Groves|Groves, C.P.]] (2005). [[Don E. Wilson|Wilson, D.E.]]; Reeder, D.M. (eds.). [http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=12100752 ''Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference''] (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.&nbsp;178–181. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/0-801-88221-4|<bdi>0-801-88221-4</bdi>]]. [[OCLC]]&nbsp;[//www.worldcat.org/oclc/62265494 62265494].</cite></ref><ref name="Mootnick"><cite class="citation journal">Mootnick, A.; Groves, C. P. (2005). "A new generic name for the hoolock gibbon (Hylobatidae)". ''International Journal of Primatology''. '''26''' (4): 971–976. [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s10764-005-5332-4|10.1007/s10764-005-5332-4]].</cite><templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles></ref><br /><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span style="display:inline-block;">8–0&nbsp;[[Megaannum|Ma]]</span> <div style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:13px;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:208.07692307692px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,214,123); background-image: -moz-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: -o-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(left, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1)); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));">[[Precambrian|PreЄ]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,170,114); left:36.892307692308px; width:18.818461538462px;">[[Cambrian|Є]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,169,138); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;">[[Ordovician|O]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(166,223,197); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;">[[Silurian|S]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(221,150,81); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;">[[Devonian|D]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(63,174,173); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;">[[Carboniferous|C]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,88,60); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;">[[Permian|P]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,78,150); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.126830769231px;">[[Triassic|T]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,187,231); left:151.86769230769px; width:19.055384615385px;">[[Jurassic|J]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(111,200,107); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;">[[Cretaceous|K]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,161,99); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;">[[Paleogene|<small>Pg</small>]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,221,45); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;">[[Neogene|<small>N</small>]]</div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:217.29230769231px; width:2.7076923076923px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42; "></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:217.29230769231px; width:2.7076923076923px; background-color:#360; opacity:1; "></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:218.29230769231px; width:0.70769230769231px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div><small>Late [[Miocene]]–Recent</small></div> |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center" |[[File:Hylobates lar pair of white and black 01.jpg|nirbing]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%" |[[Lar gibbon]]s (''Hylobates lar'') |- style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |- ! colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |[[Taxonomy (biology)|Scientific classification]] <span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;">[[File:Red Pencil Icon.png|pra=Template:Taxonomy/Hylobatidae|e]]</span> |- |Kingdom: |[[Animal]]ia |- |Phylum: |[[Chordate|Chordata]] |- |Class: |[[Mammal]]ia |- |Order: |[[Primate]]s |- |Suborder: |[[Haplorhini]] |- |Infraorder: |[[Simian|Simiiformes]] |- |Parvorder: |[[Catarrhini]] |- |Superfamily: |[[Ape|Hominoidea]] |- |Family: |'''Hylobatidae'''<br /><br /><small>[[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1870</small> |- style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |[[Type genus]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center" |''[[Hylobates]]''<br /><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">[[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811</div> |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)" |Genera |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: left" | * ''[[Hylobates]]'' * ''[[Hoolock]]'' * ''[[Nomascus]]'' * ''[[Symphalangus]]'' * †''[[Bunopithecus]]'' * †''[[Junzi imperialis|Junzi]]'' '''sister:''' [[Hominidae]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center" |[[File:Distribución hylobatidae.png|nirbing]] |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%" |Distribution in Southeast Asia |} '''Owa''' nyaéta [[kera]] ti [[Familia|kulawarga]] '''Hylobatidae''' anu baheulana mah ngawengku hiji genus, tapi ayeuna kabagi jadi opat genera jeung 18 [[spésiés]]. Owa hirup di [[leuweung hujan tropis]] jeung subtropis ti wétan [[Bangladés]] jeung kalér [[India]] nepi ka kidul [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]] sarta [[Indonésia]] (kaasup [[Sumatra]], [[Kalimantan]], jeung [[Pulo Jawa|Jawa]]). Disebut ogé '''kera anu langkung''' '''alit''' atanapi '''kera anu langkung''' '''alit''', gibon henteu bénten-béda ti kera anu hébat ( chimpanzees, bonobos, [[gorila]], [[Mayas|orangutan]], sareng [[manusa]] ) dina anu langkung alit, nunjukkeun [[Dimorfismeu baga-purusa|dimorphisme seksual anu]] handap, sareng henteu nanggupan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/03/gibbon-conservation-center-working-to-save-south-asias-hoolock-gibbons-other-small-apes/|title=Gibbon Conservation Center Working to Save South Asia's Hoolock Gibbons & Other "Small Apes"|website=National Geographic =|accessdate=14 February 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105120232/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/03/gibbon-conservation-center-working-to-save-south-asias-hoolock-gibbons-other-small-apes/ |date=5 November 2014 }}</ref> Dina detil anatomis anu tangtu, aranjeunna dangkal langkung seueur nyarupai [[monyét]] tibatan kera anu saé, tapi sapertos sadaya kér, sihir anu teu séréd. Teu siga sabagéan ageung anget, giwang sering ngabentuk beungkeut pasangan jangka panjang. Modeu utami lokomosiasi, brachiation, ngalibatkeun ayunan tina cabang ka cabang pikeun jarak dugi ka {{Convert|15|m|-1|abbr=on}} , sakumaha gancang saluhur {{Convert|55|km/h|abbr=on}} . Éta ogé tiasa ngadamel kabisat dugi ka {{Convert|8|m|abbr=on}} , sareng lumampah bipedally sareng pananganna diangkat kanggo kasaimbangan. Éta anu paling panggancangna tur paling lincah tina sagala tempat tangkal, mamalia nonflying.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://a-z-animals.com/animals/gibbon/|title=Gibbon|website=a-z animals|publisher=|accessdate=26 March 2015}}</ref> [[Gambar:Agilegibbon.jpg|jmpl|''Hylobates agilis'']] [[Gambar:Suneko - shout (by).jpg|jmpl| [[Siamang]], ''[[Siamang|Symphalangus]] syndactylus'' ]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist|3}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://gibbons.asia/ IUCN SSC PSG Bagéan ngeunaan Apes Leutik] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728175605/https://gibbons.asia/ |date=2019-07-28 }} * [http://www.gibboncenter.org Pusat Konservasi Gibbon] * [http://www.gibbons.de Gibbon Network and Lab] * [http://www.gibbonconservation.org Alliance Konservasi Alliance] * [http://www.gibbonproject.org Proyék Pamulihan Gibbon] * View the [[Kategori:Articles with 'species' microformats]] [[Kategori:Hylobatidae]] [[Kategori:Primata Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sato nyusuan]] 4tgb18et6n6hb5mzw72cpn27lkb0hie Michael Jordan 0 98234 712362 675775 2026-08-28T21:48:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox|child={{Yesno|{{{embed|no}}}}}|bodyclass=vcard|bodystyle=width:26em|titleclass=fn summary|title=Michael Jordan|image={{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image={{{image|Michael Jordan in 2014.jpg}}}|size={{{image_size|{{{width|}}}}}}|sizedefault=frameless|upright=1|alt={{{alt|}}}|suppressplaceholder=yes}}|caption={{{caption|Michael Jordan di taun 2014}}} <tr><th colspan=2 style="font-weight:{{{3|bold}}};text-align:center;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em;background-color:{{{color|red{{{2|}}}}}};"> <div style="margin:0 4em">{{{1|Personal Info}}}</div> </th></tr>|label2=Pakasaban|data2=Manten pamaén basket NBA, manten pamaén bésbol, béntang iklan, pangusaha, pamilik kleub Charlotte Hornetts|class2=role|label6=Weton|data6={{br separated entries|{{{birth_date|17 Pébruari 1963}}}|{{{birth_place|Kota New York, New York}}}}}|label8=Kabangsaan|data8=Amérika|label9=Jangkung|data9=1.98 m|label10=Beurat|data10=98 kg|label11=Bapa|data11=James R. Jordan SR.|label12=Ibu|data12=Deloris|label13=Dulur|data13=Larry Jordan, James R. Jordan JR., Deloris (lanceuk)<br> Roslyn (adi)|label14=Geureuha|data14=Juanita Vanoy (1989-2006) <br> Yvette Prieto (2013-Kiwari)|label15=Anak|data15=Jefrey, Marcus, Jasmin, Victoria jeung Ysabel <tr><th colspan=2 style="font-weight:{{{3|bold}}};text-align:center;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em;background-color:{{{color|red{{{2|}}}}}};"> <div style="margin:0 4em">{{{1|Info Karir}}}</div>|label16=SLA|data16=Emsley A. Laney (Wilmington, North Carolina)|label17=Kampus|data17=North Carolina|label18=Draft NBA|data18=1984; pilihan katilu; dipilih ku Chicago Bulls|label21=Karir Maén|data21=1984–1993, 1995–1998, 2001–2003|label23=Posisi|data23=''Shooting Guard''|label24=Nomer|data24=23, 45 <tr><th colspan=2 style="font-weight:{{{3|bold}}};text-align:center;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em;background-color:{{{color|red{{{2|}}}}}};"> <div style="margin:0 4em">{{{1|Sajarah Karir}}}</div>|label25=1988-1989|data25=[[Chicago Bulls]] |label26=1994-1995 |data26=Birmingham Barons & Scottsdale Scorpions (Liga Bésbol) |label27=1995-1998 |data27=Chicago Bulls |label28=2000 |data28=Washington Wizards (ofisial) |label29=2001-2003 |data29=Washington Wizards <tr><th colspan=2 style="font-weight:{{{1|bold}}};text-align:center;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em;background-color:{{{color|red{{{2|}}}}}};"> <div style="margin:0 4em">{{{1|Préstasi}}}</div> |data30 = <div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="background-color:yellow;"> * 6× Juara NBA (1991–1993, 1996–1998) * 6× MPV Final NBA (1991–1993, 1996–1998) * 5× NBA ''Most Valuable Player'' (1988, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1998) * 14× ''NBA All-Star'' (1985–1993, 1996–1998, 2002, 2003) * 3× ''NBA All-Star'' Tanding MVP (1988, 1996, 1998) * 10× Tim Kahiji Kabéh NBA (1987–1993, 1996–1998) * Tim Kadua Kabéh NBA (1985) * Pamaén Batahan NBA Taun Ieu (1988) * 9× Tim Kahiji Kabéh Pamaén Batahan NBA (1988–1993, 1996–1998) * ''Rookie'' Taun Ieu NBA (1985) * Tim Kabéh ''Rookie'' NBA (1985) * 10× juara nyitak angka NBA (1987–1993, 1996–1998) * 3× juara ''steal'' NBA (1988, 1990, 1993) * 2× juara pasanggiri Slam Dunk NBA (1987, 1988) * No. 23 dipatrikeun ku Chicago Bulls * No. 23 dipatrikeun ku Miami Heat * 3× Atlét Taun Ieu AP (1991–1993) * Olahragawan Taun Ieu ''Sports Illustrated'' (1991) * Tim Sapanjang Mangsa Tepung Taun NBA ka-50 * juara NCAA (1982) * pamaén kampus taun ieu konsénsus nasional (1984) * 2× tim kahiji kabéh Amérika konsénsus (1983, 1984) * Pamaén Taun Ieu ACC (1984) * 2× tim kahiji Kabéh ACC (1983, 1984) * ''Rookie'' Taun Ieu ACC (1982) * No. 23 dipatrikeun ku Universitas Karolina Kalér * 2× Atlét Lalaki Bal Baskét AS taun ieu (1983, 1984) * Madali Kamerdékaan Présidén (2016) * Madali Emas Bal Baskét Olimpiade Los Angeles (1984) * Madali Emas Bal Baskét Olimpiade Barcelona (1992) * Madali Emas Kajuaraan FIBA, Portland (1992) * Madali Emas Bal Baskét ''Pan American Games'' Caracas (1983) </div></div> <tr><th colspan=2 style="font-weight:{{{3|bold}}};text-align:center;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em 0.2em;background-color:{{{color|red{{{2|}}}}}};"> <div style="margin:0 4em">{{{1|Statistik}}}</div> |label32 = Poin |data32 = 32.292 (30,1 ppm) |label33 = ''Rebound'' |data33 = 6.672 (6,2 rpm) |label34 = ''Assist'' |data34 = 5.633 (5.3 apm) }} '''Michael Jeffrey Jordan''' (weton 17 Pébruari 1963), kawentar ogé ku inisialna, '''MJ''',<ref>Rein, Kotler and Shields, k. 173.</ref> manten pamaén baskét profésional Amérika sarta pamilik utama tim ''National Basketball Association'' ([[NBA]]) / Liga Basket Amérika, [[Charlotte Hornets]]. Manéhna maén di 15 musim NBA, meunangkeun genep gelar juara bareng jeung [[Chicago Bulls]]. Manéhna téh minangka salah sahiji atlét dina générasina nu panglarisna di dunia marketing sarta dianggap geus jadi waditra dina ngapopulérkeun NBA ka sakuliah dunya dina mangsa 1980-an jeung 1990-an. Jordan maén tilu musim pikeun palatih Déan Smith jeung North Carolina Tar Heels. Minangka jalma anyar, manéhna asup anggota tim kajuaraan nasional Tar Heel taun 1982. Jordan gabung jeung Bulls taun 1984 minangka pilihan pamaén katilu. Teu kungsi lila manéhna mucunghul jadi béntang liga sarta ngahibur pamiarsa ku kasuburanna nyitak sekor. Kamampuanna ngalayang, diebrehkeun ku pidangan ''slam dunks'' tina garis ngalung bébas dina pasanggiri ''Slam Dunk'', ngajadikeun manéhna meunang landian '''Air Jordan''' jeung '''His Airness'''. Manéhna gé meunangkeun réputasi minangka pamaén batahan pangpunjulna.<ref name="defensive players">Berkow, Ira. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEFDF143AF936A25755C0A967958260 "Sports of The Times; Air Jordan And Just Plain Folks"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 15 Juni 1991. Diakses tanggal 11 Pébruari 2009.</ref> Taun 1991, manéhna meunangkeun juara NBA bareng jeung Bulls sarta parat nepi ka taun 1992 jeung 1993, ngajadikeun hiji "''three-peat''" (sebutan pikeun tilu kali juara noron). Najan teu gugur teu angin eureun ti NBA taun 1993, jeung biluk ka liga minor baseball, manéhna balik deui ka Bulls dina Bulan Maret 1995 sarta meunangkeun deui tilu kali juara di taun 1996, 1997 jeung 1998 sarta rékor 72 kali meunang dina musim 95-96. Jordan eureun deui taun 1999, tapi balik deui pikeun dua musim ti taun 2001 nepi ka 2003 minangka anggota [[Washington Wizards]]. Panghargaan jeung beubeunangan individual Jordan di antarana genep ''Most Valuable Player'' (MPV) Final NBA, sapuluh kali juara nyitak angka (duanana rékor sapanjang waktu), lima panghargaan MVP, 10 rancangan Tim Kahiji Kabéh-Béntang NBA, 9 pangajén pamaén batahan Tim-Kabéh, 14 kali pilihan NBA Kabéh Béntang, 3 kali panghargaan MPV Tandang Kabéh Béntang, tilu gelar ''steals'' (ngarebut bola) sarta panghargaan Pamaén Batahan NBA Taun Ieu 1988. Manéhna nyepeung rata-rata sekor pangluhurna dina musim régulér (30,12 poin per maén) ogé rata-rata sekor pangluhurna dina ''playoff'' (babak lanjutan) (33,45 poin per maén). Taun 1999, manéhna disebut minangka atlét Amérika Kalér panghadéna di abad 20 ku ESPN, sarta kadua sahandapeun [[Babe Ruth]] dina daptar ''Associated Press''. Jordan dua kali diasupkeun kana Dinding Panghargaan ''Naismith Memorial Basketball'', ku alatan karirna nu nyongcolang taun 2009 sarta taun 2010 minangka anggota tim bola baskét Olimpiade AS 1993 ("tim impian"). Manéhna asup kana Dinding Panghargaan FIBA taun 2015. Jordan ogé kawentar ku iklan podukna. Manéhna jadi pangrojong kasuksésan sapatu Air Jordan [[Nike]] nu dikaluarkeun taun 84 sarta tetep populér nepi ka kiwari.<ref name="remain popular">Skidmore, Sarah. [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2004116738_airjordan10.html "23 years later, Air Jordans maintain mystique"], ''[[The Seattle Times]]'', 10 Janurari 2008. Diaksés tanggal 12 Pébruari 2009.</ref> Taun 1996 Jordan maén dina filem ''Space Jam'' salaku dirina sorangan. Taun 2006, manéhna milu miboga sarta jadi pupuhu operasional bola baskét Charlotte Bobcats (kiwari Hornets), tur tuluy meuli saham mayoritas taun 2010. Taun 2014, Jordan jadi pamaén jutawan munggaran dina sajarah NBA. Manéhna jadi urang Amérika-Afika pangbeungharna katilu, sahandapeun [[Robert F. Smith]] jeung [[Oprah Winfrey]]. == Wanci ngora == Jordan lahir di Kota New York, [[New York]], anak ti Deloris, karyawati bank, jeung James R. Jordan Sr., supervisor pakakas. Kulawargana pindah ka Wilmington, North Carolina wanci manéhna keur léléngkah halu kénéh.<ref name="a toddler">[http://www.23jordan.com/bio1.htm Michael Jordan biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402163706/http://23jordan.com/bio1.htm |date=2016-04-02 }}, 23jordan.com. Diaksés 23 Nopémber 2007.</ref> Jordan téh budak kaopat tina lima sadulur. Manéhna boga dua lanceuk lalaki, Larry Jordan jeung James R. Jordan, Jr., hiji lanceuk awéwé, Deloris sarta hiji adi awéwé, Roslyn. James pangsiun taun 2006 minangka Sersan Mayor Komando Brigade Sinyal 35 [[:en:XVIII Airborne Corps|XVIII Airborne Corps]] Angkatan Bersenjata AS.<ref>Associated Press, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060529123711/http://www.charlotte.com/mld/observer/news/local/14588539.htm "Michael Jordan's big brother ends Army career"], charlotte.com, 16 Méi 2006. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> == Karir SLA == [[Gambar:Michael Jordan - Laney High School 1980 - 02.jpg|ka|jmpl| Jordan slam dunk keur tim baskét SLA Laney, 1979-80]] Jordan asup ka Sakola Lanjutan Atas Emsley A. Laney di Wilmington. Manéhna nyoba asup ka tim baskét sakola dina mangsa taun kadua sakolana. Tapi jangkung 5'11" (1,8m) dianggap pendék kénéh pikeun maén dina tingkatan éta. Baturna mah nu jangkung, [[Harvest Leroy Smith]], kapilih minangka hiji-hijina budak kelas dua nu asup kana tim.<ref name="halb">Halberstam, pp. 20–21.</ref><ref name="varsity">Poppel, Seth. [http://www.newsweek.com/missing-cut-382954 "Michael Jordan Didn't Make Varsity—At First"], ''Newsweek'', 17 Oktober 2015. Diaksés 28 Juni, 2017.</ref> Kajurung ku hayang ngabuktikeun pangabisana, Jordan jadi béntang dina tim sakola yunior Laney, sarta ngabukukeun sababaraha kali poin 40.<ref name="halb">Halberstam, pp. 20–21.</ref><ref name="varsity"/> Usum panas hareupna, manéhna tuwuh 4 inchi (10&nbsp;cm) sarta keyeng latihan. Nalika kapilih kana tim sakola, Jordan nyitak poin rata-rata leuwih ti 25 poin per maén (ppm), dina sesa dua musim di sakolana.<ref name="school">[https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/j/jordami01/jordan-high-school-amateur-exhibition.html Michael Jordan – High School, Amateur, and Exhibition Stats], basketball-reference.com. Diakses tanggal 17/12/2018.</ref> Salaku senior, manéhna kapilih maén dina ''McDonald's All-American Game'' taun 1981 sarta nyitak 30 poin.<ref name="school2">[https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/j/jordami01/jordan-high-school-amateur-exhibition.html Michael Jordan – High School, Amateur, and Exhibition Stats], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés 17 Désember 2018.</ref> Jordan kajojo ku mangpirang-pirang program baskét kampus, kaasup Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse jeung Virginia.<ref>Halberstam, kk. 67–68.</ref> Taun 1981, Jordan narima béasiswa ti Universitas Carolina Kalér di Chapel Hill, di mana manéhna nyokot widang géografi budaya.<ref>Halberstam, pp. 67–68.</ref> == Karir kampus == [[Gambar:Michael Jordan UNC Jersey cropped.jpg|kiri|jmpl| Kaos nomer 23 Jordan di antara nu séjénna dina kaso-kaso Séntra Dean Smith]] Minangka jalma anyar dina sistem oriéntasi tim palatih Déan Smith, manéhna kapilih jadi Pamaén Anyar Taun Ieu ''Atlantic Coast Conference'' (ACC) sanggeus nyieun rata-rata 13,4 ppm dina 53,4% témbakan (persentase gul lapangan).<ref name="dbb"/> Salila tilu musim bareng jeung Tar Heels, manéhna nyieun rata-rata 17,7 ppm tina 54% témbakan, sarta katambah ku 5,0 ''rebound'' (meunang bola muntah) per maén (rpm).<ref>qtd. in Lazenby, Roland. "Michaelangelo: Portrait of a Champion". ''Michael Jordan: The Ultimate Career Tribute''. Bannockburn, Illinois: H&S Media, 1999. k. 128.</ref> Manéhna kapilih sacara konsensus kana tim kahiji NCAA All-American, boh mangsa tingkat dua (1983) ogé mangsa yunior (1984). Sabada meunangkeun panghargaan Pamaén Taun Ieu ti Kampus Naismith jeung Wooden di taun 1984, Jordan ninggalkeun North Carolina sataun méméh lulus pikeun asup ka draft NBA 1984. Chicago Bulls milih Jordan minangka pilihan katilu saeunggeus [[Hakeem Olajuwon]] ([[Houston Rockets]]) jeung Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). Alesanna alatan harita tim nu dua keur merlukeun pamaén téngah.<ref>{{cite news|title=Trail Blazers don't regret bypassing Jordan|date=26 Nopémber 1984|first=David|last=DuPree|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|page=6C}}</ref> Najan kitu manajer Trail Blazers Stu Inman nyangkal yén éta téh lain alatan masalah pamaén tengah, tapi lantaran Portland geus mibanda [[Clyde Drexler]], nu mangrupa ''guard'' nu sarua kamampuanna jeung Jordan. ESPN, nyabit-nyabit beban cidéra Bowie dina karir kampusna, nyebutkeun yén pilihan Blazers ka Bowie téh minangka pilihan draft panggoréng-goréngna dina sajarah olahraga profésional Amérika.<ref>Schoenfield, David. [http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=schoenfield/060427 The 100 worst draft picks ever], ESPN. Diaksés 20/10/2013.</ref> Jordan mulang deui ka North Carolina di taun 1986 pikeun méréskeun kuliahna.<ref>Morris, Mike. "The Legend: A Highlight-Reel History of the NBA's Greatest Player". ''Michael Jordan: The Ultimate Career Tribute''. Bannockburn, Illinois: H&S Media, 1999. k. 67.</ref> Manéhna tuluy lulus taun éta kénéh dileler ku gelar ''Bachelor of Arts'' di widang géografi.<ref>Fogel, Anna. [https://nesn.com/2014/01/michael-jordans-college-transcript-reveals-he-took-beginning-tennis-majored-in-geography-now-up-for-auction/ "Michael Jordan’s College Transcript Reveals He Took Beginning Tennis, Majored in Geography"], New England Sports Network, 10 Januari 2014. Diaksés 27 Juli 2018.</ref> == Karir profésional == === Taun-taun awal NBA (1984-1987) === Mangsa musim ''rookie''-na bareng jeung Bulls, Jordan nyitak rata-rata 28,2 ppm tina 51,5% témbakan,<ref name="dbb2">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Michael Jordan], databaseBasketball.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090222083636/http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Archived] tina nu asli tanggal 10 Januari 2009. Diaksés 9 Juli 2019.</ref> sarta ngarojong timna pikeun meunangkeun 35% tanding dina awal tilu musim babak ''playoff''. Teu kungsi lila manéhna jadi kameumeut bobotoh, malahan mah bobotoh musuhna ogé.<ref>Goldaper, Sam. [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/19/sports/jordan-dazzles-crowd-at-garden.html "Jordan dazzles crowd at Garden"], ''The New York Times'', 19/10/1984. Diaksés 7/03/2007.</ref><ref name="Garden">Johnson, Roy S. [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/09/sports/jordan-led-bulls-romp-before-19252.html "Jordan-Led Bulls Romp Before 19,252"], ''The New York Times'', 09/09/1984. Diaksés 07/11/2007.</ref> Dina bulan Nopémber, Roy S. Johnson ti ''New York Times'' ngagambarkeun dirina minangka "''rookie'' fenomenal ti Bulls".<ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/title/driven-from-within/oclc/62079948 Driven From Within], WorldCat. Diaksés 3 Januari 2019.</ref> Jordan gé dina bulan Désémber kapajang dina sampul majalah ''Sport Illustrated'' nu ''head line''-na "Hiji Bintang geus Lahir".<ref name="Jordan dazzles crowd at Garden">Goldaper, Sam. [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/19/sports/jordan-dazzles-crowd-at-garden.html "Jordan dazzles crowd at Garden"], ''The New York Times'', 19/10/1984. Diaksés 07/03/2007.</ref><ref name="Jordan dazzles crowd at Garden"/> Bobotoh gé milih Jordan minangka ''starter All Star'' mangsa musim ''rookie'' manéhna.<ref name="nbah">[http://www.nba.com/history/players/jordan_bio.html Michael Jordan], National Basketball Association. Diaksés 15 Januari 2007.</ref> Kaluar kontrovérsi méméh tanding ''All-Star'' nalika para pamaén véteran - diluluguan ku [[Isiah Thomas]] - saririk kana perhatian ka Jordan.<ref name="nbah" /> Hal ieu ngakibatkeun Jordan teu dipiroséa. Nalika maén Jordan tara dibéréan bal.<ref name="nbah" /> Kajadian éta teu mangaruhan Jordan, sarta Jordan kapilih jadi ''Rookie'' Taun Ieu.<ref name="nba.combio2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070109104338/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/michael_jordan/bio.html Michael Jordan bio], National Basketball Association. Diaksés 9 Mei 2017.</ref> Bulls nganggeuskeun musim éta ku 38-44<ref name="dbbulls">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/teams/teampage.htm?tm=CHI&lg=N Chicago Bulls (1966 –)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014212808/http://databasebasketball.com/teams/teampage.htm?tm=CHI&lg=n |date=2007-10-14 }}, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071014212808/http://databasebasketball.com/teams/teampage.htm?tm=CHI&lg=n%7Cdate%3DOctober 14, 2007], databasebasketball.com. Diaksés 9 Juni 2017.</ref> sarta éléh opat kali ti ''Milwaukee Bucks'' dina opat tanding babak ''playoff''.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Jordan teu kebat maén lila dina musim kadua alatan cidera dina tanding katilu taun éta, ngakibatkeun Jordan leungiteun 64 tanding.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Najan Jordan cidera, Bulls bisa lolos kénéh ka babak ''playoffs'' ku catetan 30-52, mangrupa posisi kalima pangbututna dina sajarah tim nu lolos ''playoffs''.<ref name="dbbulls2">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/teams/teampage.htm?tm=CHI&lg=N Chicago Bulls (1966 –)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014212808/http://databasebasketball.com/teams/teampage.htm?tm=CHI&lg=n |date=2007-10-14 }}, databasebasketball.com. Diaksés 9 Juni 2017.</ref><ref>"Worst Records of Playoff Teams", ''[[The Sporting News]]'' (April 28, 1986), p. 46.</ref> Jordan cageur pas dina waktuna pikeun ngiluan tanding pasca musim sarta bisa maén alus. Ngalawan [[Boston Celtics]] nu disebut-sebut minangka salah sahiji tim panghadéna dina sajarah NBA,<ref name="topteams">[http://www.nba.com/history/toptenteams_index.html Top 10 Teams in NBA History], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628190654/http://www.nba.com/history/toptenteams_index.html |date=2011-06-28 }}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Jordan hasil nyitak 63 poin dina tandang kadua babak ''playoff''.<ref name="nbadisguised">[http://www.nba.com/history/jordan63_moments.html God Disguised as Michael Jordan], National Basketball Association. Diaksés 17 Januari 2007.</ref> Sanajan kitu Celtics meunang dina kasuluruhan tanding séjénna.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Jordan geus bener-bener sabihara-bihari dina musim 1986-87<ref>Porter, p. 34.</ref> sarta hasil nyitak sekor pangsubur-suburna dina sajarah NBA. Manéhna jadi hiji-hijina pamaén sajaba ti [[Wilt Chamberlain]] nu hasil nyitak 3.000 poin dina samusim, nyieun rata-rata liga pangluhurna 37,1 poin tina 48,2% témbakan.<ref name="dbb3">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Michael Jordan], databaseBasketball.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090222083636/http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Archived] from the original on 22 Pébruari 2009. Diaksés 9 Juli 2019.</ref><ref>[https://www.basketball-reference.com/leaders/pts_season.html NBA & ABA Single Season Leaders and Records for Points], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés 20 Juli 2018.</ref> Jordan ogé nembongkeun kakuatan batahanna nalika manéhna jadi pamaén munggaran dina sajarah NBA nu ngabukukeun 200 ''steals'' jeung 100 ''block shot'' dina samusim<ref name="WashingtonPost05-26-1988">"Jordan Adds Most Valuable Player Award to Honors", ''The Washington Post'' (May 26, 1988), p. D8.</ref>. Najan Jordan sakitu onjoyna, [[Magic Johnson]] kapilih jadi ''Most Valuable Player'' (MPV). Bulls hasil 40 kali meunang,<ref name="dbbulls2"/> sarta laju ka ''playoff'' pikeun tilu taun noron, tapi sakali deui disisihkeun ku Celtics.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> === Hahalang Pistons (1987-1990) === [[Gambar:BudLightDaredevils and Michael Jordan.jpg|jmpl|Jordan (tengah) taun 1987]] Jordan mingpin deui dina nyitak angka mangsa musim 1987-88, nyieun rata-rata 35,0 ppm tina 53,5% témbakan<ref name="dbb"/> sarta meunang panghargaan MVP kali kahijina. ogé meunangkeun Pamaén Batahan Taun Ieu, ku rata-rata 1,6 blok jeung pangluhurna dina liga 3,6 ''steals'' per maén (spm).<ref name="MJ">[http://www.nba.com/history/players/jordan_stats.html Michael Jordan statistics], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212053614/http://www.nba.com/history/players/jordan_stats.html |date=2012-12-12 }}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Bulls nganggeuskeun babak panyisihan ku 50-32,<ref name="dbbulls2"/> sarta tuluy lolos putaran kahiji ''playoff'' sanggeus ngéléhkeun [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] ku lima kali tanding.<ref name="dbbulls2"/> Tapi Bulls tuluy éléh ku lima kali tanding ti tim nu leuwih pangalaman, [[Detroit Pistons]]<ref name="nba.combio">https://web.archive.org/web/20070109104338/http://www.nba.com/playerfile/michael_jordan/bio.html Michael Jordan bio, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> nu diluluguan ku Isiah Thomas jeung kumpulan pamaén fisik nu kawentar kusebutan "''Bad Boys''" ("Barudak Baong").<ref>Halberstam, p. 235.</ref> Mangsa musim 1988-89, Jordan mingpin deui sekor liga ku rata-rata 32,5 ppm tina 53,8% témbakan, katambah ku 8 rpm jeung 8 apm.<ref name="dbb">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Michael Jordan], databaseBasketball.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090222083636/http://www.databasebasketball.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=JORDAMI01 Archived] tina nu orisinil tanggal 22/02/2019. Diaksés 9/07/2019.</ref> Bulls nganggeuskeun ku catetan 47-35<ref name="dbbulls2"/> sarta tuluy laju semet ka Final Wilayah Wétan ngéléhkeun Cavaliers jeung [[New York Knicks]]. Tapi sakali deui Piston ngéléhkeun Bulls, ayeuna mah dina genep kali tanding,<ref name="nba.combio2"/> makémétodeu"Aturan Jordan" pikeun ngajaga Jordan, ku cara ngarempug dua atawa tilu tiap kali Jordan meunang bal.<ref name="nbah"/> Bulls ngawalan musim 1989-90 minangka tim nu keur nanjung. Dieusi ku grup inti angkatan Jordan jeung pamaén-pamaén ngora keur pangronjat saperti [[Scottie Pippen]] jeung [[Horace Grant]] sarta dilatih ku palatih anyar Phil Jackson. Jordan nyieun rata-rata 33,6 ppm tina 52,6%, 6,9 rpm jeung 6,3 apm,<ref name="dbb"/> ngajurung Bulls kana catetan 55-27.<ref name="dbbulls2"/> Sakali deui Bulls lolos ka Final Wilayah Wétan sanggeus ngéléhkeun Bucks jeung [[Philadelphia 76ers]]. Tapi, najan maksa musuhna maén 7 kali, Bulls éléh deui ku Pistons noron pikeun katlu kalina.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> === Nilu kalian (''three peat'') munggaran (1991-1993) === Mangsa musim 1990-91, Jordan meunangkeun panghargaan MVP kadua kalina sanggeus nyitak rata-rata point 31,5 ppm, rebound 6,0 jeung assist 5,5 dina musim régulér.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Bulls nempatan posisi kahiji dina grupna pikeun kali kahijina dina 16 taun katukang. Ku mekarna Scottie Pippen nepi ka bisa asup ''All Star'', Bulls hasil ngaronjatkeun pamaénanna. Bulls ngéléhkeun New York Knicks jeung Philadelphia 76ers dina babak playoff. Asup deui ka final wilayah Wétan di mana musuhna Detroit Piston geus ngadodoho. Ayeuna mah Bulls hasil ngéléhkeun Pistons ku sapu bersih 4 kali tanding.<ref name="1990–91">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/teams/teamscores.htm?tm=CHI&yr=1990&lg=n Chicago Bulls 1990–91 Game Log and Scores], databasebasketball.com. Diaksés 9 Juni 2017.</ref><ref>Brown, Clifton. [https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/28/sports/basketball-bulls-brush-aside-pistons-for-eastern-title.html Basketball; Bulls Brush Aside Pistons for Eastern Title], ''The New York Times'', 28 Mei 1991. Diaksés 8 April 2008.</ref> Bulls maju ka Final NBA pikeun kali kahijina dina sapanjang sajarahna, pikeun nyanghareupan Los Angeles Lakers, nu ngabogaan Magic Johnson jeung [[James Worthy]], dua lawan nu tanggoh. Bulls meunang opat kali ngalawan sakali éléh, sarta nyatetkeun 15-2 kali rékor ''playoff'' sajajalanna.<ref name="1990–91"/> Dina pintonan finalna, Jordan ngahasilkeun rata-rata 31,2 poin, 11,4 ''assist'', 6,6 ''rebounds'', 2,8 ''steals'' jeung 1,4 blok. Jordan meunangkeun panghargaan MPV Final NBA nu kahijina.<ref name="fnl2"/> Jordan jeung Bulls nuluykeun dominasina dina musim 1991-92, ngahasilkeun rékor 67-15, ngaleuwihan préstasina di taun 1990-91.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Jordan meunangkeun panghargaan MVP pikeun kadua kalina ku rata-rata 30,1 poin, 6,4 ''rebound'' jeung 6,1 ''assist''.<ref name="MJ"/> Sanggeus ngéléhkeun New York Knicks ku tujuh kali tanding dina puteran kadua playoff sarta ngéléhkeun Cleveland Cavaliers dina Final Wilayah ku genep tanding, Bulls panggih jeung Clyde Drexler saparakanca ti Porland Trail Blazers di Final. Bulls ngéléhkeun Portland ku genep kali tanding, sarta Jordan kapilih jadi MVP Final pikeun kadua kalina, ku rata-rata nilai 35,8 poin, 4,8 ''rebound'' jeung 6,5 ''assist''.<ref name="fnl2"/> Musim, 1992-93, najan boga hasil alus dina babak régulér (32.6 ppm, 6,7 rpm jeung 5,5 apm), sarta nempatan posisi kadua dina voting Pamaén Batahan Taun Ieu,<ref name="MJ"/><ref>[https://www.basketball-reference.com/awards/awards_1993.html 1992–93 NBA Awards Voting], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés 1 Séptémber, 2018.</ref> jalan Jordan pikeun nilu kalian noron jadi MPV dieureunan ku sobatna, [[Charles Barkley]]. Ku kabeneran, Jordan jeung Bulls panggih jeung Barkley jeung [[Phoenix Suns]] dina Final NBA. Bulls meunang ti Phoenix ku genep kali tanding.<ref name="nba.com">[http://www.nba.com/history/finals/19921993.html Paxson's Trey Propels Bulls Into NBA History], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025183404/http://www.nba.com/history/finals/19921993.html |date=2012-10-25 }}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Jordan ogé jadi pamaén munggaran nu hasil meunangkan MVP Final sacara noron 3 kali.<ref name="nba.com"/> Ti harita mimiti kaciri tanda-tanda Jordan mimiti bosen ku kaselebritianna nu tohaga sarta hal-hal nu ngaganggu ka manéhna di luar baskét.<ref>McCallum, Jack. [https://www.si.com/vault/1993/10/18/129606/michael-jordan-the-desire-isnt-there "'The Desire Isn't There'"], ''Sports Illustrated'', October 18, 1993. Diaksés 5 Maret 2017.</ref> === Reureuh kahiji jeung pancén dina Bésbol Liga Minor (1993-1994) === [[Gambar:Jordan Scorpions.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Jordan latihan bareng Scottsdale Scorpions di taun 1994]] Tanggal 6 Oktober 1993, Jordan ngabéwarakeun reureuhna, ngakuna geus horéam maén. Kadieunakeun, Jordan ngaku yén maotna bapana tilu bulan katukang ogé jadi tinimbang kana putusanna.<ref>Berkow, Ira. [http://partners.nytimes.com/library/sports/basketball/041194bkn-jordan.html "A Humbled Jordan Learns New Truths"], ''The New York Times'', April 11, 1994. Diaksés 16 Januari 2007.</ref> Bapana jordan aya nu nelasan tanggal 23 Juli 1993, di aréa istirahat jalan tol di Lumberton, Karolina Kalér. ku dua rumaja, Daniel Green jeung Larry Martin Demery, nu ngabajo mobil rajaponina nu maké plat nomern "UNC 0023".<ref>Martin, Andrew. [http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1996-01-04/news/9601040169_1_daniel-andre-green-larry-martin-demery-defense-attorney-angus-thompson "'I Believe We Killed Jordan's Dad'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407092822/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1996-01-04/news/9601040169_1_daniel-andre-green-larry-martin-demery-defense-attorney-angus-thompson |date=2014-04-07 }}, 4 Januari 1996. Diaksés 14 Nopémber 2017.</ref><ref name="charged">Janofsky, Michael (August 16, 1993). [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/16/sports/two-men-are-charged-with-murder-of-jordan.html "Two Men Are Charged With Murder Of Jordan"], ''The New York Times''. Diaksés 9 Pébruari 2017.</ref> Warugana dipiceun di hiji ranca di Karolina Kalér jeung teu kapanggih-panggih semet ka tanggal 3 Agustus.<ref name="charged" /> Panyerangna kapaluruh liwat panggilan telepon tina HP James Jordan.<ref name="query.nytimes.com">Mitchell, Alison. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7D8103CF931A1575BC0A965958260 The Nation; "So Many Criminals Trip Themselves Up"], ''The New York Times'', August 22, 1993. Diaksés 24 Maret 2008.</ref> Kadua nonoman éta dicerek, disidang sarta dihukum panjara saumur hirup. Jordan baheulana deukeut jeung bapana; wanci keur budak manéhna sok nurutan bapana nu sok ngelél bari tonggoy digawé. Jordan tuluy metakeun kalakuan éta téh minangka ciri dirina, dipintonkeun unggal-unggal manéhna ngajojo kana karanjang.<ref name="nbah"/> Taun 1996, manéhna ngadegkeun Klub Putra & Putri aréa Chicago sarta disérénkeun pikeun bapana.<ref name="query.nytimes.com"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=August 14, 1995|title=Michael Jordan, family attend groundbreaking ceremony for James Jordan Center|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false|journal=[[Jet (magazine)|Jet]]|publisher=Johnson Publishing Company|volume=88|issue=14|pages=51–53|doi=|issn=0021-5996|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Dina autobiografina taun 1988, ''For the Love of the Game'', Jordan nulis yén manéhna geus sasadiaan pikeun reureuh ti awal usum panas 1992 kénéh.<ref>Jordan, p. 100.</ref> Pangumuman Jordan matak ngareuwaskeun dunia NBA sarta dicetak dina halaman hareup koran-koran di sakuliah dunya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomsen|first=Ian|last2=Rodgers|first2=Ted|date=October 18, 1993|title=Europe loses a role model; Even in countries where basketball is a minor pursuit, Jordan's profile looms large – includes related article on Jordan's stature in Japan|url=|journal=[[The Sporting News]]|volume=216|issue=16|page=35|doi=|issn=0038-805X|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Jordan tuluy ngareuwaskeun deui dunya olahraga ku ngilu Bisbol Liga Minor asup ka Chicago White Sox dina tanggal 7 Pebruari 1994.<ref>''The Sporting News Official NBA Register 1994–95'', p. 334.</ref> Jordan nyatakeun putusanna téh pikeun ngundag cita-cita jenatna bapana nu sok nyawang budakna salaku pamaén Bisbol Liga Utama. White Sox téh tim anu dipiboga ogé ku pamilik Bulls, Jerry Reinsdorf nu ngaragangan nuluykeun kontrak baskét Jordan dina taun manéhna maén bisbol. === "''I'm back''": Mulang ka NBA (1995) === Musim 1993-1994, tanpa Jordan Bulls ngahasilkeun catetan 55-27, sarta kasoran ti New York Knicks dina puteran kadua playoff. Taun 1994-1995 masih kénéh maké tim juara dua taun katukang. Tihothat di tengah musim pikeun mastikeun satempat di babak playoffs. Niléi Chicago harit 31-31 di panengah bulan Maret. Untungna téh tim meunang pitulung ku nalika Jordan mutuskeun pikeun balik deui ka Bulls. Maret 1995, Jordan mutuskeun pikeun eureun tina bésbol alatan ayana mogok dina Liga Utama. Manéhna teu hayang disebut 'pamaén pangganti' (sesebutan pikeun atlét nu maén dina wanci mogok).<ref name="Lazenby, pp. 511–512">Lazenby, pp. 511–512.</ref> Tanggal 18 Maret 1995, Jordan ngumumkeun yén manéhna balik deui ka NBA ngaliwatan dua kecap nu dipedalkeun ku pers: "''I'm back''" ("Kuring mulang").<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Poé isukna Jordan tanding jeung Bulls ngalawan Indiana Pacers di Indianapolis sarta nyitak 19 poin.<ref name="Lazenby, pp. 511–512"/> Najan bisa maké kaos nomer 23, nu ongkoh geus dipatrikeun keur manéhna, Jordan malah maké nomer 45, nu dipaké ku manéhna wanci maén bésbol.<ref name="returns">{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=April 3, 1995|title=Michael Jordan returns to Bulls in overtime loss to Indiana Pacers – Chicago Bulls|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51|journal=[[Jet (magazine)|Jet]]|publisher=Johnson Publishing Company|volume=87|issue=21|pages=51–53|doi=|issn=0021-5996|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Najan geus teu maén di NBA salila sataun satengah, Jordan masih maén alus. Jordan nyieun témbakan kameunangan ngalawan Atlanta dina tandang kaopatna. Dina tanding satuluyna ngalawan Knicks di Madison Square Garden tanggal 28 Maret 1995, Jordan nyitak 55 poin. Katunjang ku mulangna Jordan, Bulls lolos ti ''playoffs'' ku 13-4 sarta laju ka Semifinal Wilayah Wétan ngalawan Orlando Magic.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Méméh tanding, Jordan mutuskeun rék maké deui nomor 23. Bulls didenda alatan teu ngalaporkeun panggantian nomer ka NBA.<ref name="No23">{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/blog/nba/post/_/id/2648/flashback-20-years-ago-today-anderson-forces-mj-back-to-no-23|title=Flashback: 20 years ago today, Anderson forces MJ back to No. 23|last1=Walks|first1=Matt|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=May 8, 2015|date=May 7, 2015}}</ref> Jordan ogé meunang denda tambahan lantaran milih maké sapatu bodas nalika baturna kabéh maraké sapatu hideung.<ref>Heisler, Mark. [http://articles.latimes.com/1995-05-12/sports/sp-65390_1_nba-fined-michael-jordan "NBA Fines Jordan for Shoes, Bulls for No. 23"], ''Los Angeles Times'', May 12, 1995. Diaksés 22 April 2017.</ref> Orlando antukna meunang ku genep kali tanding.<ref name="br">[https://www.basketball-reference.com/players/j/jordami01.html Michael Jordan], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés 8 Pébruari 2008.</ref> Jordan kajurung sumangetna ku kasoranna dina playoff sarta suhud latihan pikeun musim 1995-1996. Bulls dipikuat ku tambahan tukang nga-rebound, Dennis Rodman, sarta mampu ngadominasi liga, ngawalan musim anyar ku 41-3. Antukna Bulls nganggeuskeun naon anu tuluy disebut rekor musim réguler panghadéna dina sajarah NBA, 72-10; rekor ieu téh karak peupeus dina 2015-2016 ku Golden State Warriors. Jordan mingpin liga ku rata-rata 30,4 ppm sarta meunangkeun MVP pikeun musim régulér jeung Tanding All-Star. Dina ''playoffs'', Bulls ngéléhkeun [[Miami Heat]] 3-0, New York Knicks 4-1 jeung Orlando Magic 4-0. Di final NBA, hasil ngéléhkeun [[Seattle Supersonics]] 4-2 pikeun jadi juara kaopat kalina. Jordan kapilih jadi MVP Final pikeun kaopat kalina ogé,<ref name="fnl2">[http://www.nba.com/history/finalsmvps.html Finals Most Valuable Player], National Basketball Association. Diaksés 6 Pébruari 2008.</ref> ngaliwatan Magic Johnson nu geus meunang tilu kali. Manéhna ogé jadi pamaén kadua tina ngan dua-duana pamaén nu hasil nyapu bersih kabéh panghargaan MVP sakaligus, ''All-Star'', régulér jeung Final NBA. Pamaén nu tiheula hasil nyaéta Willis Reed dina musim 1969-1970.<ref name="nba.combio2"/> Dina musim 1996-97, Bulls ngamimitian ku 69-11, tapi gagal pikeun kadua kalina meunang noron 70 kali lantaran éléh dina sésa dua tanding pamungkas, jadina réngsé ku 69-13.<ref name="1996–97">[http://www.databasebasketball.com/teams/teamscores.htm?tm=CHI&yr=1996&lg=n Chicago Bulls 1996–97 Game Log and Scores], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125082249/http://www.databasebasketball.com/teams/teamscores.htm?tm=CHI&yr=1996&lg=n|date=16 Januari 25, 2016}} databasebasketball.com. Diaksés 9 Juni 2017.</ref> Taun ieu Jordan teu jadi MPV lantaran éléh ku Karl Malone. Bulls maju deui ka final nyanghareupan Malone jeung Utah Jazz. Bulls meunang ku genep kali tanding. Pikeun ka lima kalina tina lima kali minton di Final, Jordan meunangkeun MVP Final. Wanci Tanding Kabéh Béntang, Jordan nyétak ''triple double'' munggaran dina sajarah Tanding NBA Kabéh Béntang. Najan kitu manéhna teu hasil meunangkeun MPV-na.<ref>Belock, Joe (11 Pébruari 2015). [http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/basketball/counting-2015-nba-all-star-game-article-1.2068667 "NBA All-Star Game's most memorable moments"], ''New York Daily News''. Diaksés June 5, 2016.</ref> [[Gambar:Phil Jackson Lipofsky.JPG|kiri|jmpl| Jordan jeung palatih Phil Jackson, 1997]] Bulls nutup musim 1997-1998 ku catetan 62-20.<ref name="dbbulls2"/> Jordan mingpin liga ku 28,7 ppm, ngamankeun gelar MVP jeung tempat di Tim Kahiji kabéh NBA, Tim Batahan Kahiji jeung MPV Laga All-Star. Bulls hasil jadi juara Wilayah Timur noron pikeun katilu kalina ku ngéléhkeun Indiana Pacers ku 7 kali tanding. Sanggeus meunang, Bulls maju deui pikeun tanding ulang ngalawan Jazz di Final NBA.<ref>Lazenby, p. 596.</ref> Tanggal 14 Juni 1998, Bulls balik deui ka Delta Center pikeun tandang ka genep ngalawan Jazz sanggeus mingpin 3-2. Jordan maén dina tandang ieu dina hiji laga nu dianggap paling ngageterkeun jajantung dina sajarah Final NBA.<ref name="clutch1998">[http://www.nba.com/playoffs2004/greatest_finals_moments.html Greatest Finals Moments], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411073901/http://www.nba.com/playoffs2004/greatest_finals_moments.html |date=2013-04-11 }}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Dina tandang ieu, nalika waktu ngan nyésa 5,2 detik deui Jordan ngajadikeun Chicago mingpin 87-86 ku hiji luncatan témbakan kameunangan, minangka témbakan klimaks dina karirna di Bulls. Satuluyna, John Stockton gagal nyitak dina témbakan tilu poin. Jordan jeung Bulls meunangkeun gelar juara NBA nu kagenep kalina sarta ''three peat'' nu kadua. Sakali deui Jordan kapilih jadi MVP Final,<ref name="fnl2"/> ku rata-rata sekor 33,5 ppm kaasup 45 poin penting dina laga kagenep final.<ref>Ryan, Jeff. [https://web.archive.org/web/20020523111455/http://www.sportingnews.com/archives/nbafinals/1998.html History of the NBA Finals: Chicago Bulls vs. Utah Jazz&nbsp;– 1998], sportingnews.com. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> Genep kali meunangkeun MVP Final mangrupa hiji rékor; Magic Johnson, [[Shaquille O'Neal]], [[LeBron James]] jeung [[Tim Duncan]] aya dina posisi kadua, masing-masing tilu kali.<ref name="fnl2"/> === Reureuh kadua (1999-2001) === [[Gambar:Michael Jordan Achievements.jpg|jmpl|ornaménit Amérika Sarikat anu ngabéréndélkeum préstasi karir Jordan]] Ku béakna kontrak Phil Jackson, pibakaleun pindahna Scottie Pippen sarta nyongcolangna Dennis Rodaman, katambah-tambah ku ayana mogok ti pemilik klub, Jordan dina tanggal 13 Januari 1999 reureuh tina baskét pikeun kadua kalina.<ref>Kruger, pp. 55–56, 59.</ref><ref>Wise, Mike (16 Januari 19, 2002). [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/19/sports/pro-basketball-it-s-bitter-in-chicago-for-jordan.html "Pro Basketball; It's Bitter In Chicago For Jordan"], ''The New York Times''. Diaksés June 5, 2016.</ref><ref>Wise, Mike (16 Januari 21, 1999). [https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/21/sports/pro-basketball-the-business-of-basketball-now-begins-in-earnest.html "Pro Basketball; The Business Of Basketball Now Begins In Earnest"], ''The New York Times''. Diaksés June 5, 2016.</ref> Tanggal 19 Januari 2000, Jordan balik deui ka NBA minangka pamilik sarta présidén operasional Washington Wizards.<ref>Sandomir, Richard. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04E4D9153DF933A15752C0A9669C8B63 Jordan Sheds Uniform for Suit as a Wizards Owner], ''The New York Times'', 20 Januari 2000. Diaksés 24 Maret 2008.</ref> Jordan nyepeng hiji tanggung jawab nu kompréhénsif. Manéhna ngontrol sagala aspék ngeunaan operasional baskét Wizard, sarta boga kawenangan ahir dina urusan pribadi.<ref name="Pollin">[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=1550445 Pollin's decision to cut ties leaves Jordan livid], ESPN, 9 Méi 2003. Diaksés December 23, 2008.</ref> Sanajan ngaku dina bulan Januari 1999 yén manéha geus 99,9% yakin moal maén deui di NBA, dina usum panas 2001 Jordan ngébréhkeun kahayangna pikeun malikan deui,<ref name="ha-nytimes">Araton, Harvey. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F05E5DD133DF931A35753C1A9679C8B63 "Sports of The Times; Old Coach Rejoins Old Warrior"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 2 Oktober 2001. Diaksés 12 Pébruari 2009.</ref><ref name="jwhite-cbc">White, Joseph. [http://www.cbc.ca/sports/story/2001/09/23/jordan010923.html "Jordan comeback raises questions"], [[CBC.ca|cbc.ca]], September 23, 2001. Diaksés 12 Pébruari 2009.</ref> ayeuna mah jeung klub anyar. Kailhaman ku maén deuina Mario Lemieux di NHL dina usum tiis saméméhna.<ref>Associated Press. [http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=1258469&type=news Jordan watched Lemieux's comeback very closely], ESPN, 2 Oktober 2001. Diaksés 7 Maret 2007.</ref> Jordan nyéwa palatih Chicago Bulls baheula, Doug Collins, minangka palatih Washington pikeun musim hareupna. Hiji putusan nu dianggap ku sawatara jalma jadi alamat mulang deuina Jordan.<ref name="ha-nytimes" /><ref name="jwhite-cbc" /> === Mulang ka Washington Wizards (2001-2003) === [[Gambar:MichaelJordanDepOfDefense.jpg|jmpl|Jordan salaku anggota Washington Wizards, 14 April 2003]] Dina tanggal 25 Séptémber 2001, Jordan ngabéwarakeun mulang deuina ka NBA maén pikeun Washington Wizards, sarta ngébréhkeun kahayangna nyumbangkeun panghasilanna pikeun korban serangan 11 Séptémber. Dina musim 2001-2002 nu pinuh ku cidera, manéhna mingpin dina sekor tim (22,9 ppm), ''assists'' (5,2 apm) jeung ''steals'' (1,42 spm).<ref name="nbah"/> Najan kitu, soéh ''cartilage'' di tuur katuhuna ngeureunkeun pamaénan Jordan sanggeus ngan 60 kali maén.<ref name="dbb"/> Maen pikeun ka-14 kalina dina tanding Kabéh Bintang NBA di taun 2003, Jordan hasil ngunggulan [[Kareem Abdul Jabbar]] nu geus ti babaheula mingpin (najan tuluy peupeus deui ku [[Kobe Bryant]]).<ref>[http://www.nba.com/games/20120226/WSTEST/gameinfo.html?ls=iref:nbahpt1 Bryant, West hold on to win NBA All-Star game], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301060243/http://www.nba.com/games/20120226/WSTEST/gameinfo.html?ls=iref:nbahpt1|date=1 Maret 2012}}, National Basketball Association, 26 Pébruari 2012. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Dina musim éta Jordan manjing umur 40 taun. Manéhna jadi pamaén umur 40 munggaran nu hasil ngahontal poin 43 dina hiji tanding NBA.<ref name="Jordan Pours in History-Making 43">[http://www.nba.com/games/20030221/NJNWAS/recap.html Jordan Pours in History-Making 43], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119023329/http://www.nba.com/games/20030221/NJNWAS/recap.html|date=16 Januari 19, 2012}}, National Basketball Association, 21 Pébruari 2003. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Nalika wanci maénna nu heureut jeung Wizards, unggal Jordan maén kandang di MCI Center, tiketna béak-béak waé. Wizards ogé jadi tim kadua nu paling loba ditonton di NBA.<ref name="Jordan Pours in History-Making 43"/> Dina dua musim maén, Jordan gagal mawa Wizards lolos ka ''playoffs''. Jordan remen teu puas kana pamaénan babaturanna. Dina sababaraha kajadian, Jordan sacara kabuka ngritik batur maénna di média nyebutkeun yén maranéhna kurang fokus jeung kurang suhud, utamana pilihan kahiji dina draft NBA 2001, [[Kwame Brown]].<ref name="Rob">Maaddi, Rob. [https://www.usatoday.com/sports/nba/jordan/2001-11-29-frustration.htm Collins feels Jordan's pain], [[Associated Press]], ''USA Today'', November 29, 2001. Diaksés 11 Maret 2007.</ref><ref name="Chemistry">Associated Press. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070506074109/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/basketball/news/2003/04/12/jordan_follow_ap/ Bad chemistry left MJ unable to win in Washington], ''Sports Illustrated'', April 12, 2003. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> Ku katohianna yén musim 2002-2003 bakal jadi panungtungan pikeun Jordan, panghormatan ti penonton disérénkeun ka manéhna salila liga NBA. Dina tanding pamungkasna di United Center di Chicago nu mangrupa kandang heubeulna, Jordan meunangkeun keprokan panghormatan salila 4 menit.<ref>Johnson, K. C. [http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2003-01-25/sports/0301250189_1_chicago-stadium-ovation-johnny-red-kerr Lengthy ovation moves Jordan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204032702/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2003-01-25/sports/0301250189_1_chicago-stadium-ovation-johnny-red-kerr |date=2010-12-04 }}, ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 16 Januari 25, 2003. Diaksés 7 Oktober 2010.</ref> Miami Héat mangsiunkeun nomer kaos 23 dina tanggal 11 April 2003, najan Jordan teu kungsi maén di tim éta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051126221405/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/basketball/news/2003/04/11/heat_jordan_ap/ Heat retires first number], ''Sports Illustrated'', April 11, 2003. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> Dina laga Kabéh Bintang 2003 Jordan ditawaran tempat awal ku Tracy McGrady jeung [[Allen Iverson]],<ref>Associated Press. [https://web.archive.org/web/20030220041026/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/basketball/nba/2003/all_star/news/2003/02/08/jordan_decision_ap/?cnn=yes Thanks, but no thanks: Jordan not interested in ceremonial starting role], ''Sports Illustrated'', 8 Pébruari 2003. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> tapi ku Jordan ditolak. Pamustunganna, manéhna narima tempat [[Vince Carter]] nu nyérénkeun tempatna alatan desekan publik.<ref>Zeisberger, Mike. [http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Basketball/NBA/Toronto/2004/12/18/788808-sun.html Vince's wild ride]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, slam.canoe.ca, December 18, 2004. Diaksés April 18, 2007.</ref> == Karir tim nasional == [[Gambar:Cazzaro Jordan.jpg|ka|jmpl| Jordan dina "Tim Impian" di 1992]] Jordan maén dina tim nasional Amérika nu meunangkeun dua kali madali emas Olimpiade. Manéhna gé meunangkeun madali emas nalika jadi pamaén kampus kénéh dina Olimpiade Musim Panas 1984. Tim éta dilatih ku Bob Knight jeung mintonkeun pamaén modél Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford jeung Wayman Tisdale. Jordan mingpin sekor tim ku rata-rata 17,1 ppm dina salila turnamén.<ref name="usbasket19842">[https://www.usab.com/history/national-team-mens/games-of-the-xxiiird-olympiad-1984.aspx Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad&nbsp;– 1984], USA Basketball, Inc. Diaksés 26 Maret 2017.</ref> Dina Olimpiade Musim Panas 1992, manéhna jadi anggota pasukan nu marakbak ku béntang, kaasup Magic Johnson jeung Larry Bird nu tuluy meunang landian "Tim Impian". Jordan mangrupa hiji-hijina pamaén nu meunang tempat di awal maén dina dalapan kali tanding Olimpiade éta. Ngan Jordan, Ewing jeung Mullin wungkul pamaén baskét Amérika nu hasil meunang madali emas Olimpiade boh salaku pamaén amateur boh profésional.<ref name="usbasket19842"/><ref name="usbasket1992">[https://www.usab.com/history/national-team-mens/games-of-the-xxvth-olympiad-1992.aspx Games of the XXVth Olympiad&nbsp;– 1992], USA Basketball Inc. Diaksés 26 Maret 2017.</ref> == Pasca pangsiun == [[Gambar:MJ golf course.jpg|kiri|jmpl| Jordan di lapangan golep taun 2007]] Sanggeus reureuh katilukalina, Jordan sabenerna geus rumasa yén manéhna moal mampu balik deui kana posisina di kantor minangka Direktur Operasi Bal Baskét Wizards.<ref>Wise, Mike. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9501E3DE133CF937A35756C0A9659C8B63 "Pro Basketball; Jordan's Strained Ties to Wizards May Be Cut"], ''The New York Times'', 4 Méi 2003. Diaksés 12 Pébruari 2009.</ref> Tanggal 7 Méi 2003, nu boga Wizards, Abe Pollin mecat Jordan. Jordan satuluyna nyatakeun yén manéhna ngarasa dikhianatan, mun apal rék dipecat mah manéhna moal balik deui ka Wizards.<ref name="EB">[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/19/60minutes/main955628_page3.shtml Michael Jordan Still Flying High], CBS News, August 20, 2006. Diaksés 15 Januari, 2007.</ref> Jordan tetep ngajaga kasibukan dina minggu-minggu satuluyana. Manéhna tetep jagjag, maén golep dina turnamén amal sélébriti sarta méakkeun waktuna bareng jeung kulawargana di Chicago. Manéhna ngapromosikeun kaos jeung klub tunggang motor mérek Jordan.<ref>Grass, Ray (June 22, 2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20081222072433/http://deseretnews.com/article/1%2C5143%2C640188783%2C00.html "Michael Jordan is now riding superbikes"], ''Deseret News''. Diaksés 31 Agustus 2017.</ref> Ti saprak taun 2004, Jordan ngabogaan klub olahraga motor Michael Jordan, hiji tim balap jalanan sapédah motor tempat katutup profésional nu saingan jeung dua klub Suzuki dina kajuaraan ''Superbike premier'' dina apingan ''American Motorcyclist Association'' (AMA) semet ka tungtung musim 2013.<ref>[http://roadracingworld.com/news/article/?article=30197 Jordan Suzuki Previews The AMA Superbike Championship Finale At Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca], ''Roadracing World & Motorcycle Technology'', September 11, 2007. Diaksés 26 Maret 2009.</ref> Jordan jeung pamajikanna, Juanita nyumbangkeun AS$ 5 juta piken Sakola Luhur Hales Franciscan.<ref>Meyer, Gregory. [http://www.chicagobusiness.com/cgi-bin/news.pl?id=19825 Jordans to pledge $5M to Hales Franciscan H.S.], chicagobusiness.com, 13 Maret 2006. Diaksés July 28, 2008.</ref> Mérek Jordan ogé nyumbang pikeun Habitat Kamanusaan jeung pikeun hiji cabang Klub Budak Lalaki Awéwé cabang Louisiana.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090104003143/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS16324%2B15-Feb-2008%2BBW20080215 Jordan Brand Donates $500,000 to Boys and Girls Club in Louisiana], [[Reuters]], 14 Pébruari 2008. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> === Charlotte Bobcats/Hornets === Tanggal 15 Juni 2006, Jordan meuli sajumlah leutik saham Charlotte Bobcats, jadi pamilik saham kadua panggedéna sanggeus nu bogana, Robert L. Johnson. Minangka bagéan tina pasini, Jordan nyepeung kawasa pinuh dina operasi bal baskét, ku gelar jabatan "Anggota Pangaturan Operasi Bal Baskét".<ref>[http://www.nba.com/hornets/release_jordan_060615.html Michael Jordan to Become Part Owner of the Charlotte Bobcats], National Basketball Association, 15 Juni 2006. Diaksés 26 Maret 2017.</ref> Sapuluh taun samemehna, Jordan kungsi ngajukeun pikeun jadi pamilik sabagéan tim asli NBA Charlotte, Charlotte Hornets, tapi teu kajadian alatan pamilik klub, Géorge Shinn, nolak pikeun méré Jordan kawasa pinuh dina operasi bal baskét.<ref>Associated Press. [http://lubbockonline.com/stories/051099/pro_051099077.shtml Shinn says others interested in buying piece of Hornets], lubbockonline.com, 10 Méi 1999. Diaksés 16 Januari 3, 2014.</ref> Dina Pébruari 2010 Jordan kabéjakeun ngundag kapamilikan pinuh Bobcats,<ref>Cox, Marty (16 Pébruari 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100220010148/http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_272630437.shtml "Michael Jordan & Charlotte Bobcats&nbsp;– NBA Legend Wants to Buy Team, Report"], ''National Ledger''. Diaksés 31 Agustus 2017.</ref> nu ganti ngaran jadi Hornets di taun 2014.<ref>[http://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/10958580/charlotte-bobcats-officially-change-nickname-hornets Hornets all the buzz in Charlotte], ESPN, Associated Press, 20 Méi 2014. Diaksés 19 Pébruari 2019.</ref> Saingan Jordan nyaéta manten présidén Houston Rocket, Géorge Postolos. Tanggal 27 Pebruari, Bobcats ngumumkeun yén Johnson geus sapuk jeung Jordan katut grupna, MJ Basketball Holdings pikeun meuli tim, tinggal nunggu kasatujuan ti NBA.<ref>[[Associated Press]]. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=4951410 MJ to buy controlling stake in Bobcats], [[ESPN]], 27 Pébruari 2010. Diaksés 27 Pébruari 2010.</ref> Tanggal 17 Maret, Dewan Gupernur NBA ku suara buleud nyatujuan pameulian Jordan, ngajadikan manéhna pamaén kahiji nu jadi pamilik tim NBA. Hal éta ogé ngajadikeun manéhna hiji-hjina urang Afrika-Amérika nu mibanda kapamilikan mayoritas dina tim NBA.<ref>Associated Press. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=5003048 Jordan purchase of Bobcats approved], ESPN, 17 Maret 2010. Diaksés 17 Maret 2010.</ref> Dina musim 2011-2012 nu dipangkas kana 66 tanding alatan mogok massal, Bobcats ngahasilkeun catetan 7-59. Persentase kameunangan 10,6% minangka pangbututna dina sajarah NBA. "Kuring teu pati sugema ku catetan hasil taun kamari. Bener-bener matak aral," ceuk Jordan satuluyna dina taun eta. Wanci jeda NBA 2019, Jordan ngajual sabagéan leutik saham Hornets ka Gabe Plotkin jeung Daniel Sundheim; nyepeng kénéh mayoritas sahamna pikeun dirina sorangan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.charlotteobserver.com/sports/charlotte-hornets/article232128902.html|title=Michael Jordan selling large chunk of Hornets; won’t give up majority control|last1=Bonnell|first1=Rick|website=charlotteobserver.com|publisher=The Charlotte Observer|accessdate=3 October 2019}}</ref> == Propil pamaén == [[Gambar:Jordan by Lipofsky 16577.jpg|jmpl|Jordan ''slam dunk'', 1987-88]] Jordan téh hiji panjaga témbakan (''shooting guard)'' nu ogé mampu maén minangka panyerang leutik (''small forward'') sarta jadi panjaga poin.<ref name="br"/> Jordan kawentar salila karirna minangka hiji pamidang panangtu nu kuat. Bareng jeung Bulls, manéhna jadi panangtu dina 25 kali tanding ku gul lapangan atawa alungan bébas dina sésa waktu 30 detik deui, kaasup dina dua tanding Final NBA jeung lima tanding ''playoff'' séjénna.<ref>[http://www.nba.com/jordan/game_winners.html Michael Jordan's Game-Winners: How Many Has Michael Made?], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712152426/http://www.nba.com/jordan/game_winners.html|date=July 12, 2014}}. National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Kakeyenganna kaébréhkeun dina mineungna paréa-réa omong<ref>DeCourcy, Mike. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080217041634/http://www.sportingnews.com/yourturn/viewtopic.php?t=110400 A suspension for talking trash? Mamma mia!], sportingnews.com, July 21, 2006. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> sarta étika gawéna nu kasohor.<ref>Jackson, Phil. [http://www.nba.com/jordan/is_philonmj.html "Michael and Me"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211230443/http://www.nba.com/jordan/is_philonmj.html|date=11 Pébruari 2007}}. ''Inside Stuff'', June/July 1998, available at nba.com. Diaksés July 27, 2019.</ref> Pikeun ningkatkeun pertahananna, manéhna méakkeun waktu tambahan pikeun niténan filem musuh-musuhna. Dina panyerangan manéhna ngandelkeun kana insting jeung improvisasi dina waktu tanding.<ref>Condor, pp. xviii–xx.</ref> Kacatet minangka pamaén nu tangoh, Jordan can kungsi leungiteun opat atawa leuwih laga nalika aktif dina samusim pinuh ti 1986 nepi ka 2001, kajaba waktu manéhna keur cidera tuur. Dina 15 musim, salapan di antarana Jordan maén pol 82 kali.<ref name="br" /> Jordan téh panyerang nu rancingeus. Manéhna mampu ngajojo sacara agrésif kana karanjang, ogé narik musuhna pikeun nyieun palanggaran samineng-minengna; 8.722 kali alungan bébasna minangka ka-11 pangluhurna dina sajarah NBA.<ref>[https://www.basketball-reference.com/leaders/fta_career.html NBA & ABA Career Leaders and Records for Free Throw Attempts], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés October 22, 2018.</ref> Ku majuna karir, Jordan ogé ngembangkeun kamampuan pikeun ngaluncatan musuhna jeung nyitak angka ku cara khasna ''fadeaway jump shot'', ngagunakeun kamampuan ngalayangna pikeun ngagileuk tina usaha-usaha blok musuhna. Mungguhing Hubie Brown, ku gerakanna wungkul gé geus méh-méhan teu kabendung.<ref>[[Hubie Brown|Brown, Hubie]]. [http://www.nba.com/jordan/hubieonjordan.html Hubie Brown on Jordan], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411031316/http://www.nba.com/jordan/hubieonjordan.html|date=April 11, 2010}}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Najan dikritik ku média minangka pamaén hawek dina wanci awal karirna, rata-rata ''assist''-na nu 5,3 <ref name="dbb3"/> nunjukkeun yén Jordan osok babagi ka baturna. Taun 1988, Jordan dileler ku Panghargaan Pamaén Batahan Taun Ieu NBA sarta jadi hiji-hijina pamaén nu mampu meunangkeun boh Panghargaan Pamaén Batahan boh Panghargaan MPV dina karirna (satuluyna diimbangan ku Hakeem Olajuwon, [[David Robinson]] jeung Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon minangka pamaén séjénna sajaba ti Jordan nu mampu meunangkeun kadua panghargaan dina musim nu sarua).<ref>Ladewski, Paul. [http://www.nba.com/jordan/hoop_86-87.html What Does He Do for an Encore?], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411031437/http://www.nba.com/jordan/hoop_86-87.html|date=April 11, 2010}}, ''Hoop Magazine'', December 1987, available at nba.com. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> Manéhna gé jadi paringkat katilu dina total ngarebut bal ku 2.514 kali, sahandapeun John Stockton jeung Jason Kidd.<ref>[https://www.basketball-reference.com/leaders/stl_career.html Career Leaders for Steals], basketball-reference.com. Diaksés May 23, 2008.</ref> == Statistik karir NBA == {| class="wikitable" | colspan="6" |'''Legend''' |- | JM |Jumlah maén | MA |Maén ti awal |MPM |Minutes per maén |- |GL% |Perséntase gul lapangan |3P% |Perséntase 3poin |TB% |Perséntase témbakan bébas |- |RPM |''Rebounds'' per maén |APM |''Assists'' per maén |SPM |''Steals'' per maén |- |BPM |''Blocks'' per maén |PPM |Poin per maén |'''Kandel''' |Pangluhurna dina karir |} {| class="wikitable" |† |Nandaan musim Jordan jadi juara NBA |- |* |Mingpin liga |- |# |Rekor NBA |} === Musim régulér === {| class="wikitable" |'''Taun''' |'''Téam''' |'''JM''' |'''MA''' |'''MPM''' |'''GL%''' |'''3P%''' |'''TB%''' |'''RPM''' |'''APM''' |'''SPM''' |'''BPM''' |'''PPM''' |- |1984–85 |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |38,3 |0,515 |0,173 |0,845 |6,5 |5,9 |2,4 |,8 |28,2 |- |1985–86 |Chicago |18 |7 |25,1 |0,457 |0,167 |0,840 |3,6 |2,9 |2,1 |1,2 |22,7 |- |1986–87 |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |40,0 |0,482 |0,182 |'''0,857''' |5,2 |4,6 |2,9 |1,5 |'''37,1'''* |- |1987–88 |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |'''40,4'''* |0,535 |0,132 |0,841 |5,5 |5,9 |'''3,2'''* |'''1,6''' |35,0* |- |1988–89 |Chicago |81 |81 |40,2* |0,538 |0,276 |0,850 |'''8,0''' |'''8,0''' |2,9 |,8 |32,5* |- |1989–90 |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |39,0 |0,526 |0,376 |0,848 |6,9 |6,3 |2,8* |,7 |33,6* |- |1990–91† |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |37,0 |'''0,539''' |0,312 |0,851 |6,0 |5,5 |2,7 |1,0 |31,5* |- |1991–92† |Chicago |80 |80 |38.8 |0,519 |0,270 |0,832 |6,4 |6,1 |2,3 |0,9 |30.1* |- |1992–93† |Chicago |78 |78 |39.3 |0,495 |0,352 |0,837 |6,7 |5,5 |2,8* |0,8 |32.6* |- |1994–95 |Chicago |17 |17 |39.3 |0,411 |'''0,500''' |0,801 |6,9 |5,3 |1,8 |0,8 |26.9 |- |1995–96† |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |37.7 |0,495 |0,427 |0,834 |6,6 |4,3 |2,2 |0,5 |30.4* |- |1996–97† |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |37.9 |0,486 |0,374 |0,833 |5,9 |4,3 |1,7 |0,5 |29.6* |- |1997–98† |Chicago |'''82''' |'''82''' |38.8 |0,465 |0,238 |0,784 |5,8 |3,5 |1,7 |0,5 |28.7* |- |2001–02 |Washington |60 |53 |34.9 |0,416 |0,189 |0,790 |5,7 |5,2 |1,4 |0,4 |22.9 |- |2002–03 |Washington |'''82''' |67 |37.0 |0,445 |0,291 |0,821 |6,1 |3,8 |1,5 |0,5 |20.0 |- | colspan="2" |Karir |1,072 |1,039 |38,3 |0.497 |0,327 |0,835 |6,2 |5,3 |2,3 |0,8 |30,1# |- | colspan="2" |All-Star |13 |13 |29,4 |0.472 |0,273 |0,750 |4,7 |4,2 |2,8 |0,5 |20,2 |} === ''Playoffs'' === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |'''Taun''' |'''Téam''' |'''JM''' |'''MA''' |'''MPM''' |'''GL%''' |'''3P%''' |'''TB%''' |'''RPM''' |'''APM''' |'''SPM''' |'''BPM''' |'''PPM''' |- |1985 |Chicago |4 |4 |42,8 |0,436 |0,125 |0,828 |5,8 |'''8,5''' |'''2,8''' |1,0 |29.3 |- |1986 |Chicago |3 |3 |'''45,0''' |0,505 |'''1,000''' |0,872 |6,3 |5,7 |2,3 |1,3 |'''43.7''' |- |1987 |Chicago |3 |3 |42,7 |0,417 |0,400 |'''0,897''' |7,0 |6,0 |2,0 |'''2,3''' |35.7 |- |1988 |Chicago |10 |10 |42,7 |'''0,531''' |0,333 |0,869 |7,1 |4,7 |2,4 |1,1 |36.3 |- |1989 |Chicago |17 |17 |42,2 |0,510 |0,286 |0,799 |7,0 |7,6 |2,5 |0,8 |34.8 |- |1990 |Chicago |16 |16 |42,1 |0,514 |0,320 |0,836 |7,2 |6,8 |'''2,8''' |0,9 |36.7 |- |1991† |Chicago |17 |17 |40,5 |0,524 |0,385 |0,845 |6,4 |8,4 |2,4 |1,4 |31.1 |- |1992† |Chicago |'''22''' |'''22''' |41,8 |0,499 |0,386 |0,857 |6,2 |5,8 |2,0 |0,7 |34.5 |- |1993† |Chicago |19 |19 |41,2 |0,475 |0,389 |0,805 |6,7 |6,0 |2,1 |0,9 |35.1 |- |1995 |Chicago |10 |10 |42,0 |0,484 |0,367 |0,810 |6,5 |4,5 |2,3 |1,4 |31.5 |- |1996† |Chicago |18 |18 |40,7 |0,459 |0,403 |0,818 |4,9 |4,1 |1,8 |0,3 |30.7 |- |1997† |Chicago |19 |19 |42,3 |0,456 |0,194 |0,831 |'''7,9''' |4,8 |1,6 |0,9 |31.1 |- |1998† |Chicago |21 |21 |41,5 |0,462 |0,302 |0,812 |5,1 |3,5 |1,5 |0,6 |32.4 |- | colspan="2" |Karir |179 |179 |41.8 |0,487 |0,332 |0,828 |6,4 |5,7 |2,1 |0,8 |33,4 <nowiki>#</nowiki> |} == Paninggalan == [[Gambar:Jordan Lipofsky.jpg|jmpl|Jordan di 1997]] Bakat Jordan geus atra dina awal karir NBA-na: dina Bulan Nopémber manéhna disajajarkeun jeung [[Julius Erving]].<ref name="Gross">Gross, Jane. [https://www.nytimes.com/1984/10/21/sports/jordan-makes-people-wonder-is-he-the-new-dr-j.html "Jordan Makes People Wonder: Is He the New Dr. J?"], ''The New York Times'', 21 Oktober 1984. Diaksés 7 Maret 2007.</ref> [[Larry Bird]] nyarita yén manéhna "Can kungsi ningali sasaha waé nu siga manéhna", jeung Jordan téh minangka "Hiji-hijina", sarta pamaén panghadéna nu pernah katempo ku dirina sajajar jeung Wayne Gretzky salaku atlét.<ref name="verdi19850207">Verdi, Bob. [http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-02-07/sports/8501080020_1_bulls-larry-bird-orlando-woolridge "Bird Is Sold On Jordan, NBA's Future"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809114751/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1985-02-07/sports/8501080020_1_bulls-larry-bird-orlando-woolridge |date=2018-08-09 }}, ''Chicago Tribune'', 7 Pébruari 1985. Diaksés June 5, 2018.</ref> Sanggeus manéhna nyitak 63 poin ngalawan Boston Celtics dina tanggal 20 April 1986, Bird ngagambarkeun Jordan minangka "Déwa nu nyamur jadi Michael Jordan".<ref name="nbadisguised"/> Jordan mingpin rékor nyitak angka dina sapuluh musim NBA (rékor NBA) sarta nyaruaan Wilt Chamberalin dina rékor tujuh kali noron.<ref name="nbah"/> Manéhna ogé kapilih salapan kali dina tim kahiji ''NBA All-Defensive'' (rékor NBA bareng jeung [[Gary Payton]], Kevin Garnett jeung Kobe Bryant). Jordan ogé nyekel rékor rata-rata nyitak angka dina musim régulér jeung ''playoff'' ku 30,1 jeung 33,4 poin per maén.<ref name="nbah" /> Poin total Jordan, 5.987 dina ''playoff'' mangrupa kadua pangluhurna dina sajarah NBA. Manéhna pangsiun ku 32.292 poin dina musim régulér nempatan posisi kalima dina salila NBA sahandapeun Karim Abdul Jabbar, Karl Malone, Kobe Bryant jeung LeBron James.<ref name="ESPN">[http://espn.go.com/nba/history/leaders NBA History – Points Leaders], ESPN. Diaksés April 16, 2019.</ref> Ku meunangna MVP musim régulér lima kali (tempat kadua bareng jeung [[Bill Russel]] - ngan Kareem Abdul Jabbar wungkul nu kungsi meunang genep kali), genep MPV Final (rékor NBA) sarta tilu kali MPV tanding NBA Kabéh Béntang, Jordan jadi pamaén nu pangpinuhna ku gelar dina sajarah NBA.<ref name="br"/> Jordan kaasup dina 50 pamaén panghébatna dina taun 1996. Manéhna ogé kaasup hiji tina tujuh pamaén nu kungsi meunangkeun kajuaraan NCAA, NBA jeung madali emas Olimpiade (kituna téh dua kali dina taun 1984 jeung 1992).<ref name="Hoops TC">{{cite web|url=http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/list/201207/basketball-triple-crown-ncaa-nba-championships-olympic-gold-medal|title=Basketball's Triple Crown|publisher=The Post Game.com|accessdate=July 19, 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212194202/http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/list/201207/basketball-triple-crown-ncaa-nba-championships-olympic-gold-medal |date=February 12, 2023 }}</ref> Jordan jeung Pippen minangka ngan dua-duana pamaén nu bisa meunangkeun genep Final NBA pikeun hiji tim. Dina pamilihan tanding Kabéh Bintang, Jordan pangremenna kapilih, sajumlah salapan kali, ngaleuwihan pamaén mana ogé.<ref>[http://www.nba.com/features/mp_ballot_050121.html Moving Pictures: All-Star Ballot winners], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430183404/http://www.nba.com/features/mp_ballot_050121.html|date=April 30, 2018}}, National Basketball Association, 16 Januari 21, 2005. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> "Michael Jordan heula, karak urang-urang." - Magic Johnson Réa pangwartaan nyebutkeun yén Jordan téh pamaén bola baskét panghadéna sapanjang waktu.<ref name="cnnsi">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070104171507/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/basketball/nba/1999/jordan_retires/news/1999/01/13/jordan_greatest/ Michael Jordan: A tribute: Praise from his peers, NBA's 50 greatest sing MJ's praises], ''Sports Illustrated'', 1 Pébruari 1999. Diaksés 9 Méi 2017.</ref> Dina taun 1999, hiji survéy jurnalis, atlét jeung nu séjénna ti ESPN nempatkeun Jordan minangka atlét Amérika Kalér panghadéna dina abad 20, saluhureun béntang-béntang saperti Babe Ruth jeung [[Muhammad Ali]].<ref name="century">[http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/athletes.html Top N. American athletes of the century], ESPN. Diaksés May 3, 2007.</ref> Jordan nempatan paringkat kadua dina daptar 20 atlét vérsi ''Associated Press'' dina Bulan Désémber 1999.<ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/1999/dec/12/sports/sp-43292 "Ruth, Didrikson Named Top Athletes"], ''Los Angeles Times'', 12 Désémber 1999. Diaksés 14 Méi 2017.</ref> Minangka tambahan, ''Associated Press'' milih Jordan minangka pamaén baskét abad 20. Jordan ogé rékor mucunghul dina kaper ''Sports Illustrated'' sajumlah 50 kali.<ref>[https://www.si.com/nba/photos/2013/02/14/michael-jordan-si-covers Michael Jordan's 50 SI Covers], ''Sports Illustrated''. Diaksés 14 Méi 2017.</ref> Dina edisi Séptémber 1996 Sport, nu mangrupa edisi tepung taun ka-50, Jordan disebut minangka atlét panghadéna dina mangsa 50 taun katukang.<ref name="Sport">"Final Out: 1996", ''[[Sport (US magazine)|Sport]]'', volume 90, issue 7, July 1999, p. 96.</ref> Kamampuan ngalayang Jordan, kaébréhkeun dina Kajuaraan Pasanggiri ''Slam Dunk'' dina taun 1987 jeung 1988, diaku ku réa jelema minangka ngabogaan pangaruh ka générasi pamaén ngora. Sawatara pamaén NBA - kaasup LeBron James jeung [[Dwyane Wade]] - geus ngaku yén Jordan téh panutan maranéhna nalika maranéhna tumuwuh déwasa. Komentator ngalandi sajumlah pamaén générasi lanjutan ku sebutan "Tutuluyan Michael Jordan" nalika arasup ka NBA, kaasup anu kasebut téh [[Penny Hardaway]], Grant Hill, Allen iverson, Bryant, James, Vince Carter jeung Dwyane Wade. Najan Jordan téh mangrupa pamaén nu masagi, gambaran "Air Jordan"-na sering dianggap sacara teu dihaja jadi marga lantaran ngorotanna kamampuan témbakan luncat, batahan jeung kamampuan dasar ti pamaén-pamaén ngora. Hiji fakta nu Jordan sorangan manghanyakalkeun. Mangsa jaya-jayana, Jordan geus ningkatkeun status permaénan. Rating télévisi naék ngan wungkul mun manéhna maén.<ref name="cash in">Rovell, Darren. [http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=1254606&type=story NBA could cash in if TV ratings soar with Jordan], ESPN, September 23, 2001. Diaksés March 10, 2007.</ref> Popularitas NBA di AS ngorotan sanggeus gelar pamungkasna.<ref name="cash in" /> Ti saprak 2015, rating Final teu kungsi nepi kana tingkat nalika manéhna meunangkeun gelar juara.<ref>Kent, Milton (June 17, 2015). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2015/06/17/nba-finals-tv-ratings-finish-highest-since-michael-jordans-last-title/ "NBA Finals TV ratings finish highest since Michael Jordan's last title"], ''The Washington Post''. Diaksés July 17, 2016.</ref> [[Gambar:Michael Jordan and Barack Obama at the White House.jpg|ka|jmpl|Jordan narima Madali Kamerdékaan Présidénsial ti Présidén Barack Obama di Gedong Putih]] Agustus 2009, Balé Kahormatan Bal Baskét ''Naismith Memorial'' di Springfield muka pajangan Michael Jordan nu eusina barang-barang ti mangsa manéhna karir di Kampus jeung di NBA, ogé wanci keur di Tim Impian 1992. Pajangan ogé mibanda sarung tangan bésbol pikeun nandakeun karir pondok Jordan di Liga Bésbol Minor.<ref>"Hall opens a Jordan exhibit", ''The New York Times'' (August 3, 2009), p. D5.</ref> Taun 2016 [[Barack Obama|Présidén Barack Obama]] ngajénan Jordan ku Madali Kamerdékaan Présidénsial.<ref name="Freedom">[https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/11/16/president-obama-names-recipients-presidential-medal-freedom "President Obama Names Recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122031847/https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/11/16/president-obama-names-recipients-presidential-medal-freedom |date=2016-11-22 }}, ''whitehouse.gov''. [[The White House]]. November 16, 2016. Diaksés November 16, 2016.</ref> == Kahirupan pribadi == Jordan kawin ka Juanita Vanoy dina Bulan Séptémber 1989, sarta ngabogaan dua budak lalaki, Jeffrey jeung Marcus jeung hiji budak awéwé, Jasmine. Jordan jeung Vanoy ngarajukeun cerai dina tanggal 4 Januari 2002, cenah geus teu alakur, tapi islah deui dina sawatara waktu. Tuluy ngarajukeun cerai deui jeung tuluy jadi dina tanggal 29 Désémber 2006, koméntarna yén putusan éta téh "silih untungkeun jeung tingtrim".<ref name="Divorce">Associated Press. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2714217 Jordan, wife end marriage 'mutually, amicably'], ESPN, December 30, 2006. Diaksés 15 Januari, 2007.</ref> Kabéjakeun yén Juanita nampa $160 juta dolar gono gini, ngajadikeun hal éta minangka cerai sélébriti pangtohagana dina catetan publik mangsa harita.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/13/AR2007041301803.html Forbes: Jordan Divorce Most Costly Ever], ''The Washington Post'', April 14, 2007. Diaksés 1 Maret 2013.</ref> Taun 1991, Jordan meuli sawidang tanah di Highland Park, Illinois, pikeun ngawangun hiji gedong ukuran 5.200 m2 nu karak anggeus opat taun ti harita. Taun 2012 gedongna téh didaptarkeun kana daptar gedong nu rék dijual di Highland Park.<ref name="mansion">Rodkin, Dennis. "[http://www.chicagomag.com/Radar/Deal-Estate/6 Pébruari-2012/Michael-Jordan-Lists-Highland-Park-Mansion-for-29-Million/ Michael Jordan Lists Highland Park Mansion for $29 Million]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", ''Chicago Magazine'', 29 Pébruari 2012. Diaksés May 16, 2012.</ref> Tanggal 21 Juli 2006, hakim Wilayah Cook, Illinois mutuskeun Jordan teu kudu mayar ka manten kabogohna Karla Knafel sajumlah $5 juta dina tuntutan klaim kontrak.<ref name="KaK2">Associated Press. [https://www.usatoday.com/sports/basketball/jordan/2003-06-12-jordan-knafel_x.htm "Judge says Jordan not obligated to pay ex-lover"], ''USA Today'', June 12, 2003. Diaksés 16 Januari 2007.</ref> Jordan disebut-sebut geus mayar $250.000,- ka Knafel pikeun ngajaga rusiah hubungan maranéhna.<ref name="ap2">Associated Press. [http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=2526780 "Judge: Alleged deal between Jordan, ex-lover invalid"], ESPN, 22 Juli 2006. Diaksés 3 Maret 2011,</ref><ref name="usatoday1">[https://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/2002-11-25-oped-wickham_x.htm Jordan's former girlfriend shouldn't get another cent], ''USA Today'', November 25, 2002. Diaksés 12 Pébruari 2009.</ref> Knafel ngaku yén Jordan ngajanjikeun $5 juta pikeun tetep répéh sarta satuju teu ngajukeun hak pangakuan bapa sanggeus Knafel sadar yén manéhna keur kakandungan di taun 1991. Tés DNA ngabuktikeun yén Jordan lain bapa ti budak éta.<ref name="KaK2"/> Jordan ngalamar kabogoh heubeulna (nu lianna), saurang modél Kuba-Amérika, Ybette Prieto dina Natal 2011.<ref>Troop, Caleb. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130721032828/http://www.wcnc.com/sports/Report-Michael-Jordan-is-engaged-136377268.html Bobcats owner Michael Jordan is engaged]", WCNC-TV, 29 Desember 2011. Diaksés 14 Méi 2017.</ref> Maranéhna jatuk rami dina tanggal 27 April 2013 di Garéja Episcopal Bathesda Sisi Laut.<ref>Garcia, Jennifer. "[http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20695242,00.html Michael Jordan Marries Model Yvette Prieto]", ''People'', April 27, 2013. Diaksés April 27, 2013.</ref> Tanggal 11 Pebruari. Yvette ngalahirkeun dua budak sakembaran dingaranan Victoria jeung Ysabel.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/news/michael-jordan-yvette-prieto-welcome-twin-girls/ Michael Jordan, Yvette Prieto welcome twin girls], CBS News, 12 Pébruari 2014. Diaksés 20 Pébruari 2014.</ref> Jordan jadi aki dina taun 2019 nalika budak awéwéna, Jasmin, ngalahirkeun. Minantuna nyaéta manten pamaén Indiana Pacer, Rakeem Christmas.<ref>Herbert, Geoff. [https://www.syracuse.com/sports/2019/05/rakeem-christmas-welcomes-baby-making-michael-jordan-a-grandfather.html Rakeem Christmas welcomes baby, making Michael Jordan a grandfather], syracuse.com, May 18, 2019. Diaksés 20 Méi 2019.</ref> == Figur média jeung kapentingan bisnis == === Iklan === [[Gambar:Flickr - The U.S. Army - www.Army.mil (273).jpg|jmpl|Michael Jordan di 2008]] Jordan mangrupa figur olahraga nu paling payu dina sajarah. Manéhna jadi juru wicara utama pikeun mérek-mérek saperti [[Nike]], [[Coca Cola]], [[Chevrolet]], [[Gatorade]], McDonald's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Whéaties, Hanes jeung MCI.<ref name="rov3">Rovell, Darren. [http://espn.go.com/sportsbusiness/s/2003/0216/1509936.html "Jordan's 10 greatest commercials ever"], ESPN, 6 Pébruari 17, 2003. Diaksés 16 Januari 2007.</ref> Jordan ngabogaan hubungan nu panjang jeung Gatorade, minton dina leuwih ti 20 iklan ti saprak taun 1991, kaasup iklan "''Be Like Mike''" nu dinyanyikeun ku barudak, miharep hayang siga Jordan.<ref name="rov3"/> Nike ngajieun hiji sapatu khusus pikeun manéhna, disebut ''Air Jordan'' dina taun 1984.<ref>Thompson, Phil. [http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/chicagoinc/ct-air-jordan-ban-chicago-inc-spt-0831-20160831-story.html 'Banned' Air Jordans have slightly different history than Nike's narrative], ''Chicago Tribune'', 31 Agustus 2016. Diaksés September 7, 2018.</ref> Salah sahiji iklan komérsil Jordan nu populér pikeun éta sapatu ngalibatkeun Spike Lee ti Mars Blackmon. Dina iklan éta Lee néangan sumber kakuatan Jordan sarta yakin yén éta téh "pasti gara-gara sapatuna". Antukna Jordan diréka ku Nike jadi hiji divisi nu nyorangan ku ngaran "Mérek Jordan".<ref name="rov3"/> Jordan ogé ngilu aub dina karakter kartun [[Looney Tunes]]. Hiji iklan Nike nu disiarkeun dina ''Super Bowl XXVI'' taun 1992 mintonkeun Jordan jeung [[Bugs Bunny]] maén baskét.<ref>Horovitz, Bruce. [http://articles.latimes.com/1992-01-28/business/fi-1078_1_animated-bugs-bunny 'Hare Jordan' May Give Animation Ads a Lift], ''Los Angeles Times'', 28 Januari, 1992. Diaksés December 18, 2013.</ref> Iklan Super Bowl éta ngailhaman filem ''Space Jam'' nu dibentangan ku Jordan jeung Bugs dina hiji dongeng fiksi nu dijieun nalika reureuh kahiji tina baskét.<ref name="Porter">Porter, p. 96.</ref> Jordan ogé minton dina vidio musik [[Michael Jackson]], "''Jam''" (1992).<ref>[https://www.rollingstone.com/music/pictures/michael-jacksons-20-greatest-videos-the-stories-behind-the-vision-20140624/20-jam-1992-0541468 ""Jam" (1992) – Michael Jackson's 20 Greatest Videos: The Stories Behind the Vision"], ''[[Rolling Stone]]''. Diaksés April 21, 2016.</ref> Panghasilan taunan Jordan tina iklan dikira-kira nepi kana 40 juta dolar.<ref name="ausport">Redenbach, Andrew. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090220170255/http://fulltext.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/1999/cjsm/v3n1/redenbach31.htm A Multiple Product Endorser can be a Credible Source], ''Cyber-Journal of Sport Marketing''. Diaksés 15 Méi 2017.</ref> Katambah mun Jordan maén, tikét patandingan béak-béak waé boh kandang boh tandang.<ref>Rovell, Darren. [http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=1538744&type=story "Cashing in on the ultimate cash cow"], ESPN, April 15, 2003. Diaksés 16 Januari 2007.</ref> Hal ieu ngaalatankeun Jordan nyepeng rékor dina hal gajih pamaén ku néken kontrak taunan nu hargana leuwih ti $30 juta / taun.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=|first=|date=15 Séptémber 1997|title=Michael Jordan signs deal with Bulls worth more than $30 million|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3z8DAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|journal=[[Jet (magazine)|Jet]]|publisher=Johnson Publishing Company|volume=82|issue=17|page=51|doi=|issn=0021-5996|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Lolobana, transaksi iklan Jordan, kaasup jeung Nike, diatur ku agénna, David Falk.<ref name="executiveofyear">{{Cite journal|last=Powell|first=Shaun|date=March 29, 1999|title=Executive privilege|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sporting-news_1999-03-29_223_13/page/10|journal=[[The Sporting News]]|volume=223|issue=13|page=10|doi=|issn=0038-805X|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Jordan ngagambarkeun Falk minangka "panghadé-hadéna dina widangna" jeung "manéhna wijaksana dina marketing tur hadé. Manéhna nu ngabogaan konsép Air Jordan." === Lalampahan bisnis === Bulan Juni 2010, Jordan asup kana 20 sélébriti pangkawasana di dunia ku majalah ''Forbes'' ku alatan panghasilan $55 juta antara Juni 2009 jeung Juni 2010. Numutkeun artikel Forbes, mérek Jordan ngahasilkeun $1 juta pangjualan pikeun Nike.<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/lists/2010/53/celeb-100-10_Michael-Jordan_UGGU.html "#20 Michael Jordan"]. ''Forbes'', 2010. Diaksés September 8, 2010.</ref> Juni 2014, Jordan kasebutkeun jadi pamaén NBA munggaran nu jadi miliarder, sanggeus manéhna nambahan sahamna di Charlotte Hornets tina 80% kana 89,5%.<ref>Davis, Adam (June 20, 2014). [http://www.foxbusiness.com/industries/2014/06/20/michael-jordan-becomes-first-billionaire-nba-player/ Michael Jordan Becomes First Billionaire NBA Player], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627054721/http://www.foxbusiness.com/industries/2014/06/20/michael-jordan-becomes-first-billionaire-nba-player/|date=June 27, 2014}} Fox Business Network. Diaksés 11 Maret 2018.</ref> 20 Januari 2015, Jordan diajén ku Jurnal Charlotte Business minangka Jalma Bisnis Taun Ieu taun 2014.<ref>Spanberg, Eric (20 Januari 2015). [http://www.bizjournals.com/charlotte/news/2015/01/20/michael-jordan-in-tears-as-he-accepts-business.html "Michael Jordan in tears as he accepts Business Person of the Year honors"], ''Charlotte Business Journal''. Diaksés 16 Januari 21. 2015.</ref> Taun 2017, manéhna jadi pamilik bagéan ti Miami Marlins ti Bisbol Liga Utama.<ref>Jackson, Barry (August 11, 2017). [http://www.miamiherald.com/sports/mlb/miami-marlins/article166767852.html "Loria agrees to sell Miami Marlins to Sherman and Jeter, source says"], ''Miami Herald''. Diaksés 3 Oktober 2017.</ref> Forbes ngitung Jordan minangka atlét nu panghasilanna pangluhurna dina taun 2017.<ref>[http://www.nba.com/article/2017/12/15/michael-jordan-named-worlds-highest-paid-athlete-all-time-forbes-magazine/ Michael Jordan named world's highest-paid athlete ever], National Basketball Association, December 15, 2017. Diaksés 29 Desember 2017.</ref> Panghasilan Jordan tina mérek Jordan jeung Iklan dikira-kira nepi ka $110 juta, panggedéna dibanding pangsiunan atlét mana oge.<ref>Neuharth-Keusch, AJ (March 31, 2016). [https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba/2016/03/30/michael-jordan-shaquille-oneal-junior-bridgeman-magic-johnson-forbes-list/82441108/ Michael Jordan tops Forbes' list of highest-paid retired athletes], ''USA Today''. Diaksés 29 Desember 2017.</ref> Taun 2019 Jordan kajojo salaku urang Afrika-Amérika katilu pangbengharna, sarua jeung taun 2018, sahandapeun Robert F. Smith jeung Oprah Winfrey.<ref>Jacobs, Harrison (20 Pébruari 2018). [http://www.businessinsider.com/worlds-richest-black-billionaires-forbes-list-2018-2 Meet the world's richest black billionaires of 2018]. Business Insider. Diaksés 16 Juni 2018.</ref> Jordan ogé rererongan ngabogaan grup otomotif nu maké ngaran manéhna. Pausahaanna boga pakuat pakati jeung Nissan dina taun 1990<ref>Mullaney, Timothy J. (December 13, 1995). [http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1995-12-13/business/1995347010_1_glen-burnie-dealership-nissan-of-glen "Jordan, partners hope car dealership scores big: Hoops star owns Glen Burnie outlet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141319/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1995-12-13/business/1995347010_1_glen-burnie-dealership-nissan-of-glen |date=2018-06-12 }}. ''The Baltimore Sun''. Diaksés June 10, 2018.</ref> sarta jeung Lincoln Mercury ti taun 1995 nepi ka tutupna Juni 2009.<ref name="dealership">Burkitt, Janet (27 Pébruari 1997). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1997/02/27/michael-jordan-teams-with-car-dealership/b6c2d1a7-f694-44bd-a4c8-23686276e1d9/ "Michael Jordan Teams With Car Dealership"]. ''The Washington Post''. Diaksés 24 Juni 2018.</ref> Pausahaanna gé mibanda waralaba Nissan di Glen Burnie, Maryland. Restoran ogé kaasupkeun kana bisnis Jordan. Restoranna di antarana restoran stik di Terminal Pusat Raya di Kota New York.<ref>Potempa, Philip (December 28, 2011). [https://www.nwitimes.com/lifestyles/food-and-cooking/scoring-major-points-michael-jordan-s-steak-house-new-location/article_a7f71d5e-afc2-505d-af46-8353ba2ae9e1.html "Scoring major points: Michael Jordan's Steak House new location a delicious win]. ''The Times of Northwest Indiana''. Diaksés 24 Juni 2018.</ref> Jordan ogé mangrupa Invéstor utama dina hiji bisnis golep, Grove XXIII, nu ayeuna keur diwangun di Martin County, Florida.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://golfweek.com/2018/02/04/the-forecaddie-michael-jordan-course-set-to-take-flight-in-2019/|title=Michael Jordan course set to take flight in 2019|website=[[Golfweek]]|publisher=Gannett|language=en|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019|date=5 Pébruari 2018}}</ref> === Amal === Ti taun 2001 ka 2014, Jordan ngayakeun turnamén golep taunan, ''the Michael Jordan Celebrity Invitational'' nu ngumpulkeun duit pikeun rupa-rupa kagiatan amal. Taun 2018, Jordan jadi Pupuhu Duta Besar Harepan pikeun Yayasan Nyieun Pangharepan / ''Make-A-Wish Foundation''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20090124005005/en/Make-A-Wish-Foundation%C2%AE-Names-Michael-Jordan-Chief-Ambassador|title=Make-A-Wish Foundation® Names Michael Jordan as Chief Wish Ambassador|website=[[Business Wire]]|language=en|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019|date=24 Januari, 2009}}</ref> Dina taun 2019 manéhna hasil ngumpulkeun dana leuwih ti $5 juta sarta ngabulkeun leuwih ti 200 pangharepan pikeun organisasi éta.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.looktothestars.org/news/18703-michael-jordan-and-make-a-wish-celebrate-30-years-of-granting-wishes-together|title=Michael Jordan and Make-A-Wish Celebrate 30 Years of Granting Wishes Together|website=Look to the Stars|language=en|date=28 Januari, 2019}}</ref> Taun 2015, Jordan nyumbangkeun hasil duit daméi ti hiji supermarket nu maké ngaranna tanpa ijin ka 23 rupa-rupa amal di Chicago.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-michael-jordan-charity-1216-biz-20151215-story.html|title=Michael Jordan hands court settlement to 23 Chicago nonprofits|last1=Janssen|first1=Kim|website=chicagotribune.com|publisher=Chicago Tribune|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019}}</ref> Taun 2019, manéhna nyumbangkeu $7 juta pikeun ngawaragadan dua Klinik Kulawarga Michael Jordan Novan Héalth di Charlotte, Karolina Kalér.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/michael-jordan-makes-largest-philanthropic-donation-ever-to-fund-clinics-in-charlotte/|title=Michael Jordan makes largest philanthropic donation ever to fund clinics in Charlotte|last1=Maloney|first1=Jack|website=CBSSports.com|language=en|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019}}</ref> Taun éta kénéh sanggeus Topan Florence narajang North Carolina, kaasup lemburna, Wilmington, Jordan nyumbangkeun $2 juta pikeun dana bantuan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/sports/2018/09/michael-jordan-to-donate-2-milion-to-aid-in-hurricance-florence-recovery|title=Michael Jordan Donates $2 Million to Hurricane Florence Recovery|website=Complex|language=en|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919122011/https://www.complex.com/sports/2018/09/michael-jordan-to-donate-2-milion-to-aid-in-hurricance-florence-recovery |date=2018-09-19 }}</ref> Ogé nyumbangkeun $1 juta sabadana Topan Dorian di Bahama.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/michael-jordan-donates-1-million-to-hurricane-dorian-relief-in-the-bahamas-after-storm/|title=Michael Jordan donates $1 million to hurricane relief in the Bahamas|website=[[CBS News]]|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019}}</ref> Taun 2019, 300 sapatu ''sneaker'' Jordan meunang ngararancang manéhna dilelang pikeun amal ka Yayasan Charlotte Hornets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hypebeast.com/2019/5/air-jordan-1-michael-designed-raffle-charlotte-hornets-foundation-charity|title=Two Michael Jordan-Designed AJ1s Are Being Raffled Off For Charity|website=HYPEBEAST|accessdate=3 Oktober 2019}}</ref> Mérek Jordan ngajalankeun Béasiswa Wings, nu geus dibikeun ka leuwih ti 225 mahasiswa nu kurang mampu ti saprak taun 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theundefeated.com/features/jordan-brands-wings-scholars-on-the-life-changing-moment-they-received-their-full-non-athletic-scholarships/|title=Jordan Brand’s Wings Scholars on the life-changing moment they received their full non-athletic scholarships|last1=Dodson|first1=Aaron|website=The Undefeated|accessdate=3 October 2019|date=18 June 2018}}</ref> === Buku === Jordan ngarang sawatara buku nu fokus kana kahirupanna, karir baskét sarta sawangan dunia. * ''Rare Air: Michael on Michael'' (1993) bareng jeung Mark Vancil and Walter Iooss. * ''I Can't Accept Not Trying: Michael Jordan on the Pursuit of Excellence'' (1994) reujeung Mark Vancil jeung Sandro Miller. * ''For the Love of the Game: My Story'' (1998) reujeung Mark Vancil. * ''Driven from Within'' (2005) reujeung Mark Vancil. == Panghargaan jeung pangajénan == [[Gambar:JordanSmithWorthy2.jpg|jmpl|James Worthy, Jordan, jeung Dean Smith taun 2007 dina laga panghargaan tim bal baskét 1957 jeung 1982 North Carolina Tar Heels.]] === Kampus === * Juara Nasional NCAA&nbsp;– 1981–82<ref name="honors">[https://www.nba.com/jordan/list_honors.html Michael Jordan's Honors], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004234306/http://www.nba.com/jordan/list_honors.html |date=October 4, 2018 }}, National Basketball Association. Diaksés 2 Agustus 2019.</ref> * Pamaén Anyar ACC Taun Ieu – 1981–82<ref name="ACC">[https://goheels.com/news/2003/3/13/205489496.aspx Hamm, Jordan Named ACC's Greatest Athletes], University of North Carolina, 13 Maret 2003. Diaksés 28 Oktober 2018.</ref> * Dua kali Konsénsus Tim Kahiji Kabéh Amérika NCAA&nbsp;– 1982–83, 1983–84<ref name="ACC" /> * Pamaén Bal Baskét Lalaki Taun Ieu ACC&nbsp;– 1983–84<ref name="ACC" /> * Pamaén Kampus USBWA Taun Ieu&nbsp;– 1983–84<ref>[http://www.sportswriters.net/usbwa/awards/oscar/index.html Oscar Robertson Trophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522003430/http://www.sportswriters.net/usbwa/awards/oscar/index.html |date=2012-05-22 }}, United States Basketball Writers Association. Diaksés 28 Oktober 2018.</ref> * Pamaén Kampus Naismith Taun Ieu&nbsp;– 1983–84<ref name="nbah" /> * Tropi Adolph Rupp&nbsp;– 1983–84<ref>[https://www.sports-reference.com/cbb/awards/rupp.html Rupp Trophy Winners], Sports Reference LLC. Diaksés 28 Oktober 2018.</ref> * Panghargaan John R. Wooden&nbsp;– 1983–84<ref name="nbah" /> * Nomer 23 dipermanénkeun ku North Carolina Tar Heels<ref>[https://goheels.com/news/2000/2/29/205487622.aspx Jamison's 33 Retired Wednesday Night], University of North Carolina, 29 Pébruari 2000. Diaksés 28 Oktober 2018.</ref> === NBA === * Genep kali Juara NBA - 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998<ref name="nbah" /> * Genep kali MPV Final NBA - 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998<ref name="br" /> * Lima kali MVP NBA - 1998, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1998<ref name="nbah" /> * Sapuluh kali mingpin nyetak angka NBA&nbsp;– 1987–1993, 1996–1998<ref name="br" /> * 14 kali Kabéh Bintang NBA – 1985–1993, 1996–1998, 2002, 2003<ref name="br" /> * Tilu kali MPV Laga Kabéh Bintang NBA&nbsp;– 1988, 1996, 1998<ref name="br" /> * Sabelas kali Tim Kabéh NBA: :* Tim kahiji– 1987–1993, 1996–1998<ref name="nbah" /> :* Tim kadua&nbsp;– 1985<ref name="nbah" /> * Salapan kali Tim Kahiji Kabéh Pamaén Batahan NBA&nbsp;– 1988–1993, 1996–1998<ref name="nbah" /> * Dua kali juara Pasanggiri ''Slam Dunk'' NBA&nbsp;– 1987, 1988<ref name="nbah" /> * Rookie Taun Ieu NBA – 1984<ref name="nbah" /> * Dua kali nampa panghargaan IBM&nbsp;– 1985, 1989<ref name="honors" /> * Pamaén Batahan NBA Taun Ieu&nbsp;– 1987<ref name="honors" /> * Kasebut dina 50 Pamaén Pangonjoyna dina Sajarah NBA di taun 1996<ref name="nbah" /> * Nomer 23 dipaténkeun ku Chicago Bulls<ref name="numbers">Reisinger, Adam. [http://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/20624645/nba-numbers-nba-retired-numbers Inside the numbers on retired numbers around the NBA], ESPN, September 8, 2017. Diaksés 28 Oktober 2018.</ref> * Nomer 23 dipaténkeun ku Miami Héat<ref name="numbers" /> === Séjénna === * Dua kali Dinding Panghargaan Bola Baskét Mémorial Naismith ** kelas 2009 – pribadi<ref name="Sam" /> ** kelas 2010 – salaku anggota "Tim Impian"<ref>[http://www.espn.com/nba/halloffame10/news/story?id=5462407 Scottie Pippen, Karl Malone enter Hall], ESPN, Association Press, August 14, 2010. Diaksés 1 Nopémber 2018.</ref> * Témbok Panghargaan Olimpiade AS – kelas 2009 (salaku anggota "Tim Impian")<ref>[https://www.usab.com/news-events/news/2017/07/dream-team-25th-anniversary.aspx Dream Team Celebrates 25th Anniversary Of Golden Olympic Run], USA Basketball, July 26, 2017. Diaksés 1 Nopémber 2018.</ref> * Témbok Panghargaan FIBA – kelas 2015<ref>[http://espn.go.com/nba/story/_/id/13272015/michael-jordan-inducted-fiba-hall-fame "Michael Jordan to be inducted into FIBA Hall of Fame"], ESPN, July 17, 2015. Diaksés 20 Juli 2016.</ref> * Dua Madali Emas Olimpiade – 1984, 1992<ref name="nbah" /> * Meunang "Tilu Makuta Bola Baskét"<ref name="Hoops TC" /> * TIlu kali Atlét Taun Ieu ''Associated Press&nbsp;–'' 1991, 1992, 1993<ref>[http://interactives.ap.org/2015/athlete-of-the-year/ "AP Athletes of the Year"], Associated Press. Diaksés October 11, 2017.</ref> * Olahragawan Taun Ieu ''Sports Illustrated'' – 1991<ref>[https://www.si.com/vault/issue/710898/1/2 Cover]. ''Sports Illustrated'', December 23, 1991. Diaksés 14 Méi 2017.</ref> * Ruas jalan di [[Madison Street (Chicago)|Madison Street]] di Chicago diganti ngaran jadi ''Michael Jordan Drive&nbsp;–'' 1994<ref>Davis, Robert (1 Maret 1994). [http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-03-01/news/9403010192_1_street-signs-city-council-committee-chicago-stadium "Jordan to get his own street near stadium"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118225350/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-03-01/news/9403010192_1_street-signs-city-council-committee-chicago-stadium |date=2016-11-18 }}, ''[[Chicago Tribune]]''. Diaksés 26 Nopémber 2016.</ref> * Réngking No. 1 ku majalah ''Slam'' Top 50 Pamaén Taun Ieu<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130515122401/http://www.slamonline.com/online/the-magazine/features/2009/06/the-new-top-50/ The New Top 50], ''Slam'', June 19, 2009. Archived from the [http://www.slamonline.com/online/the-magazine/features/2009/06/the-new-top-50/ original] on 15 Méi 2013. Diaksés 12 Désémber 2018.</ref> * Réngking No. 1 ku ''ESPN SportsCentury'''s Top Atlét Amérika Kalér di Abad 20<ref name="century" /> * Témbok Panghargaan Olahraga North Carolina<ref>[https://www.newsday.com/sports/basketball/jordan-to-be-inducted-in-nc-sports-hall-of-fame-1.2508418 Jordan to be inducted in NC Sports Hall of Fame] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421114841/https://www.newsday.com/sports/basketball/jordan-to-be-inducted-in-nc-sports-hall-of-fame-1.2508418 |date=2020-04-21 }}, ''Newsday'', Associated Press, 1 Désémber 2010. Diaksés 1 Nopémber, 2018.</ref> * Pameunang Marca Leyenda 1997<ref>[https://www.marca.com/marca-leyenda.html Marca Leyenda], ''Marca'' (in Spanish). Diaksés November 13, 2018.</ref> * 10 kali nampa ESPY Award (dina rupa-rupa kategori)<ref>Snedeker, Lisa. [https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/story?id=99832&page=1 Tiger Woods Wins Record 4 ESPYs], ABC News, 13 Pébruari 2001. Diaksés 1 Nopémber 2018.</ref> * Patung di sahareupeun Aréna ''United Center''<ref>Rhodes, Steve. [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1994-11-07-9411070187-story.html Even In Bronze, Jordan Spirit Is A Real Magnet], ''Chicago Tribune'', November 7, 1994. Diaksés 1 Nopémber 2018.</ref> * Madali Kamerdékaan Présidénsial 2016<ref name="Freedom" /> == Tempo ogé == *[[:en:List of athletes who came out of retirement|List of athletes who came out of retirement]] *[[:en:Michael Jordan's Restaurant|Réstoran Michael Jordan]] == Réferensi == [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1963]] ol6o7f5bok2cnczy2h0a9htiitsa0dh Prébiotik (giji) 0 98359 712323 594346 2026-08-28T20:47:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712323 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Prébiotik''' nyaéta sanyawa dina katuangan anu nginduksi tumuwuh atawa giatna mikroorganisme anu mangpaat sarupaning [[baktéri]] jeung [[fungi]].<ref name="2015defRev">{{Cite journal|last=Hutkins RW|last2=Krumbeck JA|last3=Bindels LB|last4=Cani PD|last5=Fahey G Jr.|last6=Goh YJ|last7=Hamaker B|last8=Martens EC|last9=Mills DA|year=2016|title=Prebiotics: why definitions matter|journal=Curr Opin Biotechnol|volume=37|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.copbio.2015.09.001|pmc=4744122|pmid=26431716}}</ref> Conto anu galib nyaéta dina saluran gastrointéstinal, anu prébiotik bisa ngarobah komposisi [[organisme]] dinamicrobioma peujit. Prébiotik pangan ilaharna sanyawaan serat anu teu bisa dicerna di bagian luhur pencernaan sarta ngarangsang tumuwuhna atawa giatna baktéri anu nguntungkeun anu hirup dina peutit gedé salaku [[Substrat (biologi)|substrat]].<ref name="2015defRev"/> Ieu istilah dikedalkeun ku Marcel Roberfroid taun 1995.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=Jun 1995|title=Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_1995-06_125_6/page/1401|journal=J. Nutr.|volume=125|issue=6|pages=1401–1412|doi=10.1093/jn/125.6.1401|pmid=7782892}}</ref> Salaku komponén dahareun fungsional, prébiotik, sakumaha probiotik, minangka panengah konseptual antara ''[[pangan]]'' jeung ''[[ubar]]''. == Tingali ogé == *[[Skor prébiotik]] *[[Probiotik]] *[[Sinbiotik]] *[[Oligosakarida mannan]] *[[Psikobiotik]] *[[Aci résistén]] *[[Antibiotik]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Sistim cerna]] [[Kategori:Prébiotik (giji)]] [[Kategori:Baktériologi]] 5bjjj97jng85fsakmy04cq0pxk2hof3 Probiotik 0 98360 712420 710661 2026-08-28T23:08:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712420 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Yakult_drink.jpg|ka|jmpl| Botol Yakult, inuman probiotik anu ngandung ''Lactobacillus paracasei'' ]] '''Probiotik''' nyaéta mikroorganisme hirup anu dipromosikeun kalayan klaim hadé pikeun kaséhatan lamun dikonsumsi, umumna ku cara ngaronjatkeun atawa mulihkeun flora usus.<ref name="nhs">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/probiotics/|title=Probiotics|publisher=National Health Service}}</ref><ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://nccih.nih.gov/health/probiotics/introduction.htm|title=Probiotics: What You Need To Know|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health|accessdate=10 November 2019}}</ref> Probiotik sacara umum dianggap aman, tapi dina sababaraha kasus bisa ogé ngabalukarkeun gangguan.<ref name="DoronSnydman2015">{{Cite journal|year=2015|title=Risk and safety of probiotics.|url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/suppl_2/S129.long|journal=Clin Infect Dis|type=Review|volume=60 Suppl 2|pages=S129–34|doi=10.1093/cid/civ085|pmc=4490230|pmid=25922398|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811145245/http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/suppl_2/S129.long|archive-date=2016-08-11|access-date=2016-06-04}}</ref><ref name="SinghiKumar2016">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Probiotics in critically ill children.|journal=F1000Res|type=Review|volume=5|pages=407|doi=10.12688/f1000research.7630.1|pmc=4813632|pmid=27081478}}</ref><ref name="DurchscheinPetritsch2016">{{Cite journal|year=2016|title=Diet therapy for inflammatory bowel diseases: The established and the new.|journal=World J Gastroenterol|type=Review|volume=22|issue=7|pages=2179–94|doi=10.3748/wjg.v22.i7.2179|pmc=4734995|pmid=26900283}}</ref> Bukti kauntungan probiotik pikeun kaséhatan ukur saeutik, diandingkeun jeung aakuanana. == Watesan == Laporan Oktober 2001 ti [[Organisasi Kaséhatan Dunya|Organisasi Kaséhatan World]] (WHO) netepkeun probiotik salaku mikroorganismeu hirup anu, "nalika dituang dina jumlah anu nyukupan, masihan mangpaat kaséhatan kanggo awakna." <ref name="who">{{Cite web|url=http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/en/probiotics.pdf|title=Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food including Powder Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria|last=Schlundt|first=Jorgen|website=Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Evaluation of Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food Including Powder Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria|publisher=FAO / WHO|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022161702/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/en/probiotics.pdf|archivedate=October 22, 2012|accessdate=17 December 2012}}</ref> Nuturkeun watesan ieu, grup kerja anu diayakeun ku Organisasi Kadaharan sareng Pertanian (FAO)/WHO dina bulan Méi 2002 ngaluarkeun ''Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/wgreport2.pdf|title=Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food|publisher=Joint FAO/WHO Working Group on Drafting Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food, London, Ontario, Canada}}</ref> == Dina dahareun == [[Kultur mikrobiologi]] probiotik hirup téh bagian ti produk susu ferméntasi, katuangan [[Férméntasi|pérméntasi]] lianna, jeung tuangeun-probiotik. Sababaraha produk fermentasi anu ngandung baktéri [[asam laktat]] (LAB) di antarana: sayuran acar,<ref name="fv">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://fbns.ncsu.edu/USDAARS/Acrobatpubs/P376-400/p380.pdf|title=Fermented Vegetables; In: Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers, 4th Ed|pages=841–855|year=2013|publisher=ASM Press|location=Washington, DC|doi=10.1128/9781555818463.ch33|access-date=19 May 2016|chapter=Fermented Vegetables|isbn=978-1-55581-626-1}}</ref> kimci,<ref name="dsnlab">{{Cite journal|year=2004|title=The Depletion of Sodium Nitrite by Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Kimchi|journal=Journal of Medicinal Food|volume=7|issue=1|pages=38–44|doi=10.1089/109662004322984680|pmid=15117551}}</ref> pao cai,<ref>{{Cite journal|year=1962|title=Fermentation of the Yugoslavian pickled cabbage|journal=Applied Microbiology|volume=10|issue=1|pages=86–9|pmc=1057814|pmid=14484853}}</ref> jeung sauerkraut;<ref name="sugm">{{Cite journal|last=Friedman|first=Y|last2=Hugenholtz|first2=Jeroen|last3=De Vos|first3=Willem M.|last4=Smid|first4=Eddy J.|year=2006|title=Safe use of genetically modified lactic acid bacteria in food. Bridging the gap between consumers, green groups, and industry|url=http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-34582006000400011&tlng=&lng=en&nrm=iso|journal=Electronic Journal of Biotechnology|volume=9|issue=4|pages=E49–55|doi=10.2225/vol9-issue4-fulltext-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814122022/http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0717-34582006000400011&tlng=&lng=en&nrm=iso|archive-date=14 August 2013|access-date=7 November 2007}}</ref> produk [[kadelé]] kawas [[Témpé|tempe]], <ref name="mamt">{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Microbial analysis of Malaysian tempeh, and characterization of two bacteriocins produced by isolates of Enterococcus faecium|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-microbiology_2002_92_1/page/147|journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology|volume=92|issue=1|pages=147–157|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01509.x|pmid=11849339}}</ref> miso, <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/lactobacillus-acidophilus|title=Lactobacillus acidophilus|last=Ehrlich|first=Steven D.|publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911233110/http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/lactobacillus-acidophilus|archivedate=2015-09-11|accessdate=2015-09-17}}</ref> jeung [[Kécap|kecap]],<ref name="labi">{{Cite journal|year=2002|title=Lactic acid bacteria isolated from soy sauce mash in Thailand|journal=Journal of General and Applied Microbiology|volume=48|issue=4|pages=201–209|doi=10.2323/jgam.48.201|pmid=12469319}}</ref> sarta produk susu kayaning [[Yoghurt|yogurt]], kefir,<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2011|title=Microbial ecology and quality assurance in food fermentation systems. The case of kefir grains application|journal=Anaerobe|volume=17|issue=6|pages=483–5|doi=10.1016/j.anaerobe.2011.03.014|pmid=21497663}}</ref> jeung [[susu mantéga]]. <ref>{{Cite journal|year=2013|title=Fermented milks and milk products as functional foods--a review|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=53|issue=5|pages=482–96|doi=10.1080/10408398.2010.547398|pmid=23391015}}</ref> == Tingali ogé == {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Disbiosis]] * [[Pangan pungsional]] * [[Kultur pangan mikroba]] * [[Prébiotik (giji)]] * [[Protéobiotik]] * [[Psikobiotik]] * [[Sinbiotik]] *[[Posbiotik]] {{Div col end}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}}{{Pondok}} [[tr:Prebiyotik]] [[Kategori:Sistim cerna]] [[Kategori:Probiotik]] [[Kategori:Bakteriologi]] 3rvpaunzndq9ixbxt4sbvz1xjv8wr20 Béntang 0 98669 712367 711811 2026-08-28T22:01:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 19 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{lain|Béntang}} {{multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=1e7m comparison Uranus Neptune Sirius B Earth Venus.png|image2=1e6m comparison Mars Mercury Moon Pluto Haumea - no transparency.png|width=300|caption2=Skala objék saukuran planét: <br> Baris luhur: [[Uranus]] jeung [[Néptunus]]; <br> baris kadua: [[Bumi]], béntang [[katé bodas]] [[Sirius B]], [[Vénus]]; <br> baris handap (digedékeun) – luhur: [[Mars]] jeung [[Mérkurius]]; <br> handap: [[Bulan]], [[planit katé]] [[Pluto]], jeung [[Haumea (planit katé)|Haumea]]}} '''Planét''' atawa '''planit''' (Basa Sunda buhun: '''béntang ider''' atawa '''béntang jarah''') nyaéta [[objék astronomi]] anu [[orbit|ngulilingan]] hiji [[béntang]] atawa [[Sésa béntang|sésa béntang]]. Sangkan hiji objék bisa disebut planét, aya tilu kritéria utama numutkeun [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] (IAU): # Miboga [[massa]] anu cukup gedé pikeun nyiptakeun [[gravitasi]] sorangan sangkan wangunna buleud (kasatimbangan hidrostatis). # Teu badag teuing nepi ka bisa ngabalukarkeun [[fusi termonuklir]] (henteu jadi béntang). # Geus "meresihan" daérah di sabudeureun orbitna tina [[planétésimal]] (benda-benda langit leutik séjénna).<ref group="lower-alpha" name="footnoteA">Ieu [[Wangenan planét|wangenan]] dumasar kana dua déklarasi IAU (2001 jeung 2006).</ref><ref name="IAU">{{cite web |title=IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes |url=http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/detail/iau0603/ |publisher=IAU |year=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091230134246/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/detail/iau0603/ |date=2009-12-30 }}</ref> Istilah "planét" asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''planētēs'' anu hartina "pangumbara" (tukang ngumbara). Dina basa Sunda, istilah "béntang" mindeng dipaké sacara umum pikeun sakabéh barang langit anu moncorong di peuting, padahal planét mah henteu ngaluarkeun cahaya sorangan (ngan saukur nyinarkeun pantulan cahaya ti béntang).<ref name="WSGESP">{{cite web |year=2001 |title=Working Group on Extrasolar Planets (WGESP) |work=IAU |url=http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/boss/definition.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060916161707/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/boss/definition.html |date=2006-09-16 }}</ref> == Sajarah jeung kapercayaan == Kecap ''planit'' geus lila dipikawanoh sarta miboga hubungan anu raket jeung [[sajarah]], [[sains]], [[mitologi]], sarta [[agama]]. Ku rupa-rupa [[peradaban]] kuna, planét téh dianggap salaku hal anu sakral atawa wawakil ti para [[déwa]]. Sanajan kitu, kalayan majuna élmu kanyaho, sawangan manusa kana planét ogé milu robah, tina dianggap barang gaib jadi objék astronomi anu bisa ditalungtik. == Bédana "Bintang" jeung "Béntang" == Dina [[Basa Sunda]], aya bédana harti anu kacida jéntréna antara kecap '''bintang''' jeung '''béntang''', dumasar kana asal-usul cahaya sarta sipatna: * '''Bintang''' (planét): Nyaéta barang langit anu teu bisa ngahasilkeun cahyana sorangan, tapi ngan saukur mantulkeun cahaya ti béntang séjénna. Dina istilah astronomi modérn, ieu disebutna [[planét]]. * '''Béntang''' (''star''): Nyaéta barang langit anu bisa ngahasilkeun cahaya sorangan tina prosés fusi nuklir dina jerona.<ref>{{Cite book|edition=Cit. 1|title=Kamus Basa Sunda|publisher=Panitia Penerbitan Kamus Basa Sunda & PT Kiblat Buku Utama|date=2006|location=Bandung|isbn=9793631910|last=Danadibrata, R. A.}}</ref> Dina kabudayaan Sunda, planét ogé mindeng disebut '''béntang ider''' atawa '''béntang jarah'''. Istilah ieu dipaké pikeun ngabédakeunana jeung béntang sajati anu katémpona cicing (''fixed stars''), sabab planét mah katémpona "ngumbara" atawa nyimpang tina jalur béntang-béntang séjénna. Dina taun 2006, [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional]] (IAU) ngesahkeun hiji résolusi resmi anu nangtukeun [[wangenan planét IAU|wangenan (definisi) planét]] di [[Tata Surya]]. Wangenan ieu dipuji nanging ogé dikritik sarta masih diperdebatkeun ku sawatara élmuwan, lantaran dianggap teu ngawengku banda-banda [[planemo|bermassa planét]] séjénna anu ngan ditangtukeun dumasar kana orbitna. Sanajan dalapan banda planét anu dipanggihan méméh taun 1950 masih dianggap "planét" dumasar kana wangenan modéren, sawatara banda angkasa saperti [[Ceres (planét kerdil)|Cérés]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], [[3 Juno|Juno]], sarta [[4 Vesta|Vésta]] (masing-masing mangrupa objék di sabuk astéroid Panonpoé), kitu ogé [[Pluto]] (objék trans-Néptunus anu munggaran dipanggihan) anu baheulana dianggap planét, ayeuna mah geus henteu dianggap planét deui sarta turun statusna jadi [[planét kerdil]]. [[Ptolomeus]] nganggap yén planét ngurilingan Bumi kalawan gerakan [[deferen jeung épisiklus]]. Sanajan ideu [[Hélioséntrisme|planét ngurilingan Panonpoé]] geus lila diutarakeun, kakara dina abad ka-17 ideu ieu kabukti sacara ilmiah ngaliwatan pangamatan [[téléscop]] ku [[Galileo Galilei]]. Kalawan analisis data obsérvasi anu kacida taliti, [[Johannes Kepler]] manggihan yén orbit planét téh wangunna lain bunderan (lingkaran) sampurna, nanging mangrupa [[orbit elips|élips]]. [Image of Kepler's laws of planetary motion illustrating elliptical orbits] Sajalan jeung kamekaran pakakas obsérvasi, para [[astronom]] niténan yén planét téh rotasi dina sumbu anu miring, sarta sababaraha di antarana miboga [[beting és]] (ice caps) jeung parobahan [[usum]] lir ibarat di Bumi. Ti saprak asup ka [[Jaman Angkasa]], pangamatan jarak deukeut ku [[wahana antariksa]] ngabuktikeun yén Bumi jeung planét-planét séjénna miboga ciri-ciri géologis anu sarupa, saperti [[gunung seuneu|vulkanisme]], [[angin ribut]], [[téktonik]], malah nepi ka gejala [[hidrologi]]. Sacara umum, planit kabagi ngajadi dua jinis utama: [[raksasa gas]] gedé anu kapadetanana handap jeung [[planét kabumian|raksasa darat]] leutik batuan. Sasuay définisi IAU, aya dalapan planit di Tata Surya. Nurutkeun anggangna ti [[Panonpoé]] (deukeut ka jauh), aya opat planit kabumian, [[Mérkurius]], [[Vénus]], [[Bumi]], jeung [[Mars]], tuluy opat raksasa gas, [[Jupiter]], [[Saturnus]], [[Uranus]], jeung [[Néptunus]]. Genep planit di antarana dikurilingan ku hiji [[satelit alam]] atawa leuwih. Salian ti éta, IAU ngakuan lima [[planit katé]]<ref>[[Ceres (planét katé)|Ceres]], [[Pluto]] (saméméhns mangrupa planit ka-9 di Tata Surya), [[Makemake (planit katé)|Makemake]], [[Haumea (planét katé)|Haumea]], jeung [[Eris (planét katé)|Eris]]</ref> jeung baratus-ratus rébu [[banda leutik Tata Surya]]. Maranéhna masih nimbang-nimbang banda-banda séjén pikeun digolongkeun jadi planit.<ref>http://www.iau.org/public/pluto/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614202942/http://www.iau.org/public/pluto/ |date=2011-06-14 }}</ref> Ti semet 1992, mangratus-ratus planit anu ngurilingan béntang-béntang séjén ("[[planit luar surya]]" atawa "éksoplanét") di [[Bima Sakti]] enggeus dipanggihkeun. Per {{Extrasolar planet counts|asof}}, {{Extrasolar planet counts|planet_count}} planet luar surya anu dipikanyaho (di {{Extrasolar planet counts|system_count}} [[sistem planet]] jeung {{Extrasolar planet counts|multiplanetsystem_count}} [[Daftar sistim multiplanet|sistim multiplanet]]) kadaftar di [[Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]]. Ukuranana rupa-rupa, ti mimiti planét daratan siga Bumi nepi raksasa gas nu leuwih gedé tibatan Jupiter.<ref name="Encyclopaedia">{{cite web |title=Interactive Extra-solar Planets Catalog |work=[[The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]] |url=http://exoplanet.eu/catalog.php |last=Schneider |first=Jean |date=16 January 2013 |accessdate=2013-01-15 }}</ref> Dina tanggal 20 Désémber 2011, tim [[Kepler (wahana antariksa)|Teleskop Luar Angkasa Kepler]] manggihkeun dua planit luar surya saukuran Bumi, [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220">{{cite web |author=[[NASA|NASA Staff]] |title=Kepler: A Search For Habitable Planets – Kepler-20e |url=http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20e/ |date=20 December 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2011-12-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222162400/http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20e/ |date=2013-02-22 }}</ref> dan [[Kepler-20f]],<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220">{{cite web |author=[[NASA|NASA Staff]] |title=Kepler: A Search For Habitable Planets – Kepler-20f |url=http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20f/ |date=20 December 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=2011-12-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614161345/http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/discoveries/kepler20f/ |date=2012-06-14 }}</ref> anu ngorbit [[analog Panonpoé|béntang diga Panonpoé]], [[Kepler-20]].<ref name="NASA-20111220">{{cite web|last=Johnson|first=Michele|title=NASA Discovers First Earth-size Planets Beyond Our Solar System|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/kepler-20-system.html|publisher=[[NASA]]|date=20 December 2011|accessdate=2011-12-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504012546/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/news/kepler-20-system.html |date=2019-05-04 }}</ref><ref name="Nature-20111220">{{cite journal |last=Hand |first=Eric |title=Kepler discovers first Earth-sized exoplanets |doi=10.1038/nature.2011.9688 |date=20 December 2011 |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]]}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20111220">{{cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|title=Two Earth-Size Planets Are Discovered|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/21/science/space/nasas-kepler-spacecraft-discovers-2-earth-size-planets.html|date=20 December 2011|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=2011-12-21 }}</ref> Studi taun 2012 nu nganalisis data [[mikrolensa gravitasi]] ngira-ngira satiap béntang di Catang Bobo [[rata-rata aritmetik|rata-rata]] dikurilingan ku saeutikna 1,6 planét.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cassan|first=Arnaud|author2=D. Kubas, J.-P. Beaulieu, M. Dominik, K. Horne, J. Greenhill, J. Wambsganss, J. Menzies, A. Williams, U. G. Jørgensen, A. Udalski, D. P. Bennett, M. D. Albrow, V. Batista, S. Brillant, J. A. R. Caldwell, A. Cole, Ch. Coutures, K. H. Cook, S. Dieters, D. Dominis Prester, J. Donatowicz, P. Fouqué, K. Hill, N. Kains et al.|title=One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations|journal=Nature|date=12 January 2012|volume=481|pages=167–169|doi=10.1038/nature10684|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v481/n7380/full/nature10684.html|accessdate=11 January 2012|issue=7380|bibcode = 2012Natur.481..167C|pmid=22237108|arxiv = 1202.0903 }}</ref> Sawatara astronom di [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]] (CfA) ngalaporkeun dina Januari 2013 yén saeutikna 17 miliar éksoplanét saukuran Bumi (tepatna 0,8–1,25 [[massa Bumi]]) anu periode orbitna 85 poé atawana kurang ayana di galaksi Catang Bobo.<ref name="Space-20130107">{{cite web |title=17 Billion Earth-Size Alien Planets Inhabit Milky Way |url=http://www.space.com/19157-billions-earth-size-alien-planets-aas221.html |date=January 7, 2013 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=January 8, 2013 |author=Staff }}</ref> == Sajarah == {{see|Sejarah astronomi|Definisi planet}} {{see also|Garis waktu astronomi Tata Surya}} [[File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png|jmpl|ka|250px|Cetakan model kosmologi geosentris dari ''Cosmographia'', Antwerp, 1539]] Sawangan ngeunaan planét téh parantos loba robahna sapanjang lalakon sajarah, kawitna mah mung dianggap salaku [[béntang ngumbara]] anu langgeng dina jaman bihari, dugi ka kiwari dianggap salaku objék anu mibanda sipat nu sarupa sareng bumi. Ieu konsép téh beuki ngajembaran, henteu mung kawatesan di lingkungan Tata Surya wungkul, nanging parantos ngambah ka mangratus-ratus sistem luar surya sanésna. Ayana kahengkeran (ambiguitas) dina nangtukeun wangenan (définisi) planét téh parantos janten pasalia paham (kontrovérsi) di kalangan para élmuwan. Lima [[planit klasik]] anu tiasa katingal ku panon sacara langsung parantos dipikawanoh ti jaman bihari, sarta mibanda pangaruh anu kacida ageungna dina widang [[mitologi]], [[kosmologi agama]], sarta [[palintangan]] kuna. Dina mangsa harita, para astronom parantos nitenan kumaha cahaya-cahaya tinangtu téh léngkahna béda sarta ngalangkungan langit upami dibandingkeun sareng béntang-béntang sanésna. Éta cahaya ku bangsa Yunani disebut {{lang|grc|πλάνητες ἀστέRES}} ({{Transl|grc|''planetes asteres''}}, "béntang ngumbara") atanapi "{{lang|grc|πλανήτοι}}" baé ({{Transl|grc|''planētoi''}}, "pangalalana"),<ref>H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', ninth edition, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940).</ref> anu janten dadasar kawangunna kecap "planét".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/planet |title=Definition of planet |publisher=Merriam-Webster OnLine |accessdate=2007-07-23}}</ref><ref name="oed" /> Di [[Yunani]], [[Cina]], [[Babilonia]] kuna, sarta sakumna peradaban pra-modéren,<ref>{{cite journal |first=Otto E. |last=Neugebauer |year=1945 |title=The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–38 |doi=10.1086/370729}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Colin|last=Ronan|title=Astronomy in China, Korea and Japan|edition=Walker|chapter=Astronomy Before the Telescope|pages=264–265}}</ref> diyakinkeun yén Bumi téh mangrupa [[géosentris|puseur Alam Semesta]] sarta sakumna "planét" téh ngurilingan Bumi. Alesan anu ngadasaran ieu sawangan nyaéta béntang sarta planét katingal muter ngalingkung Bumi unggal dinten,<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas S.|last=Kuhn|title=The Copernican Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/copernicanrevolu0000kuhn_p2a0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/copernicanrevolu0000kuhn_p2a0/page/5 5]–20|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1957|isbn=0-674-17103-9}}</ref> sarta ayana anggepan sacara [[akal séhat]] yén Bumi téh sipatna padet tur manceg, henteu oyag sarta cicing. === Babilonia === {{main|Astronomi Babilonia}} Peradaban munggaran anu dipikawanoh mibanda tiori ''fungsional'' ngeunaan planét téh nyaéta bangsa [[Babilonia]], padumuk [[Mesopotamia]] dina milénium kahiji sarta kadua SM. Téks astronomi planét pangmimitina anu masih aya dugi ka ayeuna nyaéta [[Tablét Vénus ti Ammisaduqa]], mangrupa salinan daptar paniténan gerak planét Vénus ti abad ka-7 SM anu disangka parantos disusun ti milénium kadua SM.<ref name="practice" /> [[MUL.APIN]] mangrupa sapasang tablét [[kuneiform]] ti abad ka-7 SM anu nyatet gerakan Panonpoé, Bulan, sarta planét-planét sapanjang taun.<ref>{{cite book|author= Francesca Rochberg|chapter=Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia|title= Civilizations of the Ancient Near East|volume= III|editor=Jack Sasson|year=2000|page=1930}}</ref> Sawatara [[Astrologi Babilonia|astrolog Babilonia]] ogé nunda dadasar pikeun [[astrologi Kulon]].<ref name="book">{{cite book|last=Holden|first=James Herschel|title=A History of Horoscopic Astrology|year=1996|publisher=AFA|isbn=978-0-86690-463-6|page=1}}</ref> ''[[Enuma anu enlil]]'', anu ditulis dina mangsa periode [[Neo-Assyria]] abad ka-7 SM,<ref>{{cite book|volume=8|series=State Archives of Assyria|title=Astrological reports to Assyrian kings|editor=Hermann Hunger|year=1992|publisher=Helsinki University Press|isbn=951-570-130-9}}</ref> eusina ngawengku daptar [[omen]] (tanda alam) sarta hubunganana sareng rupa-rupa fénoména langit, kalebet gerakan planét-planét.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Babylonian Planetary Omens. Part One. Enuma Anu Enlil, Tablet 63: The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_january-march-1987_107_1/page/93 |first=W. G. |last=Lambert |year=1987 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |doi=10.2307/602955 |volume=107 |issue=1 |author2=Reiner |first2=Erica |jstor=602955 |pages=93–96}}</ref><ref name="ancientmes">{{cite journal |url=http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol16/planets.pdf |format=PDF |author=Kasak, Enn; Veede, Raul |title=Understanding Planets in Ancient Mesopotamia (PDF) |journal=Electronic Journal of Folklore |accessdate=2008-02-06 |volume=16 |year=2001 |pages=7–35 |publisher=Estonian Literary Museum |editor=Mare Kõiva and Andres Kuperjanov }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204141254/http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol16/planets.pdf |date=2019-02-04 }}</ref> [[Vénus]], [[Mérkurius]], sarta planét-planét périfér (pangluarna) sapertos [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], sarta [[Saturnus]] parantos diidéntifikasi ku para [[astronomi Babilonia|astronom Babilonia]]. Sadayana mangrupa planét anu dipikawanoh ku manusa dugi ka diciptakeunana [[téléskop]] dina awal jaman modéren.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Babylonian Observational Astronomy |author=A. Sachs |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=May 2, 1974 |pages=43–50 [45 & 48–9] |publisher=[[Royal Society of London]] |jstor=74273 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0008 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...43S}}</ref> === Astronomi Yunani-Romawi === {{Tempo ogé|Astronomi Yunani}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |+ 7 Planét Ptolomeus |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Bulan <br> [[File:Moon decrescent symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☾}}]] || 2 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 3 <br> Vénus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 4 <br> Panonpoé <br> [[File:Sun symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☉}}]] || 5 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 6 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 7 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] |} Bangsa Yunani Kuna kawitna mah henteu pati mibanda karesep sapertos bangsa Babilonia dina nalungtik perkara planét. [[Pangiring Pythagoras]] dina abad ka-6 sarta ka-5 SM rupina parantos ngamekarkeun tiori kaplanétan sorangan, anu di jerona ngajelaskeun yén Bumi, Panonpoé, Bulan, sarta planét-planét téh ngurilingan "Seuneu Tengah" anu janten puseur Alam Semesta. [[Pythagoras]] atanapi [[Parmenides]] kawartoskeun mangrupa jalma munggaran anu mampuh ngaidéntifikasi yén béntang burit sarta béntang isuk ([[Vénus]]) téh saenyana mangrupa hiji banda langit anu sarua.<ref name="burnet">{{cite book|first=John|last=Burnet|title= Greek philosophy: Thales to Plato|year=1950|publisher=Macmillan and Co.|pages=7–11|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7yUAmmqHHEgC&pg=PR4|accessdate=2008-02-07|isbn=978-1-4067-6601-1}}</ref> Dina abad ka-3 SM, [[Aristarkhus ti Samos]] ngusulkeun sistem [[heliosentrisme|hélioséntris]], anu mibanda harti yén Bumi sarta planét téh ngalingkung Panonpoé. Nanging, sistem géoséntris tetep janten anggepan utama (didominasi) dina peradaban dunya dugi ka lumangsungna [[Révolusi Ilmiah]]. Dina [[periode Hélénistik]] abad ka-1 SM, bangsa Yunani mimiti ngamekarkeun skéma matématika pikeun maham sarta ngira-ngira posisi planét-planét. Ieu skéma anu dumasar kana géométri, bénten sareng aritmetika Babilonia, nu satuluyna ngajantenkeun tiori kaplanétan langkung kompléks sarta pepek. Kalolobaan gerakan astronomis anu dititénan ti Bumi ku panon sacara langsung téh diukur ngagunakeun ieu skéma. Tiori Yunani ieu nembé tiasa dijelaskeun sacara mundel dina kitab ''[[Almagest]]'' karya [[Ptolomeus]] dina abad ka-2 M. Modél Ptolomeus téh kacida lengkepna sarta dominan, dugi ka sadaya tiori astronomi sateuacanna dianggap parantos katingaleun jaman (basi), sarta ''Almagest'' janten téks astronomi resmi di dunya Kulon salami 13 abad.<ref name="practice" /><ref name="almagest" /> Bangsa Yunani sarta Romawi mikawanoh tujuh planét, anu masing-masing dianggap [[modél géoséntris|ngurilingan Bumi]] luyu sareng hukum kompléks Ptolomeus. Éta planét-planét téh nyaéta (luyu sareng urutan Ptolomeus ti Bumi): Bulan, Mérkurius, Vénus, Panonpoé, Mars, Jupiter, sarta Saturnus.<ref name="oed">{{cite web | url= http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50180718?query_type=word&queryword=planet |publisher = Oxford English Dictionary | title = planet, n | accessdate=2008-02-07|year=2007}} ''Note: select the Etymology tab ''</ref><ref name="almagest">{{cite journal |first=Bernard R. |last=Goldstein |title=Saving the phenomena: the background to Ptolemy's planetary theory | journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=28 |issue=1 |year=1997 |pages=1–12 |location=Cambridge (UK) |bibcode=1997JHA....28....1G}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Ptolemy's Almagest|author= Ptolemy|authorlink=Ptolemy|author2=[[G. J. Toomer|Toomer, G. J.]]|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-691-00260-6}}</ref> === India === {{main|Astronomi India|Kosmologi Hindu}} Dina taun 499 CE, astronom India [[Aryabhata]] nyusun modél planét anu ngalebetkeun unsur [[rotasi Bumi]] dina sumbuna. Anjeunna ngajelaskeun yén éta hal téh mangrupa sabab musabab béntang-béntang katingal obah ka arah kulon. Aryabhata ogé mibanda kayakinan yén orbit planét téh wangunna [[élips]].<ref>J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson, [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Aryabhata_I.html Aryabhata the Elder], [[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]''<nowiki/>''</ref> Pangiring Aryabhata kacida seueurna di [[India Kidul]], hiji wewengkon di mana prinsip-prinsip ngeunaan rotasi diurnal Bumi diaku, sarta sababaraha karya susulan anu dumasar kana éta tiori parantos dihasilkeun.<ref>[[K. V. Sarma|Sarma, K. V.]] (1997) "Astronomy in India" in [[Helaine Selin|Selin, Helaine]] (editor) ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-4066-3, p. 116</ref> Dina taun 1500, [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] ti [[madhab astronomi sarta matématika Kerala]] parantos ngaropéa (ngarévisi) modél Aryabhata dina karyana anu judulna ''[[Tantrasangraha]]''.<ref name="MOPM">{{cite journal |title=Model of planetary motion in the works of Kerala astronomers |last==Ramasubramanian |first=K. |journal=Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India |volume=26 |pages=11–31 [23–4] |year=1998 |bibcode=1998BASI...26...11R}}</ref> Dina ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', anu mangrupa ulasan (koméntar) kana kitab ''Aryabhatiya'' karya Aryabhata, anjeunna ngamekarkeun modél planét di mana Mérkurius, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter, sarta Saturnus téh ngalingkung Panonpoé, sedengkeun Panonpoé ngurilingan Bumi. Ieu modél téh sawanda sareng [[sistim Tychonik]] anu diusulkeun ku [[Tycho Brahe]] dina ahir abad ka-16. Kalolobaan astronom ti madhab Kerala anu janten pangiringna nampi éta modél planét hasil usulanana.<ref name="MOPM" /><ref>Ramasubramanian etc. (1994)</ref> === Astronomi Islam abad pertengahan === {{main|Astronomi Islam abad pertengahan|Kosmologi Islam}} Dina abad ka-11, kajadian [[transit Vénus]] parantos dititénan ku [[Ibnu Sina]], anu satuluyna netepkeun yén [[Vénus]] téh aya kalana nuju aya di handapeun Panonpoé.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |author=Sally P. Ragep |editor=Thomas Hockey |encyclopedia=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |year=2007 |pages=570–572 |doi=10.1888/0333750888/3736 |bibcode=2000eaa..bookE3736. |isbn=0-333-75088-8}}</ref> Dina abad ka-12, [[Ibnu Bajjah]] nitenan ayana "dua planét anu mangrupa titik hideung dina beungeut Panonpoé", anu dina mangsa nu bakal datang dipikawanoh salaku [[transit Mérkurius]] sarta Vénus ku astronom ti [[Observatorium Maragheh|Maragha]], [[Qotb al-Din Shirazi]], dina abad ka-13.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997|author=S. M. Razaullah Ansari|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=1-4020-0657-8|page=137}}</ref> Nanging hanjakalna, Ibnu Bajjah dianggap pamohalan upami parantos nitenan transit Vénus, jalaran éta fénoména téh saenyana henteu kantos lumangsung saumur hirup anjeunna.<ref name="transit catalog">{{cite web|url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/catalog/VenusCatalog.html|author=Fred Espenak|publisher= NASA/GSFC|title=Six millennium catalog of Venus transits: 2000 BCE to 4000 CE|accessdate=11 February 2012}}</ref> === Renaisans Éropa === {{Tempo ogé|Hélioséntrisme}} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét Renaisans, s.k. 1543 dugi ka 1781 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Vénus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] |} Ku dimimitianana [[Révolusi Ilmiah]], wangenan (définisi) kecap "planét" téh robah sacara sasar (mendasar); anu kawitna dianggap salaku objék anu bagerak di langit (rélatif kana [[béntang maneuh|latar béntang]]), janten banda anu ngurilingan Bumi (géoséntris), sarta ahirna janten banda anu sacara langsung ngalilingan Panonpoé (hélioséntris). Ieu parobahan téh lumangsung sabada [[modél hélioséntris]] karya [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], sarta [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] mimiti ditarima ku masarakat élmuwan dina abad ka-16. [Image of Heliocentric model of the solar system] Ku kituna, Bumi sorangan mimiti dilebetkeun kana daptar planét,<ref name="galileo_project" /> samentara Panonpoé sarta Bulan mah dikaluarkeun tina éta daptar. Nalika satelit-satelit munggaran Jupiter sarta Saturnus kapanggih dina abad ka-17, istilah "planét" sarta "satelit" téh mimitina mah mindeng dipaké silih ganti. Nanging, istilah "satelit" janten beuki umum sarta baku dipaké dina abad salajengna.<ref>Tempo sitasi utama di [[:en:Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons#References|Garis waktu papanggihan planét-planét Tata Surya jeung bulanna]]</ref> Dugi ka pertengahan abad ka-19, jumlah "planét" téh nambihan kacida gancangna, jalaran unggal banda anyar anu kapanggih ngurilingan Panonpoé téh langsung digolongkeun salaku planét ku komunitas élmuwan. === Abad ka-19 === {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |+ Planét anyar, 1807–1845 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Merkurius <br> [[file:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Vénus <br> [[file:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[file:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[file:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Vésta <br> [[file:Vesta symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚶}}]] || 6 <br> Juno <br> [[file:Juno symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚵}}]] || 7 <br> Cérés <br> [[file:Ceres symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚳}}]] || 8 <br> Pallas <br> [[file:Pallas symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|⚴}}]] || 9 <br> Yupiter <br> [[file:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 10 <br> Saturnus <br> [[file:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 11 <br> Uranus <br> [[file:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] |} Dina abad ka-19, para astronom mimiti sadar yén banda-banda anyar anu saméméhna digolongkeun salaku planét salila ampir satengah abad (saperti [[Ceres (planét kerdil)|Cérés]], [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], sarta [[4 Vesta|Vésta]]) miboga sipat anu jauh béda ti planét tradisional. Banda-banda ieu aya dina kawasan anu sarua antara Mars jeung Yupiter ([[sabuk astéroid]]) sarta miboga massa anu jauh leuwih leutik. Ku lantaran kitu, objék-objék kasebut mimiti digolongkeun salaku "[[astéroid]]". [Image of the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter] Alatan can aya wangenan (definisi) resmi, kecap "planét" dina mangsa éta dipikaharti salaku banda "badag" naon baé anu ngulilingan Panonpoé. Sanggeus kanyahoan aya bédana ukuran anu kacida badag antara astéroid jeung planét, sarta dituturkeun ku kapanggihna [[Néptunus]] dina taun 1846, kabutuhan pikeun miboga wangenan resmi jadi beuki kuat.<ref>{{cite web |last =Hilton |first =James L. |date =2001-09-17 |url =http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |title =When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets? |publisher =U.S. Naval Observatory |accessdate =2007-04-08 |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20070921162818/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |archivedate =2007-09-21 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612180437/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |date=2016-06-12 }}</ref> === Abad ka-20 === {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; clear:right; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét 1854–1930, 2006–ayeuna |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Mérkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Venus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 7 <br> Uranus <br> [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] || 8 <br> Neptunus <br> [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] |} Dina abad ka-20, [[Pluto]] dipanggihkeun. Sanggeus saruntuyan pangamatan awal nyimpulkeun banda ieu leuwih gedé tibatan Bumi,<ref>{{cite book|title = Planet Quest: The Epic Discovery of Alien Solar Systems|url = https://archive.org/details/planetquestepicd0000cros|first = K.|last=Croswell|publisher = The Free Press|year = 1997|page = [https://archive.org/details/planetquestepicd0000cros/page/57 57]|isbn = 978-0-684-83252-4}}</ref> objék ieu langsung ditarima sabagé planét kasalapan. Pangamatan saterusna justru ngabuktikeun yén banda ieu ukuranana leuwih leutik: tahun 1936, [[Raymond Lyttleton]] boga pamadegan yén Pluto bisa jadi satelit [[Néptunus]] anu kaluar jalur,<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lyttleton |first=Raymond A. |year=1936 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=97 |page=108 |title= On the possible results of an encounter of Pluto with the Neptunian system |bibcode=1936MNRAS..97..108L}}</ref> jeung dina taun 1964 [[Fred Lawrence Whipple|Fred Whipple]] boga pamadegan yén Pluto meureun baé mangrupa komét.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=52 |pages=565–594 |last=Whipple |first=Fred |year=1964 |bibcode=1964PNAS...52..565W |title= The History of the Solar System |doi= 10.1073/pnas.52.2.565 | pmid=16591209 | issue=2 | pmc=300311}}</ref> Ngan lantaran ukuranana leuwih gedé tibatan kabéh astéroid anu dipikanyaho sarta sigana henteu éksis di jero populasi anu leuwih gedé,<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Scientific American |year=1996 |pages=46–52 |last=Luu |first=Jane X. |author2=Jewitt, David C. |title=The Kuiper Belt | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1996-05_274_5/page/n55 |volume=274 |issue=5 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0596-46}}</ref> status Pluto tetep planet nepi ka taun 2006. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; clear:right; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planet 1930–2006 |- style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;" | 1 <br> Merkurius <br> [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] || 2 <br> Venus <br> [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] || 3 <br> Bumi <br> [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] || 4 <br> Mars <br> [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] || 5 <br> Jupiter <br> [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] || 6 <br> Saturnus <br> [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] || 7 <br> Uranus <br> [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] || 8 <br> Neptunus <br> [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] || 9 <br> Pluto <br> [[File:Pluto symbol (large orb).svg|16px|{{unicode|♇}}]] |} Dina taun 1992, astronom [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] jeung [[Dale Frail]] manggihan sajumlah planét anu ngurilingan hiji [[pulsar]], [[PSR B1257+12]].<ref name="Wolszczan" /> Papanggihan ieu umumna dianggap minangka detéksi pasti kana sistim planit anu ngabuder béntang lian. Tuluy dina 6 Oktober 1995, [[Michel Mayor]] jeung [[Didier Queloz]] ti [[Universitas Jenewa]] ngalaksanakeun detéksi pasti kahiji ka éksoplanét anu ngurilingan hiji béntang [[deret utama]] biasa ([[51 Pegasi]]).<ref name="Mayor">{{cite journal | last=Mayor |first=Michel |author2=Queloz, Didier | title=A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star | journal=Nature | year=1995 | volume=378 | issue=6356 | pages=355–359 | doi= 10.1038/378355a0 | bibcode=1995Natur.378..355M}}</ref> Papanggihan planét luar surya nungtung kana ambiguitas séjén ngeunaan définisi planet, dina titik waktu planit ngajadi béntang. Réa planit luar surya anu enggeus dipikanyaho massana leuwih gedé tibatan Jupiter, ngadeukeutan banda-banda béntang anu dikenal sabagé "[[katé coklat]]".<ref>{{cite web | year=2006 |title=IAU General Assembly: Definition of Planet debate | url=http://astro2006.meta.mediastream.cz/Astro2006-060822-01.asx |format=.wmv |publisher=MediaStream.cz |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Katé coklat umumna dianggap béntang sabab mampuh ngalakukeun fusi [[deuterium]], isotop [[hidrogén]] anu leuwih beurat. Lamun béntang anu ukuranana 75 kalieun Jupiter mampuh ngafusikeun hidrogén, ngan béntang anu ukuranana 13 kalieun Jupiter anu bisa ngafusikeun deuterium. Tatapi, deuterium rada langka jeung sabagian gedé katé coklat enggeus tiheula anggeus ngafusikeun deuterium saméméh dipanggihkeun, nu matak hésé dibédakeun ti planit-planit supermasif.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Basri |first=Gibor |title= Observations of Brown Dwarfs |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2000 |volume=38 | issue=1 |page=485 |doi=10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.485 |bibcode=2000ARA&A..38..485B}}</ref> === Abad ka-21 === Ku dipanggihanana réa objék di Tata Surya jeung objék anu leuwih gedé di sistim lian dina paruh akhir abad ka-20, timbul pamasalahan ngeunaan hal-hal anu ngawangun hiji planit. Aya sawala ngeunaan naha hiji objék bisa dianggap planit lamun ayana di jero populasi jauh saperti [[sabuk astéroid|sabuk]] atawa cukup gedé pikeun nyiptakeun énergi sorangan ngaliwatan [[fusi termonuklir]] [[deuterium]]. Réa astronom anu boga pamadegan supaya Pluto dikaluarkan ti kolompok planit, sabab réa banda sajinis anu ukuranana siga dipanggihkeun di wilayah Tata Surya anu sarua ([[sabuk Kuiper]]) dina tauun 1990-an jeung awal 2000-an. Pluto kabuktian nya ngan hiji banda leutik di antarana barébu-rébu banda sarupa lianna. Sajumlah banda saperti [[50000 Quaoar|Quaoar]], [[90377 Sedna|Sedna]], jeung [[Eris (planit katé)|Eris]] disebutkeun minangka [[planet kasapuluh]] ku pers, tatapi henteu diakuan sacara jembar ku komunitas ilmuwan. Papanggihan Eris taun 2005, banda anu 27% leuwih gedé tibatab Pluto, nyiptakeun rasa panasaran publik ngeunaan définisi planét sacara resmi. Nénjo masalah ieu, IAU ngarancang [[définisi planét]] sarta netepkeunana dina Agustus 2006. Jumlah planét ngurangan ngajadi dalapan banda gedé anu enggeus "[[ngaberesihkeun lingkungan|ngaberesihkeun]]" orbitna (Mérkurius, Vénus, Bumi, Mars, Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, jeung Neptunus). IAU ogé nyieun kolompok [[planét katé]] anu awalna ditempatan tilu banda ([[Ceres (planet katé)|Ceres]], [[Pluto]], jeung [[Eris (planet katé)|Eris]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Green |first=D. W. E. |version=Circular No. 8747 |publisher=Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, International Astronomical Union |date=2006-09-13 |title=(134340) Pluto, (136199) Eris, and (136199) Eris I (Dysnomia) |url=http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/iauc/08700/08747.html |accessdate=2011-07-05 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080624225029/http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/special/08747.pdf |archivedate = June 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> ==== Définisi planét luar surya ==== Pada tahun 2003, [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets nyieun pertélaan ngeunaan définisi planit anu ngawengku définisi pamuka kieu, réréana fokus kana watesan antara planit jeung katé coklat:<ref name="WSGESP" /> {{TNO imagemap|250px}} # Objék anu [[massa sajati]]na di bawah wates massa pikeun fusi térmonuklir deuterium (ayeuna ieu kaitung 13 kalieun massa Jupiter pikeun objék kalawan [[kalimpahan alami|kalimpahan isotop]] anu satimbang jeung Panonpoé<ref>{{cite journal | last=Saumon |first=D. |author2=Hubbard, W. B.; Burrows, A.; Guillot, T.; Lunine, J. I.; Chabrier, G. |title=A Theory of Extrasolar Giant Planets | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1996-04-01_460_2/page/993 |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1996 |volume=460 |pages=993–1018 |bibcode=1996ApJ...460..993S |doi=10.1086/177027|arxiv = astro-ph/9510046 }}</ref>) anu gorbit béntang atawa sésa béntang téh "planit" (henteu penting kumaha kawangunna). Massa jeung ukuran minimal anu disaratkeun pikeun objék luar surya supaya bisa dianggap planit kudu sarua saperti sarat planet Tata Surya. # Objek subbintang anu massa sajatina di luhur wates massa pikeun fusi termonuklir deuterium téh "[[katé coklat]]", henteu penting kumaha kawangunna atawa di mana lokasina. # Objék ngalalana bébas di [[gugus béntang]] ngora anu massana di bawah wates massa pikeun fusi térmonuklir deuterium nya lain "planit", tatapi "katé sub-coklat" (atawa ngaran naon baé anu pantes). Définisi ieu mimiti dipaké sacara jembar ku astronom waktu nerbitkeun papanggihan éksoplanét di [[jurnal akademik]].<ref>See for example the list of references for: {{cite web |author=Butler, R. P. ''et al.'' |year=2006 |url=http://exoplanets.org/ |title=Catalog of Nearby Exoplanets |publisher=University of California and the Carnegie Institution |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119143348/http://exoplanets.org/esp/hd117618/hd117618.shtml |date=2008-11-19 }}</ref> Najan samentara, definisi ieu mimiti éféktif nepi ka définisi permanén sacara resmi diadopsi. Hanjakalna, definisi ieu henteu nanganan masalah wates rendah massa,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/outerplanets-04b.html|title=Gravity Rules: The Nature and Meaning of Planethood|last=Stern|first=S. Alan|date=2004-03-22|publisher=SpaceDaily|accessdate=2008-08-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104012331/http://www.spacedaily.com/news/outerplanets-04b.html |date=2012-11-04 }}</ref> nu matak ngajauhan kontrovérsi sabuder objék di jero Tata Surya. Définisi ieu ogé henteu nanganan status planét katé coklat anu boga orbit, saperti [[2M1207b]]. Salah sahiji définisi [[katé sub-coklat]] téh banda bamassa planet anu kawangun ngaliwatan kolaps méga, lain [[akresi (astrofisika)|akresi]]. Pangbéda pambentukan antara katé sub-coklat jeung planit ieu tacan diakuan sacara universal. Para astronom masih kabagi jadi dua kubu dina nimbangkeun prosés pambentukan planit minangka bagéan tina pangolompokanana.<ref name="Cha110913">{{cite web |date=2005-11-29 |title=A Planet With Planets? Spitzer Finds Cosmic Oddball |publisher=NASA |author=Whitney Clavin |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |accessdate=2006-03-26 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011011111/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |date=2012-10-11 }}</ref> Hiji alesan kakuciwaan ieu téh kadang pamohalan nangtukeun prosés pambentukan planit. Upamana, planit pangorbit béntang anu kawangun ku akresi bisa kaalungkeun ti sistim tur jadi pangalalana bébas. Sabalikna, katé sub-coklat anu kawangun ku kolaps méga kawangun sorangan di hiji gugus béntang anu bisa kataheun dina orbit hiji béntang. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; float:right; margin:16px" |- style="background:#ccf; font-size:smaller;" |+ Planét katai 2007–ayeuna |- style="font-size: smaller;" align=center | Ceres <br /> [[File:Ceres symbol.svg|16px|⚳]] || Orcus <br /> [[File:Orcus symbol.svg|16px]] || Pluto <br /> [[File:Pluto symbol (large orb).svg|16px|⯓]] || Haumea <br /> [[File:Haumea symbol.svg|16px]] || Quaoar <br /> [[File:Quaoar symbol.svg|16px]] || Makemake <br /> [[File:Makemake symbol.svg|16px]] || Gonggong <br /> [[File:Gonggong symbol.svg|16px]] || Eris <br /> [[File:Eris symbol.svg|16px|⯰]] || Sedna <br /> [[File:Sedna symbol.svg|16px|⯲]] |} Sarat 13 kali massa Jupiter téh kira-kira, lain hal anu sipatna pasti. Hiji pananya gé muncul: Naon ari [[pangbakaran deuterium]] téh? Pananya ieu muncul karana objék-objék gedé bakal ngaduruk sabagian gedé deuteriumna jeung objék leutik ngan meuleum saeutik, jeung 13 massa Jupiter ayana di antara duanana. Jumlah deuterium anu dibeuleum henteu ngan gumantung kana massa, tatapi ogé komposisi planétna, tepatna dina jumlah [[hélium]] jeung [[deuterium]] nu aya.<ref>{{cite arxiv |eprint=1008.5150 |author1=Spiegel |author2=Adam Burrows |author3=Milsom |title=The Deuterium-Burning Mass Limit for Brown Dwarfs and Giant Planets |class=astro-ph.EP |year=2010}}</ref> Kriteria séjén anu misahkeun planit jeung katé coklat salian ti pangbakaran deuterium, prosés pambentukan, atawa lokasi téh naha [[tekenan]] intina didominasi ku [[tekenan lateral bumi#Teori Coulomb|tekenan coulomb]] atawa [[tekenan degenerasi éléktron]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Basri, Gibor; Brown, Michael E.|doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125058 |journal=Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. |volume=34 |title=Planetesimals To Brown Dwarfs: What is a Planet? |pages=193–216 |year=2006 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608417 |bibcode=2006AREPS..34..193B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Boss, Alan P. |author2=Basri, Gibor |author3=Kumar, Shiv S. |author4=Liebert, James |author5=Martín, Eduardo L. |author6=Reipurth, Bo |author7=Zinnecker, Hans |title=Nomenclature: Brown Dwarfs, Gas Giant Planets, and ? |journal=Brown Dwarfs |volume=211 |page=529 |year=2003 |bibcode=2003IAUS..211..529B |author2=Basri |author3=Kumar |author4=Liebert |author5=Martín |author6=Reipurth |author7=Zinnecker}}</ref> ==== Definisi 2006 ====<!-- maybe: Rigorous definition --> {{main|Definisi planet IAU}} Masalah watesan rendah ditepikeun dina rapat [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional#Majelis Umum ke-XXVI dan definisi planet|Majelis Umum IAU]] taun 2006. Sanggeus debat panjang jeung hiji proposal gagal, majelis mungut soara pikeun ngesahkan résolusi anu ngadéfinisikeun planét di Tata Surya sabagé:<ref name="IAU2">{{cite web |author =Staff |year =2006 |url =http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0603/ |title =IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU resolution votes |publisher =IAU |accessdate =2007-05-11 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913172129/http://www.iau.org/public_press/news/release/iau0603/ |date=2008-09-13 }}</ref> {{quotation|Objék langit anu (a) ayana di orbit ngabuder Panonpoé, (b) miboga massa anu cukup supaya gravitasina ngaleuwihan gaya banda tegar sahingga miboga [[kasatimbangan hidrostatik]] (méh buleud), jeung (c) enggeus [[meresihkeun lingkungan]] di sabudereun orbitna.}} Sasuay définisi téa, Tata Surya dianggap miboga dalapan planit. Banda-banda anu minuhan dua sarat kahiji tapi henteu nu katilu (saperti Pluto, Makemake, jeung Eris) dikolompokkeun sabagé [[planit katé]] kalawan sarat maranéhna ogé lain mangrupa [[satelit alami]] planit séjén. Awalna komite IAU gusulkan définisi anu ngawengku réa planit karana poin (c) tacan dijieun.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4795755.stm|title=Planets plan boosts tally 12|publisher=BBC|date=2006-08-16|accessdate=2008-08-23|first=Paul|last=Rincon}}</ref> Sanggeus diskusi panjang, pamungutan soara satuluyna mutuskeun banda-banda téa digolongkeun planit katé.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/5282440.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Pluto loses status as a planet|date=2006-08-24|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Definisi ieu didasarkeun kana tiori-tiori pambentukan planit, nyaéta waktu embrio planit enggeus meresihkeun orbitna tina objek-objek leutik. Saperti anu diécéskeun astronom [[Steven Soter]]:<ref>{{cite journal | last = Soter |first = Steven |title = What is a Planet | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-journal_2006-12_132_6/page/2513 |journal = Astronomical Journal |volume = 132 |issue = 6 |pages = 2513–19 |year = 2006 |doi=10.1086/508861 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608359 |bibcode=2006AJ....132.2513S}}</ref> {{quotation|Hasil ahir tina akresi cakram kadua téh saeutikna banda anu relatif gedé (planit) boh di orbit bèbas atawa resonan anu nyegah tabrakan antarbanda. Planit jeung komét leutik, kaabus KBO [objék beubeur Kuiper] aya bédana ti planit sabab bisa patabrakan jeung planit atawa pada batur.}} Pasca pamungutan soara IAU taun 2006, muncul kontroversi jeung sawala sabuder definisi ieu.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5283956.stm|title=Pluto vote 'hijacked' in revolt|first=Paul|last=Rincon|date=2006-08-25|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date=2006-08-24 |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Pluto Demoted: No Longer a Planet in Highly Controversial Definition |work= Space.com |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060824_planet_definition.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Réa astronom anu mutuskeun henteu ngagunakeunana.<ref>{{cite web | date=2006-08-31 |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Pluto: Down But Maybe Not Out |work= Space.com |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060831_planet_definition.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Sabagian sawala téa museurk kana kayakinan yén poin (c) (meresihkeun orbit) sakuduna henteu disartakeun jeung objék-objék anu ayeuna dikatégorikeun planit katé kuduna ngajadi bagéan tina définisi planit anu leuwih jembar. Di luar komunitas ilmuwan, Pluto miboga dampak budaya anu kuat di masarakat sabab status planitna ti semet dipanggihkeun taun 1930. Papanggihan Eris diwartakeun gedé-gedéan ku [[média massa|media]] minangka [[planit kasapuluh]], sahingga klasifikasi ulang katilu objék téa minangka planit katé loba narik ati média jeung publik.<ref>{{cite news|first=Clara|last=Moskowitz|title=Scientist who found '10th planet' discusses downgrading of Pluto|publisher=Stanford news|date=2006-10-18|url=http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2006/october18/mbrown-101806.html|accessdate=2008-08-23}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513221522/http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/october18/mbrown-101806.html |date=2013-05-13 }}</ref> === Klasifikasi sateuacana === Tabél di handap ieu dieusi daftar banda-banda [[Tata Surya]] anu saméméhna diklasifikasikeun minangka planit: {| class="wikitable" |- ! |Banda ! |Klasifikasi mutahir ! |Catetan |- | [[Bulan]] || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Digolongkeun minangka planit dina [[sajarah kuna|zaman antik]] saluyu [[modél géoséntris]] anu ayeuna kolot. |- | [[Io (satelit)|Io]], [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]], [[Ganimédé (satelit)|Ganimédé]], jeung [[Callisto (satelit)|Callisto]] || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Opat satelit panggedéna [[Jupiter]], katelah ogé [[satelit-satelit Galileo]]. [[Galileo Galilei]] nyebutna "Planit-Planit Medici" anu dialap tina ngaran [[Patronase|patronnya]], [[Medici|kulawarga Medici]]. |- | [[Titan (satelit)|Titan]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteB>Referred to by Huygens as a ''Planetes novus'' ("new planet") in his [http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Huygens/huygens-text.htm ''Systema Saturnium'']</ref> [[Iapetus (satelit)|Iapetus]],{{refn|Both labelled ''nouvelles planétes'' (new planets) by Cassini in his ''Découverte de deux nouvelles planetes autour de Saturne''<ref>Giovanni Cassini (1673). Decouverte de deux Nouvelles Planetes autour de Saturne. Sabastien Mabre-Craniusy. pp. 6–14.</ref>|name=footnoteC|group=lower-alpha}} [[Rhea (satelit)|Rhea]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteC /> [[Tethys (satelit)|Tethys]],<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD>Both once referred to as "planets" by Cassini in his [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0260-7085%281686%2F1692%2916%3C79%3AAEOTJD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J ''An Extract of the Journal Des Scavans...'']. The term "satellite", however, had already begun to be used to distinguish such bodies from those around which they orbited ("primary planets").</ref> dan [[Dione (satelit)|Dione]]<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> || Satelit | style="font-size:90%;"| Lima [[satelit Saturnus|satelit panggedéna Saturnus]], ditimukeun ku [[Christiaan Huygens]] jeung [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]]. |- | [[Ceres (planit katé)|Ceres]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Classified as a [[dwarf planet]] in 2006.</ref>|| Planit katé | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="font-size:90%;"| [[Astéroid]] kahiji anu dipikanyaho ti semet ditimukeun antara 1801 jeung 1807 tepi ka digolongkeun deui jadi astéroid taun 1850-an.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hilton, James L. |title=When did the asteroids become minor planets? |work=U.S. Naval Observatory |url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |accessdate=2008-05-08 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080324182332/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |archivedate=2008-03-24 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612180437/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/minorplanets.php |date=2016-06-12 }}</ref> Ceres enggeus digolongkeun jadi [[planit katé]] taun 2006. |- | [[2 Pallas|Pallas]], [[3 Juno|Juno]], dan [[4 Vesta|Vesta]] || Asteroid |- | [[5 Astraea|Astrea]], [[6 Hebe|Hebe]], [[7 Iris|Iris]], [[8 Flora|Flora]], [[9 Metis|Metis]], [[10 Hygiea|Hygeia]], [[11 Parthenope|Parthenope]], [[12 Victoria|Victoria]], [[13 Egeria|Egeria]], [[14 Irene|Irene]], [[15 Eunomia|Eunomia]] || Astéroid | style="font-size:90%;"| Réa astéroid ditimukeun antara 1845 jeung 1851. Kamekaran daftar planit anu téréh ngajurung pangolompokan ulang banda-banda ieu sabagé astéroid ku para astronom. Klaim ieu kakara diakua dina taun 1854.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Planet Hygea |year=1849 |work=spaceweather.com |url=http://spaceweather.com/swpod2006/13sep06/Pollock1.jpg |accessdate=2008-04-18}}</ref> |- | [[Pluto]]<ref group="lower-alpha">Regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until redesignated as a [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian]] dwarf planet in August 2006.</ref>|| Planit katé | style="font-size:90%;"| [[Banda trans-Néptunus]] kahiji anu dipikanyaho (nyaéta planet minor kalawan [[sumbu semi-mayor]] di luar [[Néptunus]]). Dina taun 2006, Pluto digolongkeun jadi planit katé. |- | [[Eris (planit katé)|Eris]] || Planit katé | style="font-size:90%;"| Ditimukeun taun 2003, banda trans-Neputunus ieu diakuan dina taun 2005 saméméh tungtungna digolongkeun jadi planit katé saperti [[Pluto]] dina taun 2006. |} == Mitologi jeung paméré ngaran == {{see also|Nama hari|Planet mata telanjang}} [[File:Olympians.jpg|jmpl|kiri|lurus|250px|Dewa-dewa [[Gunung Olympus|Olympus]] yang menjadi sumber nama planet di Tata Surya]] Ngaran-ngaran planit di dunya Barat asalna ti praktik paméré ngaran Romawi, anu justru asalna ti kabiasaan bangsa Yunani jeung Babilonia. Di [[Yunani kuna]], dua objék moncorong raksasa, Panonpoé jeung Bulan, disebut ''[[Helios]]'' jeung ''[[Selene]]''; planit pangjauhna (Saturnus) disebut ''Phainon'', sang panerang; diikuti oleh ''Phaethon'' (Jupiter), "cerah"; planit beureum (Mars) katelah ku sesebutan ''Pyroeis'', "ngagedur"; planit pangcaangna (Venus) disebut ''Phosphoros'', pamawa cahaya;jeung planit panungtung (Merkurius) disebut ''Stilbon'', marahmay. Bangsa Yunani ogé nyieun satiap planit suci keur ka salah sahiji déwana, [[Dua Welas Déwa Olimpus]]: Helios jeung Selene téh ngaran planit jeung déwa; Phainon disanggakeun ka [[Cronus]], [[Titan (mitologi)|Titan]] anu mangrupa bapana para déwa Olimpus; Phaethon disanggakeun ka [[Zeus]], putra Cronus anu ngagulingkeunana ti tahta raja; Pyroeis disanggakeun ka [[Ares]], putra Zeus jeung déwa perang; Phosphoros dipingpin ku [[Afrodit]], déwi asih; jeung [[Hermes]], perantara para déwa jeung déwa élmu jeung akal, mingpin Stilbon.<ref name="practice">{{cite book|title=The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy|first=James|last=Evans|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|pages=296–7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17 |accessdate=2008-02-04|isbn=978-0-19-509539-5}}</ref> Adat kabiasaan bangsa Yunani dina maparin nami-nami planét dumasar kana nami déwana téh ampir sagemblengna mangrupa pangaruh ti kabiasaan bangsa [[Babilonia]]. Bangsa Babilonia nyandak nami [[Hesperus#Variasi nama|Phosphoros]] tina nami déwi asihna, nyaéta ''[[Ishtar]]''; Pyroeis tina nami déwa perang, ''[[Nergal]]''; Stilbon tina nami déwa kawijaksanaan, [[Nabu]]; sarta Phaethon tina nami déwa pamingpin, nyaéta ''[[Marduk]]''.<ref name="nergal">{{cite web |first=Kelley L. |last=Ross |year=2005 |title=The Days of the Week |url=http://www.friesian.com/week.htm |publisher=The Friesian School |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> Aya seueur kasaruaan dina aturan paparin nami antara bangsa Yunani sarta Babilonia, sanajan kaduana mibanda bentang jaman anu bénten.<ref name="practice" /> Nanging, tarjamahanana henteu salawasna sampurna. Contona, Nergal ti Babilonia téh mangrupa déwa perang, ku kituna bangsa Yunani nyaruakeun anjeunna sareng Ares. Nanging bénten sareng Ares, Nergal mah saenyana ogé dianggap salaku déwa panyakit sarta alam ahérat.<ref>{{cite book|title=Martian Metamorphoses: The Planet Mars in Ancient Myth and Tradition|first=Ev|last=Cochrane|year=1997|publisher=Aeon Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jz3eqRGuM0wC&pg=PP9&dq=ares+nergal+planet+pestilence|accessdate=2008-02-07|isbn=0-9656229-0-8}}</ref> Kiwari, réa jelema di dunya Barat mikawanoh planit kalawan ngaran-ngaran anu dialap tina déwa-déwa Olympus. Lamun bangsa Yunani modéren masih maké ngaran kuna pikeun nyebut planit, sawatara basa Éropa justru maké ngaran Romawi (Latén) karana pangaruh [[Kekaisaran Romawi|Kakaisaran Romawi]] jeung [[Gereja Katolik|Garéja Katolik]]. Bangsa Romawi, saperti Yunani, nyaéta [[mitologi Indo-Eropa|urang Indo-Eropa]] anu silih babagi [[mitologi Romawi|mitologi]] jeung ngaran-ngaran anu béda, ngan hanteu boga tradisi narasi saperti anu disanggakeun budaya sastra Yunani pikeun [[mitologi Yunani|déwa-déwana]]. Dina mangsa ahir [[Republik Romawi|Républik Romawi]], para panulis nginjeum réa pisan narasi Yunani tur ngalarapkeunana ka mitologi maranéhna nepi ka duanana hanteu bisa dibédakeun.<ref>{{cite book|title=Greek Mythography in the Roman World|url=https://archive.org/details/greekmythography0000came|first=Alan|last=Cameron|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-517121-7}}</ref> Mangsa bangsa Romawi ngulik astronomi Yunani, maranéhna méré ngaran planit luyu jeung ngaran déwa-déwana sorangan: ''[[Merkurius (mitologi)|Mercurius]]'' (keur ka Hermes), ''[[Venus (mitologi)|Venus]]'' (Afrodit), ''[[Mars (mitologi)|Mars]]'' (Ares), ''[[Jupiter (mitologi)|Iuppiter]]'' (Zeus), jeung ''[[Saturnus (mitologi)|Saturnus]]'' (Cronus). Waktu planit-planit saterusna ditimukeun dina abad ka-18 jeung 19, praktik paméréan ngaranna tumuluy pikeun ''[[Neptunus (mitologi)|Neptūnus]]'' ([[Poseidon]]). Uranus unik lantaran dialap tina ngaran [[Uranus (mitologi)|déwa Yunani]] gaganti [[Caelus|vérsi Romawina]]. Sawatara urang [[Romawi Kuno|Romawi]], saluyu kapercayaan anu meureun asalna ti [[Mesopotamia|Mésopotamia]] tatapi mekar di [[Mesir Yunani]],<!--<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Arnett |year=2006 |title=Appendix 5: Planetary Linguistics |url=http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html |publisher=www.nineplanets.org |accessdate=2008-02-02}}{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}}</ref>--> parcaya yén tujuh déwa anu ngajadi sumber ngaran planit téa ngajaga Bumi sacara bagilir. Urutan giliran téa ti jauh ka deukeut nyaéta Saturnus, Jupiter, Mars, Matahari, Venus, Mérkurius, Bulan.<ref name="zerubavel">{{cite book|first=Eviatar|last=Zerubavel|year=1989|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=0-226-98165-7|title= The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week|page=14|url=http://books.google.com/?id=aGahKeojIUoC&pg=PA14|accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref> Hasilna, poé kahiji dimimitian ku Saturnus (jam ka-1), poé kadua ku Panonpoé (jam ka-25), dituturkeun Bulan (jam ka-49), Mars, Mérkurius, Jupiter, jeung Vénus. Karana satiap poé dibéré ngaran saluyu déwa anu ngawalana, kitu deui jeung urutan [[nama hari|ngaran poé]] dina [[kalender Romawi|kalénder Romawi]] anu masih dipaké di sawatara basa modéren sanggeus [[Kalender Romawi#Siklus Nundinal|siklus Nundinal]] ditolak.<ref name="weekdays">{{cite journal | first=Michael |last=Falk |title=Astronomical Names for the Days of the Week | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-royal-astronomical-society-of-canada_1999-06_93_3/page/122 |journal=Journal of the [[Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]] |year=1999 |volume=93 |pages=122–133 |bibcode=1999JRASC..93..122F |doi=10.1016/j.newast.2003.07.002 | last2=Koresko | first2=Christopher}}</ref> Dina basa Inggris, ''Saturday, Sunday,'' jeung ''Monday'' téh tarjamahan langsung tina ngaran-ngaran Romawi ieu. Ngaran poé anu séjén asalna tina ''[[Týr|Tiw]]'', (Tuesday) ''[[Woden|Wóden]]'' (Wednesday), ''[[Thor|Thunor]]'' (Thursday), jeung ''[[Frige|Fríge]]'' (Friday), [[dewa Anglo-Saxon]] anu sarua saperti Mars, Mérkurius, Jupiter, jeung Vénus. Bumi (''Earth'') nyaéta hiji-hijina planit anu ngaranna dina basa Inggris hanteu dialap tina mitologi Yunani-Romawi. Karana Bumi sorangan kakara diakuan minangka planit dina abad ka-17,<ref name="galileo_project">{{cite web | last=Van Helden |first=Al |year=1995 |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/copernican_system.html |title=Copernican System |publisher=The Galileo Project |accessdate=2008-01-28}}</ref> henteu aya tradisi méréna ngaran saluyu ngaran déwa. Kecap ''Earth'' asalna tina basa [[bahasa Inggris Lama|Anglo-Saxon]] ''erda'' anu hartina daratan atau tanah tur munggaran dipaké pikeun nyebut Bumi kira-kira taun 1300.<ref>{{cite web | publisher= Oxford English Dictionary |url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50071589?query_type=word&queryword=earth&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_id=7aas-q054tm-4631&hilite=50071589 | title = earth, n |accessdate = 2008-02-06 |year = 1989}}</ref><ref name="etymearth">{{cite web | last = Harper | first = Douglas |date = 2001-09 |url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=earth |title = Earth |work= Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate = 2008-08-23}}</ref> Sakumaha [[rumpun bahasa Jermanik|basa Jermanik]] lianna, kecap ieu asalna tina basa [[Proto-Jerman]] ''ertho'', "daratan",<ref name="etymearth"/> tur katénjo kasaruaanana dina kecap ''earth'' dina basa Inggris, ''Erde'' dina basa Jerman, ''aarde'' dina basa Walanda, jeung ''jord'' dina basa Skandinavia. Réa [[rumpun bahasa Roman|basa Roman]] anu maké kecap Roman heubeul ''[[Terra (mitologi)|terra]]'' (atawa variasina). Kecap téa dipaké ku ma'na "daratan garing", lain "laut".<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |date=2001-09 |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrain |title=Etymology of "terrain" |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |accessdate=2008-01-30}}</ref> Basa-basa non-Roman maké kecapna sorangan. Bangsa Yunani angger maké ngaran asli maranéhna, ''[[Gaia (mitologi)|Γή]]'' ''(Ge)''. Budaya non-Éropa maké sistim panamaan planit anu béda. [[India]] maké sistim dumasar kana [[Navagraha]], anu ngawemgku tujuh planit tradisional ([[Surya]] keur ka Panonpoé, [[Chandra]] keur ka Bulan, jeung [[Budha]], [[Shukra]], [[Mangala]], [[Bṛhaspati|{{IAST|Bṛhaspati}}]], jeung [[Shani]] keur ka Mérkurius, Vénus, Mars, Jupiter, jeung Saturnus) jeung [[nodus bulan]] unggah jeung turun [[Rahu]] jeung [[Ketu (mitologi)|Ketu]]. [[Cina]] katut jeung nagara-nagara Asia Wétan enggeus lila kakeunaan [[Sinosfer|psngaruh budaya Cina]] (saperti [[Jepang]], [[Korea|Koréa]], jeung [[Vietnam|Viétnam]]) kalawan sistim panamaan anu didasaran dina [[Wu Xing|lima unsur Cina]]: cai (Mérkurius), [[Logam (elemen klasik)|logam]] (Vénus), [[Api (elemen klasik)|seuneun]] (Mars), [[Kayu (elemen klasik)|kai]] (Jupiter), jeung [[Tanah (elemen klasik)|taneuh]] (Saturnus).<ref name="weekdays" /> == Ngawujudna == {{main|Hipotesis nebula}} [[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|kiri|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi cakram protoplanet]] Tacan dipikanyaho sacara pasti kumaha planit kawangun. Tiori anu kiwari ngadominasi téh planit kawangun mangsa hiji [[nebula|nébula]] barobah ngajadi cakram gas jeung lebu ipis. Hiji [[protobintang]] kawangun di intina tur dikurilingan ku [[cakram protoplanet]] anu muter. Ngaliwatan [[akresi (astrofisika)|akrési]] (prosés tabrakan tempel), partikel-partikel kekebul di cakram lalaunan ngumpulkeun massa pikeun ngawangun banda anu jauh leuwih gedé. Konsentrasi massa di hiji tempat disebut sabagé wangun [[planetesimal]] jeung konséntrasi téa ngagancangkeun prosés akresi ku jalan narik material tambahan ngagunakeun daya tarik gravitasina. Konséntrasi téa samingkin padet nepi ka tungtungna kolaps ka jero seug ngawangun [[protoplanet]].<ref>{{cite journal | first=G. W. |last=Wetherill |title=Formation of the Terrestrial Planets |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1980 |volume=18 | issue=1 |pages=77–113 |bibcode=1980ARA&A..18...77W |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.18.090180.000453}}</ref> Sanggeus mibanda diaméter leuwih gedé ti batan Bulan Bumi, planét téa ngawangun atmosfer tambahan, sahingga ningkatkeun daya tarik planetesimal kalawan [[gaya hambat|gaya hambat atmosfer]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Inaba, S.; Ikoma, M. |title=Enhanced Collisional Growth of a Protoplanet that has an Atmosphere |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2003 |volume=410 | issue=2 |pages=711–723 |bibcode=2003A&A...410..711I |doi = 10.1051/0004-6361:20031248}}</ref> [[File:PIA18469-AsteroidCollision-NearStarNGC2547-ID8-2013.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|Tabrakan asteroid - membentuk planet (konsep artis).]] Waktu protobintang tumuwuh sakitu gedéna nepi ka bisa "ngahurungkeun diri" ngajadi [[bintang]], cakram anu nyésa dimusnakeun ti jero ka luar ku [[fotoevaporasi]], [[angin matahari|angin panonpoé]], [[efek Poynting–Robertson|gaya hambat Poynting–Robertson]], jeung pangaruh lian.<ref>{{cite journal |last =Dutkevitch |first =Diane |year =1995 |url =http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20071125124958/http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |archivedate =2007-11-25 |title =The Evolution of Dust in the Terrestrial Planet Region of Circumstellar Disks Around Young Stars |publisher =PhD thesis, University of Massachusetts Amherst |accessdate =2008-08-23 |bibcode =1995PhDT..........D }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125124958/http://www.astro.umass.edu/theses/dianne/thesis.html |date=2007-11-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Matsuyama, I.; Johnstone, D.; Murray, N. |title=Halting Planet Migration by Photoevaporation from the Central Source |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year = 2005 |volume=585 |issue=2 |pages=L143–L146 |bibcode=2003astro.ph..2042M |doi = 10.1086/374406|arxiv = astro-ph/0302042 }}</ref> Masih réa protoplanet anu ngurilingan béntang atawa pada batur, ngain lawas ti lawas sabagian gedé di antarana bakal patabrak ngawangun hiji planit anu leuwih gedé atawa ngaleupaskeun material supaya diserep protoplanet atawa planét anu leuwih gedé.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kenyon |first=Scott J. |author2=Bromley, Benjamin C. |journal=Astronomical Journal |volume=131 | issue=3 |page=1837 | year=2006 |doi=10.1086/499807 |title= Terrestrial Planet Formation. I. The Transition from Oligarchic Growth to Chaotic Growth | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-journal_2006-03_131_3/page/1837 |laysummary = http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~kenyon/pf/terra/index.html |laysource = Kenyon, Scott J. Personal web page | bibcode=2006AJ....131.1837K|arxiv = astro-ph/0503568 }}</ref> Objék-objék anu meujeuhna gedé téa bakal nangkep sabagian materi di lingkungan orbitna tur ngajadi planit. Samentara éta, protoplanét anu hasil nyingkahan tabrakan baris ngajadi [[satelit alami]] planit ngaliwatan prosés tangkapan gravitasi atawa tetep aya di sabuk objék lian tur ngajadi planit katé atawa [[benda kecil Tata Surya|banda leutik]]. Balukar énergi planetesimal leutik (sarta [[peluruhan radioaktif|paluruhan radioaktif]]) baris ngahaneutkeun planit anu eukeur tumuwuh, jadi éta planit sahanteuna satengah lééh. Interior planét mimiti béda-béda massana tur nyiptakeun inti anu leuwih padet.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Icarus |year=1987 |volume=69 | issue=2 |page=239 |last=Ida |first=Shigeru |author2=Nakagawa, Yoshitsugu; Nakazawa, Kiyoshi |title= The Earth's core formation due to the Rayleigh-Taylor instability | url=https://archive.org/details/icarus_1987-02_69_2/page/239 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(87)90103-5 |bibcode=1987Icar...69..239I}}</ref> Planit-planit kabumian anu leuwih leutik kaleungitan sabagian gedé atmosférna ku sabab akrési ieu, tatapi gas anu leungit bisa kagantikeun ku gas anu kaluar tina mantel jeung tubrukan [[komet]] (planit leutik bakal kaleungitan atmosfér anu dibeunangkeun ngaliwatan rupa-rupa jinis [[pelepasan atmosfer|mekanisme palepasan]]).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kasting |first=James F. |title=Earth's early atmosphere | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1993-02-12_259_5097/page/920 |journal=Science |year=1993 |volume=259 |bibcode=1993Sci...259..920K |doi=10.1126/science.11536547 |pmid=11536547 |issue=5097 | pages=920–6}}</ref> Ngaliwatan rupa-rupa papanggihan sarta paniténan ngeunaan [[sistem keplanetan|sistim kaplanétan]] di sakuriling béntang-béntang sanés salian ti Tata Surya, para élmuwan parantos mampuh ngoréhan, ngoméan (ngarévisi), atanapi malah ngaganti tiori-tiori anu parantos aya. Tingkat [[metalisitas]], nyaéta hiji istilah astronomi anu ngajelaskeun ngeunaan kalimpahan [[elemen kimia|unsur kimia]] kalawan [[nomor atom|nomer atom]] anu langkung ageung batan 2 ([[helium|hélium]]), kiwari diyakinan janten faktor panangtu tina kamungkinan hiji béntang dikulilingan ku planét.<ref>{{cite press release |first1=David |last1=Aguilar |first2=Christine |last2=Pulliam |date=2004-01-06 |url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/archive/pr0404.html |title=Lifeless Suns Dominated The Early Universe |publisher=Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> Ku kituna, sababaraha panalungtik boga sawangan yén [[bintang populasi I|béntang populasi I]] anu beunghar ku logam téh mibanda kamungkinan anu langkung ageung pikeun mibanda sistim planét anu langkung jéntré, upami dibandingkeun sareng [[bintang populasi II|béntang populasi II]] anu kandungan logamna kawatesan (kurang). == Tata Surya == [[File:Solar System size to scale.svg|ka|400px|jmpl|Planét sarta [[planét katé]] di Tata Surya ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] [[File:4 Terrestrial Planets Size Comp True Color.png|jmpl|400px|Planét bagian jero. Ti kénca ka katuhu: [[Mérkurius]], [[Vénus]], [[Bumi]], sarta [[Mars]] kalawan warna aslina. ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] [[File:Gas giants and the Sun (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|jmpl|400px|Opat raksasa gas; Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, sarta Néptunus ''(ukuran tiasa dibandingkeun, nanging anggangna henteu)'']] {{Utama|Tata Surya}} {{Tempo ogé|Daftar banda buleud mibanda gravitasi di Tata Surya}} Dumasar kana katetepan [[Persatuan Astronomi Internasional|IAU]], aya dalapan planét sarta lima planét katé anu diaku di [[Tata Surya]]. Nurutkeun anggangna ti [[Panonpoé]] (ti mimiti anu pangcaketna dugi ka anu pangtebihna), éta planét-planét téh nyaéta: # [[File:Mercury symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|☿}}]] '''[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]]''' # [[File:Venus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♀}}]] '''[[Venus|Vénus]]''' # [[File:Earth symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|🜨}}]] '''[[Bumi]]''' # [[File:Mars symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♂}}]] '''[[Mars]]''' # [[File:Jupiter symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♃}}]] '''[[Jupiter]]''' # [[File:Saturn symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♄}}]] '''[[Saturnus]]''' # [[File:Uranus symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♅}}]] '''[[Uranus]]''' # [[File:Neptune symbol.svg|16px|{{unicode|♆}}]] '''[[Neptunus|Néptunus]]''' Jupiter téh planit panggedéna kalawan massa 318 kalieun Bumi, sedeng Mérkurius mah planit pangleutikna kalawan massa 0,055 kalieun Bumi. Planit di Tata Surya beunang dibagi ngajadi sababaraha katégori dumasar komposisina: * '''[[Planet kebumian|Daratan]]''': Planit-planit mirib Bumi anu beungeutna katutup [[batuan]]: Mérkurius, Vénus, Bumi, jeung Mars. Kalawan massa 0,055 kalieun Bumi, Mérkurius téh planit daratan pangleutikna (sakaligus planit pangleutikna) di Tata Surya, sedeng Bumi mah planit daratan panggedéna. * '''[[Raksasa gas]] (Jovian)''': Planit-planit anu kawangun tina material [[gas]] tur leuwih gedé ti manan planit kabumian: Jupiter, Saturnus, Uranus, Néputunus. Jupiter, kalawan massa 318 tikeleun Bumi, nya éta planit panggedéna di Tata Surya, demi Saturnus ngan sepertiluna jeung ukuran 95 tikeleun massa Bumi. ** '''[[Raksasa es|Raksasa és]]''', diwangun ku tina Uranus jeung Néptunus, nya éta subkelas raksasa és yang béda ti raksasa gas karana massana jauh leuwih leutik (ngan 14 jeung 17 tikeleun massa Bumi) tur saeutikna hidrogén jeung hêlium di atmosfér sakaligus proporsi batu jeung és anu justru leuwih luhur. * '''[[Planet katai|Planet katé]]''': Saméméh [[definisi planet IAU|kaputusan Agustus 2006]], sawatara objék diusulkeun minangka planit ku para astronom. Tatapi dina taun 2006, sababarah objék digolongkeun ulang ngajadi planit katé, béda jeung planit. Kiwari aya lima planit katé di Tata Surya anu diakuan hal ayana ku IAU: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, jeung Eris. Sababaraha objék lian di [[sabuk asteroid]] jeung [[sabuk Kuiper]] eukeur dipertimbangkeun; 50 di antarana kamungkinan gedéna diakuan. Aya 200 objék anu beunang ditimukeun sanggeus sakabéh sabuk Kuiper anggeus dijalajahan. Planit katé miboga ciri-ciri anu sarua jeung planit, tapi ogé aya sababaraha bédana, salah sahijina téh planit katé hanteu [[membersihkan lingkungan|dominan di orbitna]]. Saluyu dipinisina, kabéh planit katé téh anggota tina [[populasi]] anu leuwih gedé. Ceres téh banda panggedéna di sabuk astéroid, sedeng Pluto, Haumea, jeung makemake mah anggota sbauk Kuiper sarta Eris mah anggota [[cakram tersebar|cakram panggedéna]]. Sababaraha panaliti saperti [[Michael E. Brown|Mike Brown]] parcaya yén mungkin aya leuwih ti saratus [[objek trans-Neptunus|objék trans-Néptunus]] anu beunang digolongkeun sabagé planit katé per dipinisi IAU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/%7Embrown/dps.html |title=Astronomer Mike Brown |publisher=Gps.caltech.edu |accessdate=2011-11-04}}</ref><!---<ref>{{cite web | first=Brad |last=Amburn |title=Behind the Pluto Mission: An Interview with Project Leader Alan Stern |work=Space.com |date=2006-02-28 |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060228_stern_interview.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref>---> === Ciri-ciri planit === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align:center" |- !|Jinis !|Ngaran !|Diameter <br> katulistiwa<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|Massa<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|Radius <br> orbit ([[Satuan astronomi|AU]]) !|[[Periode orbit]] <br> (taun)<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteA /> !|[[Inklinasi|Inklinasi <br> kana katulistiwa Matapoé]] (°) !|[[Eksentrisitas orbit|Ékséntrisitas <br> orbit]]<!--hyphen for small monitors--> !|[[Periode rotasi]] <br> (poé) !|[[Satelit alami|Bulan]] <br> anu diakuan<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteC /> !|[[Kemiringan sumbu]] (°) !|Cincin !|[[Atmosfer]] |- ! rowspan="4" style="background:#def;"|[[Planet kebumian|Planit daratan]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]] | 0,382 | 0,06 | 0,31–0,47 | 0,24 | 3,38 | 0,206 | 58,64 | 0 | 0,04 | tidak | minimal |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Venus|Vénus]] | 0,949 | 0,82 | 0,72 | 0,62 | 3,86 | 0,007 | −243,02 | 0 | 177,36 | tidak | [[Karbon dioksida|CO<sub>2</sub>]], [[Nitrogén|N<sub>2</sub>]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Bumi]]<ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteB /> | 1,00 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 7,25 | 0,017 | 1,00 | [[Bulan|1]]<!--Moon (Luna)--> | 23,44 | tidak | N<sub>2</sub>, [[Oksigén|O<sub>2</sub>]], [[Argon|Ar]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Mars]] | 0,532 | 0,11 | 1,52 | 1,88 | 5,65 | 0,093 | 1,03 | [[Satelit Mars|2]]<!--Phobos and Deimos--> | 25,19 | tidak | CO<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, Ar |- ! rowspan="4" style="background:#def;"|[[Raksasa gas]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Jupiter]] | 11,209 | 317,8 | 5,20 | 11,86 | 6,09 | 0,048 | 0,41 | [[Satelit Jupiter|67]]<!--50 named, 67 verified, 67 known--> | 3,13 | [[Cincin Jupiter|ya]] | [[Hidrogen|H<sub>2</sub>]], [[Hélium|He]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Saturnus]] | 9,449 | 95,2 | 9,54 | 29,46 | 5,51 | 0,054 | 0,43 | [[Satelit Saturnus|62]]<!--53 named, 62 verified, ~200 known--> | 26,73 | [[Cincin Saturnus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Uranus]] | 4,007 | 14,6 | 19,22 | 84,01 | 6,48 | 0,047 | −0,72 | [[Satelit Uranus|27]]<!--all known moons are named--> | 97,77 | [[Cincin Uranus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He, [[Metana|CH<sub>4</sub>]] |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Neptunus]] | 3,883 | 17,2 | 30,06 | 164,8 | 6,43 | 0,009 | 0,67 | [[Satelit Neptunus|13]]<!--all known moons are named--> | 28,32 | [[Cincin Neptunus|ya]] | H<sub>2</sub>, He, CH<sub>4</sub> |- ! rowspan="5" style="background:#def;"|[[Planet katai|Planit katé]] | style="text-align:left"|[[Ceres (planet katai)|Ceres]] | 0,08 | 0,000&nbsp;2 | 2,5–3,0 | 4,60 | 10,59 | 0,080 | 0,38 | 0 | ? | tidak | tidak ada |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Pluto]] | 0,18 | 0,002&nbsp;2 | 29,7–49,3 | 248,09 | 17,14 | 0,249 | −6,39 | [[Satelit Pluto|5]]<!--Charon, Nix, S/2011 P 1, Hydra--> | ? | ? | sementara |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Haumea (planet katai)|Haumea]] | 0,15×0,12×0,08 | 0,000&nbsp;7 | 35,2–51,5 | 282,76 | 28,19 | 0,189 | 0,16 | [[Satelit Haumea|2]]<!--Hi'iaka, Namaka--> | ? | ya | ? |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Makemake (planet katai)|Makemake]] | ~0,12 | 0,000&nbsp;7 | 38,5–53,1 | 309,88 | 28,96 | 0,159 | ? | 0 | ? | ? | ? <ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> |- | style="text-align:left"|[[Eris (planet katai)|Eris]] | 0,19 | 0,002&nbsp;5 | 37,8–97,6 | ~557 | 44,19 | 0,442 | ~0,3 | [[Dysnomia (satelit)|1]]<!--Dysnomia--> | ? | ? | ? <ref group=lower-alpha name=footnoteD /> |} <div class="references-small" style="margin-bottom:0;"> :{{note label|a|a|a}} Diukur relatif kana Bumi. :{{note label|b|b|b}} Ilikan artikel [[Bumi]] pikeun angka anu leuwih absolut. :{{note label|c|c|c}} Jupiter miboga satelit panglobana (67) di Tata Surya.<ref name="Sheppard">{{cite web |title=The Jupiter Satellite Page (Now Also The Giant Planet Satellite and Moon Page) |publisher=Carnegie Institution for Science |author=Scott S. Sheppard |url=http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/satellites/ |accessdate=2013-04-12 |date=2013-01-04 |authorlink=Scott S. Sheppard }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607094153/http://www.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/satellites/ |date=2009-06-07 }}</ref> :{{note label|d|d|d}} Saperti Pluto, waktu aya di [[Apsis|perihelion]], atmosfer saheulaanan kawangun. </div> == Periode rotasi == {{utama|Periode rotasi}} Périodeu rotasi hiji [[benda astronomi|banda]] [[astronomi]]s nya étw waktu anu dibutuhkeun pikeun nganggeuskeun sahiji révolusi muteran [[sumbu rotasi|sumbu rotasina]] relatif ka béntang di tukangna. Periodeu ieu béda jeung [[hari sinodis|poé matapoé]] planit, anu ngawengku rotasi tambahan pikeun minuhan bagian [[periode orbit]] planit salila sapoé. === Périodeu rotasi sababaraha banda angkasa === <center> {|class="wikitable" !Planit || colspan="2" | Périodeu rotasi |- |[[Matahari|Matapoé]]|| 25,379995 poé (katulistiwa)<ref>[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets] Rotation period in days is 360° divided by the coefficient of ''d''.</ref><ref>{{pdflink|[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/ISPRS/PREPRINTS/IAU2000/IAU2000_preprint.pdf Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 2000]|215KB}} pp7–8</ref> <br> 35 poé (lintang luhur) || 25{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 7{{smallsup|m}} 11.6{{smallsup|s}} <br> 35{{smallsup|d}} |- |[[Merkurius|Mérkurius]]|| 58,6462 poé<ref name=Allen296>{{cite book|title=''Allen's Astrophysical Quantities''|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA296|author=Clabon Walter Allen and Arthur N. Cox|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0387987460|pages=296}}</ref> || 58{{smallsup|d}} 15{{smallsup|h}} 30{{smallsup|m}} 30{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Venus|Vénus]]|| –243,0187 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name="negative">This rotation is negative because the pole which points north of the [[ecliptic]] rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets.</ref>|| –243{{smallsup|d}} 0{{smallsup|h}} 26{{smallsup|m}} |- |[[Bumi]]|| 0,99726968 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref>Reference adds about 1 ms to Earth's stellar day given in mean solar time to account for the length of Earth's mean solar day in excess of 86400 SI seconds.</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.100{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Bulan]]|| 27,321661 poé<ref name=Allen>{{cite book|title=''Allen's Astrophysical Quantities''|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&pg=PA308|author=Clabon Walter Allen and Arthur N. Cox|publisher=Springer|year=2000|isbn=0387987460|pages=308}}</ref> <br> ([[Rotasi sinkronis|sinkronis]] kana Bumi) || 27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43{{smallsup|m}} 11.5{{smallsup|s}} <br> &nbsp; |- |[[Mars]]|| 1,02595675 poé<ref name=Allen296/> || 1{{smallsup|d}} 0{{smallsup|h}} 37{{smallsup|m}} 22.663{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[1 Ceres|Ceres]]|| 0,37809 poé<ref name="Chamberlain2007">{{cite journal |last=Chamberlain |first=Matthew A. |coauthors=Sykes, Mark V.; Esquerdo, Gilbert A. |title=Ceres lightcurve analysis – Period determination |journal=Icarus|volume=188 |issue=2|pages=451–456|year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.11.025 |bibcode=2007Icar..188..451C }}</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 4{{smallsup|m}} 27.0{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Jupiter]]|| 0,4135344 poé (interior dalam)<ref name=mag>Rotation period of the deep interior is that of the planet's magnetic field.</ref> <br> 0,41007 poé (katulistiwa) <br> 0,41369942 poé (lintang luhur) || 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 55{{smallsup|m}} 29.37{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 50{{smallsup|m}} 30{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 55{{smallsup|m}} 43.63{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> |- |[[Saturnus]]|| 0,44403 poé (interior jero)<ref name=mag/> <br> 0,426 poé (katulistiwa) <br> 0,443 poé (lintang luhur) || 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 39{{smallsup|m}} 24{{smallsup|s}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 14{{smallsup|m}}<ref name=Allen296/> <br> 0{{smallsup|d}} 10{{smallsup|h}} 38{{smallsup|m}}<ref name=Allen296/> |- |[[Uranus]]|| –0,71833 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=negative/><ref name=mag/> || –0{{smallsup|d}} 17{{smallsup|h}} 14{{smallsup|m}} 24{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Neptunus|Néptunus]]|| 0,67125 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=mag/> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 16{{smallsup|h}} 6{{smallsup|m}} 36{{smallsup|s}} |- |[[Pluto]]||–6,38718 poé<ref name=Allen296/><ref name=negative/> <br> (sinkronis jeung [[Charon (satelit)|Charon]]) || –6{{smallsup|d}} 9{{smallsup|h}} 17{{smallsup|m}} 32{{smallsup|s}} <br> &nbsp; |- |[[Haumea (planet kerdil)|Haumea]]||0,163145 poé<ref name="hour"> {{cite journal |title=High-Precision Photometry of Extreme KBO 2003 EL61 |author=Pedro Lacerda, David Jewitt and Nuno Peixinho |date=2008-04-02 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume= 135 |issue=5 |pages=1749–1756 |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1538-3881/135/5/1749 |accessdate=2008-09-22 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1749 |bibcode=2008AJ....135.1749L}}</ref> || 0{{smallsup|d}} 3{{smallsup|h}} 54{{smallsup|m}} 56{{smallsup|s}} |} </center> == Planét luar surya == {{Utama|Planét luar surya}} [[File:Exoplanet Discovery Methods Bar.png|jmpl|320px|Éksoplanét dumasar kana taun papanggihanana (data dugi ka 1 Januari 2013)]] [[File:Kepler 20 - planet lineup.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|Babandingan antara [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220" /> sarta [[Kepler-20f]]<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220" /> upami dibandingkeun sareng [[Vénus]] sarta [[Bumi]].]] Planét luareun surya (''extrasolar planet'' atanapi ''exoplanet'') nyaéta planét anu perenahna aya di luareun Tata Surya. Dugi ka kiwari, parantos kapanggih rébu-rébu sistem planét sanésna di jagat raya. {{Extrasolar planet counts|full}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/ExoTables/nph-exotbls?dataset=planets|title=Exoplanet Archive Planet Counts|publisher=}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121212212538/http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/ExoTables/nph-exotbls?dataset=planets |date=2012-12-12 }}</ref><ref name="kepler1700">{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Michele |last2=Harrington |first2=J.D. |title=NASA's Kepler Mission Announces a Planet Bonanza, 715 New Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/ames/kepler/nasas-kepler-mission-announces-a-planet-bonanza/ |date=February 26, 2014 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=February 26, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226202703/http://www.nasa.gov/ames/kepler/nasas-kepler-mission-announces-a-planet-bonanza/ |date=February 26, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://phl.upr.edu/projects/habitable-exoplanets-catalog|title=The Habitable Exoplanets Catalog - Planetary Habitability Laboratory @ UPR Arecibo|publisher=}}</ref> Dina awal taun 1992, astronom radio [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] sarta [[Dale Frail]] mendakan dua planét anu ngurilingan [[pulsar]] [[PSR 1257+12]].<ref name="Wolszczan">{{cite doi|10.1038/355145a0}}</ref> Ieu papanggihan téh parantos dibuktikeun leres sarta diaku salaku detéksi pasti munggaran ngeunaan éksoplanét di dunya. Éta planét-planét pulsar téh diyakinan kawangun tina sésa-sésa [[supernova]] anu ngahasilkeun pulsar dina hambalan (tahap) kadua ngawujudna planét, atanapi mangrupa sésa inti batuan [[raksasa gas]] anu salamet tina bituna supernova sarta satuluyna pindah ka orbitna anu ayeuna. Papanggihan planét luar surya munggaran anu ngorbit béntang dérét utama lumangsung dina kaping 6 Oktober 1995, nalika [[Michel Mayor]] sarta [[Didier Queloz]] ti [[Universitas Jenéwa]] mendakan hiji éksoplanét di sakuriling béntang [[51 Pegasi]]. Ti {{Extrasolar planet counts|planet_count}} planét luar surya anu parantos kapanggih dugi ka {{Extrasolar planet counts|asof}},<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> sabagian ageung di antarana mibanda massa anu tiasa dibandingkeun sareng Jupiter, atanapi malah langkung ageung deui. Aya ogé planét anu massana langkung alit batan Mérkurius, sarta aya ogé anu langkung ageung batan Jupiter.<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> Planét luar surya pangalitna anu kantos kapanggih téh nyaéta anu ngorbit sésa-sésa béntang anu disebut [[pulsar]], contona [[PSR B1257+12]].<ref>{{cite news|first=Barbara|last=Kennedy|title=Scientists reveal smallest extra-solar planet yet found|publisher=SpaceFlight Now|date=2005-02-11|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0502/11exoplanet/}}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Enggeus aya sakitar salusin planit luareun surya anu ditimukeun anu 10 tepi ka 20 kalieun massana Bumi,<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> kayaning planit-planit anu ngorbit béntang [[Mu Arae]], [[55 Cancri]], jeung [[Gliese 436|GJ 436]].<ref>{{cite press release |first1=Nuno |last1=Santos |first2=François |last2=Bouchy |first3=Sylvie |last3=Vauclair |first4=Didier |last4=Queloz |first5=Michel |last5=Mayor |title=Fourteen Times the Earth |publisher=European Southern Observatory |date=2004-08-25 |url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0427/ |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref> Katégori anu nembé muncul nyaéta "[[super-Bumi]]", anu disangka mangrupa [[planet kebumian|planét kabumian]] kalawan ukuran anu langkung ageung batan Bumi nanging langkung alit batan Néptunus atanapi Uranus. Dugi ka danget ieu, sakitar 20 super-Bumi (gumantung kana wates massana) parantos kapanggih, kalebet [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] sarta [[MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb]], nyaéta dua planét és anu kapanggih ngaliwatan [[mikrolensa gravitasi]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Planet Discovered Orbiting Small Star |work=ScienceDaily |year=2008 |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/06/080602131105.htm |accessdate=2008-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first=J.-P. |last=Beaulieu |title=Discovery of a Cool Planet of 5.5 Earth Masses Through Gravitational Microlensing | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-01-26_439_7075/page/437 |journal=Nature |date=2006-01-26 |volume=439 |pages=437–440 |doi = 10.1038/nature04441 |author2=D. P. Bennett; P. Fouqué; A. Williams; ''et al.'' |pmid=16437108 |issue=7075 |bibcode=2006Natur.439..437B|arxiv = astro-ph/0601563 }}</ref> sarta [[Kepler 10b]], hiji planét anu diaméterna 1,4 kali lipat Bumi (ngajantenkeunana super-Bumi pangalitna anu kantos diukur).<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA'S Kepler Mission Discovers Its First Rocky Planet |publisher=NASA |year=2011 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/rocky_planet.html |accessdate=2011-06-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627200219/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/rocky_planet.html |date=2015-06-27 }}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya lima tina genep planét anu ngalingkung béntang [[katai merah]] [[Gliese 581]]. [[Gliese 581 d]] sacara gurat badag mibanda massa 7,7 kali lipat Bumi,<ref>{{cite web |title=Gliese 581 d |work=The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia |url=http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st=Gl+581 |accessdate=2008-09-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510094317/http://exoplanet.eu/star.php?st=Gl+581 |date=2012-05-10 }}</ref> sedengkeun massa [[Gliese 581 c]] nyaéta lima kali lipat Bumi sarta kawitna dianggap salaku planét kabumian munggaran anu kapanggih dina [[zona terhunikan]] (zona anu tiasa dicicingan) hiji béntang.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6589157.stm|title=New 'super-Earth' found in space|accessdate = 2008-08-23|date=25 April 2007|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Panalungtikan anu langkung jero nétélakeun yén ieu planét téh teuing caket kana béntangna; nanging planét anu pangtebihna dina ieu sistem, nyaéta Gliese 581 d, sanajan langkung tiis batan Bumi, tetep mibanda kamungkinan tiasa dicicingan upami atmosfirna ngandung gas imah kaca dina jumlah anu nyukupan.<ref name="blo07">{{cite journal |bibcode=2007A&A...476.1365V |author=von Bloh et al. |year=2007 |title=The Habitability of Super-Earths in Gliese 581 |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=476 |issue=3 |pages=1365–1371 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20077939|arxiv = 0705.3758 |last2=Bounama |first2=C. |last3=Cuntz |first3=M. |last4=Franck |first4=S. }}</ref> Super-Bumi sanésna, [[Kepler-22b]], kapanggih ngorbit dina zona anu tiasa dicicingan (zona terhunikan) tina béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Borucki|first=William J|url=http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1112/1112.1640.pdf|title=Kepler-22b: A 2.4 Earth-radius Planet in the Habitable Zone of a Sun-like Star|bibcode=2012ApJ...745..120B|last2=Koch|last3=Batalha|last4=Bryson|last5=Rowe|last6=Fressin|last7=Torres|last8=Caldwell|last9=Christensen-Dalsgaard|volume=745|year=2012|pages=120|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/745/2/120|issue=2}}</ref> Dina kaping 20 Désémber 2011, tim [[Kepler (wahana antariksa)|Téléskop Antariksa Kepler]] mendakan [[planet luar surya]] [[planet kebumian|saukur Bumi]] munggaran, nyaéta [[Kepler-20e]]<ref name="Kepler20e-20111220" /> sarta [[Kepler-20f]],<ref name="Kepler20f-20111220" /> anu kapanggih nuju ngalingkung béntang anu sarupa sareng Panonpoé ([[analog Matahari]]), nyaéta [[Kepler-20]].<ref name="NASA-20111220" /><ref name="Nature-20111220" /><ref name="NYT-20111220" /> [Image of Kepler-22b in the habitable zone of its star] [[File:Exoplanet Comparison HR 8799 c.png|jmpl|kénca|250px|Babandingan ukuran [[HR 8799 c]] (abu-abu) sareng [[Jupiter]]. Kalolobaan éksoplanét anu kapanggih mibanda ukuran anu langkung ageung batan Jupiter.]] Dugi ka danget ieu, masih tacan jéntré naha planét-planét raksasa anu nembé kapanggih téh sarupa sareng raksasa gas di Tata Surya urang atanapi saenyana mah bénten jinisna, contona sapertos raksasa amonia atanapi [[planet karbon]]. Sababaraha planét anu nembé kapanggih sarta katelah ku sebutan [[Jupiter panas]] mibanda orbit anu kacida caketna sareng béntang indukna, sarta wangun orbitna ampir buleud sampurna. Éta planét-planét téh nampi [[radiasi matahari|radiasi béntang]] anu langkung seueur batan raksasa gas di Tata Surya, sahingga janten patarosan naha éta planét téh kalebet jinis anu sarua atanapi sanés. Salian ti éta, aya sakelompok banda langit jinis Jupiter panas anu disebut [[planet Chthonia]], anu disangka éksis di sababaraha tempat. Planét Chthonia ieu mibanda orbit anu sakitu caketna kana béntangna, dugi ka atmosfirna sorangan kabawa palid (kumbah) ku radiasi béntangna. Seueur banda langit jinis Jupiter panas anu kapanggih nuju ngalaman prosés palidna atmosfir, nanging dugi ka taun 2008, tacan aya sahiji-hiji acan planét Chthonia anu kapanggih sacara pasti.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lecavelier des Etangs |first=A. |author2=Vidal-Madjar, A.; McConnell, J. C.; Hébrard, G. |title=Atmospheric escape from hot Jupiters |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=418 | issue=1 |pages=L1–L4 |bibcode=2004A&A...418L...1L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20040106|arxiv = astro-ph/0403369 }}</ref> Paniténan planét luar surya anu langkung taliti téh peryogi generasi pakakas anu énggal, sapertos [[téléstop luar angkasa]]. Dina danget ieu, wahana antariksa [[COROT]] sarta [[Misi Kepler|Kepler]] nuju milarian variasi luminositas béntang jalaran ayana [[transit astronomi|transit planét]]. Sababaraha proyék pangwangunan jaringan t सकारात्मकéléskop luar angkasa ogé parantos diajukeun. Éta proyék-proyék téh mibanda tujuan pikeun milarian planét luar surya anu massana satara sareng Bumi. Sababaraha di antarana nyaéta [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] sarta [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ti NASA, ogé [[PEGASE]] ti CNES.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.spacetoday.org/DeepSpace/Stars/Planets/PlanetFindingMissions.html |title =Future American and European Planet Finding Missions |publisher = Space Today Online |editor = Anthony R. Curtis |accessdate = 2008-02-06}}</ref> [[New Worlds Mission]] mangrupa pakakas palengkep anu beroperasi sareng [[Téléskop Antariksa James Webb]]. Nanging hanjakalna, anggaran pikeun ieu proyék-proyék téh masih kénéh tacan jéntré. Spektrum planét luar surya munggaran kapanggih dina bulan Pébruari 2007 ([[HD 209458 b]] sarta [[HD 189733 b]]).<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/news/251-ssc2007-04-NASA-s-Spitzer-First-To-Crack-Open-Light-of-Faraway-Worlds |title=NASA's Spitzer First To Crack Open Light of Faraway Worlds |date=2007-02-21 |first1=Tabatha |last1=Thompson |first2=Whitney |last2=Clavin |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology |accessdate=2011-11-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071015221757/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/releases/ssc2007-04/release.shtml |archivedate=2007-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Richardson |first=L. Jeremy |author2=Deming, Drake; Horning, Karen; Seager, Sara; Harrington, Joseph |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=445 title=A spectrum of an extrasolar planet |doi=10.1038/nature05636 |pmid=17314975 |issue=7130 |bibcode=2007Natur.445..892R | pages=892–5|arxiv = astro-ph/0702507 }}</ref> Frékuénsi mucunghulna planét-planét kabumian sapertos kitu téh mangrupa salah sahiji variabel dina [[persamaan Drake]] anu digunakeun pikeun ngira-ngira jumlah [[kehidupan luar Bumi|peradaban cerdas]] di galaksi Bima Sakti.<ref>{{cite news|last=Drake|first=Frank|title=The Drake Equation Revisited|publisher=Astrobiology Magazine|date=2003-09-29|url=http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=610|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110628180502/http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_retrospection&task=detail&id=610|archivedate=2011-06-28|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> == Banda mibanda massa planét == '''Banda mibanda massa planét''' (''Objek bermassa planet''), '''PMO''', atanapi '''planémo''' nyaéta banda langit anu massana aya dina watesan définisi planét: cekap ageung pikeun mibanda kasatimbangan hidrostatik (buleud alatan gravitasina sorangan), nanging henteu cekap ageung pikeun mibanda fusi inti sapertos béntang.<ref>G. Basri & E.M. Brown, 2006. ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences'', '''34''': 193–216</ref> Luyu sareng définisina, sadaya planét téh mangrupa ''banda mibanda massa planét'', nanging tujuan tina ieu istilah téh nyaéta pikeun ngajelaskeun banda-banda anu henteu minuhan sarat salaku planét sacara umum. Objék-objék kasebut di antarana nyaéta [[planét katé]], [[satelit alami|satelit]] anu ukuranna langkung ageung, planét pangumbara anu henteu ngorbit kana béntang (sapertos planét liar anu kakaluarkeun tina sistemna), sarta objék anu kawangun tina prosés runtuhna méga gas (''cloud collapse'') tinimbang akrési (kadangkala disebut ogé [[katai sub-coklat]]). === Planét liar === {{Utama|Planét liar}} Sababaraha [[simulasi komputer]] ngeunaan ngawujudna sistim béntang sarta planét némbongkeun yén sajumlahing banda mibanda massa planét bakal kalungtik (kabalang) ka [[luar angkasa|luar angkasa]] antarbéntang.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lissauer | first= J. J. | title= Timescales for Planetary Accretion and the Structure of the Protoplanetary disk | url=https://archive.org/details/icarus_1987-02_69_2/page/249 | journal= Icarus | volume= 69 | issue=2 | pages=249–265 | year=1987 | doi=10.1016/0019-1035(87)90104-7 | bibcode=1987Icar...69..249L}}</ref> Sababaraha élmuwan mibanda pamadegan yén banda sapertos kitu anu kapanggih ngumbara di jomantara téh kedah digolongkeun salaku "planét", nanging sabagian deui boga sawangan yén éta objék téh bisa jadi mangrupa béntang anu mibanda massa handap.<ref name="Luhman">{{cite journal | journal=Astrophysical Journal |last=Luhman |first=K. L. |author2=Adame, Lucía; D'Alessio, Paola; Calvet, Nuria |title= Discovery of a Planetary-Mass Brown Dwarf with a Circumstellar Disk |volume=635 | issue=1 |pages=L93 |doi=10.1086/498868 |year= 2005 |laysummary=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzerf-20051129.html |laysource=NASA Press Release |laydate=2005-11-29 |bibcode=2005ApJ...635L..93L|arxiv = astro-ph/0511807 }}</ref><ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/happenings/20051129/ |title=A Planet with Planets? Spitzer Finds Cosmic Oddball |last=Clavin |first=Whitney |date=November 9, 2005 |work=Spitzer Space Telescope Newsroom |accessdate=2009-11-18 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070711171654/http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/Media/happenings/20051129/ | archivedate = July 11, 2007}}</ref> === Katai sub-coklat === {{Utama|Katai sub-coklat}} Béntang kawangun ngaliwatan prosés runtuhna gravitasi méga gas (''cloud collapse''), nanging banda-banda anu langkung alit ogé tiasa kawangun ngaliwatan prosés runtuhna méga anu sarupa. Banda mibanda massa planét anu kawangun ku cara kitu téh kadangkala disebut ogé [[katai sub-coklat]]. Katai sub-coklat tiasa ngumbara sacara bébas (contona [[Cha 110913-773444]]) atanapi ngorbit kana banda langit anu langkung ageung (contona [[2MASS J04414489+2301513]]). Dina taun 2006, komunitas astronom kantos yakin yén maranéhna parantos mendakan sistim binér katai sub-coklat, nyaéta [[Oph 162225-240515]], anu ku nu manggihanana disebut salaku "planémo" atanapi "banda mibanda massa planét". Nanging, dumasar kana analisis panganyarna, ditetepkeun yén massa masing-masing objék kasebut téh tétéla langkung ageung batan 13 kali massa Jupiter, sahingga duanana digolongkeun salaku [[katai coklat]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Wide Brown Dwarf Binary Oph 1622–2405 and Discovery of A Wide, Low Mass Binary in Ophiuchus (Oph 1623–2402): A New Class of Young Evaporating Wide Binaries? | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-05-10_660_2/page/1492 |journal= Astrophysical Journal |author=Close, Laird M. ''et al.'' |volume=660 | issue=2 |page=1492 |doi=10.1086/513417 |year=2007 |arxiv=astro-ph/0608574 |bibcode=2007ApJ...660.1492C | last2=Zuckerman | first2=B. | last3=Song | first3=Inseok | last4=Barman | first4=Travis | last5=Marois | first5=Christian | last6=Rice | first6=Emily L. | last7=Siegler | first7=Nick | last8=MacIntosh | first8=Bruce | last9=Becklin | first9=E. E.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Luhman |first=K. L. |year=2007 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |title=Ophiuchus 1622–2405: Not a Planetary-Mass Binary |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-04-20_659_2/page/1629 |volume=659 |issue=2 |pages=1629–36 |doi=10.1086/512539 |last2=Allers |first2=K. N. |last3=Jaffe |first3=D. T. |last4=Cushing |first4=M. C. |last5=Williams |first5=K. A. |last6=Slesnick |first6=C. L. |last7=Vacca |first7=W. D. |bibcode=2007ApJ...659.1629L|arxiv = astro-ph/0701242 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/planet_photo_040910.html |title=Likely First Photo of Planet Beyond the Solar System |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt | work=Space.com |date=2004-09-10 |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> === Tilas béntang === Dina sistim [[bintang biner|béntang binér]] anu caket, salah sahiji béntang tiasa kaleungitan massana jalaran diseuseup ku béntang sanésna anu langkung beurat (tempo [[pulsar bertenaga akresi]]). Béntang anu nyusut kasebut satuluyna robah janten banda mibanda massa planét. Contona nyaéta hiji objék mibanda massa Jupiter anu ngorbit [[pulsar]] [[PSR J1719-1438]].<ref>{{cite journal |arxiv=1108.5201 |bibcode=2011Sci...333.1717B |doi=10.1126/science.1208890 |title=Transformation of a Star into a Planet in a Millisecond Pulsar Binary |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2011-09-23_333_6050/page/1717 |year=2011 |last1=Bailes |first1=M. |last2=Bates |first2=S. D. |last3=Bhalerao |first3=V. |last4=Bhat |first4=N. D. R. |last5=Burgay |first5=M. |last6=Burke-Spolaor |first6=S. |last7=d'Amico |first7=N. |last8=Johnston |first8=S. |last9=Keith |first9=M. J. |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6050 |pages=1717–20 |pmid=21868629}}</ref> === Planét satelit sarta planét sabuk === Sababaraha satelit mibanda ukuran anu sarua atanapi langkung ageung batan [[Mérkurius]], contona [[satelit Galileo]] sarta [[Titan (satelit)|Titan]] nu Jupiter. [[Alan Stern]] mibanda pamadegan yén lokasi (orbit) téh sanés mangrupa pasualan utama, sarta mung ciri-ciri géofisikna hungkul anu kedah diperhatoskeun dina nangtukeun wangenan (définisi) planét. Anjeunna ngusulkeun istilah ''planét satelit'' pikeun nyebut satelit anu mibanda ukuran saukur planét. Pon kitu deui, planét-planét katé di [[sabuk asteroid]] sarta [[sabuk Kuiper]] téh kedah dianggap salaku planét nurutkeun Stern.<ref name="satelliteplanet">{{cite web |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/should-large-moons-be-called-satellite-planets.html#post-a-comment |title=Should Large Moons Be Called 'Satellite Planets'? |publisher=News.discovery.com |date=2010-05-14 |accessdate=2011-11-04 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505221146/http://news.discovery.com/space/should-large-moons-be-called-satellite-planets.html#post-a-comment |date=2012-05-05 }}</ref> == Ciri-ciri == Sanaos masing-masing planét mibanda ciri fisik anu mandiri (khas), aya sababaraha sasaruaan di antawisna. Ciri-ciri sapertos cingcin atanapi satelit alami, dugi ka danget ieu nembé tiasa ditalungtik dina planét-planét di Tata Surya, sedengkeun dina planét luar surya mah aya deui ciri-ciri sanésna. === Ciri-ciri dinamis === {{Tempo ogé|Hukum gerakan planét Kepler}} ==== Orbit ==== [[File:TheKuiperBelt Orbits Pluto Ecliptic.svg|jmpl|ka|300px|Orbit planét Néptunus upami dibandingkeun sareng [[Pluto]]. Tingal perpanjangan orbit Pluto dibandingkeun Néptunus ([[ékstréntisitas orbit|ékstréntisitas]]), sarta juru ékliptikna anu ageung ([[inklinasi]]).]] == Orbit jeung Révolusi == Dumasar kana wangenan (definisi) panganyarna, sakabéh planét kudu ngurilingan (révolusi) hiji béntang, sahingga potensi ayana "[[planét liar]]" dianggap euweuh. Dina Tatasurya, sakabéh planét ngorbit ka [[Panonpoé]] kalayan arah anu sarua jeung rotasi Panonpoé (lawan arah jarum jam upami ditingal tina kutub kalérna). Nanging, sahenteuna aya hiji planét luar surya, nyaéta [[WASP-17b]], anu kapendak ngorbit kalayan arah anu papalingpang (''retrograde'') jeung rotasi béntangna.<ref>{{cite arxiv | author = D. R. Anderson ''et al.'' | title = WASP-17b: an ultra-low density planet in a probable retrograde orbit | eprint = 0908.1553 | class = astro-ph.EP | year = 2009 }}</ref> Lilana waktu pikeun planét ngalakukeun sakali révolusi disebut [[Période sidéréal]] atawa hiji '''[[taun]]'''.<ref name="young">{{cite book|first=Charles Augustus|last=Young|year=1902|title=Manual of Astronomy: A Text Book|publisher=Ginn & company|pages=324–7}}</ref> Lilana taun hiji planét gumantung kana jarakna ti béntang; beuki jauh jarak planét tina béntangna, beuki jauh ogé lintasan anu kudu ditempuh sarta beuki laun kacepetanana, sabab pangaruh [[gravitasi]] béntangna henteu pati kuat. Kusabab euweuh orbit planét anu bentukna buleud sampurna (''lingkaran sempurna''), jarak unggal planét téh robah-robah sapanjang taun. * Titik pangdeukeutna planét jeung béntangna disebut [[periastron]] (di Tatasurya disebut [[perihelion]]). * Titik pangjauhna disebut [[apastron]] ([[aphelion]]). Nalika hiji planét ngadeukeutan periastron (titik pangcaketna), kacepetanana bakal nambahan jalaran énergi poténsial gravitasi robah janten énergi kinétik; sabalikna, nalika éta planét ngadeukeutan apastron (titik pangtebihna), kacepetanana bakal ngirangan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dvorak, R.; Kurths, J.; Freistetter, F.|year=2005|title=Chaos And Stability in Planetary Systems|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=3-540-28208-4}}</ref> Saban orbit planét diwangun ku sajumlahing [[elemen orbit|elemén]]: * ''[[Ékséntrisitas orbit|Ékséntrisitas]]'' hiji orbit nuduhkeun sabaraha lonjong orbit hiji planét. Planét anu ékséntrisitasna handap mibanda orbit anu ampir buleud (melingkar), sedengkeun planét kalawan ékséntrisitas luhur mibanda orbit anu langkung élips. Planét-planét di Tata Surya mibanda ékséntrisitas anu kacida handapna, sahingga orbitna méh nyaruaan bunderan.<ref name="young"/> Komét sarta banda-banda sabuk Kuiper (kaasup sababaraha planét luar surya) mibanda ékséntrisitas anu kacida luhurna, sahingga orbitna tiasa janten kacida élipsna.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Eccentricity evolution of giant planet orbits due to circumstellar disk torques |author=Moorhead, Althea V.; Adams, Fred C. |journal=Icarus |year=2008 |volume=193 |issue=2 |page=475 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.07.009 |arxiv=0708.0335 |bibcode=2008Icar..193..475M}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Planets – Kuiper Belt Objects |work=The Astrophysics Spectator |date=2004-12-15 | url=http://www.astrophysicsspectator.com/topics/planets/KuiperBelt.html |accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> * [[File:Semimajoraxis.svg|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi sumbu semi-mayor]] ''[[Sumbu semi-mayor]]'' nyaéta anggang (jarak) ti hiji planét ka titik satengah jalan dina sapanjang diaméter orbit élips pangpanjangna (tingal gambar). Ieu anggang téh teu sarua sareng apastronna, jalaran teu aya hiji ogé orbit planét anu titik tengahna pas pisan perenahna aya dina béntang.<ref name="young" /> * ''Inklinasi'' planét nuduhkeun sabaraha tebih luhur atanapi handapna posisi planét tina widang référénsina. Di Tata Surya, widang référénsina nyaéta widang orbit Bumi anu disebut [[ékliptika]]. Kanggo planét luar surya, widang anu disebut ''widang langit'' ieu mangrupa widang garis paneuteup tina panénjo di Bumi.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://astrowww.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/celmechs.html|title=Celestial Mechanics|year=2007|chapter=17. Visual binary stars|first=J. B.|last=Tatum|accessdate=2008-02-02|publisher=Personal web page}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706031613/http://astrowww.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/celmechs.html |date=2007-07-06 }}</ref> Kadalapan planét Tata Surya perenahna kacida caketna kana ékliptika; sedengkeun komét sarta banda [[sabuk Kuiper]] sapertos Pluto mibanda juru (sudut) anu langkung ékstrim kana ékliptika.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Correlation between Inclination and Color in the Classical Kuiper Belt | last=Trujillo |first=Chadwick A. |author2= Brown, Michael E. |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=2002 |bibcode=2002ApJ...566L.125T | volume=566 |issue=2 | pages=L125 |doi=10.1086/339437|arxiv = astro-ph/0201040 }}</ref> Titik nalika planét meuntas di luhur sarta di handap widang référénsina disebut [[nodus naik]] sarta [[nodus turun]].<ref name="young" /> [[Bujur nodus naik]] nyaéta juru antara bujur 0 widang référénsi sarta nodus naik planét. [[Argumén periapsis]] (atanapi perihelion di Tata Surya) nyaéta juru antara nodus naik planét sarta titik pangcaketna kana béntangna.<ref name="young" /> ==== Kamiringan sumbu ==== [[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|jmpl|ka|250px|Kamiringan sumbu Bumi kira-kira 23°.]] Planét ogé mibanda [[kamiringan sumbu]] anu rupa-rupa darajatna. Kamiringan sumbu perenahna dina juru (sudut) kana [[bidang Referensi|widang]] [[inklinasi|khatulistiwa béntangna]]. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun jumlah cahaya anu ditarima ku saban belahan planét téh teu angger sapanjang taun; nalika belahan kalér ngajauhan béntang, belahan kidul justru ngadeukeutan béntang, pon kitu deui sabalikna. Jalaran kitu, saban planét mibanda [[musim|usum]]; nyaéta parobahan iklim sapanjang taun. Masa nalika saban belahan aya dina titik pangtebihna atanapi pangcaketna tina béntangna disebut [[titik balik matahari]] (solstis). Saban planét mibanda dua titik balik dina orbitna; nalika hiji belahan nepi kana titik balik usum panas (beurang panglilana), belahan sanésna nepi kana titik balik usum tiris (beurang pangpondokna). Jumlah cahaya sarta panas anu teu angger ieu nyiptakeun parobahan pola cuaca taunan pikeun saban belahan planét. Kamiringan sumbu Jupiter kacida alitna sahingga variasi usumna ogé sakedik pisan. Di sisi sanésna, Uranus mibanda kamiringan sumbu anu kacida ageungna dugi ka tiasa ngalaman beurang abadi atanapi peuting abadi nalika nepi kana titik balikna.<ref name="Weather">{{cite web |last=Harvey |first=Samantha |date=2006-05-01 |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=725 |title=Weather, Weather, Everywhere? |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414055517/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=725 |date=2009-04-14 }}</ref> Di kalangan planét luar surya, kamiringan sumbu téh tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti, sanaos seueur banda Jupiter panas anu dipercaya mibanda saeutik kamiringan sumbu atanapi taya pisan jalaran perenahna anu kacida caketna sareng béntangna.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Obliquity Tides on Hot Jupiters |author=Winn, Joshua N.; Holman, Matthew J. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2005 | doi=10.1086/432834 | volume=628 |issue=2 |pages=L159 |bibcode=2005ApJ...628L.159W|arxiv = astro-ph/0506468 }}</ref> ==== Rotasi ==== Planét muter (berotasi) dina sumbu sawangan (kasat mata) anu nembus titik pusatna. [[Periode rotasi]] hiji planét disebut ogé [[hari|poé béntang]]. Lolobana planét di Tata Surya berotasi kalayan arah anu sarua sareng orbitna, nyaéta berlawanan arah jarum jam upami ditingal tina [[Kutub benda astronomi#Kutub geografis|kutub kalér]] Panonpoé, iwal [[Vénus]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rotation of Venus: Period Estimated from Radar Measurements |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1963-03-08_139_3558/page/910 |author=Goldstein, R. M.; Carpenter, R. L. |year=1963 |journal =Science |volume=139 |doi=10.1126/science.139.3558.910 |pmid=17743054 |issue=3558 |bibcode=1963Sci...139..910G |pages=910–1}}</ref> sarta [[Uranus]]<ref>{{cite journal |contribution=Rotational properties of Uranus and Neptune |first=M. J. S. |last=Belton |author2=Terrile R. J. |title=Uranus and Neptune |year=1984 |journal=In its Uranus and Neptune pp. 327–347 (SEE N85-11927 02-91) |bibcode=1984urnp.nasa..327B |volume=2330 |page=327 |editor=Bergstralh, J. T.}}</ref> anu muterna saluyu sareng arah jarum jam. [Image of planetary rotation directions in the solar system] Nanging, kamiringan sumbu Uranus anu kacida ageungna téh ngabalukarkeun ayana bédana konvénsi ngeunaan kutub mana anu disebut "kalér" sarta naha éta planét téh muter saluyu sareng arah jarum jam atanapi sanés.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Outer Worlds; Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and Beyond|pages=195–206|year=2006|first=Michael P.|last=Borgia|publisher=Springer New York}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, sakumaha baé konvénsina, Uranus mibanda [[rotasi mundur]] (rétrograd) upami dibandingkeun sareng orbitna. Rotasi hiji planét tiasa kawangun ku sababaraha faktor nalika prosés ngawujudna. [[Momentum sudut]] bersihna tiasa kacipta ku momentum sudut anu asalna tina objék-objék akrési. Akrési gas ku raksasa gas ogé mangaruhan kana momentum sudut. Dina tahapan ahir ngawujudna planét, [[proses stokastik]] mangrupa akrési protoplanét tiasa ngarobah sumbu puter planét sacara acak.<ref name="araa31">{{cite journal | title=Planet formation |last=Lissauer | series=31 |first=Jack J. |journal=Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics |volume=(A94-12726 02–90) | issue=1 |pages=129–174 |year=1993 |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001021 |bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..129L}}</ref> Aya bédana lilana poé anu kacida jauhna antarplanét. Vénus peryogi 243 poé Bumi pikeun sakali rotasi, sedengkeun raksasa gas mah mung peryogi sababaraha jam hungkul.<ref>{{cite web |title=Planet tables |url=http://www.astronomynotes.com/tables/tablesb.htm |first=Nick |last=Strobel |publisher=astronomynotes.com |accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> Période rotasi planét luar surya mah tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti. Nanging, perenahna anu caket kana béntangna téh ngandung harti yén banda-banda [[Jupiter panas]] mibanda sifat [[penguncian gelombang|kakonci sacara tidal]] (orbitna sinkron sareng rotasina). Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun éta planét ngan némbongkeun hiji sisi ka béntangna, sahingga hiji sisi salawasna beurang, sedengkeun sisi sanésna salawasna peuting.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Magnetically-Driven Planetary Radio Emissions and Application to Extrasolar Planets |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysics-and-space-science_2001-06_277_1-2/page/293 | last=Zarka |first=Philippe |author2=Treumann, Rudolf A.; Ryabov, Boris P.; Ryabov, Vladimir B. |year=2001 |journal=Astrophysics & Space Science |volume=277 |issue=1/2 |page=293 |doi = 10.1023/A:1012221527425|bibcode = 2001Ap&SS.277..293Z }}</ref> ==== Meresihan orbit ==== Ciri dinamis utama anu nangtukeun hiji planét nyaéta éta banda langit téh parantos [[membersihkan lingkungan|meresihan lingkungan]] orbitna. Planét anu parantos meresihan lingkunganana mibanda massa anu cekap pikeun nyapu sadaya [[planetesimal]] dina jalur orbitna. Hasilna, éta planét téh ngorbit kana béntangna sacara tetep, sarta henteu babagi orbit sareng sababaraha objék sanés anu ukuranna mirupa. Ciri ieu kacantum dina [[definisi planet 2006|définisi resmi planét]] [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] bulan Agustus 2006. Kritéria kasebut henteu ngawengku banda-banda ka-planét-an sapertos [[Pluto]], [[Eris (planet katai)|Eris]], sarta [[Ceres (planet katai)|Ceres]], sahingga maranéhna digolongkeun salaku [[planét katé]].<ref name="IAU" /> Sanaos dugi ka ayeuna ieu kritéria téh nembé lumaku di Tata Surya hungkul, sajumlahing sistim luar surya anom (muda) kapanggih mibanda bukti ayana prosés meresihan orbit dina cakram sirkumbéntangna.<ref>{{cite arxiv |title=The Total Number of Giant Planets in Debris Disks with Central Clearings |date=2007-07-12 |author=Faber, Peter; Quillen, Alice C. |eprint=0706.1684 |class=astro-ph}}</ref> === Ciri-ciri fisik === ==== Massa ==== Ciri fisik utama anu nangtukeun hiji planét nyaéta naha éta banda langit téh cukup ageung pikeun maksa gravitasi sorangan ngawasa (ngadominasi) [[gaya elektromagnetik]] anu mungkus struktur fisikna, sahingga nyiptakeun [[kesetimbangan hidrostatik]]. Ieu ngandung harti yén sadaya planét téh mibanda wangun sfer (bola) atanapi sferoidal. Nepi ka titik massa tinangtu, wangun hiji objék téh bisa waé teu tangtu (acak), nanging upami parantos ngaliwatan éta titik (anu variasina gumantung kana susunan kimiawi bahanna), gravitasi bakal mimiti narik éta objék ka puseur massana dugi ka éta objék téh ngawujud jadi bola.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Dwarf Planets |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/dwarfplanets/ |authorlink=Michael E. Brown |last=Brown |first=Michael E. |work=California Institute of Technology |year=2006 |accessdate=2008-02-01}}</ref> Massa ogé mangrupa ciri utama anu ngabédakeun planét sareng [[béntang]]. Wates massa luhur pikeun hiji planét nyaéta 13 kali massa Jupiter (13 MJ) pikeun objék-objék kalawan [[kelimpahan isotop]] panonpoé. Upami langkung ti éta, hiji objék bakal mibanda kaayaan anu pas pikeun ngayakeun [[fusi nuklir]]. Sajabi ti Panonpoé, teu aya deui objék mibanda massa sapertos kitu di Tata Surya; nanging aya éksoplanét anu ukuranana saukur Panonpoé. Wates 13 MJ ieu tacan diaku sacara universal, sarta [[Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]] masih ngasupkeun objék-objék mibanda massa 20 kali Jupiter,<ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=exoplanet-catalogue How One Astronomer Became the Unofficial Exoplanet Record-Keeper], www.scientificamerican.com</ref> sedengkeun [[Exoplanet Data Explorer]] ngasupkeun objék dugi ka 24 kali massa Jupiter.<ref>{{cite arxiv |eprint=1012.5676 |author1=Jason T Wright |author2=Onsi Fakhouri |author3=Marcy |author4=Eunkyu Han |author5=Ying Feng |author6=John Asher Johnson |author7=Howard |author8=Fischer |author9=Valenti |title=The Exoplanet Orbit Database |class=astro-ph.SR |year=2010}}</ref> Planét pangleutikna anu kungsi kanyahoan, henteu kaasup planét katé sarta satelit, nyaéta [[PSR B1257+12A]]. Ieu mangrupa salah sahiji planét luar surya munggaran anu kapanggih dina taun 1992 sarta ngulilingan hiji [[pulsar]]. Massana kira-kira satengah tina massa planét Mérkurius.<ref name="Encyclopaedia" /> Planét pangleutikna anu ngorbit béntang dérét utama sajabi ti Panonpoé nyaéta [[Kepler-37b]]. Massa sarta radiusna sakedik langkung ageung batan [[Bulan]]. ==== Diferénsiasi internal ==== [[File:Jupiter interior.png|lurus|jmpl|250px|Ilustrasi interior Jupiter kalawan inti tina batu anu dilingkung ku lapisan hidrogén métalik anu kandel]] Saban planét ngamimitian ayana (éksisténsina) dina wangun éncér (cair); nalika prosés ngawujudna, matéri anu langkung padet sarta beurat tilelep ka bagian tengah, sedengkeun matéri anu hampang tetep aya dina bagian luhur (beungeut). Masing-masing mibanda bagian jero (interior) [[diferensiasi planet|anu béda-béda]], anu diwangun ku [[inti planet|inti planét]] padet sarta dilingkung ku [[mantel (geologi)|mantel]] éncér atanapi padet. Planét-planét kabumian (térestrial) kalingkung ku [[kerak (geologi)|kerak]] padet,<ref name="terrestrial">{{cite web |title=Planetary Interiors |work=Department of Physics, University of Oregon |url=http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec16.html |accessdate=2008-08-23 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808155809/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast121/lectures/lec16.html |date=2012-08-08 }}</ref> nanging dina raksasa gas mah, mantelna téh lényéh sarta ngahiji jadi lapisan méga pangluhurna. Planét kabumian mibanda inti tina élemén magnétik sapertos [[beusi]] sarta [[nikél]], sarta mantel [[silikat]]. [[Jupiter]] sarta [[Saturnus]] dipercaya mibanda inti tina batu sarta logam anu dilingkung ku mantel [[hidrogén métalik]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Linda T.|last=Elkins-Tanton|year=2006|title=Jupiter and Saturn|url=https://archive.org/details/jupitersaturn0000elki_t3r5|publisher=Chelsea House|location=New York|isbn=0-8160-5196-8}}</ref> [[Uranus]] sarta [[Néptunus]], anu ukuranana langkung alit, mibanda inti batu anu dilingkung ku mantel [[cai]], [[amonia]], [[métana]], sarta [[bahan volatil|és]].<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/0032-0633(95)00061-5}}</ref> Gerakan cairan di jero inti planét-planét kasebut ngahasilkeun [[geodinamo]] anu nyiptakeun [[médan magnét]].<ref name="terrestrial" /> ==== Atmosfir ==== {{Tempo ogé|Atmosfir ékstratéréstrial}} [[File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|jmpl|kénca|250px|Atmosfir Bumi]] Sadaya planét di Tata Surya sajabi ti [[Mérkurius]]<ref>Hunten D. M., Shemansky D. E., Morgan T. H. (1988), ''The Mercury atmosphere'', In: Mercury (A89-43751 19–91). University of Arizona Press, pp. 562–612</ref> mibanda [[atmosfir]] dasar jalaran gravitasi massana anu kacida ageungna cekap kiat pikeun nahan gas supados tetep caket kana beungeut planét. Planét raksasa gas mibanda ukuran anu cukup badag pikeun nahan sajumlahing gas hampang sapertos [[hidrogén]] sarta [[hélium]], sedengkeun dina planét-planét leutik mah éta gas téh lolos ka [[luar angkasa]].<ref>{{cite doi | 10.1086/426329 }}</ref> Komposisi atmosfir Bumi bénten sareng planét sanésna jalaran ayana rupa-rupa prosés [[kahirupan]] anu lumangsung di ieu planét, anu parantos ngahasilkeun molekul [[oksigén]] bébas.<ref name="zeilik">{{cite book|last=Zeilik|first=Michael A.|author2=Gregory, Stephan A.|title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics|url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil|edition=4th|year=1998|publisher=Saunders College Publishing|isbn=0-03-006228-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductoryastr0000zeil/page/67 67]}}</ref> Atmosfir planét dipangaruhan ku rupa-rupa [[insolasi]] (radiasi panonpoé) atanapi énergi internal, sahingga ngabalukarkeun kawangunna [[sistem cuaca|sistim cuaca]] dinamis sapertos [[badai]] (di Bumi), [[badai debu|badai lebu]] sa-planét (di Mars), [[badai antisiklon|antisiklon]] saukuran Bumi (di Jupiter; disebut [[Bintik Beureum Gedé]]), sarta [[Titik Gelap Besar|liang dina atmosfir]] (di Néptunus).<ref name="Weather" /> Sahenteuna aya hiji planét luar surya, [[HD 189733 b]], anu diklaim mibanda sistim cuaca sapertos kitu, sarupa sareng Bintik Beureum Gedé nanging ukuranana dua kali lipet langkung ageung.<ref name="knutson">{{cite journal | last=Knutson |first=Heather A. |author2=Charbonneau, David; Allen, Lori E.; Fortney, Jonathan J. |title=A map of the day-night contrast of the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-05-10_447_7141/page/183 |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=447 |doi=10.1038/nature05782 |laysummary=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/2007/pr200713.html |laysource=Center for Astrophysics press release |laydate=2007-05-09 |pmid=17495920 |issue=7141 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..183K | pages=183–6|arxiv = 0705.0993 }}</ref> Jalaran perenahna anu kacida caketna sareng béntang indungna, banda-banda Jupiter panas kaleungitan atmosfirna akibat radiasi béntang, mirupa buntut komét.<ref>{{cite press release |first1=Donna |last1=Weaver |first2=Ray |last2=Villard |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2007/07/full/ |title=Hubble Probes Layer-cake Structure of Alien World's Atmosphere |publisher=Space Telescope Science Institute |date=2007-01-31 |accessdate=2011-10-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | journal=Nature |last=Ballester |first=Gilda E. |author2=Sing, David K.; Herbert, Floyd |title=The signature of hot hydrogen in the atmosphere of the extrasolar planet HD 209458b | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-02-01_445_7127/page/511 |volume=445 |year=2007 |doi=10.1038/nature05525 |pmid=17268463 |issue=7127 |bibcode=2007Natur.445..511B | pages=511–4}}</ref> Ieu planét-planét téh mibanda béda suhu beurang sareng peuting anu kacida jauhna, dugi ka tiasa ngahasilkeun angin supersonik.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Harrington |first=Jason |author2=Hansen, Brad M.; Luszcz, Statia H.; Seager, Sara |title=The phase-dependent infrared brightness of the extrasolar planet Andromeda b | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-10-27_314_5799/page/623 |journal=Science |volume=314 |year=2006 |doi=10.1126/science.1133904 |laysummary=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/spitzer-20061012.html |laysource=NASA press release |laydate=2006-10-12 |pmid=17038587 |issue=5799 |bibcode=2006Sci...314..623H | pages=623–6|arxiv = astro-ph/0610491 }}</ref> Nanging, sisi beurang sareng peuting dina [[HD 189733 b]] mah katingal mibanda suhu anu sarua, anu nuduhkeun yén atmosfir ieu planét téh éféktif pisan dina ngadistribusikeun deui énergi béntang ka sakuliah bagian planétna.<ref name="knutson" /> ==== Magnétosfir ==== [[File:Structure of the magnetosphere-en.svg|jmpl|ka|300px|Skéma [[medan magnet Bumi|magnétosfir Bumi]]]] Salah sahiji ciri penting tina hiji planét nyaéta [[momen magnet|momen magnét]] intrinsikna anu janten bibit buit (cikal bakal) tina [[magnetosfer|magnétosfirna]]. Ayana médan magnét nuduhkeun yén éta planét téh sacara géologi masih kénéh "hirup". Kalayan kecap sanés, planét anu mibanda sipat magnét mibanda aliran bahan [[konduktivitas listrik|konduktor listrik]] dina bagian jerona (interior) anu nyiptakeun médan magnét. Ieu médan téh kacida mangaruhanana kana interaksi planét sareng angin surya. Planét anu mibanda sipat magnét bakal nyiptakeun panyalindung anu disebut magnétosfir, anu teu tiasa ditembus ku angin surya. Ukuran magnétosfir tiasa langkung ageung batan planétna sorangan. Sabalikna, planét anu teu mibanda sipat magnét mah mibanda magnétosfir anu alit, anu kawangun ku interaksi [[ionosfer|ionosfir]] sareng angin surya, nanging teu tiasa nangtayungan éta planét sacara éféktif.<ref name="Kivelson2007" /> Tina dalapan planét di Tata Surya, ngan Vénus sarta Mars anu teu mibanda médan magnét.<ref name="Kivelson2007" /> Sajaba ti éta, satelit Jupiter [[Ganymede (satelit)|Ganyméde]] ogé mibanda médan magnét. Tina sadaya planét anu mibanda sipat magnét, médan Mérkurius mangrupa anu panghéngkérna (lemah) sahingga teu mampuh nahan [[angin surya|angin surya]]. Médan magnét Ganyméde sababaraha kali lipet langkung ageung, sedengkeun médan Jupiter mangrupa anu pangkiatna di Tata Surya (kacida kiatna sahingga ieu planét téh mibanda ancaman kaséhatan anu sérius pikeun misi berawak ka satelit-satelitna dina mangsa ka hareup). Médan magnét planét-planét raksasa sanésna mibanda kakuatan anu ampir sarua sareng Bumi, nanging momen magnétna langkung ageung. Médan magnét Uranus sarta Néptunus kacida miringna upami dibandingkeun sareng [[sumbu rotasi]] sarta perenahna misah tina puseur (pusat) planétna.<ref name="Kivelson2007">{{cite book|last=Kivelson|first=Margaret Galland|author2=Bagenal, Fran|chapter=Planetary Magnetospheres|title=Encyclopedia of the Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BGD-739|year=2007|publisher=Academic Press|editor= Lucyann Mcfadden, Paul Weissman, Torrence Johnson|isbn=978-0-12-088589-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BGD-739/page/519 519]}}</ref> Dina taun 2004, tim astronom di Hawaii nalungtik hiji planét luar surya anu ngulilingan béntang [[HD 179949]]. Ieu planét katingal nyiptakeun titik panonpoé (sunspot) dina beungeut béntang indungna. Éta tim mibanda hipotésis yén magnétosfir éta planét téh keur mentransfer énergi ka beungeut béntang sarta ngalantarankeun suhuna naék tina 7.760 °C janten 8.160 °C.<ref>{{cite web | title=Magnetic planet |first=Amanda | last=Gefter | work=Astronomy |date=2004-01-17 |url=http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&id=2090 |accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref> === Ciri-ciri sekundér === Sababaraha planét atanapi planét katé di Tata Surya (sapertos [[Néptunus]] atanapi [[Pluto]]) mibanda période orbit anu [[resonansi orbit|saluyu]] (résonansi) hiji sareng nu sanésna atanapi sareng banda-banda langit anu langkung alit (hal ieu lumrah lumangsung dina sistim satelit). Sadaya planét iwal [[Mérkurius]] sareng [[Vénus]] mibanda [[satelit alami]] anu biasana disebut "bulan". Bumi mibanda hiji satelit, Mars dua, sarta [[raksasa gas]] mibanda sababaraha satelit kalayan sistim ka-planét-an anu kompléks. Loba satelit raksasa gas mibanda ciri-ciri anu sarua sareng planét kabumian sarta planét katé. Sababaraha di antarana malah dianggap mibanda lingkungan anu merenah pikeun kahirupan (utamana [[Europa (satelit)|Europa]]).<ref name="Grasset2000">{{cite journal | last= Grasset |first=O. |author2=Sotin C.; Deschamps F. |title = On the internal structure and dynamic of Titan | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_planetary-and-space-science_june-july-2000_48_7-8/page/617 |year = 2000 |journal = Planetary and Space Science |volume = 48 | issue= 7–8 | pages = 617–636 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00039-8 | bibcode=2000P&SS...48..617G}}</ref><ref name="Fortes2000">{{cite journal | journal = Icarus |volume= 146 |issue = 2 |pages = 444–452 |year= 2000 |doi = 10.1006/icar.2000.6400 |title = Exobiological implications of a possible ammonia-water ocean inside Titan |author = Fortes, A. D. |bibcode=2000Icar..146..444F}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Nicola|last=Jones|date=2001-12-11|work=New Scientist Print Edition|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn1647|title=Bacterial explanation for Europa's rosy glow|accessdate=2008-08-23}}</ref> [[File:Voyager 2 - Saturn Rings - 3085 7800 2.png|jmpl|kénca|lurus|250px|[[Cincin Saturnus|Cingcin Saturnus]]]] Opat raksasa gas ogé dikulilingan ku [[cincin planet|cingcin planét]] kalayan ukuran sarta karumitan anu rupa-rupa. Ieu cingcin téh diwangun ku lebu atanapi partikel, nanging tiasa ogé janten tempat cicingna '[[Cincin Saturnus#Anak bulan|anak bulan]]' anu mungil, anu gravitasi na nangtukeun sarta miara struktur éta cingcin. Sanaos asal-usul kawangunna tacan kanyahoan sacara pasti, cingcin planét dipercaya salaku hasil tina satelit alami anu asup kana [[batas Roche]] planét indungna, lajeng hancur akibat [[gaya gelombang pasang|gaya pasang surut]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Molnar, L. A.; Dunn, D. E. |title=On the Formation of Planetary Rings |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |year=1996 |volume=28 |pages=77–115 |bibcode=1996DPS....28.1815M | last2=Dunn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Encrenaz|last=Thérése|year=2004|title=The Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9783540002413|edition=Third|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9783540002413/page/388 388]–390|publisher=Springer|isbn=3-540-00241-3}}</ref> Taya ciri sekundér anu katingal dina planét-planét luar surya. Nanging, [[katai sub-coklat]] [[Cha 110913-773444]], anu dianggap salaku [[planet liar]], dipercaya dilingkung ku hiji [[cakram protoplanet]] anu mungil.<ref name="Luhman" /> {{Clear}} == Istilah patali == <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Komet|Komét]] * [[Mnemonik planet|Mnémonik planét]] * [[Planet ganda|Planét ganda]] * [[Planet katai|Planét katé]] * [[Planet liar|Planét liar]] * [[Planet luar surya|Planét luar surya]] (atanapi Éksoplanét) – banda langit di luar Tata Surya * [[Mesoplanet|Mésoplanét]] * [[Planet minor|Planét minor]] – banda langit anu langkung alit batan planét * [[Planetar (astronomi)|Planétar]] * [[Planetesimal|Planétésimal]] * [[Protoplanet|Protoplanét]] </div> == Lihat pula == {{portal|Astronomi}} <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> * [[Langit ekstraterestrial]] * [[Daftar benda hipotesis di Tata Surya]] * [[Pendaratan di planet lain]] * [[Penjelajahan luar angkasa]] * [[Keterhunian planet]] * [[Ilmu keplanetan]] * [[Eksoplanetologi]] * [[Planetologi teoretis]] * [[Planet di astrologi]] * [[Planet di fiksi ilmiah]] </div> == Catatan kaki == {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} == Referensi == {{Reflist|30em}} == Pranala luar == {{Commons category|Planets}} {{Wiktionary|planet}} * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union website] * [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ Photojournal NASA] * [http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/ NASA Planet Quest – Exoplanet Exploration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225110149/http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/ |date=2011-02-25 }} * [http://www.co-intelligence.org/newsletter/comparisons.html Illustration comparing the sizes of the planets with each other, the Sun, and other stars] * {{cite web |url=http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |title=IAU Press Releases since 1999 "The status of Pluto: A Clarification" |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071214043704/http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |archivedate=2007-12-14 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214043704/http://www.iau.org/STATUS_OF_PLUTO.238.0.html |date=2007-12-14 }} * [http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~hal/planet_def.html "Regarding the criteria for planethood and proposed planetary classification schemes."] article by Stern and Levinson * [http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/ ''Planetary Science Research Discoveries''] (educational site with illustrated articles) {{artikel pilihan}} {{Tata surya}} [[Kategori:Planét]] [[Kategori:Astronomi pengamatan]] [[Kategori:Ilmu keplanetan]] ibh15yompg928rwb6blq5isx21hq1ux Gunung Sangay 0 98797 712343 672247 2026-08-28T21:20:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox mountain | name = Gunung Sangay | photo = Sangay2.jpg | photo_caption = Gunung Sangay | elevation_m =5300 | elevation_ref = <ref name="peaklist">{{cite web|url=http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/ecuador.html|title=Ecuador: 15 Mountain Summits with Prominence of 1,500 meters or greater|publisher=Peaklist.org|accessdate=7 May 2015}}</ref><ref>Estimate based on [[SRTM]] and [[Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer#ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model|ASTER]] data, which agree that the often quoted elevation of 5230 metres is too low.</ref> | prominence_m = 1588 | prominence_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/ecuador.html |author=Jonathan de Ferranti and Aaron Maizlish |title=Ecuador|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> | listing = Ultra | translation = Sieunan<ref name=cultural>{{cite book|title=The Andes: A Cultural History|year=2009|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-538636-3|url=https://books.google.com/?id=FtIy_oAEbLwC&lpg=PA103&dq=Sangay%20quechua&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q=Sangay%20quechua&f=false|author=Jason Wilson|accessdate=5 February 2012}}</ref> | language = [[basa Quechua|Quechua]] | pronunciation = {{IPA-es|saŋˈɡai|}} | location = [[Ékuador]] | range = [[Pagunungan Andés]] | coordinates = {{coord|2|0|9|S|78|20|27|W|display=inline, title}} | coordinates_ref = <ref name=gvp-sangay>{{cite web|title=Sangay|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-09=|work=[[Global Volcanism Program]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History]]|accessdate=5 February 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925012104/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-09= |date=25 September 2012 }}</ref> | map = | map_caption = | topo = | type = [[Gunung seuneu corong]] | age = | volcanic_arc/belt = [[Zona Vulkanik Kalér]] | last_eruption = 1934 to present | first_ascent = 4 Agustus 1929<ref name=cultural /> | easiest_route = Rock/Snow climb<ref name=climb/> }} [[File:Sangay(SouthWest).jpg|250px|thumb|Puncak Gunung Sangay]] '''Gunung Sangay''' (dipikawanoh ogé kalawan ngaran '''Macas''', '''Sanagay''', jeung '''Sangai''')<ref>{{cite web|title=Sangay: Synonyms and subfeatures|url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-09=&volpage=synsub|work=[[Global Volcanism Program]]|publisher=[[Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History]]|accessdate=5 Februari 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820023508/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1502-09=&volpage=synsub |date=2007-08-20 }}</ref> nyaéta hiji [[gunung seuneu]] aktip kalawan tipeu [[stratovolcano]] anu aya di Propinsi [[Morona Santiago]], [[Ékuador]]. Gunung ieu aya di jajaran [[pagunungan Andés]] anu manjang naratay ti kalér nepi ka kidul buana [[Amérika Kidul]]. Gunung ieu dianggap salah sahiji anu pangbahayana di sakuliah dunya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalplanet.news/berita/477/ini-gunung-berapi-paling-aktif-di-seluruh-dunia|title=Ini Gunung Berapi Paling Aktif di Seluruh Dunia - www.globalplanet.news|website=GLOBALPLANET.news|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-11}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111072226/http://www.globalplanet.news/berita/477/ini-gunung-berapi-paling-aktif-di-seluruh-dunia |date=2020-01-11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.harianjogja.com/read/2018/05/24/500/918232/10-gunung-api-paling-aktif-di-sekujur-bumi|title=10 Gunung Api Paling Aktif di Sekujur Bumi|last=Media|first=Harian Jogja Digital|website=Harianjogja.com|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/2010/11/03/22462714/inilah.lima.gunung.api.teraktif.di.dunia|title=Inilah Lima Gunung Api Teraktif di Dunia|last=Media|first=Kompas Cyber|website=KOMPAS.com|language=id|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.globalplanet.news/berita/477/ini-gunung-berapi-paling-aktif-di-seluruh-dunia|title=Ini Gunung Berapi Paling Aktif di Seluruh Dunia - www.globalplanet.news|website=GLOBALPLANET.news|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111072226/http://www.globalplanet.news/berita/477/ini-gunung-berapi-paling-aktif-di-seluruh-dunia |date=2020-01-11 }}</ref> Dumasar laporan, érupsi anu paling diinget sajarah nyaéta pas di taun [[1628]], terus gunung tutuluyan baé bitu ti taun [[1728]] nepi ka taun [[1916]]. Gunung ieu ngamudalkeun laharna di taun [[1934]] sarta teu eureun-eureun ti saprak harita nepi ka kiwari.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/nasional/pr-01284054/durasi-erupsi-gunung-berapi-ini-lebih-dahsyat-dari-sinabung-406624|title=Durasi Erupsi Gunung Berapi Ini Lebih Dahsyat dari Sinabung - Pikiran-Rakyat.com|last=Rakyat|first=Pikiran|website=www.Pikiran Rakyat|language=id|accessdate=2020-01-14}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://analisa.link//|title=Gunung-gunung Berapi Dunia Paling Berbahaya|website=Analisadaily.com|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-14}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226121628/http://analisa.link/ |date=2021-02-26 }}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/sangay.html|title=Sangay|website=www.volcanodiscovery.com|accessdate=2020-01-15}}</ref> Gunung ieu dianggap mangrupa gunung anu panghéséna pikeun diaksés, utamana pikeun nepi ka puncakna, ku sabab batu anu ngalir sarta matérial vulkanik anu tutuluyan dikaluarkeun. Di bulan [[Pébruari]] [[2013]], dilaporkeun yén abu ti gunung naék ka tingkat kaluhuran 25.000 kaki.<ref name=":3" /> == Ékologi == [[File:Volcan-Sangay-Ecuador.jpg|200px|thumb|Pucuk Gunung Sangay anu katutupan ku salju]] Gunung Sangay nyaéta hiji ti tilu gunung seuneu anu dikurilingan ku Taman Nasional Sangay, anu geus jadi [[Loka Warisan Dunya|Loka Warisan Dunya UNESCO]] ti taun [[1983]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/260/|title=Sangay National Park|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref> Ku sabab dikurilingan ku taman nasional, di tutugan gunung ieu réa pisan rupa-rupa tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan. Saheunteuna aya tilu rébu spésiés tutuwuhan sarta aya kira-kira 107 spésiés [[mamalia]], 430 spésiés [[Manuk|avés]], 33 spésiés [[Ampibi|ampibia]], 14 spésiés [[Réptil|réptilia]], sarta 17 spésiés [[Lauk|pisces]].<ref name=":0" /> == Géologi == Gunung Sangay mekar dina tilu tahap anu béda. Anu pangkolotna, kawangun antara 500.000 jeung 250.000 taun ka tukang, kalawan tingkat kaluhuran kira-kira 4.000 méter. Gunung Sangay anu kahiji ieu, ditandaan ku [[pasir]] sékundér, anu kira-kira diaméterna 15-16 kilométer, kalawan puncak anu aya dua nepi ka tilu kilométer beulah [[Mata angin|tenggara]] ti puncak anu ayeuna. Wangun anu ngalengkung tina sésa struktur anu munggaran ieu nuduhkeun yén ieu gunung kungsi runtuh. Tuluy, ruruntuhan ieu ngawangun blok anu kandelna 400 méter, anu ngawengku bréksi lapis anu naratay, aliran pirokastik, sarta endapan lahar. Tuluy aya ogé andésit asam jeung silikon aya kira-kira 60 persén.<ref name=js>{{cite web|title=Sangay Volcano&nbsp;– John Seach|url=http://www.volcanolive.com/sangay.html|accessdate=5 February 2012|author=John Seach}}</ref><ref name=Monzier1999> {{cite journal | title=Sangay volcano, Ecuador: structural development, present activity and petrology| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-volcanology-and-geothermal-research_1999-05_90_1-2/page/49| journal=[[Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research]]|year=1999|volume=90|issue=1–2| pages=49–79|doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00021-9| author=Monzier, Michel|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|issn=0377-0273|bibcode = 1999JVGR...90...49M |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Wangun gunung Sangay anu kadua mimiti kawangun deui saenggeus runtuhna wangun anu munggaran, kira-kira 100.000 jeung 50.000 taun ka tukang. Sésa-sésa struktur anu kadua aya di [[Kidul|kiduleun]] jeung [[Wétan|wétaneun]] ruruntuhan nu kahiji. Babaraha sésa gunung aya ogé di beulah [[kulon]] jeung [[kalér]]. Struktur anu kadua diyakinan miboga puncak anu naratay di wétan ka kulon, sarta saperti struktur puncak nu kahiji, struktur puncak nu kadua runtuh anu antukna nyiptakeun urug anu panjangna 20 km sarta lébarna 5 km. Puncak struktur nu kadua aya di deukeut Gunung Sangay kiwari.<ref name="js" /><ref name=Monzier1999/> Gunung Sangay anu kiwari kawangun ku hiji kaldéra anu bentukna tapel kuda atawa déprési vulkano.<ref name=":2" /> Gunung ieu kiwari mangrupa corong anu katutupan ku glétsér kalawan tingkat kaluhuran 5.286 méter,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=352090|title=Global Volcanism Program {{!}} Sangay|website=Smithsonian Institution {{!}} Global Volcanism Program|language=en|accessdate=2020-01-14}}</ref> anu déngdékna 35 darajat. Di beulah wétan, aya Hutan Hujan Amazon, sarta di beulah kulon aya dataran abu vulkanik.<ref name=gvp-sangay/> Gunung sangay miboga tilu kawah anu aktip sarta hiji kubah lava. Gunung Sangay geus aktip dina wangunna nu kiwari ti 14.000 taun ka tukang.<ref name="js" /><ref name=Monzier1999/> == Naék gunung == Gunung Sangay bisa ditaékan sarta dipilampah. Anu munggaran naék ieu gunung nyaéta Robert T. Moore di taun [[1926]], dalapan taun saacan gunung ieu bitu ti taun [[1934]] nepi ka kiwari.<ref name=Lewis1950>{{cite journal | title=El Sangay, Fire-breathing Giant of the Andes| journal=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]| publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] | author=Lewis, G. Edward| date=<!--January--> 1950 |pages=17–24 }}</ref> Tapi biasana mangsa anu dipikaresep nyaéta ti bulan [[Nopémber]] nepi ka bulan [[Pébruari]], ku sabab di waktu éta, gunung aya dina kaayaan anu "kurang lembab". Sedengkeun ti bulan [[Juli]] nepi ka [[Agustus]] dianggap lembab pisan. Tuluy, bagian gunung beulah wétan leuwih lembab ti batan bagian gunung beulah kulon.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.summitpost.org/volcan-sangay/154963|title=Volcan Sangay : Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering : SummitPost|website=www.summitpost.org|accessdate=2020-01-11}}</ref><ref name="climb">{{Cite book|edition=1st ed|title=Ecuador : a climbing guide|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43810796|publisher=Mountaineers|date=2000|location=Seattle|isbn=0-89886-729-0|oclc=43810796|last=Brain, Yossi, 1967-}}</ref> Di jaman baheula, cara anu ilahar pikeun naék [[gunung]] nyaéta ngaliwatan désa Alao. Sedengkeun kiwari, aksés ti désa Guagalla anu paling merenah ku sabab waktu tempuhna anu leuwih sakeudeung.<ref name=":1" /> == Galéri == <gallery> Vulkan sangay.jpg|Dokuméntasi gunung Sangay nalika bitu. Kira-kira taun 1865 Sangay volcano search party 1962.png|Patugas anu néangan jelema anu leungit nalika naék gunung Sangay File:Sangay peak.jpg|Puncak gunung Sangay, taun 1977 </gallery> == Tingali ogé == [[Gunung]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} 5tmoi1mm30s08fsgz0yoz8x6k0g4eqy Kiara 0 98951 712431 675101 2026-08-28T23:21:10Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{taxobox | color = lightgreen |name =Kiara |image =Starr 010420-0093 Ficus benghalensis.jpg |image_caption = Nguyupuk kawas payung (ki ara payung) |regnum =[[Plantae]] |divisio =''[[Tracheophyta]]'' |classis = |ordo =Rosales |familia =''[[Moraceae]]'' |genus =''[[Ficus]]'' |species =''Ficus benghalensis'' |binomial =''Ficus benghalensis'' |binomial_authority = |synonyms =''Ficus procera'' |}} '''Kiara'''; ''Ficus procera'' nyaéta hiji tangkal nu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[Moraceae]]''.<ref name=“Rigg ”>{{Cite book | title =A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java| first =Jonathan | last =Rigg| publisher =Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen| location =Universitas Harvard| year =1862| pages =221|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=1PIUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213&dq=KEHKEL&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj7qpOVitnTAhWBO48KHXrzCD8Q6AEIQDAD#v=snippet&q=ki%20&f=false|accessdate=15 pebruari 2020}}</ref> Ki ara sok disebut langsung “ki ara” mangrupa tangkal nu mimiti hirupna mibanda sipat ''[[Épifit]]''.<ref name=tempo>{{cite journal |last=Laman |first=Timothy G. |date=1995 |title=The Ecology of Strangler Fig Seedling Establishment |url=https://archive.org/details/selbyana_1995_16_2/page/223 |journal=Selbyana |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=223–9 |jstor=41759910}}</ref> Tayalian binih siki buah ki ara nu merentis sirungan sok bijil dina, rengat nu aya dina tangkal kai, kulit kali nu beueus, atawa liang nuaya dina tangkal, sakapeung kapanggih bijil sirung dina sela-sela [[tembok]].<ref name=”bijil”>{{cite web |url=http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=5 |title=National Tree |website=Know India |publisher=Government of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213035748/http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=5 |archive-date=13 February 2016 |accessdate=16 January 2012 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213035748/http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=5 |date=13 February 2016 }}</ref> Di alam liar tangkal kiara kaasup tangkal kai gedé sarta mibanda umur kolot bisa ratusan [[taun]], tangkal ki ara baheula jadi hiji tangkal nu mibanda ajén luhur utamana dipercaya sok dipikaresep tur diancikan ku karuhun jeung mahluk goib.<ref name=“Ayatrohaedi”>{{Cite book | title = 65 = 67 Catatan Acak-acakan dan Catatan Apa Adanya| first =Ayatrohaedi| last =-| publisher = Dunia Pustaka Jaya| location =Jakarta| year =2011| pages =467|ISBN=9789794195703|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=PuWkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA467&dq=pohon+kiara&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8q4eA89DnAhX-zjgGHW2GAUsQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=pohon%20kiara&f=false|accessdate=14 Februari 2020}}</ref> ==Ciri Mandiri== [[Daun]] ki ara kelirna héjo, rubak tur heuras, wujudna semu lonyod.<ref name="Pucuk"/> Pucuk ki ara kelirna semu beureum ruhruy, mimiti bijil disimbutan kénéh ku salumpit lamun daun ngora geus bijil éta salumpit marurag kusorangan.<ref name="Pucuk">{{cite web|url=http://www.thelovelyplants.com/the-banyan-tree/|title=The Banyan Tree|date=14 September 2010|website=The Lovely Plants}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231222832/http://www.thelovelyplants.com/the-banyan-tree/ |date=31 December 2010 }}</ref> ==Nyebar jeung ngarekahan== Sarua jeung spésiés ara nu séjén, ki ara ngahasilkeun buahna dina wujud nu mibanda ''struktur'' anu dingaranan "''syconium''".<ref name="nyebar"/> Ieu ''syconium'' spésiés ''Ficus'' mangrupa panyumputan sarta kadaharan pikeun rupa2 [[gegeremet]] utamana [[éngang]] nu sakaligus ngabantu dina prosés pembuahan.<ref name="nyebar"/> Manuk [[cangkurileung]] jeung manuk séjén nu sok ngakan buah ki ara sacara teu langsung geus ngabantu dina nyebarkeun birih ieu tangkal.<ref name="nyebar">{{cite book |last=Serventy |first=Vincent |date=1984 |title=Australian Native Plants |location=Frenchs Forest, NSW |publisher=Reed |page= |isbn=978-0-7301-0020-1}}</ref> Kotoran [[manuk]] nu mibanda siki ki ara bisa ragrag di mana waé, dina dahan tangkal, sela-sela batu, liang nu aya dina gawir jeung sajabana. Dimana tempatna nu beueus tur iuh siki ki ara engké baris sirungan, lalaunan bijil daun sarta [[akar]] nu baris kaluar mapay [[tangkal]] di mana manéhna jadi, tuluy ka handap nepika manggihan [[taneuh]] nanceb ka jero tur ieu akar ngagedéan.<ref name="taneuh">{{cite book |author1=Zhou Zhekun |last2=Gilbert |first2=Michael G. |date=2003 |chapter=Moraceae |editor1=Zhengyi Wu |editor-last2=Raven |editor-first2=Peter H. |editor3=Deyuan Hong |title=Flora of China |chapter-url=http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/china/mss/volume05/Moraceae.pdf |volume=Volume 5 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-1-930723-27-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901100148/http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/china/mss/volume05/Moraceae.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2006}}</ref> Lila kalilaan akarna nambah loba tur ngagedéan nepika meulit tangkan nu tadina diiluan hirup.<ref name="akar">{{cite magazine |last= |first= |date=1992 |title=Light in the Rainforest |url=http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/register/p00820ar.pdf |magazine=Tropical Topics |volume=1 |issue=5 |publisher=Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage |page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529233702/http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/register/p00820ar.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2009}}</ref><ref name=“Paul”>{{Cite book | title =Planet Kehidupan| first =Paul| last =Bernet, Barbara Taylor| publisher =Erlangga for Kids| location =Jakarta| year =2016| pages =104|ISBN=9789790155244|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=WtkFPmxso-8C&pg=PA104&dq=pohon+ki+ara&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAmvPu9NDnAhVZxTgGHcG9DVcQ6AEIPDAC#v=onepage&q=pohon%20ki%20ara&f=false|accessdate=14 Februari 2020}}</ref> ==Guna Jeung Mangpaat== Tangkal kiara sanajan jangkung gedé, kaina henteu loba dimangpaatkeun pikeun bahan bangunan ku lantaran kurang mibanda kakuatan.<ref name=“Sidik”/> Kajaba buahna sok ngahaja di arah pikeun maraban sato ingon-ingon jeung kaperluan séjén.<ref name=“Sidik”>{{Cite book | title =Antropologi Perdesaan dan Pembangunan Berkelanjutan| first =Sidik| last =Permana| publisher =Deepublish| location =Jakarta| year =2016| pages =75|ISBN=9786024755843|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=wACDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76&dq=pohon+ki+ara&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAmvPu9NDnAhVZxTgGHcG9DVcQ6AEIKzAA#v=onepage&q=pohon%20ki%20ara&f=false|accessdate=14 Februari 2020}}</ref> Kiwari ki ara loba dimangpaatkeun pikeun papaés buruan, sagigireun henteu réwél tangal kiara bisa diréka-réka sarta bisa dijieun bonsai.<ref name=“Suharso”>{{Cite book | title =Taman Rumah| first =Suharso| last =A.S.P| publisher =Kanisius| location =Jakarta| year =2016| pages =21|ISBN=9789796725533|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=xOeEnbN1UBgC&pg=PA20&dq=pohon+ki+ara&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAmvPu9NDnAhVZxTgGHcG9DVcQ6AEIVDAF#v=onepage&q=pohon%20ki%20ara&f=false|accessdate=14 Februari 2020}}</ref> <gallery caption="Ki ara"> File:2012-02 botanic garden Cienfuegos anagoria 03.JPG|Tangkal ki ara nu geus janggotan File:Asian Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea)- Female looking for ripe Banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) figs in Secunderabad W IMG 6636.jpg|Buah jeung daun ki ara File:Banyan trees canopy over highway P1010713.jpg|Ngiuhan jalan liliwatan File:Banyans Cut IMG 4174.jpg|Kiara beunang nuar File:Ficus benghalensis fruits P1140726 05.jpg| Buah ki ara File:Kakkayam 119.jpg|Bonsai tangkal ki ara File:Raw nature 001.JPG|Binih ki ara namplok dina témbokan File:Great banyan tree kol.jpg|Remet ku akar File:Starr-090709-2475-Ficus benghalensis-variegated leaves-Launiupoko-Maui (24601581469).jpg|ki ara hasil tina kawin silang File:FicusBeng.jpg|sumedeng meuhpeuy buahna </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== *[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/CropFactSheets/ficus.html Bar or Bargad ''Ficus benghalensis'' L.], ''Hortikultura'', nu aya di Purdue University *[http://www.himalaya-foto.ru/himalayas-banyan-nepal.htm ''Ficus benghalensis'' in Himalayas, Nepal.] Himalaya (Himalaya): poto, gambar {{Wikispecies}} {{commons category}} {{Pondok}} [[Kategori:Moraceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] g4xg4h88cyyfy57d05124cee5lqyg8z Marwan bin al-Hakam 0 100031 712427 602863 2026-08-28T23:17:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712427 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox royalty | name = Marwan bin al-Hakam<br /> مروان بن الحكم | title = | full name = Abū ʿAbdul-Malik Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam ibn Abiʾl-ʿAsh ibn Umayyah ibn ʿAbd Syams{{sfn|Kennedy|2004|p=397}} | succession = [[Daftar khalifah|Khalifah]] | reign = Juni 684 – 12 April 685 | predecessor = [[Muawiyah bin Yazid]] | successor = [[Abdul Malik bin Marwan]] | house = [[Bani Umayyah|Umayyah]] (trah Marwani) | era name = [[Kekhalifahan Umayyah]] | era dates = 661–750 | father = [[Hakam bin Abi al Ash|Hakam bin Abi'l-Ash]] | mother = Aminah binti 'Alqamah al-Kinaniyyah | spouse = | issue = Abdul Malik, [[Abdul Aziz bin Marwan|Abdul Aziz]], [[Muhammad bin Marwan|Muhammad]] | birth_date = 623 atanapi 626 | birth_place = | death_date = 685 (sekitar 63 tahun) | death_place = [[Damaskus]] atanapi ash-Shinnabra | religion = [[Islam]] |}} '''Marwan bin al-Hakam bin Abi'l Ash''' ({{lang-ar|مروان بن الحكم بن أبي العاص}}) atanapi '''Marwan I''' (gumelar 623–626 — pupus April / Méi 685) mangrupikeun kaopat [[khalifah]] [[Khalifah Umayyah|Umayyah]], anu kakawasaan kurang tina sataun dina 684-685. Anjeunna minangka khalifah anu munggaran dina breed Marwani (Marwan sareng turunanana), anu janten pamaréntahan Umayyah ngagantikeun khalifah Sufyani (turunan [[Abu Sofyan]]) kakuatanana parantos runtuh salaku hasilna [[Perang Saudara Islam II]]. == Tumbu luar == * {{cite book |last1=Ahmed |first1=Asad Q. |title=The Religious Elite of the Early Islamic Ḥijāz: Five Prosopographical Case Studies |date=2010 |publisher=University of Oxford Linacre College Unit for Prosopographical Research |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-900934-13-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1dwdBDDjcUC |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Biesterfeldt |first1=Hinrich |last2=Günther |first2=Sebastian |title=The Works of Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī (Volume 3): An English Translation |date=2018 |publisher=E. J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-35621-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHxTDwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Cobb |first1=Paul M. |authorlink=Paul M. Cobb |title=White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750-880 |date=2001 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, New York |isbn=0-7914-4879-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2C6KIBw4F9YC |ref=harv}} * {{EI2 |article=Umayya b. ʿAbd Shams |last=Della Vida |first=Giorgio Levi |authorlink=Giorgio Levi Della Vida |last2=Bosworth |first2=C. E. |volume=10 |pages=837–839}} * {{EI2 |article=ʿUthmān b. ʿAffān |last=Della Vida |first=Giorgio Levi |last2=Khoury |first2=Raif Georges |volume=10 |pages=946–949}} * {{cite book |last1=Donner |first1=Fred M. |authorlink=Fred M. Donner |title=The Early Islamic Conquests |date=1981 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-05327-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l5__AwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Donner |first1=Fred M. |editor1-last=Savant |editor1-first=Sarah Bowen |editor2-last=de Felipe |editor2-first=Helena |title=Genealogy and Knowledge in Muslim Societies: Understanding the Past |date=2014 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-0-7486-4497-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rySrBgAAQBAJ |chapter=Was Marwan ibn al-Hakam the First 'Real' Muslim |pages=105–114 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=Duri |first1=Abd al-Aziz |translator=Razia Ali |title=Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate to the Umayyads and ʿAbbāsids |date=2011 |publisher=I. B. Tauris and Centre for Arab Unity Studies |location=London and Beirut |isbn=978-1-84885-060-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImIBAwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Hinds |first1=Martin |authorlink=Martin Hinds |title=The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |date=1972 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=450–469 |jstor=162492 |ref=harv}} * {{The History of al-Tabari|volume=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zubkdYvBJpIC}} * {{The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates |edition=2}} * {{cite book |last1=Madelung |first1=Wilferd |authorlink=Wilferd Madelung |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-56181-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Mayer |first1=L. A. |authorlink=Leo Aryeh Mayer |title=As-Sinnabra |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_israel-exploration-journal_1952_2_3/page/183 |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |date=1952 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=183–187 |ref=harv |jstor=27924483}} * {{cite book |last1=Rihan |first1=Mohammad |title=The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period |date=2014 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London and New York |isbn=978-1-78076-564-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1iGpAwAAQBAJ |ref=harv}} {{S-start}} {{s-hou|[[Banu Umayyah]]||623 atau 626||12 April 685}} {{s-bef|before=[[Muawiyah bin Yazid|Mu'awiyah bin Yazid]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daftar khalifah|Khalifah]]|years=Juni 684 – 12 April 685}} {{s-aft|after=[[Abdul Malik bin Marwan|'Abdul Malik bin Marwan]]}} {{s-end}} {{Sohabat Nabi Muhammad}} {{biografi-stub}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Marwan bin al-Hakam}} fl9ujdh3stzubk34clbtpdj14bciinq Ungkut-ungkut 0 101919 712336 673675 2026-08-28T21:03:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Speciesbox | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Psilopogon haemacephalus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2016 |page=e.T22681681A92916283}}</ref> | image = Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala) by Shantanu Kuveskar.jpg | image_caption = Mangaon, Raigad, Maharashtra [[File:Megalaima haemacephala - Coppersmith Barbet XC122982.ogg|centre|thumb|Call]] | genus = Psilopogon | species = haemacephalus | authority = ([[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller|Statius Müller]], 1776) | synonyms = ''Xantholaoema haemacephala'', ''Megalaima haemacephala'' }} '''Ungkut-ungkut''' (''Psilopogon haemacephalus''), '''crimson-breasted barbet''' atawa '''coppersmith''' (ing), nyaéta hiji manuk anu asalna tina genus ''Psilopogon''. Bulu palebah luhureun pamatuk jeung palebah beuheungna beureum, pareng disada sorana kawas tukang patri tikajauhan keur nakolan kaléng. Éta manuk cicingna di [[India]] sareng bagéan [[Asia Tenggara]]. Nyieun [[sayang]] kujalan molongoan tangkal, gedé liangna saawakeun manéhna. Kahakananna sabangsaning [[gegeremet]], [[sireum]], [[hileud]] , utamana [[rinyuh]] anu aya dina tatangkalan. ==Ciri mandiri== [[File:Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima Haemacephala)- Juvenile at nest in Kolkata I IMG 8293.jpg|thumb|Juvenile coppersmith barbet di [[Kolkata]]]] Aya bulu beureum dina tarangna palebah luhureun pamatuk katempo kawas maké ''(barét)'' , polét beureum ogé aya dina palebah beuheung deukeut kana hariguna.<ref name=StatiusMüller/> Bulu luhureun panon sarta beuheung hareup kelirna konéng, sedengkeun palebah pundukna hideung.<ref name=hbk/> Cekerna beureum, kukuna sekeut kelirna coklat kolot. Pangawakan {{convert|15|-|17|cm|abbr=on}} panjang jeung beurat {{convert|30|-|52.6|g|abbr=on}}.<ref name=HBW2014>{{cite book |last1=Short, L.L. |last2=Horne, J. F. M. |last3=Kirwan, G. M. |date=2014 |title=Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World |volume=Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers |editor=del Hoyo, J. |editor2=Elliott, A. |editor3=Sargatal, J. |editor4=Christie, D. A. |editor5=de Juana, E. |publisher=Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International |location=Barcelona, Spain and Cambridge, UK |chapter=Coppersmith Barbet (''Psilopogon haemacephalus'') |chapter-url=https://www.hbw.com/species/coppersmith-barbet-psilopogon-haemacephalus}}</ref> == Taxonomy == ''Bucco haemacephalus'' tayalian ngaran ilmiah anu diusulkeun ku [[Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller]] 1776 pikeun Ungkut-ungkut ti [[Pilipina]].<ref name=StatiusMüller>{{cite book |author=Statius Müller, P. L. |year=1776 |title=Des Ritters Carl von Linné Königlich Schwedischen Leibarztes &c. &c. vollständigen Natursystems. Supplements- und Register-Band über alle sechs Theile oder Classen des Thierreichs |location=Nürnberg |publisher=Gabriel Nicolaus Raspe |chapter=Der Blutskopf. Bucco haemacephalus |chapter-url=https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN574936807?tify={%22pages%22:[108],%22view%22:%22toc%22} |page=88}}</ref> ''Bucco indicus'' Geus diusulkeun ku [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] dina taun 1790 pikeun anu polet beureum ti India kalayan sirah hideung sareng tarang beureum.<ref>{{cite book |author=Latham, J. |year=1790 |title=Index ornithologicus, sive, Systema ornithologiae : complectens avium divisionem in classes, ordines, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates : adjectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus |location=Londini |publisher=Sumptibus authoris |chapter=Genus XIX. Bucco |pages=201–207 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/indexornithologi11790lath/page/205}}</ref> ''Bucco roseus'' geus diusulkeun ku [[Charles Dumont de Sainte-Croix]] dina taun 1816.<ref>{{cite book |year=1816 |title=Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles, dans lequel on traite méthodiquement des différens êtres de la nature, considérés soit en eux-mêmes, d'aprés l'état actuel de nos connoissances, soit relativement à l'utilité qu'en peuvent retirer la médecine, l'agriculture, le commerce et les artes. Suivi d'une biographie des plus célébres naturalistes |volume=Tome IV |author=Dumont de Sainte-Croix, C. |location=Strasbourg, Paris |publisher=F. G. Levrault |chapter=Barbu rose-gorge |page=52 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionnairedess04cuvi/page/n59}}</ref> Ungkut-ungkut Asia disimpen dina [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Megalaima'' diusulkeun ku [[George Robert Gray]] dina taun 1842 anu nyarankeun pikeun nganggo nami ieu tibatan ''Bucco''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gray |first=G. R. |year=1842 |title=A List of the Genera of Birds |chapter=Appendix to a List of the Genera of Birds |edition=Second |location=London |publisher=R. and J. E. Taylor |page=12 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/listofgeneraofbi00gra/page/12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Peters |author-first=J. L. |author-link=James L. Peters |year=1948 |title=Check-list of Birds of the World |volume=Volume 6 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |chapter=Genus ''Megalaima'' G. R. Gray |pages=31–40 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/checklistofbirds61948pete/page/39}}</ref> ''Xantholaema intermedia'' diusulkeun ku [[George Ernest Shelley]] dina taun 1891 éta ti [[Negros Island|Negros]] sareng [[Cebu island]]s dina kumpulan tina [[British Museum]].<ref>{{cite book |year=1891 |title=Catalogue of the Picariae in the collection of the British Museum |volume=19 |author=Shelley, G. E. |location=London |publisher=The Trustees |chapter=Xantholaema intermedia |pages=97–98 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofbirds19brit/page/97}}</ref> ''Megalaima haemacephala delica'' diusulkeun ku [[Carl Parrot]] dina taun 1910 éta opat barbit ti ''[[Deli Serdang Regency|Deli]]'' jeung Sumatra dina ''[[Bavarian State Collection of Zoology]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parrot |first=C. |year=1910 |title=Beiträge zur Ornithologie Sumatras und der Insel Banka |journal=Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-Physikalischen Klasse der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=149–285 |url=https://archive.org/details/abhandlungender241910knig/page/168}}</ref> ''Megalaima haemacephala mindanensis'' diusulkeun ku [[Austin L. Rand]] dina taun 1948 ieu kapanggih ti ''[[Mount Apo]]'' di [[Mindanao]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rand |first=A. L. |year=1948 |title=Five new birds from the Philippines |journal=Fieldiana Zoology |volume=31 |issue=25 |pages=201–205 |url=https://archive.org/details/fivenewbirdsfrom3125rand/page/202}}</ref> ''Megalaema haemacephala celestinoi'' diusulkeun ku [[Ernest Thomas Gilliard]] dina taun 1949 ieu kapanggih ti [[Samar]] kapuloan anu aya di [[Pilipina]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gilliard |first=E. T. |year=1949 |title=Five new birds from the Philippines |journal=The Auk |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=275–280 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v066n03/p0275-p0280.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701145030/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v066n03/p0275-p0280.pdf |date=2022-07-01 }}</ref> ''Megalaema haemacephala cebuensis'' jeung ''Megalaema haemacephala homochroa'' diusulkeun ku [[Victoria Dziadosz]] ogé Kenneth Parkes dina taun 1984 ieu kapanggih masing-masing ti [[Toledo, Cebu]] jeung pulo [[Tablas]], .<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dziadosz |first1=V. M. |last2=Parkes |first2=K. C. |year=1984 |title=Two new Philippine subspecies of the Crimson-breasted Barbet (Aves: Capitonidae) |journal=Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=788–791 |url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofbi971984biol/page/788}}</ref> ''[[Molecular phylogenetic]]'' hasil panalungtikan ngébréhkeun ''Megalaima'' [[spésiés]] tina ''[[clade]]'', ogé kaasup di jerona ''[[fire-tufted barbet]]'', ngan wungkul spésiés anu aya dina genus ''[[Psilopogon]]'' mangsa harita. Ungkut-ungkut ti [[Asia]] digolongkeunkana ''Psilopogon'', baheulana mah. ''The coppersmith barbet'' baheulana ''Asian barbets'' bagian tina [[genetic divergence]] ogé [[spésiés]].<ref name=Moyle2004>{{cite journal |last=Moyle |first=R. G. |year=2004 |title=Phylogenetics of barbets (Aves: Piciformes) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data |url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2004-01_30_1/page/187 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=187–200 |doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00179-9 |pmid=15022769}}</ref> Aya salapan [[subspésiés]] manuk ungkut-ungkut nu geus dicatet kalawan digolongkeun dina taun [[2014]]:<ref name=HBW2014/> * the [[nominate subspecies]] ''P. h. haemacephalus'' hirup di [[Luzon]] jeung [[Mindoro]] * ''P. h. indicus'' aya di béh kidul wewengkon [[Pakistan]] nepi ka Sri Lanka, [[China]] , [[Viétnam]] jeung [[Singapura]] * ''P. h. roseus'' kapanggih di Jawa jeung Bali * ''P. h. intermedia'' kapanggih di [[Panay]], [[Guimaras]] jeung ''Negros'' * ''P. h. delicus'' kapanggih di [[Sumatra]] * ''P. h. mindanensis'' kapanggih di [[Mindanao]] * ''P. h. celestinoi'' kapanggih di [[Samar]] , [[Catanduanes]], [[Biliran]], and [[Leyte]] * ''P. h. cebuensis'' kapanggih di [[Cebu]] * ''P. h. homochroa'' kapanggih di kapuloan Tablas == Sebaran sareng habitat == [[File:DSCN3328 นกตีทอง Coppersmith barbet โดย ไตรสรณ์ ไตรบุญ.jpg|thumb|Di Sirikit Park]] Habitan hirupna, éta nyicingan kebon, tegalan sareng leuweung leuweung anu henteu pati kekep. Habitat dina kai paéh anu cocog pikeun nyieun sayang paragi meuting. <ref name=nis/> {{convert|4000|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dewar, D. |title=Birds of the Indian Hills |publisher=John Lane |year=1915 |page=243 |url=https://archive.org/stream/birdsofindianhil00dewa#page/243/mode/1up/}}</ref> di India kalér, kapanggih hirup di landeuh [[Himalayas]] nepika palebah {{convert|3000|ft|order=flip|abbr=on}}. <ref name=fbi>{{cite book |year=1895 |title=The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. Volume 3 |pages=98–99 |author=Blanford, W. T. |publisher=Taylor and Francis |chapter=''Xantholaema haematocephala'' The Crimson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/faunaofbritishin025218mbp/page/n111}}</ref><ref name=pcr>{{cite book|year=2005|title=Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide |publisher=Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions |volume=2 |pages=279–280 |author1=Rasmussen, P. C. |author2=Anderton, J. C.}}</ref> [[File:Coppersmith barbet - Gujarat Refinery Township, Vadodara 2020-06-18.jpg|thumb|Ungkut-ungkut ti Gujarat]] <ref name=hbk>{{cite book |author1=Ali, S. |author2=Ripley, S. D. |title=Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan : together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka |edition=Second |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi, Oxford |volume=4 |year=2001 |pages=163–165}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Aitken, E. H.|author-link=Edward Hamilton Aitken |year=1893 |title=The habits of the Coppersmith |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=326–327 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30402998}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Bharos, A. M. K. |year=1997|title= Unusual feeding pattern and diet of Crimsonbreasted Barbet (''Megalaima haemacephala'')|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=94 |issue=2 |page=411 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48601773}}</ref>.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Muthukrishnan, T. S. |author2=Sundarbabu, R. |year=1982|title=Feeding habits of Coppersmith ''Megalaima haemacephala'' (Müller). |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=197–198 |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48744593}}</ref> ===Begér=== Mangsa keur begér manuk ieu disarada, katempo tina tikorona melendung tuluy ngempesan deui, ''bobbing'' tina sirahna, buntutna nyentrik kaluhur, Eunteup rada anggang tina liang sayangna..<ref name=nis>{{cite journal |journal=Nature in Singapore |year=2009 |volume=1 |pages=47–54 |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/nis/bulletin2009/2009nis47-54.pdf |title=Barbets of Singapore. Part 2: ''Megalaima haemacephala indica'' Latham (Coppersmith Barbet), Singapore's only native, urban barbet |author1=Lok, A.F.S.L. |author2=Lee, T.K. }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606063956/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/nis/bulletin2009/2009nis47-54.pdf |date=2011-06-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sharma, A. K. |year=1993 |title=Territorial fight among crimson-breasted barbet |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume=33 |issue=5 |page=95 |url=https://archive.org/stream/NLBW33_5#page/n16/mode/1up}}</ref> Usum begér utamana bulan Pébruari dugi ka April di India sareng Désémber dugi ka Séptémber di Sri Lanka. Jalu sareng bikangna pilih ganti ngalaliang tangkal pikeun sayang, ilaharna sayang diperenahkeun handapeun dahan anu buni.⁰ Éta ogé anggang di jero liang sayang.<ref name=pcr/>Bikangna ngaluarkeun tilu atanapi opat endog. Disileungleuman ku duaan. Mangsa [[nyileungleum]] henteu pati dipikaterang, tapi ditaksir kirang langkung dua minggu. Seringnya anu hirup dua anak .<ref name=hbk/> ===Faktor maotna=== Manuk sawawa kadang dicandak ku spésiés predator. Di daérah perkotaan, aya catetan tabrakan sareng struktur kaasup tembok bodas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Vijayaraghavan, B|year=1957|title=Accidental death of a Crimsonbreasted Barbet [''Megalaima haemacephala'' (Muller)] |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=54|issue=2|page=462|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48183146}}</ref>Karacunan pestisida ogé parantos dicatet.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Dhindsa, M. S. |author2=Sandhu, J. S. |author3=Sohi, A. S. |name-list-style=amp |year=1986 |title=Pesticidal mortality of Crimson-breasted Barbet (''Megalaima haemacephala'') with a note on its body size |journal=Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=93–96}}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2}} ==Tutumbu ka luar== {{Commons category|Psilopogon haemacephalus}} * [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/coppersmith-barbet-megalaima-haemacephala Coppersmith Barbet videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110610094211/http://www.skullsite.com/completelist/speciesinfo.cfm?spec=300 Skull] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOiE_kbk8cI Ungkut-ungkut keur disada] {{Taxonbar|from=Q27074872}} {{DEFAULTSORT:barbet, coppersmith}} [[Kategori: aves]] [[Kategori : manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori : Sasatoan sunda]] [[Kategori :Manuk Asia Tenggara ]] i9fd5fpsrr9wvgzaw6hbp780m1pyxia Wereng coklat 0 101944 712375 706859 2026-08-28T22:10:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = ''Nilaparvata lugens'' | image = Nilaparvata lugens - Brown planthopper - UGA5190055.jpg | image_width = 220px | image_caption = | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | subphylum = [[Hexapoda]] | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Hemiptera]] | familia = [[Delphacidae]] | genus = [[Nilaparvata]] | species = '''''N. lugens''''' | binomial = ''Nilaparvata lugens'' | binomial_authority = (Stål, ) | synonyms = }} '''Wereng coklat''' (''Nilaparvata lugens'') nyaéta gegeremet anu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[Delphacidae]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Khush |first=GS |title=Green revolution: preparing for the 21st century |journal=Genome |year=1999 |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=646–55 |pmid=10464789 |doi=10.1139/g99-044 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Wereng coklat kagolongkeun kana [[hama]] utamana kana tangkal [[paré]], ieu hama anu paling bahaya alatan nimbulkeun karugian anu lain saeutik. Karugian anu dibalukarkeun ku hama wereng coklat bisa nepika 60% tina beubeunangan anu sakuduna, Wereng ieu nyebar di wewengkon [[Australia]] , [[Bangladés]] , [[Bhutan]] , [[Burma]] ([[Myanmar]] ), [[Kamboja]], [[Cina]], [[Fiji]], [[India]], [[Indonésia]], [[Jepang]], [[Koréa Kalér]] sareng [[Kidul]], [[Laos]], [[Malaysia]], [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], [[Papua Nugini]], [[Pilipina]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Taiwan]], [[Thailand]], sareng [[Viétnam]]. Tutuwuhan alternatif aranjeunna sagigireun paré tayalian jukut '' banto'' ''(Leersia hexandra).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oudhia |first=P. |year=2000 |title=Traditional medicinal knowledge about green leafhopper, Nephotettix spp., in Chhattisgarh (India) |url=https://archive.org/details/international-rice-research-notes_2000_25_3/page/40 |journal=International Rice Research Notes |volume=25 |issue=3 |page=40}}</ref> '' ==Ciri mandiri == Wereng coklat nyaéta ''dimorphic''tayalian mibanda wujud anu katempo beda bikang jeung jaluna, kalayan wujudna 'macropterous' ogé 'brachypterous' jangjangna purek ''truncate''. Wujudna ''macropterous'' ieu bisa hiber pindah ka tempat séjén (''migrasi''), tangtuna baris nimbulkeun karuksakan anyar ditempat anu dieuntreupanna. Dimana geus netep dina tangkal paré, wereng coklat mimiti baranahan (endogan). Ilaharna anu bikangna salaku ''brachirger'' sareng jaluna salaku ''makroprop''. Wereng coklat biasana kawin isuk-isuk, sapoé ti harita bikangna mimiti ngendog. Sakali endogan ''brachypterous'' aya 300 dugi ka 350 siki, sedengkeun bikang ''macropterous'' endog langkung seueur. Endogna ngawangun garis/gurat lempeng ilaharna manjang dina tengah-tengah daun. Heuleut sa minggu nepika salapan poé, endogna mimiti megar. Nimfa anu nembé megar hatched katempo bararodas, dina waktu sajam janten robah coklat wungu. Maranéhna ngahakan geutah tutuwuhan, Aranjeunna nembus lima u dakan/instars sateuacan janten déwasa.<ref name=“talas”>{{Cite book | title =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=HE-WWgPsBXUC&pg=PA100&dq=talas&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj188O_lb7vAhUn63MBHdA8BoI4ChDoATAEegQIBRAC#v=onepage&q=talas&f=false| first =Purnomo| last =Dan Hanny P| publisher =Niaga Swadaya| location =Jakarta| year =2007| pages =111|ISBN=9789790020283|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=tokOAQAAMAAJ&q=papangge&dq=papangge&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiaru2So_ruAhVFfSsKHTRnAAcQ6AEwBHoECAUQAg|accessdate=(disungsi – 21 Maret 2021)}}</ref> ==Karuksakan== Wereng coklat nginféksi pepelakan paré di sadaya tahapan, ti kawit tandur dugi ka bijil paré. Kusabab tuangeun boh lava kitu deui déwasa dina tutuwuhan palawija, ngabalukarkeun pepelakan konéng sareng gancang garing. Salila mimiti kaserang, tambalan konéng buleud nembongan, anu teu lami janten coklat terus tutuwuhan jadi garing. Kaayaan ieu disebut '''hopper burn'''. Suhu mangrupikeun faktor kritis anu mangaruhan kana kagiatan kahirupan ieu gegermet. Lobana endog anu megar tur hirup dina suhu 25 ° C. Endogna sénsitip pisan kana ''desiccation'' sareng henteu lami deui ngaleutikan nalika pepelakan anu dieunteupanna mimiti layu. <ref>Noda H, K Ishikawa, H Hibino, T Ornura 1991. [http://vir.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/72/10/2425.pdf A reovirus in the brown planthopper, ''Nilaparvata lugens'']{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. J Gen Virol 72: 2425-2430.</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/name_s/b_2799.htm Gambar di laman csiro] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416055503/http://www.ento.csiro.au/aicn/name_s/b_2799.htm |date=2009-04-16 }} [[Kategori:Hemiptera]] [[Kategori:Hama]] [[Kategori:Nilaparvata]] [[Kategori:Artropoda]] [[Kategori: Gegeremet]] 0e13e023ia56xjmcpg23vuxt3urgsr1 Déndrit 0 101956 712356 711529 2026-08-28T21:40:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Peta Neuron|Déndrit}} '''Déndrit''' (tina [[basa Yunani]] δένδρον ''déndron'', "[[tangkal]]"), atawa '''déndron''', mangrupa salah sahiji cabang tina Neuron panyambungan protoplasmik tina sél saraf anu nyebarkeun stimulasi [[éléktrokimia]] anu ditampa ti sél saraf anu séjenna ka jero awak sél, atawa disebut ogé salaku soma, ti neuron (tempat pikeun ngaproyéksikeun déndrit). Stimulasi listrik dikirimkeun kana déndrit ku hulu neuron (biasana ngaliwatan akson) ngaliwatan sinapsis anu perenahna di sababaraha titik sapanjang tangkal dendritik. Déndrit nyekelan peran anu kritis dina ngahijikeun input sinaptik jeung dina nangtukeun nepi ka mana poténsi tindakan nu dihasilkeun ku neuron. '''Arborisasi''' dendritik atawa '''pancabangan déndritik''', mangrupa prosés biologis multi-léngkah ku cara neuron ngawangun tangkal jeung cabang dendritik anyar pikeun nyiptakeun sinapsis anu anyar. Morfologi déndrit jiga kapadetan cabang jeung pola pangelompokan aya hubunganana pisan jeung fungsi neuron. Malformasi déndrit ogé patali jeung gangguan fungsi sistem saraf. Sababaraha gangguan anu aya hubunganana jeung malformasi déndrit nyaéta autismeu, déprési, skizofrénia, sindrom Down jeung kahariwangan. Sababaraha kelas déndrit ngandung proyéksi leutik anu disebut cucuk dendritik anu ningkatkeun sipat réséptif déndrit pikeun ngisolasikeun spésifisitas sinyal. Ngaronjatna kagiatan saraf jeung pangwangunan potensiasi jangka panjang dina tulang tonggong déndritik ngarobah ukuran, bentuk, jeung konduksi. Kamampuan pikeun tumuwuhna déndritik dianggap mibanda peran dina narima pangatikan jeung ngabentuk mémori. Aya saloba 15.000 cucuk per sél, anu masing-masing fungsina salaku prosés postinaptik pikeun akson presinaptik individual.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=C.|last2=Zador, A.|date=February 1993|title=The Function of Dendritic Spines: Devices Subserving Biochemical Rather Than Electrical Compartmentalization|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=2|pages=413–422|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-02-00413.1993|pmc=6576662|pmid=8426220}}</ref> Pacabangan dendritik bisa leuwih lega deui, contona dina sababaraha kasus, bisa mahi saloba 100.000 input ka hiji neuron.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}</ref> Déndrit mangrupa salah sahiji tina dua jenis tonjolan protoplasmik anu kaluar tina awak sél neuron, anu séjénna mangrupa akson. Akson bisa dibédakeun tina déndrit ku sababaraha fitur kaasup bentuk, panjang, sareng fungsina. Dendrites sering kali langsing dina bentuk sareng langkung pondok, sedengkeun akson condong ngajaga radius konstan sareng relatif panjang. Ilaharna, akson ngirimkeun sinyal éléktrokimia sareng dendrites nampi sinyal éléktrokimia, sanaos sababaraha jinis neuron dina spésiés tangtu kakurangan akon sareng ngan saukur ngirimkeun sinyal ngalangkungan dendritesna. Dendrites nyayogikeun luas permukaan anu diperbesar pikeun nampi sinyal tina tombol terminal tina akson anu sanésna, sareng aksonna ogé biasana dibagi-bagi di ujung na kana seueur cabang ( telodendria ) anu masing-masing tungtungna terminal saraf, ngamungkinkeun sinyal kimia ngalirkeun sakaligus pikeun seueur sél targét.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref> Ilaharna, nalika sinyal éléktrokimia ngarangsang neuron, éta lumangsung dina dendrite sareng nyababkeun parobahan poténsial listrik dina mémbran mémbran neuron. Parobihan dina poténsi mémbran sacara pasip bakal sumebar ka dendrite tapi janten lemah sareng jarak tanpa poténsi tindakan. Poténsi tindakan nyebarkeun kagiatan listrik sapanjang mémbran dendrites neuron kana awak sél teras afferently turun panjang akon kana terminal akson, di mana éta micu sékrési neurotransmitter kana beulahan synaptic. Nanging, sinapsis anu ngalibatkeun dendrites ogé tiasa janten axodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal akson pikeun dendrite, atanapi dendrodendritic, ngalibetkeun sinyal antara dendrites.<ref name="Carlson 2013">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Physiology of Behavior|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-23939-9|edition=11th}}</ref> Autaps mangrupikeun sinaps di mana akon hiji neuron ngirimkeun sinyal ka dérditna sorangan. Aya tilu jinis utama neuron; multipolar, bipolar, sareng unipolar. Neuron multipolar, sapertos anu dipidangkeun dina gambar, diwangun ku hiji akson sareng seueur tangkal dendritik. Sél piramida mangrupikeun neuron kortikal multipolar sareng awak sél bentukna piramida sareng dendrites ageung disebat dendrit apical anu dugi ka permukaan korteks. Neuron bipolar ngagaduhan hiji akson sareng hiji tangkal dendritik dina tungtung tungtung awak sél. Neuron unipolar gaduh gagang anu ngalegaan tina awak sél anu kapisah janten dua dahan anu hiji ngandung dendrites sareng anu sanésna nganggo tombol terminal. Dendrites unipolar dipaké pikeun ngadeteksi rangsangan indrawi sapertos touch atanapi suhu.<ref name="Carlson 2013">{{Cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Physiology of Behavior|date=2013|publisher=Pearson|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-23939-9|edition=11th}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFCarlson2013">Carlson, Neil R. (2013). </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pinel|first=John P.J.|title=Biopsychology|url=https://archive.org/details/biopsychology0000pine_s7c3|date=2011|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-205-83256-9|edition=8th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jan|first=Y. N.|last2=Jan|first2=L. Y.|year=2010|title=Branching out: Mechanisms of dendritic arborization|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=11|issue=5|pages=316–328|doi=10.1038/nrn2836|pmc=3079328|pmid=20404840}}</ref> == Sajarah == Istilah ''déndrit'' mimiti dipaké dina taun 1889 ku Wilhelm His pikeun ngajelaskeun jumlah "prosés protoplasmik" anu langkung alit anu napel kana sél saraf .<ref>{{Cite book|title=Origins of neuroscience : a history of explorations into brain function|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing|last=Finger|first=Stanley|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=9780195146943|pages=[https://archive.org/details/originsofneurosc0000fing/page/44 44]|oclc=27151391|quote=The nerve cell with its uninterrupted processes was described by Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters (1834-1863) in a work that was completed by Max Schultze (1825-1874) in 1865, two years after Deiters died of typhoid fever. This work portrayed the cell body with a single chief "axis cylinder" and a number of smaller "protoplasmic processes" (see figure 3.19). The latter would become known as "dendrites", a term coined by Wilhelm His (1831-1904) in 1889.}}</ref> Ahli anatomis Jérman Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters umumna dikredit ku pamanggihan akson ku ngabédakeun éta sareng dendrites. Sababaraha rékaman intrasélular munggaran dina sistim saraf dilakukeun dina akhir taun 1930an ku Kenneth S. Cole sareng Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker sareng Jérman Robert Remak mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngaidentipikasi sareng ngabentuk segmen awal akson. Alan Hodgkin sareng Andrew Huxley ogé padamelan akson raksasa cumi (1939) sareng ku 1952 aranjeunna parantos kéngingkeun gambaran kuantitatif lengkep dasar ionik tina poténsi aksi, ngarah nyusun modél Hodgkin – Huxley. Hodgkin sareng Huxley dilélér babarengan Hadiah Nobel pikeun karya ieu di 1963. Formula anu merinci kalakuan axonal diperpanjang ka vertebrata dina persamaan Frankenhaeuser – Huxley. Louis-Antoine Ranvier mangrupikeun anu pangpayunna ngajelaskeun sela atanapi titik anu dipendakan dina akson sareng pikeun sumbangan ieu fitur-fitur aksonon ieu ayeuna biasa disebut salaku Node of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, saurang anatomis Spanyol, ngusulkeun yén akson mangrupikeun komponén kaluaran neuron.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Debanne|first=D|last2=Campanac, E|last3=Bialowas, A|last4=Carlier, E|last5=Alcaraz, G|date=Apr 2011|title=Axon physiology.|url=https://hal-amu.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01766861/file/Debanne-Physiol-Rev-2011.pdf|journal=Physiological Reviews|volume=91|issue=2|pages=555–602|doi=10.1152/physrev.00048.2009|pmid=21527732}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé ngajukeun yén neuron mangrupikeun sél diskrit anu saling komunikasi ngalangkungan sambungan khusus, atanapi spasi, antara sél, anu ayeuna dikenal salaku sinapsis. Ramón y Cajal ningkatkeun prosés noda pérak anu katelah metode Golgi, anu parantos dikembangkeun ku sainganna, Camillo Golgi .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=López-Muñoz|first=F|date=October 2006|title=Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal|journal=Brain Research Bulletin|volume=70|issue=4–6|pages=391–405|doi=10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.07.010|pmid=17027775}}</ref> == Pangembangan déndrit == [[Gambar:Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_en.svg|ka|jmpl|277x277px]] Nalika ngembangkeun déndrit, sababaraha faktor bisa ngaruh kana diférénsiasi. Diantarana nyaéta modulasi input indera, polutan lingkungan, suhu awak, jeung pamakéan narkoba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McEwen|first=Bruce S.|year=2010|title=Stress, sex, and neural adaptation to a changing environment: mechanisms of neuronal remodeling|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=1204|pages=38–59|bibcode=2010NYASA1204...38M|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05568.x|pmc=2946089|pmid=20840167}}</ref> Salaku conto, beurit anu diangkat ti lingkungan anu poék dipendakan mibanda jumlah tulang tonggong dina sél piramida anu aya dina korteks visual primér sareng parobihan anu nyata dina distribusi dendrite branching dina lapisan 4 sél stellat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borges|first=S.|last2=Berry, M.|date=15 July 1978|title=The effects of dark rearing on the development of the visual cortex of the rat|url=https://archive.org/details/the-journal-of-comparative-neurology_1978-07-15_180_2/page/277|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=180|issue=2|pages=277–300|doi=10.1002/cne.901800207|pmid=659662}}</ref> Ékspérimén anu dilakukeun dina vitro sareng vivo parantos nunjukkeun yén ayana afferents sareng aktivitas input per se tiasa modulate pola di mana dendrites ngabedakeun. Saeutik dipikaterang ngeunaan prosés anu dendrites orientasi nyalira dina vivo sareng dipaksa nyiptakeun pola cabang anu rumit anu unik pikeun tiap kelas neuron khusus. Hiji téori ngeunaan mékanisme pamekaran dendritik arbor nyaéta Hipotésis Synaptotropic. Hipotesis synaptotropic ngajukeun yén input tina presynaptic kana sél postsynaptic (sareng kematangan input sinaptik anu ngagumbirakeun) antukna tiasa ngarobih jalan pembentukan sinaps dina dendritic sareng axonal arbor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cline|first=H|last2=Haas, K|date=Mar 15, 2008|title=The regulation of dendritic arbor development and plasticity by glutamatergic synaptic input: a review of the synaptotrophic hypothesis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-physiology_2008-03-15_586_6/page/1509|journal=The Journal of Physiology|volume=586|issue=6|pages=1509–17|doi=10.1113/jphysiol.2007.150029|pmc=2375708|pmid=18202093}}</ref> Pembentukan sinaps ieu diperyogikeun pikeun ngembangkeun struktur neuron dina otak anu fungsina. Kasaimbangan antara biaya metabolisme tina elaborasi dendritik sareng kabutuhan pikeun nutupan médan reseptip panginten tiasa ngukur ukuran sareng bentuk dendrites. Asép Sunandar Sunarya kompléks isyarat ékstrélélular sareng intrasélular modél pangembangan dendrite kalebet faktor transkripsi, interaksi reséptor-ligand, sababaraha jalur sinyal, mesin tarjamahan lokal, unsur siktoskeletal, pospasi Golgi sareng endosom. Ieu nyumbang kana panataan dendrites dina awak sél masing-masing sareng panempatan dendrites ieu dina sirkuit neuron. Salaku conto, éta nunjukkeun yén β-actin zipcode beungkeutan protéin 1 (ZBP1) nyumbang kana cabang dendritik anu pas. Faktor transkripsi penting anu kalebet dina morfologi dendrites kalebet CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6 / drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 jst. Protéin anu disékrésikeun sareng reséptor permukaan sél kalebet neurotrofin sareng reséptor tirosin kinase, BMP7, Wnt / disheveled, EPHB 1-3, Semaphorin / plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 sareng RhoA janten régulator cytoskeletal sareng protéin motor kalebet KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Jalan sekretaris sareng endositik anu penting ngendalikeun kamekaran dendritik kalebet DAR3 / SAR1, DAR2 / Sec23, DAR6 / Rab1 jsb. Sadaya molekul ieu saling saling hubungan dina ngadalikeun morphogenesis dendritic kalebet akuisisi jinis arborisasi dendritik khusus, régulasi ukuran dendrite sareng organisasi dendrites anu asalna tina neuron anu béda. == Sipat listrik == Struktur sareng cabang tina dendrites neuron, ogé kasadiaan sareng variasi konduktansi ion gated voltase, kuat mangaruhan kumaha neuron ngahijikeun input ti neuron sanés. Integrasi ieu duanana temporal, ngalibetkeun kasimpulan rangsangan anu dugi ka gancang, ogé spasial, anu nyababkeun agregasi input ngagumbirakeun sareng ngahambat tina cabang anu misah.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|title=Principles of neural science.|date=2003|publisher=McGrawHill|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-8385-7701-6|edition=4th|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780838577011}}</ref> Dendrites sakalina panginten ngan saukur nganterkeun stimulasi listrik sacara pasip. Transmisi pasip ieu hartosna yén [[Voltase|parobihan voltase anu]] diukur dina awak sél mangrupikeun akibat tina aktivasi sinaps distal nyebarkeun sinyal listrik kana awak sél tanpa bantosan saluran ion gated voltase. Téori kabel pasip ngajelaskeun kumaha parobihan voltase di lokasi anu tangtu dina dendrite ngirimkeun sinyal listrik ieu ngalangkungan sistem konéksi dendrite anu bénten-diaméterna, panjangna, sareng sipat listrik. Dumasar kana téori kabel pasip, urang tiasa ngalacak kumaha parobihan morfologi dendritik neuron mangaruhan tegangan mémbran dina awak sél, sahingga kumaha variasi dina arsitéktur dendrite mangaruhan ciri kaluaran neuron sacara umum.<ref name="Koch 1999">{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=Christof|title=Biophysics of computation : information processing in single neurons|url=https://archive.org/details/biophysicsofcomp0000koch|date=1999|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=0-19-510491-9}}</ref><ref name="Häusser 2008">{{Cite book|last=Häusser|first=Michael|title=Dendrites|url=https://archive.org/details/dendrites0002unse|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-856656-4|edition=2nd}}</ref> Sinyal éléktrokimia disebarkeun ku poténsial aksi anu ngamangpaatkeun saluran ion tegangan-gated antarmembran pikeun ngangkut ion natrium, ion kalsium, sareng ion kalium. Unggal spésiés ion gaduh saluran protéinina masing-masing aya dina lipid bilayer mémbran sél. Membran sél neuron nutupan akson, awak sél, dendrites, jst. Saluran protéin tiasa bénten antara spésiés kimia dina jumlah voltase aktivasina anu diperyogikeun sareng durasi aktivasina.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref> Poténsi aksi dina sél sato dihasilkeun ku saluran ion natrium-gated atanapi kalsium-gerbang dina mémbran plasma. Saluran ieu ditutup nalika poténsi mémbran caket, atanapi dina, poténsi sél sél. Saluranna bakal mimiti kabuka upami poténsi mémbran naék, ngamungkinkeun natrium atanapi ion kalsium ngalir kana sél. Nalika langkung seueur ion lebet kana sél, poténsi mémbran terus ningkat. Prosésna teras dugi ka sadaya saluran ion kabuka, nyababkeun paningkatan gancang dina poténsi mémbran anu teras micu turunna poténsi mémbran. Dépolarisasi disababkeun ku nutup saluran ion anu nyegah ion natrium tina lebet kana neuron, sareng aranjeunna teras diangkut sacara aktif kaluar tina sél. Saluran kalium teras diaktipkeun, sareng aya aliran luar ion kalium, balikkeun gradién éléktrokimia kana poténsi istirahat. Saatos poténsi tindakan parantos kajantenan, aya pergeseran négatip samentawis, anu disebat afterhyperpolarization atanapi jaman réfraktori, kusabab arus kalium tambahan. Ieu mékanisme anu nyegah poténsial tindakan tina ngumbara deui sapertos anu nembé sumping.<ref name="Alberts 2009">{{Cite book|last=Alberts|first=Bruce|title=Essential Cell Biology|date=2009|publisher=Garland Science|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8153-4129-1|edition=3rd}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFAlberts2009">Alberts, Bruce (2009). </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barnett|first=MW|last2=Larkman, PM|date=Jun 2007|title=The action potential.|journal=Practical Neurology|volume=7|issue=3|pages=192–7|pmid=17515599}}</ref> Fitur penting séjén dendrites, dikaruniai konduktivitas gated voltase aktifna, nyaéta kamampuanna pikeun ngirim poténsial aksi balik ka arbor dendritik. Dipikawanoh salaku poténsi tindakan anu nyebarkeun deui, sinyal ieu ngaleungitkeun arbor dendritik sareng nyayogikeun komponén penting pikeun modulasi sinaps sareng potentiation jangka panjang. Saterasna, karéta poténsial tindakan balik-nyebarkeun sacara artifisial dihasilkeun dina soma tiasa nyababkeun poténsi aksi kalsium ( paku dendritik ) di zona inisiasi dendritik dina sababaraha jinis neuron.  == Plastisitas == Dendrites sorangan sigana sanggup ngarobih palastik nalika hirup sawawa sato, kaasup invertebrata. Dendrites neuron ngagaduhan sababaraha kompartemen anu dikenal salaku unit fungsional anu tiasa ngitung rangsangan anu datang. Unit fungsional ieu kalibet dina ngolah input sareng diwangun ku subdomain dendrites sapertos duri, dahan, atanapi pengelompokan dahan. Ku alatan éta, plastisitas anu nyababkeun parobahan struktur dendrite bakal mangaruhan komunikasi sareng pamrosésan dina sél. Salila ngembangkeun, morfologi dendrite dibentuk ku program intrinsik dina génom sél sareng faktor ékstrinsik sapertos sinyal tina sél anu sanés. Tapi dina kahirupan déwasa, sinyal ékstrinsik janten langkung pangaruh sareng nyababkeun parobahan anu langkung signifikan dina struktur dendrite dibandingkeun sareng sinyal intrinsik nalika dikembangkeun. Dina bikang, struktur dendritic tiasa robih akibat tina kaayaan fisiologis anu diakibatkeun ku hormon salami periode sapertos kakandungan, laktat, sareng nuturkeun siklus estrous. Ieu katingali khusus dina sél piramida daérah CA1 tina hippocampus, di mana kapadetan dendrites tiasa bénten-bénten dugi ka 30%. == Cutatan ==  {{Reflist|refs=<ref name=perycz>{{Cite journal | last1 = Perycz | first1 = M. | last2 = Urbanska | first2 = A. S. | last3 = Krawczyk | first3 = P. S. | last4 = Parobczak | first4 = K. | last5 = Jaworski | first5 = J. | title = Zipcode Binding Protein 1 Regulates the Development of Dendritic Arbors in Hippocampal Neurons | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2387-10.2011 | journal = Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 31 | issue = 14 | pages = 5271–5285 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21471362 | pmc = 6622686 | url = http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170922035952/http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/31/14/5271.full.pdf | archive-date = 2017-09-22 }}</ref> <ref name=urbanska>{{Cite journal | last1 = Urbanska | first1 = M. | last2 = Blazejczyk | first2 = M. | last3 = Jaworski | first3 = J. | title = Molecular basis of dendritic arborization | journal = Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 264–288 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18511961}}</ref> <ref name=Tavosanis>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tavosanis | first1 = G. | title = Dendritic structural plasticity | doi = 10.1002/dneu.20951 | journal = Developmental Neurobiology | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–86 | year = 2012 | pmid = 21761575 }}</ref> <ref name=Yau>{{Cite journal | pmid = 1018277| year = 1976| last1 = Yau| first1 = K. W.| title = Receptive fields, geometry and conduction block of sensory neurones in the central nervous system of the leech| journal = The Journal of Physiology| volume = 263| issue = 3| pages = 513–38| pmc = 1307715 | doi=10.1113/jphysiol.1976.sp011643}}</ref>}} == Référénsi == * {{Cite journal|last=Lorenzo|first=L. E.|last2=Russier|first2=M|last3=Barbe|first3=A|last4=Fritschy|first4=J. M.|last5=Bras|first5=H|year=2007|title=Differential organization of gamma-aminobutyric acid type a and glycine receptors in the somatic and dendritic compartments of rat abducens motoneurons|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=504|issue=2|pages=112–26|doi=10.1002/cne.21442|pmid=17626281}} == Tumbu luar == * Histology image: 3_09 - "Geser 3 [[Tulang tonggong]] " * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=dendritic%20tree&Submit=Go&event=display&start=1 Tangkal Dendritic - Cell Centered Database] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103223/http://www.detraditie.nl/sdt_sdtreferenceseries/sdt_rsi_2011_dendrites.pdf Gambar stereo tangkal dendritik dina organ éléktroréktor ''Kryptopterus''] [[Kategori:Halaman dengan terjemahan tak tertinjau]] lij07hrrb73243fuf4ut0sld7hldqqy Piit peking 0 102040 712377 711606 2026-08-28T22:12:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Piit Peking | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref =<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22719821 |title=''Lonchura punctulata'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=10 Juni 2014}}</ref> | image = Lonchura punctulata (Nagarhole, 2004).jpg | image_caption = Piit déwasa subspésiés ''punctulata'' di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, [[India]] | image2 = Scaly breasted Munia (Immature)- Kolkata- I IMG 3535.jpg | image2_caption = Piit rumaja subspésiés ''punctulata'' di [[Kolkata]], [[India]] | image_width = 240px | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Burung|Aves]] | ordo = [[Passeriformes]] | familia = [[Estrildidae]] | genus = ''[[Lonchura]]'' | species = '''''L. punctulata''''' | binomial = ''Lonchura punctulata'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753) }} '''Piit peking'''; bondol peking; (''Lonchura punctulata'') nyaéta manuk leutik anu asalna tina kulawarga ''[[Estrildidae]]''.<ref name=behaviour/>Manuk ieu kahakananna sisikian, kayaning siki: [[paré]], [[kunyit]], [[sorgum]], jujukutan, jeung sajabana. <ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref> ==Ngaran séjén== Urang [[basa Jawa|Jawa]] nyebutna ''emprit peking'', ''prit peking''; urang [[basa Sunda|Sunda]] nyebutna ''piit peking'' atawa ''manuk peking'', dumasar ogé kana sorana.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Di [[Malaysia]] ieu manuk disebutna ''pipit pinang'', dina [[basa Inggris]] dipiwanohna ''Scaly-breasted Munia'' pedah aya kelir borontok dina bulu palebah hariguna anu katempo kawas sisit.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> == Ciri mandiri == [[File : Lonch punctu 071126-1777 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Manuk piit peking déwasa, Bogor.]] Pangawakanna leutik, panjang tina pamatuk nepika tungtung buntut kurang leuwih 11 cm. Bulu dina beuheung, punduk jeung tonggong kelirna coklat, aya guguritan ngora katempo samar-samar sarta bulu puhuna bodas. Tikorona coklat semu beureum, palebah handapna bodas, ''katempo guguratan kawas sisik kelirna coklat palebah harigu nepi ka sisi awakna''.<ref name=mackinnon/> Palebah beuteung handap nepika bujurna bodas.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Role of humidity in the seasonal reproduction of male spotted munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| author=Sikdar M; A Kar and P Prakash |year= 1992| doi= 10.1002/jez.1402640112 |journal= Journal of Experimental Zoology| volume=264| issue=1| pages= 82–84}}</ref> Manuk anu ngora kénéh harigu jeung beuteungna mibanda bulu coklat kotor, teu aya sisitan kawas anu déwasa. <ref name=john/> Jalu jeung bikang henteu beda dina wanda bulu jeung pangawakanna.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Hihideung panonna coklat poék; pamatuk kawas manuk piit biasana kelirna kulawu semu biru; cékérna hideung semu kulawu.<ref name=mackinnon>{{aut|MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen}}. 2000. ''Burung-burung di Sumatra, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan'': 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor:LIPI dan BirdLife IP.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9|year=2012|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Competing for Resources|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9/page/130 130]-131}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Barnard|first=C.J.|coauthors=R.M. Sibly|title=Producers and scroungers: A general model and its application to captive flocks of house sparrows|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=1981|month=May|volume=29|issue=2|pages=543-550|doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80117-0}}</ref> == Tempat hirup jeung kabiasaan == [[File: Lonch punctu J 071129-1999 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Manuk anakna kénéh, Bogor.]] Piit peking remen kapanggih hirup di padésaan nepika sisi kota, utamana anu deukeut jeung [[sawah|persawahan]] atawa [[tegalan]]. Kahakananna sabangsaning sisikian, jujukutan utamana kana [[pare]]<ref name=john/>. Ku kituna piit peking remen katempo di[[sawah]], [[rungkun]] -rungkun [[jukut]], tegalan jeung [[kebon]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=DW|title=A comprehensive guide to optimal foraging theory|year=2007|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Foraging}}</ref> Tempona nyiar hakaneun hiber ngabring babarengan jeung pasanganna atawa ngabring jeung manuk baturna nu séjén, piit peking remen katempo saabringan areunteup dina rungkun jujukutan ngadon ngakan sikina, sakapeung katempo turun kana [[taneuh]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Piit peking ieu gerakanna rancingeus, kalayan henteu eureun disarada jeung padabaturna.<ref name=john>{{aut|MacKinnon, J.}} 1993. ''Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali'': 379. Yogyakarta:Gadjah Mada University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_oecologia_2004-03_139_1/page/150|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Ieu manuk remen ogé katempo nyiar hakaneun pacampur jeung manuk jinis piit séjén, saperti piit, bondol (''L. leucogastroides''), jeung sajabana. <ref name=mackinnon/> Mimitina ieu manuk katempo ngan sababaraha hiji wungkul, nincak usum panena ieu manuk téh bisa ngumpul dina jumlah anu loba malahan nepika aya ratusan. Katempo pisan mangsa usum meuting, ieu manuk hiber abrul-abrulan.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Gokula V |year= 2001| title= Nesting ecology of the Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (South India)|journal= Acta Ornithologica| volume= 36|issue=1|pages= 1–5}}</ref> Nempo jumlahna anu loba kawas kieu tangtu ngadatangkeun karuagian anu henteu saeutik pikeun para patani.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Mehta, P |year=1997| title=Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' feeding on scat? |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume= 37| issue=1|page=16|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW37_1#page/n17/mode/1up}}</ref> Piit peking ogé remen katempo eunteup di kebon-kebon, buruan [[imah]], ogé sisi jalan. Saperti ngarana, di [[Malaysia]], ieu manuk remen areunteup dina tangkal [[jambé]] atawa [[palma]] séjéna, tangkal-tangkal anu ngarungkun jangkung, paragi ieu manuk nyarieun [[sayang]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sharma RC; Bhatt D; Sharma RK|year=2004|title=Breeding success of the tropical Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata in urbanized and forest habitats|journal=Ornithological Science|volume=3|issue=2|pages=113–117|url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/3/2/3_113/_article|doi=10.2326/osj.3.113}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Sayangna bulenek kawas ''ball'', dijieun tina jujukutan, diperenahkeun dinu buni kahalangan ku dangdauna jeung régang.<ref name=john/> [[Endog]]na bodas, aya 4-6(-10) siki, ukuranna 15 x 11 [[miliméter|mm]] ngendogna teuaya usumna/endogan sapanjang taun, disileungleuman salila 16 poé kakara megar anakna.<ref>{{aut|Hoogerwerf, A.}} 1949. ''De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java)'': 112-3. Buitenzorg:Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.</ref><ref name=hbk/><ref>{{cite journal|author= Lamba, BS |year= 1974| title= Nest construction technique of the Spotted Munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 71| issue=3| pages= 613–616}}</ref> Manuk piit peking loba kapanggih hirup ti mimiti sisi basisir nepika palebah tonggoheun 1.800 m dpl.<ref name=mackinnon/>, malahan nepi ka 2.200 m di [[Lombok]] jeung 2.300 m di [[Timor]]<ref name=coates>{{aut|Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop}}. 2000. ''Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea'': 185. Bogor:BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> == Sub spésiés jeung habitatna== == Piit peking loba kapanggih di [[Asia kidul]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]] kalawan mibanda 12 subspésiés, tayalian: # '''''L. p. punctulata''''' ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758), nyebar di nagara [[Nepal]] nepi la [[Sikkim]], [[India]] jeung [[Sri Lanka]] # '''''L. p. subundulata''''' (Godwin-Austen, 1874), Nyebar ti mimiti wetan [[India]] ([[Assam]]) nepi ka [[Bhutan]] jeung bagean kulon [[Myanmar]] # '''''L. p. yunnanensis''''' (Parkes, 1958), Nyebar di wetaneun [[Myanmar]] jeung kulon ngidul [[China]] # '''''L. p. topela''''' (Swinhoe, 1863), Nyebar di [[China]] kidul nepika kaler [[Thailand]], [[Indochina]], [[Hainan]], jeung [[Taiwan]] # '''''L. p. cabanisi''''' ([[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1890), nyebar di [[Filipina]] ([[Luzon]], [[Mindoro]], [[Panay]], [[Cebu]], Calauit jeung [[Palawan]]) # '''''L. p. fretensis''''' (Kloss, 1931), nyebar di kiul [[Thailand]] jeung [[Semenanjung Malaysia]] nepi ka [[Sumatra]] jeung pulo-pulo sabudeureunna # '''''L. p. nisoria''''' ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1830), nyebar ti [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Lombok]], jeung [[Sumbawa]] # '''''L. p. baweana''''' (Hoogerwerf, 1963), [[endemik]] di pulo [[Bawean]] ([[Laut Jawa]]) # '''''L. p. holmesi''''' (Restall, 1992), endemik di kidul ngulon [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]) # '''''L. p. sumbae''''' (Mayr, 1944), éndemik/pituin di Pulao [[Sumba]] # '''''L. p. blasii''''' (Stresemann, 1912), nyebar di [[Flores]], [[Timor]], [[Kapuloan Tanimbar]], jeung kalpuloan [[Nusa Tenggara]] # '''''L. p. particeps''''' (Riley, 1920), éndemik di Pulo [[Sulawesi]]. <ref name=clements>{{cite book|title= The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8|author= Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson|year= 2013|publisher= The Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Abbass, D., Rais, M., Ghalib, S.A. and Khan, M.Z. |year=2010| title= First Record of Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) from Karachi| journal= Pakistan J. Zool. |volume=42|issue=4| pages=503–505}}</ref> Populasina nyebar dina ''distribusi'' anu lega dibedakeun ku ''variasi'' kelir bulu sareng pangawakanna, kurang leuwih aya 11 subspésiés anu dipikanyaho.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-ecology-evolution_1999_14_3/page/102|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-ecology-and-sociobiology_2002-08_52_3/page/232|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Kaasup di jerona anu kapanggih hirup di i dataran [[Asia Kidul]], ogé [[Pakistan]],[[ India]] , [[Nepal]] , [[Bangladés]] sareng [[Sri Lanka]]. Ieu spésiés kawasna pituin ti Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arnaiz-Villena|first=A|coauthors=Ruiz-del-Valle V, Gomez-Prieto P, Reguera R, Parga-Lozano C, Serrano-Vela I|title=Estrildinae Finches (Aves, Passeriformes) from Africa, South Asia and Australia: a Molecular Phylogeographic Study|journal=The Open Ornithology Journal|year=2009|volume=2|pages=29–36|url=http://chopo.pntic.mec.es/biolmol/publicaciones/Estrildinae_finches_2009.pdf|doi=10.2174/1874453200902010029}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321114702/http://chopo.pntic.mec.es/biolmol/publicaciones/Estrildinae_finches_2009.pdf |date=2012-03-21 }}</ref> Tapi jarang katempo hirup di [[Kashmir]] .<ref>{{cite journal|author= Akhtar,SA; Rao,Prakash; Tiwari,JK; Javed, Salim |year= 1992| title= Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' (Linn.) from Dachigam National Park, Jammu and Kashmir| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 89| issue= 1| page=129}}</ref><ref name=hbk>{{cite book|author=Ali, S & S D Ripley| year=1999| title=Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 10|edition=2| publisher=Oxford University Press|place= New Delhi| pages=119–121}}</ref> Di luar daérah asli, ieu manuk anu hirup di daérah anu iklimna cocog. ''Populasi'' anu pindah ieu katitén an di Hindia Kulon (Puerto Rico ti saprak 1971) <ref>{{cite journal|journal= Caribbean Journal of Science| volume= 33| issue= 3–4|pages=233–238| year= 1997| title=Review of the Subspecific Status and Origin of Introduced Finches in Puerto Rico| author=Moreno, JA}}</ref>, [[Hawaii]] , [[Australia]], [[Japan]] <ref>{{cite journal| year=2004| journal=Global Environmental Research| pages=29–39| volume=8| issue=1| url=http://www.airies.or.jp/publication/ger/pdf/08-01-04.pdf| title=Invasive Birds in Japan| author=Eguchi K & H E Amano}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303101534/http://www.airies.or.jp/publication/ger/pdf/08-01-04.pdf |date=2012-03-03 }}</ref> sareng kidul Amérika Serikat utamina di [[Florida]] sareng [[California]].<ref>{{cite journal| journal= Florida Field Naturalist| volume= 37| issue= 3| pages= 96–97| year= 2009| title= The status of the nutmeg mannikin (''Lonchura punctulata'') in the extreme western panhandle of Florida| author= Duncan RA| url= http://www.fosbirds.org/sites/default/files/FFNs/FFN373p096.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241230215554/http://www.fosbirds.org/sites/default/files/FFNs/FFN373p096.pdf |date=2024-12-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/wb/v31n02/p0130-p0131.pdf| title=The juvenile nutmeg mannikin: identification of a little brown bird| author=Garrett, KL| year=2000| journal=Western Birds| volume=31| issue=2| pages=130–131}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907225746/http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/wb/v31n02/p0130-p0131.pdf |date=2012-09-07 }}</ref> di [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]] , pandeuri katompo hirup bareng sareng ''[[Lonchura malacca]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Moulton, M. P., L. J. S. Allen, D. K. Ferris. |year=1992| title=Competition, resource use and habitat selection in two introduced Hawaiian Mannikins|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_biotropica_1992-03_24_1/page/77 | journal= Biotropica| volume=24| pages=77–85|doi= 10.2307/2388475|issue= 1}}</ref> == Galeri == <gallery> File:Lonchura punctulata MHNT 228 La Réunion.jpg | <center> Endogna File:Lonch punctu 071129 1989 tdp.jpg |''L. p. nisoria'' di [[Bogor]], [[Jawa Barat]] File:Lonchura punctulata particeps.JPG |''L. p. particeps'' di [[Manado]], [[Sulawesi kalér]] File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - Flickr - Lip Kee (1).jpg | ''L. p. fretensis'' di Pulo Ubin, [[Singapura]] File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) feeding on Pennisetum pedicellatum W IMG 1337.jpg | Buluna mangsa rumaja kénéh ''L. p. punctulata'' di Hyderabad, [[India]] File: Lonch punctu 071126-1775 tdp.jpg|Ngabring nyiar hakaneun, Bogor. </gallery> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2 }} == Tutumbu ka luar == {{commons|Lonchura punctulata}} * {{en}} [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/53349/all ''Lonchura punctulata'' pada IUCN Red List Database], diakses pada 29/11/2007 * {{en}} [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=8709&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet] [[Kategori:Sasatoan]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonesia]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Estrildidae]] t9cj9efb34maqzhzf54gxhiuh9ygvx2 Nukléoprotéin 0 102072 712369 711531 2026-08-28T22:03:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712369 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nukléoprotéin''' nyaéta protéin anu strukturna patali jeung [[asam nukléat]] kalawan ngandung [[DNA]] sareng [[RNA]] di jerona. Wanda nukléoprotéin nyaéta [[ribosom]], nukleosom, jeung protéin nukleokapsid anu asalna tina virus.<ref>{{MeshName|Nucleoproteins}}</ref> == Conto == === Déoksiribonukléoprotéin === [[Gambar:Nucleosome_ribbon_pd0001.jpg|jmpl|Skéma struktur pita nukleosom. Protéin histon di tengahna digambar ku pita coklat kalayan spiral alfa-hélik; unggal runtuyan DNA tina héliks ganda anu nutupan pedalaman diwarnaan (biru) tina tungtung 5' nepi ka tungtung (beureum) 3'.]] Deoksiribanuknukléoprotéin (DNP) mangrupa kompléks [[Protéin|DNA jeung protéin.]] Conto prototipikalna nyaéta nukléosom jeung kompléks DNA anu mulen dalapan protéin histon dina jero [[Eukariot|sél eukariotik]] keur ngabentuk kromatin. Protamine bisa ngaganti histon waktu prosés [[spérmatogenesis]] lumangsung.<ref>{{MeshName|Deoxyribonucleoproteins}}</ref> === Ribonukléoprotéin === Ribonukléoprotéins (RNP) mangrupa kompléks RNA jeung protéin. Énzim telomerase, RNase P, hnRNP, RNP nuklir (snRNPs) jeung [[ribosom]] kaasup kana papasingan ribonukléoprotéin. Ribosom dibentuk ku hiji molekul tina 50 protéin ribosom atawa leuwih kalayan dibarengan ku tilu wanda molekul RNA dina prokariota atawa opat wanda molekul dina [[eukariot]]a . Sababaraha wanda virus ukur miboga ribonukléoprotéin basajan, hiji molekul RNA, jeung sababaraha molekul protéin anu saru. Virus séjénna miboga ribonukléoprotéin atawa déoksibonukléoprotéin kalawan nyangkaruk protéin anu béda jeung euyeub ku molekul asam ribonukléar. == Fungsi == Dina [[Eukariot|sél eukariotik]], DNA diadumaniskeun jeung massa protéin histon anu sarua dina kompléks nukléoprotéin anu disebut kromatin .<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Molecular Cell Biology|year=2003|url=https://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00harv|last=Lodish|first=Harvey|publisher=|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> Déoksibonukléoprotéin dina ieu kompléks babarengan nyieun kompléks multiprotéin jeung DNA keur ngabentuk struktur anu melengkung. Déoksiribonukléoprotéin kalibet dina régulasi réplika DNA jeung transkripsi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Echols|first=Harrison|date=1990|title=Nucleoprotein structures initiating DNA replication, transcription, and site-specific recombination|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biological-chemistry_1990-09-05_265_25/page/14697|journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume=265|pages=14697–700|doi=|pmid=2203758}}</ref>[[Gambar:178-EbolaVirusProteins_EbolaProteins.png|jmpl|227x227px| Gambar cross-sectional tina partikel virus Ebola, dilabélan ku struktur protéin utama.]]Ribonukléoprotéin bisa jadi panyalindungan. Dina sél, mRNA salaku molekul bébas moal kapanggih. RNA sok dipatalikeun jeung ribonukléoprotéin salaku kompléks ribonukléoprotéin.<ref name=":0"/> Kalayan cara anu sarua, génom RNA virus jeung runtuyan négatip moal kapanggih salaku molekul RNA bébas. Ribonukléoprotéin bakal ngajaga génom tina RNase. Nukléoprotéin mindeng jadi antigén utama keur virus sabab miboga détérminan antigén spésifik.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruigrok|first=Rob WH|last2=Crépin|first2=Thibaut|last3=Kolakofsky|first3=Dan|title=Nucleoproteins and nucleocapsids of negative-strand RNA viruses|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1369527411000956|journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=504–510|doi=10.1016/j.mib.2011.07.011}}</ref> == Struktur == Ngaliwatan metodeu kristalografi, spésifikasi struktur ruang jeung fungsi biologis nukléoproteén bisa dipikaharti. Loba struktur nukléoprotéin virus anu geus kapanggih, kayaning struktur virus flu <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ng|first=Andy Ka-Leung|last2=Wang|first2=Jia-Huai|last3=Shaw|first3=Pang-Chui|date=2009-05-27|title=Structure and sequence analysis of influenza A virus nucleoprotein|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11427-009-0064-x|journal=Science in China Series C: Life Sciences|language=en|volume=52|issue=5|pages=439–449|doi=10.1007/s11427-009-0064-x|issn=1006-9305}}</ref> rabies,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Albertini|first=Aurélie A. V.|last2=Wernimont|first2=Amy K.|last3=Muziol|first3=Tadeusz|last4=Ravelli|first4=Raimond B. G.|last5=Clapier|first5=Cedric R.|last6=Schoehn|first6=Guy|last7=Weissenhorn|first7=Winfried|last8=Ruigrok|first8=Rob W. H.|date=2006-07-21|title=Crystal Structure of the Rabies Virus Nucleoprotein-RNA Complex|url=http://science.sciencemag.org/content/313/5785/360|journal=Science|language=en|volume=313|issue=5785|pages=360–363|doi=10.1126/science.1125280|issn=0036-8075|pmid=16778023}}</ref> Ebola, Bunyamwera,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Ariza|first=A.|last2=Tanner|first2=S. J.|last3=Walter|first3=C. T.|last4=Dent|first4=K. C.|last5=Shepherd|first5=D. A.|last6=Wu|first6=W.|last7=Matthews|first7=S. V.|last8=Hiscox|first8=J. A.|last9=Green|first9=T. J.|date=2013-06-01|title=Nucleocapsid protein structures from orthobunyaviruses reveal insight into ribonucleoprotein architecture and RNA polymerization|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt268|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=41|issue=11|pages=5912–5926|doi=10.1093/nar/gkt268|issn=0305-1048|pmc=3675483|pmid=23595147}}</ref> Schmallenberg, Hazara,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Surtees|first=Rebecca|last2=Ariza|first2=Antonio|last3=Punch|first3=Emma K.|last4=Trinh|first4=Chi H.|last5=Dowall|first5=Stuart D.|last6=Hewson|first6=Roger|last7=Hiscox|first7=Julian A.|last8=Barr|first8=John N.|last9=Edwards|first9=Thomas A.|date=2015-01-01|title=The crystal structure of the Hazara virus nucleocapsid protein|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12900-015-0051-3|journal=BMC Structural Biology|volume=15|pages=24|doi=10.1186/s12900-015-0051-3|issn=1472-6807|pmc=4696240|pmid=26715309}}</ref> muriang Kongo,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=Stephen D.|last2=Surtees|first2=Rebecca|last3=Walter|first3=Cheryl T.|last4=Ariza|first4=Antonio|last5=Bergeron|first5=Éric|last6=Nichol|first6=Stuart T.|last7=Hiscox|first7=Julian A.|last8=Edwards|first8=Thomas A.|last9=Barr|first9=John N.|date=2012-10-15|title=Structure, Function, and Evolution of the Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Nucleocapsid Protein|url=http://jvi.asm.org/content/86/20/10914|journal=Journal of Virology|language=en|volume=86|issue=20|pages=10914–10923|doi=10.1128/JVI.01555-12|issn=0022-538X|pmc=3457148|pmid=22875964}}</ref> jeunf Lassa. Téhnik anu penting keur nyarungsum struktur nukléoprotéin téh nyaéta difraksi sinar-x, résonansi magnét nuklir, jeung [[mikroskop]] cryo-éléktron.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Qi|first=Xiaoxuan|last2=Lan|first2=Shuiyun|last3=Wang|first3=Wenjian|last4=Schelde|first4=Lisa McLay|last5=Dong|first5=Haohao|last6=Wallat|first6=Gregor D.|last7=Ly|first7=Hinh|last8=Liang|first8=Yuying|last9=Dong|first9=Changjiang|title=Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by Lassa nucleoprotein structure|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09605|journal=Nature|volume=468|issue=7325|pages=779–783|doi=10.1038/nature09605|pmc=3057469|pmid=21085117}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] 32zrekuxpqhp6qd2jp7tn0ueg6p9wol Homéopati 0 102100 712429 708580 2026-08-28T23:19:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712429 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Homéopati''' mangrupikeun [[pangobatan alternatip]] nu dumasarkeun kana [[élmu semu]].<ref name="Baran2014">{{Cite book|work=Healthcare and Biomedical Technology in the 21st Century|publisher=Springer|year=2014|pages=19–57|title=Chapter 2: Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ?|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-8541-4_2|isbn=978-1-4614-8540-7|quote=within the traditional medical community it is considered to be quackery|chapter=Science, Pseudoscience, and Not Science: How Do They Differ?}}</ref><ref name="Ladyman">{{Cite book|last=Ladyman J|year=2013|pages=48–49|publisher=University of Chicago Press|chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience|title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem|quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely).|isbn=978-0-226-05196-3}}</ref> Élmu éta dicetuskeun dina taun 1796 ku dokter Jérman [[Samuel Hahnemann]]. Para praktisina disebat '''homéopat''', manéhna yakin yén zat anu nyababkeun gejala panyakit di awak urang séhat bisa menyembuhkeun gejala panyakit nu sami di awak urang gering; doktrin ieu disebat ''[[similia similibus curentur]]''.<ref name="Hahnemann">{{cite book | title=The homœopathic medical doctrine, or "Organon of the healing art" | publisher=W. F. Wakeman | author=Hahnemann, Samuel | author-link=Samuel Hahnemann | year=1833 | location=Dublin | pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EnEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 iii], [https://books.google.com/books?id=EnEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA48 48–49] | quote=Observation, reflection, and experience have unfolded to me that the best and true method of cure is founded on the principle, ''[[similia similibus curentur]]''. To cure in a mild, prompt, safe, and durable manner, it is necessary to choose in each case a medicine that will excite an affection similar (''{{lang|el|ὅμοιος πάθος}}'') to that against which it is employed.}} Translator: Charles H. Devrient, Esq.</ref> Préparasi homéopathi didamel nganggo [[dilusi homéopati]]. Dina prosés dilusi, zat-zat nu dipilih bakal diéncérkeun sababaraha kali ka produk ahir sacara kimia teu cekap éncér. Remen ogé, teu aya hiji molekul tina zat aslina anu tetep sésa di produk ahir.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rpharms.com/resources/quick-reference-guides/homeopathy|title=Homeopathy|website=[[Royal Pharmaceutical Society]]|accessdate=2019-11-17}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601174923/https://www.rpharms.com/resources/quick-reference-guides/homeopathy |date=2022-06-01 }}</ref> Unggal dilusi, produk homeopati éncér biasa dingoyagkeun, anjeunna éta "ngémutan" zat aslina saatos dipiceun. Praktisi nyatakeun yén préparasi sapertos kitu nalika didahar, bisa nyageurkeun panyakit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/|title=Homeopathy|website=nhs.uk|language=en|accessdate=2019-11-10}}</ref> == Sajarah == Sadaya élmu ilmiah anu aya hubunganana sareng fisika, kimia, biokimia sareng biologi<ref name="GrimesFACT">{{Cite journal|last=Grimes|first=D.R.|year=2012|title=Proposed mechanisms for homeopathy are physically impossible|journal=Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies|volume=17|issue=3|pages=149–55|doi=10.1111/j.2042-7166.2012.01162.x}}</ref><ref name="EASAC2017">{{Cite web|url=http://www.easac.eu/fileadmin/PDF_s/reports_statements/EASAC_Homepathy_statement_web_final.pdf|title=Homeopathic products and practices: assessing the evidence and ensuring consistency in regulating medical claims in the EU|website=European Academies' Science Advisory Council|page=1|accessdate=1 October 2017|quote=... we agree with previous extensive evaluations concluding that there are no known diseases for which there is robust, reproducible evidence that homeopathy is effective beyond the placebo effect.}}</ref> anu diraih saprak sahenteuna abad pertengahan ke-19, berkontradiksi sareng homéopati. Pangobatan homéopati henteu [[biokimia]], jeung teu aya pangaruh kana panyakit anu dipikaterang salami ieu.<ref name="pmid124926032"/><ref name="inquiry_4504">{{Cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmsctech/45/4504.htm|title=Evidence Check 2: Homeopathy – Science and Technology Committee|publisher=[[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]] Science and Technology Committee|accessdate=April 5, 2014}}</ref> Téori Hahnemann ngeunaan panyakit, museur kana prinsip anu disebatna miasme, henteu saluyu sareng idéntifikasi virus jeung baktéri anu salaku panyabab panyakit. Percobaan klinis parantos dilakukeun sareng umumna nunjukkeun henteu pangaruh tujuan tina preparasi homéopati.<ref name="Caulfield20053">{{Cite journal|last=Caulfield|first=Timothy|author-link=Timothy Caulfield|last2=Debow|first2=Suzanne|year=2005|title=A systematic review of how homeopathy is represented in conventional and CAM peer reviewed journals|journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=5|page=12|doi=10.1186/1472-6882-5-12|pmc=1177924|pmid=15955254}}</ref><ref name="Shelton">{{Cite book|last=Shelton|first=JW|year=2004|title=Homeopathy: How it really works|url=https://archive.org/details/homeopathyhowitr0000shel|location=Amherst, New York|publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]|isbn=978-1-59102-109-4}}</ref>{{Rp|206}} Kurangna éféktivitas démonstrasi nyababkeun homéopati disebat dina komunitas ilmiah jeung médis salaku ngedukun atanapi panipuan.<ref name="Baran2014"/><ref name="oxcompus">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/630 630]|title=The Oxford companion to United States history|year=2001|last=Paul S. Boyer|isbn=9780195082098|quote=After 1847, when regular doctors organized the American Medical Association (AMA), that body led the war on "quackery", especially targeting dissenting medical groups such as homeopaths, who prescribed infinitesimally small doses of medicine. Ironically, even as the AMA attacked all homeopathy as quackery, educated homeopathic physicians were expelling untrained quacks from their ranks.|access-date=January 15, 2013}}</ref> Homéopati ngahontal popularitas ageungna dina abad ka-19. Homéopati diwanohkeun ka Amérika Serikat dina taun 1825 kalayan dibukana sakola homéopati taun 1835. Sapanjang abad ka-19, puluhan lembaga homeopati muncul di [[Éropa]] jeung [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]].<ref name="Julian">{{cite book|url=http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html|title=Homeopathy Timeline|access-date=July 23, 2007|author=Winston J|year=2006|work=The Faces of Homoeopathy|publisher=Whole Health Now|isbn=978-0-473-05607-0}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122834/http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html |date=December 15, 2018 }}</ref> Salami periode ieu, homéopati tiasa kawilang suksés, sabab bentuk pangobatan nu lain tiasa ngabahayakeun atawa kurang épéktip. Dina akhir abad ka-19, prakték ieu mimiti ngaleungit, kalayan sakola médis homéopati terakhir di Amérika Serikat ditutup dina taun 1920.<ref name="homhist12">{{cite web|url=http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/history.htm|title=History of Homeopathy|publisher=Creighton University Department of Pharmacology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705095116/http://altmed.creighton.edu/Homeopathy/history.htm|archive-date=July 5, 2007|access-date=July 23, 2007|date=July 2007}}</ref> Dina taun 1970-an, homéopati mimiti ningkat signifikan,<ref name="pmid12614092">{{Cite journal|last=Jonas|first=WB|author2=TJ Kaptchuk|author3=K Linde|year=2003|title=A critical overview of homeopathy.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2003-03-04_138_5/page/n80|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=138|issue=5|pages=393–99|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-138-5-200303040-00009|pmid=12614092|s2cid=22787732}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Lockie|title=Encyclopedia of Homeopathy|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahome00lock_433|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|year=2000|location=New York|edition=1st|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediahome00lock_433/page/n20 19]|isbn=978-0-7566-1871-1}}</ref> penjualan sababaraha produk homéopati ningkat sapuluh kali lipet. Tren na pakait sareng naékna gerakan Jaman Anyar,<ref name="isbn0-393-06661-4">{{cite book|author1=Edzard Ernst|author-link1=Edzard Ernst|author2=Singh, Simon|author-link2=Simon Singh|title=Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine|publisher=W. W. Norton|location=New York|year=2008|isbn=978-0-393-06661-6|title-link=Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine}}</ref> ogé tiasa sabagian kusabab préférénsi produk "alami",<ref name="Hood2009">{{cite book|author=Bruce M. Hood|title=SuperSense|url=https://archive.org/details/supersensewhyweb00hood|url-access=registration|access-date=September 7, 2013|date=April 7, 2009|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-186793-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/supersensewhyweb00hood/page/157 157]}}</ref> jeung waktos konsultasi nu langkung lami ku praktisi homéopati. Dina abad ka-21 sauntuyan analisis meta parantos nunjukkeun yén klaim térapi homeopati kakurangan bukti ilmiah. Hasilna, badan nasional jeung internasional nganjurkeun ditarikna dana kasehatan pamaréntah pikeun homeopati. Badan-badan nasional di Australia, Inggris, Swiss, Perancis; ogé Déwan Panaséhat Élmu Akademi Éropa jeung Akademi Élmu Rusia sadayana parantos nyimpulkeun yén homeopati henteu épéktip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-make-new-year-s-regulations/31867422|title=Swiss make New Year's regulations|publisher=Swiss Info|accessdate=December 16, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Homeopathic remedies are 'nonsense and risk significant harm' say 29 European scientific bodies|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/homeopathy-nonsense-risk-harm-29-european-academies-science-advisory-council-remedies-a7963786.html|access-date=October 10, 2017|work=The Independent|date=September 23, 2017}}</ref> Dinas Kaséhatan Nasional di Inggris eureun nyayogikeun dana pikeun pangobatan homeopati sareng naros ka Dinas Kaséhatan pikeun nambihan obat homeopati ka daptar barang resép terlarang.<ref>{{Cite news|date=July 21, 2017|title=NHS to ban homeopathy and herbal medicine, as 'misuse of resources'|work=Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/07/21/nhs-ban-homeopathy-herbal-medicine-misuse-resources/|access-date=July 21, 2017}}</ref><ref name="TNHS">{{Cite news|last=Donnelly|first=Laura|date=5 June 2018|title=High Court backs NHS decision to stop funding homeopathy|work=Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/06/05/high-court-backs-nhs-decision-stop-funding-homeopathy/|access-date=26 August 2018}}</ref> Perancis eureun nyayogikeun dana dina taun 2021,<ref name="GuardianFrance">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/10/france-to-stop-reimbursing-patients-for-homeopathic-treatment|title=France to stop reimbursing patients for homeopathy|last=France-Presse|first=Agence|date=2019-07-10|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-07-30|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> sedengkeun Spanyol parantos ngumumkeun gerakan larangan homeopati jeung térapi semu lain di pusat kaséhatan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/11/14/inenglish/1542203925_514487.html|title=Spain moves to ban pseudo-therapies from universities and health centers|last=Güell|first=Oriol|date=2018-11-14|work=El País|access-date=2019-07-30|language=en|issn=1134-6582}}</ref> == Bukti jeung khasiat == Di luar komunitas pangobatan alternatip, para élmuwan parantos lami nganggap homéopati mangrupikeun élmu palsu <ref name="aaci2">{{Cite journal|last=Caulfield|first=Timothy|last2=Rachul|first2=Christen|year=2011|title=Supported by science?: What Canadian naturopaths advertise to the public|journal=Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology|volume=7|pages=14|doi=10.1186/1710-1492-7-14|pmc=3182944|pmid=21920039|quote=Within the non-CAM scientific community, homeopathy has long been viewed as a sham}}</ref> atanapi élmu semu,<ref name="Baran2014"/><ref name="Ladyman2">{{Cite book|last=Ladyman J|title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-226-05196-3|pages=48–49|chapter=Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience|quote=Yet homeopathy is a paradigmatic example of pseudoscience. It is neither simply bad science nor science fraud, but rather profoundly departs from scientific method and theories while being described as scientific by some of its adherents (often sincerely).}}</ref> sareng komunitas médis nganggap éta salaku ngedukun. Henteuna bukti statistik khasiat térapi saluyu sareng henteuna agén atanapi mékanisme farmakologis <ref name="pmid124926032">{{Cite journal|last=Ernst|first=E.|author-link=Edzard Ernst|year=2002|title=A systematic review of systematic reviews of homeopathy|journal=British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology|volume=54|issue=6|pages=577–82|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2125.2002.01699.x|pmc=1874503|pmid=12492603}}</ref> Pendukung obat homéopati nyatakeun yén pangobatan homeopati kuduna khasiat, sanajau mékanisme biofisika anu teu acan dipikanyaho.<ref name="Vickers 1115–11182">{{Cite journal|last=Vickers|first=Andrew|last2=Zollman|first2=Catherine|date=1999-10-23|title=Homoeopathy|journal=BMJ : British Medical Journal|volume=319|issue=7217|pages=1115–1118|doi=10.1136/bmj.319.7217.1115|issn=0959-8138|pmc=1116906|pmid=10531108}}</ref> Henteu préparasi homeopati parantos kabuktosan benten sareng [[plasébo]]. ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{commons category|Homoeopathy|{{PAGENAME}}}} * [https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/homeopathy/ {{PAGENAME}}] ([[NHS Choices]], UK) [[category:homéopati]] [[category:élmu semu]] [[category:tiori médis kuno]] mf4kxuh0q4mzte8zkbqdo2rahnaor8c Méningitis 0 102125 712340 676076 2026-08-28T21:12:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo Panyakit|Name=Meningitis|Image=Meninges-en.svg|Caption=Meninges sistem saraf pusat: dura mater, arachnoid, jeung pia mater.|DiseasesDB=22543|ICD10={{ICD10|G|00||g|00}}–{{ICD10|G|03||g|00}}|ICD9={{ICD9|320}}–{{ICD9|322}}|MedlinePlus=000680|eMedicineSubj=med|eMedicineTopic=2613|eMedicine_mult={{eMedicine2|emerg|309}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|390}}|MeshID=D008581}} '''Méningitis''' atawa '''radang lapisan uteuk''' nyaéta radang mémbran anu nutupan [[uteuk]] jeung sumsum tulang tonggong anu sacara koléktif disebut meningén.<ref name="Lancet">{{Cite journal|last=Sáez-Llorens X, McCracken GH|year=2003|title=Bacterial meningitis in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-06-21_361_9375/page/2139|journal=Lancet|volume=361|issue=9375|pages=2139–48|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13693-8|pmid=12826449}}</ref> Radang anu karasa bisa disababkeun ku inféksi [[virus]], [[baktéri]], mikroorganismeu, jeung pagaruh obat-obatan anu tangtu.<ref name="Ginsberg">{{Cite journal|last=Ginsberg L|year=2004|title=Difficult and recurrent meningitis|url=http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/75/suppl_1/i16.full.pdf|journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry|volume=75 Suppl 1|issue=90001|pages=i16–21|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.034272|pmc=1765649|pmid=14978146}}</ref> Méningitis bisa nyababkeun tilar dunya alatan radang anu lumangsung dina uteuk jeung sumsum tulang tonggong téh kaasup kaayaan darurat médis.<ref name="IDSA">{{Cite journal|last=Tunkel AR|last2=Hartman BJ|last3=Kaplan SL|last4=Kaufman|first4=Bruce A.|last5=Roos|first5=Karen L.|last6=Scheld|first6=W. Michael|last7=Whitley|first7=Richard J.|displayauthors=3|author-separator=,|year=2004|title=Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis|url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/39/9/1267.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=39|issue=9|pages=1267–84|doi=10.1086/425368|pmid=15494903}}</ref> Gejala méningitis anu umum nyaéta nyeri sirah jeung beuheung kaku dibarengan [[muriang]], kabingungan atanawa turunnakasadaran, utah, sénsitip kana cahaya (photophobia) jeung sora anu tarik ( phonophobia). Barudak anu kaleunaan biasana ukur nuduhkeun gejala anu teu spésifik, saperti gancang ambek jeung ngaleyuh waé tunduh. Ciri lianna ayana barentus atawa ruam beureum nu disababkeun ku baktéri meningokokus.<ref name="Lancet">{{Cite journal|last=Sáez-Llorens X, McCracken GH|year=2003|title=Bacterial meningitis in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-06-21_361_9375/page/2139|journal=Lancet|volume=361|issue=9375|pages=2139–48|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13693-8|pmid=12826449}}</ref><ref name="NEJM">{{Cite journal|last=van de Beek D, de Gans J, Tunkel AR, Wijdicks EF|year=2006|title=Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-01-05_354_1/page/44|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=354|issue=1|pages=44–53|doi=10.1056/NEJMra052116|pmid=16394301}}</ref> Tindakan punksi lumbal dilakukeun pikeun ngadiagnosa aya henteuna méningitis. Jarum disuntikkeun kana kanal tulang tonggong keur nyokot cacai liquor serebrospinalis (LCS), anu nutupan uteuk jeung sumsum tulang tonggong. LCS dipariksa di laboratorium médis.<ref name="IDSA">{{Cite journal|last=Tunkel AR|last2=Hartman BJ|last3=Kaplan SL|last4=Kaufman|first4=Bruce A.|last5=Roos|first5=Karen L.|last6=Scheld|first6=W. Michael|last7=Whitley|first7=Richard J.|displayauthors=3|author-separator=,|year=2004|title=Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis|url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/39/9/1267.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=39|issue=9|pages=1267–84|doi=10.1086/425368|pmid=15494903}}</ref> Tahap ngubaran anu munggaran keur panyakit méningitis nyaéta gancang méré antibiotik jeung obat antivirus. Kortikosteroid ogé bisa dipaké keur ngungkulan komplikasi kusabab radang anu kaleuleuwihi.<ref name="NEJM">{{Cite journal|last=van de Beek D, de Gans J, Tunkel AR, Wijdicks EF|year=2006|title=Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-01-05_354_1/page/44|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=354|issue=1|pages=44–53|doi=10.1056/NEJMra052116|pmid=16394301}}</ref> Méningitis bisa ngabalukarkeun gangguan dina jangka waktu anu lila saperti [[pireu]], [[épilépsi]], hidrokusphus jeung défisit kognitif lamun henteu gancang dirawat.<ref name="Lancet">{{Cite journal|last=Sáez-Llorens X, McCracken GH|year=2003|title=Bacterial meningitis in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-06-21_361_9375/page/2139|journal=Lancet|volume=361|issue=9375|pages=2139–48|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13693-8|pmid=12826449}}</ref> Sababaraha wanda méningitis (misal anu patali jeung meningokokus, Haemophilus influenza tipe B, pneumokokus atawa inféksi virus mumps) bisa diungkulan ku imunisasi.<ref name="Lancet2">{{cite journal|author=Sáez-Llorens X, McCracken GH|title=Bacterial meningitis in children|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-06-21_361_9375/page/2139|journal=Lancet|volume=361|issue=9375|pages=2139–48|year=2003|month=June|pmid=12826449|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13693-8}}</ref> == Faktor == Méningitis mindeng disababkeun ku inféksi mikroorganisme. Lolobaba inféksi disababkeun ku virus,<ref name="Attia">{{Cite journal|last=Attia J, Hatala R, Cook DJ, Wong JG|year=1999|title=The rational clinical examination. Does this adult patient have acute meningitis?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1999-07-14_282_2/page/175|journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=282|issue=2|pages=175–81|doi=10.1001/jama.282.2.175|pmid=10411200}}</ref> [[baktéri]], [[Suung|supa]] jeung protozoa anu mangrupa faktor tambahan.<ref name="Ginsberg">{{Cite journal|last=Ginsberg L|year=2004|title=Difficult and recurrent meningitis|url=http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/75/suppl_1/i16.full.pdf|journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry|volume=75 Suppl 1|issue=90001|pages=i16–21|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.034272|pmc=1765649|pmid=14978146}}</ref> Teu nutup kamungkinan ieu panyakit disababkeun ku faktor non-inféksi. Istilah ''méningitis aséptik'' tujul kana kasus meningitis anu disababkeun inféksi baktéri. Ieu jenis méningitis biasana disababkeun ku virus, tapi éta ogé bisa mangrupa inféksi baktéri waktu geus diubaran sacara parsial, ngaleungit tina meningés, atawa patogén parantos ngainféksi daérah caket meningén (misal sinusitis). Endokarditis (inféksi katup jajantung anu nyebarkeun sakumpulan baktéri leutik ngaliwatan aliran getih) bisa nyababkeun méningitis aséptik. Méningitis aséptik ogé bisa timbul tina inféksi jeung spirochete, wanda baktéri anu kaasup kana ''Treponema pallidum'' (anu nyababkeun [[Sifilis|sipilis]]) jeung ''Borrelia burgdorferi'' (anu nyababkeun panyakit Lyme ). Méningitis bisa kapanggih dina panyakit [[Malaria|malaria uteuk]] (malaria anu nginféksi otak) atawa méningitis amubik anu disababkeun ku inféksi [[amoeba]] saperti ''Naegleria fowleri'', anu dibawa tina sumber cai sapooé.<ref name="Ginsberg2">{{cite journal|author=Ginsberg L|title=Difficult and recurrent meningitis|journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry|volume=75 Suppl 1|issue=90001|pages=i16–21|year=2004|month=March|pmid=14978146|pmc=1765649|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.034272|url=http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/75/suppl_1/i16.full.pdf}}</ref> == Ngungkulan == Keur sababaraha kasus méningitis, panyalindungan jangka panjangna bisa ngagunakeun [[vaksinasi]] atawa jangka pondokna bisa ngagunakeun antibiotik. === Paripolah === Meningitis baktéri jeung virus bisa tatalépa tapi prosésna teu sagancang [[flu]]. Duanana bisa tatalépa [[sékrési]] anu ngeclak waktu kontak jeung nu kakeunaan saperti nyabak, nyium, batuk, tapi henteu bisa tatalépa ku nyingreup hawa deukeut jalma anu méningitis. Meningitis virus biasana disababkeun ku ''enterovirus'' anu sumebar ngaliwatan kontaminasi kokotor. Résiko inféksi bisa dikurangan ku cara ngarobah paripolah anu ngajauhan tatalépna.<ref name="CDCtransmission2">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/about/transmission.html|title=CDC – Meningitis: Transmission|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|date=August 6, 2009|accessdate=18 June 2011}}</ref> === Vaksinasi === Ti saprak 1980-an, loba [[nagara]] geus ngalaksanakeun [[imunisasi]] keur ngalawan ''Haemophilus influenzae'' dina program vaksinasi keur barudak leutik anu rutin. Vaksinasi sacara praktis bisa ngaleungitkeun wanda [[patogén]] anu nyababkeun méningitis barudak leutik di sababaraha nagara. Di nagara-nagara anu tingkat panyakitna luhur, ieu vaksin kaasup mahal teuing.<ref name="SegalPollard">{{Cite journal|last=Segal S, Pollard AJ|year=2004|title=Vaccines against bacterial meningitis|url=http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/72/1/65.full.pdf|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=72|issue=1|pages=65–81|doi=10.1093/bmb/ldh041|pmid=15802609}}</ref><ref name="Peltola">{{Cite journal|last=Peltola H|year=2000|title=Worldwide Haemophilus influenzae type b disease at the beginning of the 21st century: global analysis of the disease burden 25 years after the use of the polysaccharide vaccine and a decade after the advent of conjugates|url=http://cmr.asm.org/content/13/2/302.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=13|issue=2|pages=302–17|doi=10.1128/CMR.13.2.302-317.2000|pmc=100154|pmid=10756001}}</ref> Kitu ogé, imunisasi ngalawan [[panyakit mumps]] geus ngurangan jumlah kasus méningitis mumps, anu saacan vaksinasi kajadian 15% tina sakabéh kasus méningitis mumps.<ref name="LoganMacMahon">{{Cite journal|last=Logan SA, MacMahon E|year=2008|title=Viral meningitis|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|volume=336|issue=7634|pages=36–40|doi=10.1136/bmj.39409.673657.AE|pmc=2174764|pmid=18174598}}</ref> Vaksinasi rutin keur ngalawan ''Streptokokkus pneumonia'' ku vaksin ''pneumokokal konjugat'' (PCV), anu aktip ngalawan tujuh [[serotipe]] umum ieu patogén, geus ngurangan nu kakeunaan méningitis pneumokokal.<ref name="SegalPollard">{{Cite journal|last=Segal S, Pollard AJ|year=2004|title=Vaccines against bacterial meningitis|url=http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/72/1/65.full.pdf|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=72|issue=1|pages=65–81|doi=10.1093/bmb/ldh041|pmid=15802609}}</ref><ref name="Weisfelt">{{Cite journal|last=Weisfelt M, de Gans J, van der Poll T, van de Beek D|year=2006|title=Pneumococcal meningitis in adults: new approaches to management and prevention|journal=Lancet Neurol|volume=5|issue=4|pages=332–42|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70409-4|pmid=16545750}}</ref> Vaksin pneumokokus polisakarida, anu kaasup 23 wanda, ngan dibikeun ka sababaraha kelompok wungkul (jalma anu kakeunaan splenektomi, keur ngaleungitkeun [[kawaya]] ngaliwatan operasi). Ieu vaksin henteu bisa nambahan kakuatan [[Imunisasi|imun]] sakabéh anu divaksin utamana keur budak leutik. Vaksinasi keur barudak ngagunakeun ''Bacillus Calmette-Guérin'' geus dilaporkeun bisa ngurangan tingkat méningitis tuberkulosis sacara signifikan, tapi épéktipitasna nyirorot keur jalma anu sawawa. Ku kituna, vaksin anu leuwih hadé kudu ditalungtik deui.<ref name="SegalPollard2">{{cite journal|author=Segal S, Pollard AJ|title=Vaccines against bacterial meningitis|journal=British Medical Bulletin|volume=72|issue=1|pages=65–81|year=2004|pmid=15802609|doi=10.1093/bmb/ldh041|url=http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/72/1/65.full.pdf}}</ref> == Sejarah == Sababaraha literatur nuduhkeun yén [[Hippocrates]] geus apaleun kana panyakit méningitis.<ref name="Attia">{{Cite journal|last=Attia J, Hatala R, Cook DJ, Wong JG|year=1999|title=The rational clinical examination. Does this adult patient have acute meningitis?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1999-07-14_282_2/page/175|journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=282|issue=2|pages=175–81|doi=10.1001/jama.282.2.175|pmid=10411200}}</ref> Meningismeu geus dipikaapal ku [[dokter]] saacan jaman [[Renaisans]] utamana ku tokoh [[Ibnu Sina|Avicenna]].<ref name="Walker">{{Cite book|last=Arthur Earl Walker, Edward R. Laws, George B. Udvarhelyi|title=The Genesis of Neuroscience|url=http://books.google.com/?id=UaSaRzw8gYEC&pg=PP1|year=1998|publisher=Thieme|isbn=1-879284-62-6|pages=219–21|chapter=Infections and inflammatory involvement of the CNS}}</ref> Katerangan ngeunaan méningitis tuberkulosis anu harita dipikawanohedema dina uteuk geus dipatalikeun jeung dokter [[Edinburgh Sir Robert Whytt]] dina laporan posthumous anu muncul taun 1768, sanajan patali antara tuberkulosis jeung patogénna henteu dijieun nepi ka abad satuluyna.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whytt R|title=Observations on the Dropsy in the Brain|year=1768|location=Edinburgh|publisher=J. Balfour}}</ref> Harita, méningitis téh mangrupa panyakit anyar.<ref name="Greenwood">{{Cite journal|last=Greenwood B|year=2006|title=100 years of epidemic meningitis in West Africa – has anything changed?|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01639.x/pdf|format=PDF|journal=Tropical Medicine & International health: TM & IH|volume=11|issue=6|pages=773–80|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01639.x|pmid=16771997}}</ref> Wabah utama anu mimiti muncul di [[Jenéwa]] taun 1805.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vieusseux G|year=1806|title=Mémoire sur le Maladie qui a regne à Généve au printemps de 1805|journal=Journal de Médecine, de Chirurgie et de Pharmacologie (Bruxelles)|language=French|volume=11|pages=50–53}}</ref> Sababaraha epidemi lain muncul di [[Éropa]] atawa di [[Amérika Serikat]], tapi laporan mimiti epidemi téh ayana di [[Afrika]] taun 1840. Epidemi di Afrika leuwih mindeng dina abad ka-20&nbsp;, dimimitian ku épidem utama di [[Nigéria|Nigeria]] jeung [[Ghana|Ghana taun]] 1905-1908. Laporan munggaran tina inféksi baktéri anu nyababkeun meningitis nyaéta ku ahli [[bakteriologi]] [[Austria]] [[Anton Weichselbaum]], dina taun 1887 ngajelaskeun ''meningokokus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weichselbaum A|year=1887|title=Ueber die Aetiologie der akuten Meningitis cerebro-spinalis|journal=Fortschrift der Medizin|language=German|volume=5|pages=573–583}}</ref> Mortalitas tina méingitis luhur pisan (leuwih ti 90%) dina laporan anu geus didadarkeun. Dina taun 1906, antiserum dihasilkeun dina [[kuda]] anu satuluyna dimekarkeun ku élmuwan Amérika [[Simon Flexner]] jeung sacara nyata nurunkeun mortalistas panyakit meningokokus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Flexner S|year=1913|title=The results of the serum treatment in thirteen hundred cases of epidemic meningitis|url=http://jem.rupress.org/content/17/5/553.full.pdf|journal=J Exp Med|volume=17|issue=5|pages=553–76|doi=10.1084/jem.17.5.553|pmc=2125091|pmid=19867668}}</ref><ref name="Swartz">{{Cite journal|last=Swartz MN|year=2004|title=Bacterial meningitis—a view of the past 90 years|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=351|issue=18|pages=1826–28|doi=10.1056/NEJMp048246|pmid=15509815}}</ref> Dina 1944, [[pénisilin]] mimiti dilaporkeun épéktip keur ngubaran méningitis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rosenberg DH, Arling PA|year=1944|title=Penicillin in the treatment of meningitis|journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=125|issue=15|pages=1011–17|doi=10.1001/jama.1944.02850330009002}} reproduced in {{Cite journal|last=Rosenberg DH, Arling PA|year=1984|title=Penicillin in the treatment of meningitis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1984-04-13_251_14/page/1870|journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=251|issue=14|pages=1870–6|doi=10.1001/jama.251.14.1870|pmid=6366279}}</ref> Tuluy diwanohkeun vaksin ''Haemophilus'' dina ahir abad ka-20 nyababkeun kaus méningitis patogén turun sacara signifikan.<ref name="Peltola">{{Cite journal|last=Peltola H|year=2000|title=Worldwide Haemophilus influenzae type b disease at the beginning of the 21st century: global analysis of the disease burden 25 years after the use of the polysaccharide vaccine and a decade after the advent of conjugates|url=http://cmr.asm.org/content/13/2/302.full.pdf|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=13|issue=2|pages=302–17|doi=10.1128/CMR.13.2.302-317.2000|pmc=100154|pmid=10756001}}</ref> Taun 2002, aya bukti nu nuduhkeun yén ngubaran méningitis baktéri ku [[stéroid]] bisa nyageurkeun kalayanan sampurna.<ref name="CochDex2010">{{Cite journal|last=Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, de Gans J, Prasad K, van de Beek D|year=2010|editor-last=Van De Beek|editor-first=Diederik|title=Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=|issue=9|pages=CD004405|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004405.pub3|pmid=20824838|id=CD004405}}</ref><ref name="deGans2002">{{Cite journal|last=de Gans J, van de Beek D|year=2002|title=Dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis|url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMoa021334|format=PDF|journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]|volume=347|issue=20|pages=1549–56|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa021334|pmid=12432041}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} [[Kategori:Panyakit]] l83d1h82rs8rl5ipltthyuop0qxi0j5 Kangker prostat 0 102143 712409 708589 2026-08-28T22:53:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotakinfo Panyakit||Name=Kangker Prostat|ICD10={{ICD10|C|61||c|60}}|ICD9={{ICD9|185}}|Image=Prostatelead.jpg|Caption=|ICDO=|OMIM=176807|DiseasesDB=10780|MedlinePlus=000380|eMedicineSubj=radio|eMedicineTopic=574}} '''Kangker prostat''' nyaéta [[Kangker|kanker]] anu berkembang dina prostat, kelenjar dina sistem [[réproduksi]] [[lalaki]]. Jumlah kanker prostat béda-béda di unggal panjuru dunya, tapi jarang aya kajadian di [[Asia Wétan]] atawa Kidul, lolobana kajadian di [[Éropa]] jeung [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]]. Kangker prostat jarang tumerap ka lalaki di Asia, lolobana kajadian ka lalaki anu kulitna hideung, jeunf urang Éropa salaku panengahna. <ref>[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_2X_What_causes_prostate_cancer_36.asp?sitearea= Overview: Prostate Cancer—What Causes Prostate Cancer?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060404065618/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_2X_What_causes_prostate_cancer_36.asp?sitearea= |date=2006-04-04 }} American Cancer Society ([[2006-05-02]]). Retrieved on [[4007-04-05]]</ref> Dina awak anu kakeunaan ieu panyakit kapanggih rasio plasma [[vitamin B12]] anu nyirorot pisan[[Plasma getih|.]] <ref>{{En icon}} {{Cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2803818|title=Coexistence of pernicious anemia and prostate cancer - 'an experiment of nature' involving vitamin B12 modulation of prostate cancer growth and metabolism: a case report|website=Department of Nutrition and Neoplasia, Whittier Cancer Research Building; Glenn Tisman, Seth Kutik, dan Christa Rainville|accessdate=2010-12-10}}</ref> == Faktor résiko == Faktor anu bisa ningkatkeun kakeunaam kangker kanker prostat nyaéta umur, ras, riwayat kulawarga (turunan), [[hormon]], jeung pola dahar. Résiko tumerap kangker prostat téh ngaronjat keur jalma anu kulitna bodas kalayan umur leuwih ti 50 taun atawa lalaki kulit hideung anu umurna leuwih ti 40 taun. Étnis kulit hideung miboga résiko 1.6x leuwih luhur tibatan lalaki anu kulitna bodas. <ref name="tesis">[http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/123456789/31128/4/Chapter%20II.pdf Tinjauan Pustaka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104080858/http://repository.usu.ac.id/bitstream/123456789/31128/4/Chapter%20II.pdf |date=2013-11-04 }}, Universitas Sumatra Utara.</ref> Lalaki anu kulawarga lalakina keuna ku kangker prostat (lanceuk, bapa, akina) miboga résiko leuwih langkung luhur katerap panyakit tibatan lalaki anu henteu boa riwayat di kulawargana. Faktor séjén anu bisa nyababkeun kangker prostat nyaéta parobahan hormon [[téstostéron]] jeung pola dahar anu loba teuing ngandung [[lemak]].<ref name="tesis"/> <ref name="dharmais">[http://www.dharmais.co.id/index.php/kanker-prostat.html Pasien dan Informasi Kanker: Kanker Prostat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006235855/http://www.dharmais.co.id/index.php/kanker-prostat.html |date=2022-10-06 }}, Dharmais Hospital - National Cancer Institute.</ref> Kadang agén kimia saperti [[Kadmium|Cadmium]] ogé kapanggih dina sél kangker prostat.<ref name="dharmais2">[http://www.dharmais.co.id/index.php/kanker-prostat.html Pasien dan Informasi Kanker: Kanker Prostat] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006235855/http://www.dharmais.co.id/index.php/kanker-prostat.html |date=2022-10-06 }}, Dharmais Hospital - National Cancer Institute.</ref> == Ngungkulan == Sababaraha hal anu bisa dilakukeun keur ngungkulan prostat nyaéta ngajaga kaséhatan, ngajaga beurat awak, nginum cai hérang anu loba, ngurangan déprési, latihan olahraga rutin, jeung ngurangan konsumsi [[alkohol]], daging atawa gajih. <ref name="prodia">[http://prodia.co.id/penyakit-dan-diagnosa/kanker-prostat Kanker Prostat], Diakses pada 3 November 2013. Laboratorium Klinik Prodia.</ref> Keur ngubaran kangker prostat, aya sababaraha pilihan padika ngubaran anu bisa dilakukeun ku dokter di antarana kémoterapi, [[radiasi]], terapi [[hormon]], [[Sistim Operasi|operasi]], jeung ''reseksi transurethral'' tina prostat (TURP, digunakeun dina tahap awal ngubaran panyakit keur miceun jaringan anu ngahalangan saluran kemih). Pilihan ngubaran ieu panyakit beda-beda ti pasién ka pasién sabab éta dipangaruhan ku umur, kaayaan kaséhatan umum, kamekaran tumuwuhna kangker, manpaat jeung efek samping terapi. <ref name="dharmais"/> Terapi hormon digunakeun sangkan awak ngahasilkeun hormon [[Téstostéron|téstostéron,]] anu bisa ngarangsang mekarna sél kangker. Lian ti éta, kémoterapi umumna dipaké dina kasus kangker prostat anu sumebar kana bagian awak anu séjén nepi ka kamekaranana kudu diungkulan ku bahan kimia.<ref name="prodia2">[http://prodia.co.id/penyakit-dan-diagnosa/kanker-prostat Kanker Prostat], Diakses pada 3 November 2013. Laboratorium Klinik Prodia.</ref> == Penapisan == [[Gambar:Diagram_showing_prostate_cancer_pressing_on_the_urethra_CRUK_182.svg|jmpl| Diagram kangker prostat neken kana uretra, nyababkeun gejala kiih henteu lancar atawa radiasi.]] Penapisan kanker prostat mangrupa tarékah néangan kangker anu henteu disangka atawa [[asimtomatik]] jeung kudu disarungsum ku [[Biosistem|biopsi]] kalayan conto sél anu dicokot. Hal kahiji anu kudu dilakukeun nyaéta tés getih PSA (antigen spésipikasi spésifik), lamun positip kudu dilakukeun tés PSA sacara gratis, babandingan anu kadua bakal nangtukeun aya henteuna kangker, satuluyna dilakukeun ujian rektum digital atanapi DRE lamun diperelukeun. Sababaraha pamrograman kontroversial sareng di sababaraha jalma panginten henteu diperyogikeun, balukarna tiasa bahaya pikeun pasién. <ref name="PSA-20111012">{{Cite news|last=Marcione|first=Marilyn|title=Prostate testing's dark side: Men who were harmed|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20111012/D9QAUS2O0.html|publisher=[[Associated Press]]|date=12 October 2011|access-date=2011-10-13}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630164855/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20111012/D9QAUS2O0.html |date=2017-06-30 }}</ref> Penapisan ngagunakeun DRE atawa PSA can bisa ngabuktikeun ngurangan tingkat tilar dunya tina ieu panyakit. <ref name="BMJ2010">{{Cite journal|last=Djulbegovic M, Beyth RJ, Neuberger MM, Stoffs TL, Vieweg J, Djulbegovic B, Dahm P|year=2010|title=Screening for prostate cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials|journal=BMJ|volume=341|issue=|pages=c4543|doi=10.1136/bmj.c4543|pmc=2939952|pmid=20843937}}</ref> [[United States Preventive Services Task Force]] ( USPSTF ) nyarankeun tés PSA keur mikanyaho ayana kangker prostat atawa henteu. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moyer VA, on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task, Force|date=May 2012|title=Screening for Prostate Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=|issue=|doi=10.1059/0003-4819-157-2-201207170-00459|pmid=22615453}}</ref> Tina éta tés kapanggih mangpaat tibatan hal anu leuwih ngabahayakeun. <ref name="USPTF2012">{{Cite web|url=http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/prostatecancerscreening/prostatecancerscript.pdf|title=Talking With Your Patients About Screening for Prostate Cancer|website=|format=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601084819/http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/prostatecancerscreening/prostatecancerscript.pdf|archivedate=2012-06-01|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2012-07-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011150935/http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/prostatecancerscreening/prostatecancerscript.pdf |date=2014-10-11 }}</ref> <ref name="USPSTF-20111007">{{Cite journal|last=Chou R, Croswell JM, Dana T, Bougatsos C, Blazina I, Fu R, Gleitsmann K, Koenig HC, Lam C, Maltz A, Rugge JB, Lin K|date=December 2011|title=Screening for prostate cancer: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force|url=http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf12/prostate/prostateart.htm|dead-url=yes|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=155|issue=11|pages=762–71|doi=10.1059/0003-4819-155-11-201112060-00375|pmid=21984740|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818195415/http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf12/prostate/prostateart.htm|archive-date=2014-08-18|access-date=2015-03-09}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818195415/http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf12/prostate/prostateart.htm |date=2014-08-18 }}</ref> [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] satuju kana ieu kasimpulan. <ref name="CDC">[http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/Prostate/basic_info/screening.htm Prostate Cancer Screening] CDC, updated April 6, 2010</ref> Sanajan kitu, ieu cara teu kudu diturutan ku urang [[Indonésia]] anu résiko kakeunaan kangker prostatna leuwih leutik tibatan urang Amerika, tapi leuwih hadé, lalaki urang Indonésia dimimitian dina umur 55 taun ngalakukeun ''ultrasound prostat''. [[American Society of Clinical Oncology]] jeung [[American College of médis|American College of Medis]] nyarankeun yén penapisan henteu kudu dilakukeun keur jalma anu ngagaduhan umur 10 nepi ka 15 taun. <ref name="Qa2013">{{Cite journal|last=Qaseem A, Barry MJ, Denberg TD, Owens DK, Shekelle P|date=April 2013|title=Screening for Prostate Cancer: A Guidance Statement From the Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2013-05-21_158_10/page/n70|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=158|issue=10|pages=761–9|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-158-10-201305210-00633|pmid=23567643}}</ref> Sacara umum, can bisa dipastikeun mangpaat tés PSA keur ngarojong pamariksaan kangker prostat, naha ngabahayakeun atawa mantuan diagnosa dokter anu leuwih akurat. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Basch E, Oliver TK, Vickers A, Thompson I, Kantoff P, Parnes H, Loblaw DA, Roth B, Williams J, Nam RK|date=Jul 16, 2012|title=Screening for Prostate Cancer With Prostate-Specific Antigen Testing: American Society of Clinical Oncology Provisional Clinical Opinion|url=http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2012/07/16/JCO.2012.43.3441.full.pdf|journal=Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology|volume=30|issue=24|pages=3020–5|doi=10.1200/JCO.2012.43.3441|pmc=3776923|pmid=22802323}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309115540/http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/early/2012/07/16/JCO.2012.43.3441.full.pdf |date=March 9, 2013 }}</ref> [[The American Urological Association]] (AUA 2013) nyadiakeun pituduh keur mikanyaho mangpaat pencegahan tilar dunya tina panyakit kangker prostat antara 1 dina unggal 1000 lalaki anu diubaran salila 10 taun kalayan bahaya anu dipikanyaho patali jeung uji diagnostik jeung pangobatan. AUA méré kamandang yén kaputusan penapisan jalma anu umur 55 nepi ka 69 taun kudu didasaran kaputusan babarengan antara dokter jeung pasién, lamun dilakukeun ulah leuwih ti 2 taun sakali. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.auanet.org/education/guidelines/prostate-cancer-detection.cfm|title=EARLY DETECTION OF PROSTATE CANCER: AUA GUIDELINE|year=2013|website=American Urological Association|accessdate=10 May 2013}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507095505/http://www.auanet.org/education/guidelines/prostate-cancer-detection.cfm |date=7 May 2013 }}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist|30em}} [[Kategori:Panyakit]] 10nd1gztgtez8e5jj3zahaq94chw11h Hauméa (planét katé) 0 102289 712320 706220 2026-08-28T20:44:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Planet |bgcolour=#FFFFC0 |orbit_ref=<ref name="jpldata" /> |caption=Hauméa |discovery=yes |discoverer=[[Michael E. Brown|Brown]] ''et al.''; [[José Luis Ortiz Moreno|Ortiz]] ''et al.'' (taya nu resmi) |discovered=28 Desember 2004 (Brown ''et al.''); Juli 2005 (Ortiz ''et al.'') |mp_name=(136108) Haumea |alt_names={{mp|2003 EL|61}} |asc_node=121,10° |mp_category=[[planet katé]], [[plutoid]], [[objék trans-Neptunus|TNO]] <span style="white-space:nowrap;">(dihilangkan dari [[cubewano]])</span><ref name="K09A63">{{cite web |title=Minor Planet Electronic Circular 2009-A63 : Distant Minor Planets (2009 JAN. 29.0 TT) |date=2009-01-13|publisher=Minor Planet Center |url=http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/mpec/K09/K09A63.html |accessdate=2009-02-03 |format=[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/mpec/K06/K06X45.html 2006 provisional Cubewano listing]}}</ref><ref name="Buie"> {{cite web |author=[[Marc W. Buie]] |date=2008-06-25 |title=Orbit Fit and Astrometric record for 136108 |publisher=Southwest Research Institute (Space Science Department) |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/~buie/kbo/astrom/136108.html |accessdate=2008-10-02}}</ref>{{br}}[[Resonan objek trans-Neptunus|resonansi 12:7]] orde kelima<ref name="candidate"> {{cite journal |title=Candidate Members and Age Estimate of the Family of Kuiper Belt Object {{mp|2003 EL|61}} |author=D. Ragozzine; M. E. Brown |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=134|issue=6|pages= 2160–2167 |date=2007-09-04 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007arXiv0709.0328R |accessdate=2008-09-19 |doi=10.1086/522334}}</ref>|epoch=30 November 2008 ([[poé Julian]] 2454800,5)|semimajor=6.452 [[Giga|G]][[meter|m]]{{br}}43,132 [[satuan astronomi|sa]]|perihelion=5.194 Gm{{br}}34,721 sa|aphelion=7.710 Gm{{br}}51,544 sa|eccentricity=0,195&nbsp;01|period=103&nbsp;468 [[poé]] (283,28 [[taun Julian (astronomi)|taun]])|inclination=28,22[[darajat (juru)|°]]|image=[[File:Haumea Hubble.png]]|name=Hauméa|mass=(4,006 ± 0,040){{e|21}} [[kilogram|kg]]<ref name="Ragozzine&Brown2009"> {{cite journal |last=Ragozzine |first=D. |coauthors=Brown, M.E. |date=2009 |title=Orbits and Masses of the Satellites of the Dwarf Planet Haumea = 2003 EL61 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/0903.4213}} </ref>|mean_anomaly=202,67°|satellites=2|physical_characteristics=yes|dimensions=≈1.960&nbsp;×&nbsp;1.518&nbsp;×&nbsp;996&nbsp;km ([[téléskop Keck|Keck]])<ref name="Rabinowitz2005"> {{cite journal |author=[[David L. Rabinowitz|D. L. Rabinowitz]], K. M. Barkume, [[Michael E. Brown|M. E. Brown]], H. G. Roe, M. Schwartz, S. W. Tourtellotte, [[Chadwick A. Trujillo|C. A. Trujillo]] |year=2006 |title=Photometric Observations Constraining the Size, Shape, and Albedo of {{mp|2003 EL|61}}, a Rapidly Rotating, Pluto-Sized Object in the Kuiper Belt |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2006-03-10_639_2/page/1238 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=639|issue=2|pages=1238–1251 |format=[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0509401 preprint on arXiv]|doi=10.1086/499575}} </ref> {{br}}([[rataan geometrik|≈1.436 km]]){{br}}1.150 <sup>+250</sup> km ([[teleskop Spitzer|Spitzer]])<ref name="spitzer"> {{cite web |title=Physical Properties of Kuiper Belt and Centaur Objects: Constraints from Spitzer Space Telescope |author=John Stansberry, Will Grundy, Mike Brown, Dale Cruikshank, John Spencer, David Trilling, Jean-Luc Margot |work=University of Arizona, Lowell Observatory, California Institute of Technology, NASA Ames Research Center, Southwest Research Institute, Cornell University |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0702538v2 |date=2007-02-20 |accessdate=2008-07-27}}</ref>|radius=≈980&nbsp;×&nbsp;759&nbsp;×&nbsp;498 km (≈750 km)|surface_area=≈2{{e|7}} [[kilometer persegi|km<sup>2</sup>]]|volume=|density=2,6–3,3 g/[[séntiméter kubik|cm³]]<ref name="Rabinowitz2005"/>|surface_grav=0,44 m/s²|arg_peri=239,18°|escape_velocity=0,84 km/s|sidereal_day=0,163&nbsp;146&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,000&nbsp;004 h{{br}}(3,915&nbsp;5&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,000&nbsp;1 j)<ref name="hour"> {{cite journal |title=High-Precision Photometry of Extreme KBO 2003 EL61 |author=Pedro Lacerda, David Jewitt and Nuno Peixinho |date=2008-04-02 |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume= 135 |pages=1749–1756 |url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1538-3881/135/5/1749 |accessdate=2008-09-22 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/135/5/1749}}</ref>|spectral_type=?|magnitude=17,3 (oposisi)<ref name=AstDys>{{cite web |title=AstDys (136108) Haumea Ephemerides |publisher=Department of Mathematics, University of Pisa, Italy |url=http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.3.0&n=Haumea |accessdate=2009-03-19 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629202435/http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/astdys/index.php?pc=1.1.3.0&n=Haumea |date=2011-06-29 }}</ref><ref name="Horizons"> {{cite web |title=HORIZONS Web-Interface |publisher=[http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory Solar System Dynamics] |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=sb&sstr=2003EL61 |accessdate=2008-07-02}}</ref>|abs_magnitude=0,17<ref name="jpldata"> {{cite web |date=2008-05-10 last obs |title=Jet Propulsion Laboratory Small-Body Database Browser: 136108 Haumea ({{mp|2003 EL|61}}) |publisher=NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=136108 |accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref>|albedo=0,7&nbsp;±&nbsp;0,1<ref name="Rabinowitz2005"/>{{br}}0,84 <sup>+0.1</sup><ref name="spitzer"/>|avg_speed=4,484 km/[[detik|det]]|single_temperature=<50&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]<ref name="Trujillo 2006"> {{cite journal |author=[[Chadwick A. Trujillo]], [[Michael E. Brown]], Kristina Barkume, Emily Shaller, [[David L. Rabinowitz]] |title=The Surface of {{mp|2003 EL|61}} in the Near Infrared |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_2007-02-01_655_2/page/1172 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=655|date=February 2007|pages=1172–1178 |format=[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601618 preprint] |doi=10.1086/509861}} </ref>|background=#C2E0FF}} '''Hauméa''' (simbol: [[File:Haumea symbol (bold).svg|16px|🝻]]),<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/infographics/what-is-a-dwarf-planet |author= JPL/NASA |date= 2015-04-22 |website= Jet Propulsion Laboratory |title= What is a Dwarf Planet? |access-date= 2022-01-19}}</ref> resmina katelah '''(136108) Hauméa''' atawa landihan saheulaanana '''(136108) 2003 EL61''' nyaéta [[planét katé]] di [[beubeur Kuiper]], ceuk itungan kasarna mah massana téh kira kira sapertiluna massa [[Pluto]], kapanggih ku tim-na [[Michael E. Brown|Mike Brown]] di [[Caltech]] di [[Amérika Sarikat]] atawa [[José Luis Ortiz Moreno|J. L. Ortiz]] et al. ti ''Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía'' di [[Obsérvatorium Sierra Nevada]] di [[Spanyol]] (keur disawalakeun kénéh). Ngan ari [[Minor Planet Center]] mah, netepkeun tim-na si Ortiz nu manggihna téh, ku sabab manéhna jelema anu mimiti ngabéwarakeun éta objek. Dina tanggal 17 Séptémber 2008, Hauméa diklasifikasikeun salaku planét katé ku IAU. Hauméa dikurilingan ku dua satelit alami anu dibéré ngaran Namaka jeung Hi'iaka, duanana mangrupa astéroid anu kakurung ku médan gravitasi Hauméa. Hauméa kaasup planet katé anu samanéa, ku sabab wangunna élips. Hauméa dikira-kira mibanda lega permukaan aya kana 2×10^7 km2 atawa 20,000,000 km2 anu hartina Hauméa lega beungeut taneuhna leuwih badag saeutik ti batan [[Rusia|Nagara Rusia]]. == Ngaran == Ngaran '''Hauméa''' asalna tina salah sahiji ngaran déwi dina mitologi [[Hawaii]]<ref name="craig">{{cite book|author=Robert D. Craig|title=Handbook of Polynesian Mythology|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/?id=LOZuirJWXvUC&pg=PA128&dq=haumea|page=128|isbn=9781576078945}}</ref> == Référénsi == {{reflist|2}} == Tumbu luar == * [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/orbits/2003el61.html NASA visualization of the orbit] * [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astmoons/am-136108.html Updated data] * ''Space.com'' story: [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050729_large_object.html Large new world discovered beyond Neptune] * ''New Scientist'' story: [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7751 New world found in outer solar system] * ''BBC'' story: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4726733.stm Distant object found orbiting Sun] * [http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1560_1.asp Astronomers Discover "10th Planet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203171208/http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1560_1.asp|date=2008-12-03}} - [[Sky & Telescope]] article describing the discovery of {{mp|(136108) 2003 EL|61}} and 136199 Eris. * [http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/2003EL61/ Michael Brown's webpage] * ''New Scientist'' story: [http://www.newscientistspace.com/article.ns?id=dn7968 Distant solar system body may be cigar-shaped] * ''BBC'' story: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4230056.stm Record spin rate for cosmic body] * ''news @ nature.com'' story: [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050905/full/050905-17.html Cosmic 'cigar' spins at astonishing pace; Pluto's neighbour has a very unexpected shape], September 9, 2005. * ''New York Times'' story: [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/13/science/space/13plan.html?ex=1284264000&en=7f5f96302a67ae30&ei=5090 "One find, two astronomers"], September 13, 2005. * S.C. Tegler, W. Grundy, W. Romanishin, G. Consolmagno, K. Mogren, F. Vilas: ''Optical Spectroscopy of the Large Kuiper Belt Objects 136472 (2005 FY9) and 136108 (2003 EL61).'' [http://arXiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0611135 Preprint] {{Surya Mandala}}{{CentaurTNO-stub}} c11qgnj2cae3tfjmyk2ruht4678gwjy Supa haréndong 0 102293 712372 675094 2026-08-28T22:07:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Genus of fungi}} {{italic title}} {{Taxobox | name = ''Inocybe'' (Fiber caps) | image = Inocybe rimosa.jpg | image_caption = Supa haréndong | regnum = [[Fungi]] | divisio = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Agaricales]] | familia = [[Inocybaceae]] | genus = '''''Inocybe''''' | genus_authority = ([[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]]) Fr. (1863) | type_species = ''[[Inocybe relicina]]'' | type_species_authority = (Fr.) [[Lucien Quélet|Quél.]] (1888) | synonyms = *''Agaricus'' trib. ''Inocybe'' <small>Fr. (1821)</small> *''Agaricus'' subgen. ''Clypeus'' <small>[[Britzelm.]] (1881)</small> *''Astrosporina'' <small>[[J.Schröt.]] (1889)</small> *''Clypeus'' <small>(Britzelm.) [[Fayod]] (1889)</small> *''Agmocybe'' <small>[[Franklin Sumner Earle|Earle]] (1909)</small> *''Inocibium'' <small>Earle (1909)</small> *''Astrosporina'' <small>[[S.Imai]] (1938)</small> *''Inocybella'' <small>[[Marija Ja. (Mariya Ya.) Zerova|Zerova]] (1974)</small> }} '''''Supa haréndong'''''; ''Inocybe rimosa'' nyaéta supa atawa suung anu asalna tina kulawarga ''Cortinariaceae''. [[Genus]] ieu supa mibanda leuwih ti 1400 spésiés, kaasup sareng sagala rupi ''variasi''. Anggota '' Inocybe '' nyaéta [[mycorrhizal]], sareng sababaraha buktina nunjukkeun yén tingkat spésipik luhur dina ieu genus kusabab adaptasi kana tatangkalan anu béda sareng malahan kana lingkunganna.<ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =11|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/11/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 25 Mei 2021}}</ref> == Étimologi == Ngaran Latin ''Inocybe'' hartina "''fibrous'' hat"/Topi harambay. Éta dicandak tina kecap [[Yunani]] ἴς (dina ''genitif'' ἴνος, hartosna “Otot, atawa saraf, harambay, kakuatan, vigor”) jeung κύβη (“sirah”).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Illustrated generic names of Fungi|last1=Ulloa|first1=Miguel|last2=Aguirre-Acosta|first2=Elvira|publisher=APS press|year=2020|isbn=978-0-89054-618-5|pages=190}}</ref> == Sajarah == Genus ieu mimiti dipikawanoh salaku ''Agaricus'' trib. Supa haréndong/''Inocybe'' diguar ku sarjana [[Swédia]] [[Elias Magnus Fries]] tina bukuna polumeu anu ka 1 , ''[[Systema Mycologicum|Systema mycologicum]]'' (1821), diverifikasi dina bukuna anu polumeu 2 ''Monographia Hymenomycetum Sueciae'' dina 1863. Sadaya usaha ngaganti nami anu sanés ieu, ditampi salaku sinonimna. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000067&Rec=56750&Fields=All|title=Inocybe|website=mycobank.org|access-date=2019-05-13}}</ref> ==Ciri mandiri == [[File:Metuloid.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Metuloid]]-tipe [[cystidium]], ciri tina ''mikromorphologis'' anu ngaidéntifikasi ''Inocybe''.]] Supa khas genus ieu sababaraha ngagaduhan kelirna coklat, sanaos sababaraha spésiés aya diantarana anu kelirna semu [[bungur]] /''lilac'' atawa gandaria. Congcot [[dudukuy]]na sok disebut[[umbo]] leutik tur monyong, sanaos aya ogé anu némprak rata. Remen katingali haramay dina ieu tutupna, tayalian ieu pisan anu ngajadikeun ieu genus mibanda ngaran umum/ [[common name]] ''fiber caps''. Seueur spésiésna ngagaduhan bau anu mandiri, sadayana didadarkeun salaku ''musty'' atanapi ''spermatic''. Tina kaseuseueuran spésiés, mibanda ciri mandiri: * '''[[Pileus (mycology)|Pileus]]''': Anu wujudna kawas dudukuy, ukuran leutik dugi sedeng, ipis, ''fleshy'', mimitina monyong leutik atanapi kawas [[locéng]], ''umbo'' atanapi congclotna aya anu nyendul atanapi rata di tengahna. Éta henteu ''hibrofan''/leucir sareng katempona garing. Aya ogé spésiés anu bagéan luarna kawas buluan (''woolly in Mycological sense''). Mimitina kelirna bodas dugi ka kulawu. Sababaraha kelirna teu robah, tapi aya deui anu kelirna robah, semu konéng nepika semu coklat, malahan aya anu robah kelirna jadi [[bungur]] malahan [[gandaria]] . * '''[[Lamella (mycology)|Lamellas]]:''' tayalian guguratan sakuriling handapeun [[dudukuy]]na, katempo padet, kandel sareng ramé, kalayan ''sinus'' panengah pondok di pasisian sareng ngan ukur napel dina ''stipe'', ampir bébas. kelirna bodas nyacas, tapi lamun geus déwasa mah robah jadi kulawu-coklat, atanapi kulawu-zaitun. * '''Spores:''' Kelirna coklat, leutik, umumna lonyod, remen katempo kawas kacang. ''Basidia'' tayalian ''tetrasporic''. * '''Stipe:''' atawa tangkalna, ipis, ''fibrous''/wujudna harambay:gurat, buleud, kelirna bodas ngaleutikan ka handap. Palebah luarna bodas, rata, lucir,biasana teu aya cincina. * '''Context:''' nalika dikeureutan, tina bodas janten rada konéng, dioksidasi atanapi henteu ka beureum nalika motong, ilaharna sok kaangseu bau, ''klorin'' atanapi spérma. Ilaharna daging ngandung ''muscarine''. ==Spésiés== {{main|List of Inocybe species}} Aya ratusan spésiés "Inocybe". Wawakil ti genus diantarana: *''[[Inocybe aeruginascens]]'' (psychoactive) *''[[Inocybe coelestium]]'' (psychoactive) *''[[Inocybe corydalina var. corydalina]]'' Quél. (psychoactive) *''[[Inocybe corydalina var. erinaceomorpha]]'' (psychoactive) *''[[Inocybe erubescens]]'' (= ''I. patouillardii'') red-staining inocybe *''[[Inocybe geophylla]]'' (toxic) *''[[Inocybe haemacta]]'' (psychoactive) *''[[Inocybe hystrix]]'' *''[[Inocybe lacera]]'' *''[[Inocybe tricolor]]'' (psychoactive) == Gambar tina sababaraha genera == <gallery class="center"> Hösel 23.07.2017 Inocybe dulcamara (36853299366).jpg|I. dulcamara (1) 2012-08-03 Inocybe terrigena (Fr.) Kühner 244877.jpg|I. terrigena (1) Inocybe bongardii 187337.jpg|I. bongardii (2) Inocybe calamistrata 63726.jpg|I. calamistrata (2) Inocybe cookei a1.JPG|I. cookei (3) 2010-04-27 Inocybe erubescens.jpg|I. erubescens (3) Inocybe jurana 350770.jpg|I. jurana (3) 2011-11-26 Inocybe rimosa (Bull.) P. Kumm 185170.jpg|I. rimosa (3) 2012-04-25 Inocybe fraudans (Britzelm.) Sacc 214752.jpg|I. fraudans (4) Inocybe godeyi 71610.jpg|I. godeyi (4) </gallery> <gallery class="center"> Inocybe whitei 275323.jpg|I. whitei (4) 2011-10-02 Inocybe hystrix (Fr.) Karsten 172120.jpg|I. hystrix (5) Inocybe griseolilacina 817948.jpg|I. griseolilacina (5) Inocybe obscura 20061015w.jpg|I. obscura (5) 2012-05-01 Inocybe abjecta P. Karst 216530.jpg|I. lacera (6) Inocybe flocculosa 440275.jpg|I. flocculosa (7) Inocybe geophylla, Medford.jpg|I. geophylla (7) Inocybe fuscidula 622736.jpg|I. virgatula (7) Inocybe hirtella 170926w.JPG|I. hirtella (8) Inocybe sindonia (Fr.) P. Karst 821102.jpg|I. sindonia (8) </gallery> <gallery class="center"> 2011-06-10 Inocybe assimilata Britzelm 150660.jpg|I. assimilata (9) Inocybe.lanuginosa3.-.lindsey.jpg|I. lanuginosa (9) Inocybe relicina 95610.jpg|I. relicina (9) Inocybe asterospora a1 (5).JPG|I. asterospora (10) Inocybe praetervisa 21502.jpg|I. praetervisa (10) Inocybe fibrosa 271882.jpg|I. fibrosa (11) 2013-10-19 Inocybe petiginosa (Fr.) Gillet 396906.jpg|I.petiginosa (11) File:Inocybe obscura 20061015w.jpg </gallery> ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|2}} <ref name="urlFungorum synonymy: Inocybe">{{cite web |title=Synonymy: ''Inocybe'' (Fr.) Fr. |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=17848 |publisher=Species Fungorum. CAB International |access-date=2015-02-15}}</ref> ==Bacaan Salajengna== *{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/2435009 | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = G. F. | year = 1918 | title = Some new species of ''Inocybe''| journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 210–218 | jstor = 2435009 }} *{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/3761005 | last1 = Cripps | first1 = C. L. | year = 1997 | title = The genus ''Inocybe'' in Montana aspen stands| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_mycologia_july-august-1997_89_4/page/670 | journal = Mycologia | volume = 89 | issue = 4| pages = 670–688 | jstor = 3761005 }} *[http://www.svims.ca/council/Inocyb.rtf Stuntz, D. E. (1978).] Interim skeleton key to some common species of ''Inocybe'' in the Pacific Northwest. Notes and species descriptions by Gibson, I. (2004). ==Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.pilzepilze.de/galerie/v/Lateinisch/I/inocybe/ ''Inocybe'' Photos] (www.pilzepilze.de) * http://www.inocybe.org/ {{Taxonbar|from=Q784343}} [[Kategori:Supa]] [[Kategori:Inocybaceae]] [[Kategori:Suung]] [[Kategori:tutuwuhan supa]] kv1t78tyh2atgvet7x8ww45kj5ipoq9 Supa haté 0 102338 712421 711809 2026-08-28T23:09:39Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712421 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | image = Ziegenlippe Xerocomus subtomentosus.jpg | image_width = 234px | regnum = [[Fungi]] | divisio = [[Basidiomycota]] | classis = [[Agaricomycetes]] | ordo = [[Boletales]] | familia = [[Boletaceae]] | genus = ''[[Xerocomus]]'' | species = '''''X. subtomentosus''''' | binomial = ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' | binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Quél.]] (1888) | synonyms = ''Boletus subtomentosus'' <small>L. (1753)</small><br> ''Boletus crassipes'' <small>Schaeff., 1774</small><br> ''Boletus cupreus'' <small>Schaeff.,1774</small><br> ''Leccinum subtomentosum'' <small>(L.) Gray, 1821</small><br> ''Boletus lanatus'' <small>Rostk., 1844</small><br> ''Boletus pannosus'' <small>Rostk., 1844</small><br> ''Boletus striipes'' <small>Fr., 1874</small><br> ''Boletus leguei'' <small>Boud., 1894</small> }} '''Supa haté'''; ''jamur ati''; ''Boletus subtomentosus'' nyaéta hiji supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Boletaceae]]. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Juni 2021}}</ref> Dina basa [[Inggris]] dipiwanoh salaku ''suede bolete'', ''brown and yellow bolet'', ''boring brown bolete'' atawa ''yellow-cracked bolete'', tayalian spésiés tina [[bolete]]. Ieu supa mimiti diguar ku [[Carl Linnaeus]] taun 1753 ti harita dipiwanoh ngaranna salaku ''Boletus subtomentosus''. <ref name=guar/> Supa haté bisa dikonsumsi sabada diasakan heula saméméhna, sanajan kitu ieu supa henteu loba anu ngonsumsi kawas supa-supa anu séjén. <ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Roger |title=Mushrooms and Other Fungi of North America |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=Firefly Books |location=Buffalo, NY |isbn=978-1-55407-651-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsotherfu0000phil/page/254 254]}}</ref> Supa haté loba kapanggih hirup di sapanjang Eurasia, [[Amérika Kalér]] sareng [[Australia]] hirup dina [[catang]] kai sareng tatangkalan [[konifer]]. Éta ngabentuk ''[[simbiotik]]'' ''[[ectomycorrhiza]]'' pakait sareng tangkal hirup ku cara nutupan akar tangkal jero taneuh disimbutan ku jaringan ieu supa. Supa haté ngahasilkeun [[spora]] - tayalian tina [[tangkal|basidiocarp]]na. U kurang buleudan tutupna {{convert|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} diaméterna sareng gaduh kulit anu mandiri, katempo kawas ''velvety''/buludru. Sarua kawas ''boletes'' anu séjén, éta ngagaduhan tabung/tsngkal dugi ka handap tina handapeun tutup, mibanda ''[[lamella (mycology)|gills]]''/érang-érang; spora kabur nalika déwasa ngaliwatan pipah-pipah, atanapi ''pori-pori''. Permukaan liang na konéng sareng biru. [[Stipe (mycology) | stipe]], atanapi bobot, ukuran dugi ka 8&nbsp;cm (3&nbsp;in) kandelna {{convert|2|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}. [[Gambar:Boletus subtomentosus (?) (48647201067).jpg|kiri|jmpl|Supa hate]] ==Taxonomy== ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' munggaran dijelaskeun dina 1753 ku bapak taksonomi [[Carl Linnaeus]] salaku ''Boletus subtomentosus''.<ref name=guar>{{cite book | author=Linnaeus C | title=Species Plantarum| publisher=Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm | year=1753|chapter= Tomus&nbsp;II | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/359193#page/620/mode/1up | page=1178|language=la}}</ref> Tanggal mimiti jamur [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] sakumaha parantos diatur January&nbsp;1, 1821, sareng tanggal karya ''bapak mikologi'', ''Naturalis'' [[Swédia]] [[Elias Magnus Fries]], anu hartosna nami éta kirang panuju ku Fries ''(indicated in the name by a colon)'' dianggap sah, salaku 'Linnaeus' didamel sateuacanna tanggal ieu. Sakitu diserat ''Boletus subtomentosus'' L.:Fr. Nanging, di robih deui dina taun 1987 tina ''[[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]]'' nyetél tanggal mimiti di May&nbsp;1, 1753, tanggal dikaluarkeun tina padamelan 'Linnaeus' , the ''[[Species Plantarum]]''.<ref name="Esser 1994"/> ku kituna éta henteu kedah ngarujuk/''meratifikasi'' deui otoritas Fries. Ahli mikologis [[Perancis]] [[Lucien Quélet]] parantos diklasifikasikeun sajumlah ''[[Boletus]]'' spésiés dina génus ''Xerocomus'', sareng ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' didamel [[type species]]. Ngaran genus asalna tina [[Yunani kuno]] ''Xeros'' "garing" jeung ''kome'' "buuk", ngarujuk kana kulit luar anu lega tina topi/tutupna.<ref name="Nilper 1977"/> Klasifikasi ieu ''dibantah'', kalayan seueur ''otoritas'' henteu mikawanoh jinisna sareng terus dianggo ''Boletus subtomentosus''; kumaha ogé analisis ''genetik'' ikaluarkeun dina taun 2013 negeskeun béntenna spésiés ieu sareng baraya caketna ti ''kelompok'' inti jamur dina génus ''Boletus'' ([[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]]).<ref name="Nuhn 2013"/> ''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' sareng baraya, kaasup ''[[Phylloporus pelletieri]]'', ngabentuk hiji [[clade]] dipikanyaho ''informal'' salaku "/Xerocomus Clade" dina grup anu langkung ageung (''informally called hypoboletus'') dina suborder [[Boletineae]]. Klad anu sanés dina kelompok kalebet ''[[Aureoboletus]]'' jeung ''[[Hemileccinum]]'' ''clades'', ogé spésiés anu ayeuna ditunjuk ''Boletus'' (sanaos aranjeunna henteu caket hubunganana sareng ''[[Boletus edulis]]'') sareng tilu spésiés anu ayeuna ditunjuk ''[[Boletellus]]'' (sanaos aranjeunna henteu gampang janten baraya caket tina jinis spésiésna, ''[[Boletellus ananas]]''). Klad anu ngandung ''gugus hypoboletus'' sareng ''[[Royoungia]]'' clade téh sadérék kana kelompok ''anaxoboletus'' (ngandung genera ''[[Tylopilus]]'' [[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]], ''[[Strobilomyces]]'', ''[[Xanthoconium]]'', ''[[Porphyrellus]]'', ''[[Xerocomellus]]'', ''[[Boletus]]'' [[Sensu#Common qualifiers|sensu stricto]], sareng spésiés anu meryogikeun nami generik énggal (contona., ''[[Boletus badius]]'') sareng kelompok leccinoid (diwangun ku genera ''[[Leccinellum]]'', ''[[Leccinum]]'', ''[[Spongiforma]]'', sareng spésiésna ''[[Retiboletus griseus]]'').<ref name="Nuhn 2013"/> As ''X.&nbsp;subtomentosus'' mangrupikeun jinis spésiés tina genus, éta sareng baraya caket tetep ''Xerocomus'' sabab anggota sanés ditempatkeun dina genera anu béda. Tayalian nami ''spesifikna'' ''subtomentosus'' tina basa [[Latin]] "finely haired", nunjul kana tutupna/topi.<ref name="Nilper 1977"/> Panulis supa David Arora galandih supa éta '' bolete coklat membosankan '' kusabab kurangna raos sareng daya tarikna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> ==Tempo ogé == {{Portal|Fungi}} *[[List of North American boletes]] ==Dicutat tina == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Arora 1986">{{cite book |author=Arora D |author-link=David Arora |year=1986 |title=Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |edition=2nd |location=Berkeley, California |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=0-89815-169-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/517 517–18] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/517 }}</ref> <ref name="urlBoletales">{{cite web |url=http://boletales.com/genera/xerocomus/x-subtomentosus/ |title=''Xerocomus subtomentosus'' |author=Assyov B. |year=2013 |publisher=Boletales.com |access-date=21 October 2015}}</ref> <ref name=Elborne1990>{{cite book | title=The Greenland Mountain Birch Zone, Southwest Greenland | publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=9788763512046 |veditors=Fredskild B, Ødum S | year=1990 | chapter= Larger Fungi Associated with ''Betula pubescens'' in Greenland |vauthors=Elborne SA, Knudsen H | pages=77–80}}</ref> <ref name="Esser 1994">{{cite book |vauthors=Esser K, Lemke PA |title=The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research |url=https://archive.org/details/mossflorabritain00libg |url-access=limited |publisher=Springer |location=Heidelberg, Germany |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mossflorabritain00libg/page/n93 81] |isbn=3-540-66493-9}}</ref> <ref name="Jarzynska 2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jarzynska G, Chojnacka A, Dryzalowska A, Nnorom IC, Falandysz J |title=Concentrations and bioconcentration factors of minerals in yellow-cracking bolete (''Xerocomus subtomentosus'') mushroom collected in Notec Forest, Poland |journal=Journal of Food Science |year=2012 |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=H202–H206 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02876.x|pmid=22897470 }}</ref> <ref name="Laursen 2010">{{cite book |vauthors=Laursen GA, Seppelt RD |title=Common Interior Alaska Cryptogams: Fungi, Lichenicolous Fungi, Lichenized Fungi, Slime Molds, Mosses, and Liverworts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRSJzyN_eB4C&pg=PA75 |year=2010|publisher=University of Alaska Press |isbn=978-1-60223-109-2 |page=75}}</ref> <ref name="Loizides 2019">{{cite journal |title=Present status and future of boletoid fungi (Boletaceae) on the island of Cyprus: cryptic and threatened diversity unraveled by 10-year study. |vauthors=Loizides M, Bellanger JM, Assyov B, Moreau PA, Richard F |journal=Fungal Ecology |volume=41 |issue=13 |pages=65–81 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.funeco.2019.03.008 }}</ref> <ref name="Maire 1937">{{cite journal |author=Maire R. |title=Fungi Maroccani |journal=Mémoires de la Société des sciences naturelles du Maroc |year=1937 |volume=45 |page=87 |url=http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=3447&Pagina=91 |language=fr }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205542/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=3447&Pagina=91 |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> <ref name="Michell 2006">{{cite book |author=Michell K |title=Field Guide to Mushrooms and Other Fungi of Britain and Europe |publisher=New Holland Publishers |year=2006 |pages=34 |isbn=1-84537-474-6}}</ref> <ref name="Nilper 1977">{{cite book |vauthors=Nilson S, Persson O |year=1977 |title=Fungi of Northern Europe 1: Larger Fungi (Excluding Gill-Fungi) |url=https://archive.org/details/fungiofnortherne0000nils |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-063005-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fungiofnortherne0000nils/page/106 106]}}</ref> <ref name="Nuhn 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nuhn ME, Binder M, Taylor AF, Halling RE, Hibbett DS |title=Phylogenetic overview of the Boletineae |url=https://archive.org/details/fungal-biology_july-august-2013_117_7-8/page/479 |journal=Fungal Biology |year=2013 |volume=117 |issue=7–8 |pages=479–511 |doi=10.1016/j.funbio.2013.04.008 |pmid=23931115}}</ref> <ref name="Taylor 2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taylor AF, Hills AE, Simonini G, Muñoz JA, Eberhardt U |title=''Xerocomus silwoodensis'' sp. nov., a new species within the European ''X. subtomentosus'' complex |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_fungal-biology_mycological-research_2007-04_111_4/page/403 |journal=Mycological Research |year=2007 |volume=111 |issue=4 |pages=403–08 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2007.01.014 |pmid=17512181}}</ref> }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == *{{MycoBank|121483}} {{Commons category|Xerocomus subtomentosus}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q198817}} [[Kategori :Supa ]] [[Kategori : Boletaceae]] [[Kategori : Tutuwuhan tropis ]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] [[Kategori:Suung]] [[Katehori:fungi]] t19omr2teqetagi5529uz9b9rjj7656 Sogun 0 102572 712443 711844 2026-08-28T23:36:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712443 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sajarah Jepang}} {{Nihongo|'''Sogun'''|将軍|syōgun|extra={{IPA-ja|ɕoːɡɯɴ|lang|Ja-将軍.oga}}; {{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|g|ʌ|n}}<ref name=longman>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|author-link=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia0000unse|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|date=3 April 2008|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref>}} téh gelar [[kadiktatoran militér|diktator militér]] di [[Jepang]] bihari, ti taun [[1185]] nepi ka [[1868]]. Diangkat ku [[Kaisar Jepang|Kaisar]], sogun jadi pangawasa ''de facto'' ieu nagara,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/541431/shogunate|title=Shogun|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=19 November 2014}}</ref>. Kakawasaan sogun prahna mah turun-tumurun, najan kungsi sababaraha kali dikawasa ku klan anu béda. Sogun téh pondokna tina {{Nihongo||征夷大将軍|Séi-i Taisyōgun|"Panglima Pasukan Ékspédisi Ngalawan Musuh"}},<ref name="modern-reader"/> gelar militér luhur ti [[periodeu Heian]] abad ka-8 jeung ka-9; mangsa [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] meunang kakuatan pulitik Jepang taun [[1185]]. Pamaréntahan sogun katelahna {{Nihongo||幕府|bakufu|extra="pamaréntah ténda"}}; ngalaksanakeun tugas pamaréntahan.<ref name="b321">Beasley, William G. (1955). ''Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868'', p. 321.</ref> Ténda ngalambangkeun peran sogun salaku komandan militér di lapangan, tapi ogé nuduhkeun yén 'ngantorna' téh ukur samentara. Najan kasebut samentara, kasogunan ieu bisa ngadeg ampir 700 taun, dipungkas ku [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]] nu nyérénkeun kakawasaan ka [[Kaisar Méiji]] taun [[1867]] dina [[Réstorasi Méiji]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Political Succession in The Tokugawa Bakufu: Abe Masahiro's Rise to Power, 1843–1845 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_harvard-journal-of-asiatic-studies_1966_26/page/102 |first=Conrad |last=Totman |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=26 |year=1966 |pages=102–124 |doi=10.2307/2718461 |jstor=2718461}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{pondok}} j9yyijvu92xm0ro294aykd76jfsln78 Marémé 0 103169 712307 711094 2026-08-28T20:30:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Marémé | image = Glochidion ramiflorum.jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Glochidion borneense | regnum = Plantae | divisio =Magnoliophyta | classis = Magnoliopsida | ordo =Euphorbiales | familia =Euphorbiaceae | genus =Glochidion | species = Glochidion borneense Boerl | binomial = | binomial_authority = | synonyms ={{Collapsible list}}}} '''''Marémé'''''; 'Reuheun'' ''(Glochidion borneense, hook. f)'' nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Euphorbiaceae]].<ref name="Bungbu">{{Cite book|title =Udjung Kulon: The Land of the Last Javan Rhinoceros| last= Hoogerwerf| first= A. | coauthors =-| year= 1970|page=31|location=National Library of the Netherlands (original from Leiden University Libraries)| publisher=Brill Archive| url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=pc4UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31&lpg=PA31&dq=sophora+tomentosa+bungbulan&source=bl&ots=F2HR_Grimb&sig=ACfU3U0JnMtQmW9VQ36gztboIlgK5221VQ&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiGndL0ioTuAhVS6XMBHZWOCzEQ6AEwAHoECAEQAg#v=onepage&q=sophora%20tomentosa%20bungbulan&f=false}}disungsi – 4 Jan 2021</ref><ref name=”DE ”>{{Cite book| url =https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten03heyn/page/67/mode/1up?view=theater| title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| last =HEYNE| first =K. | publisher =Ruygrok & Co BATVIA | location =Linrary New York Botanical Garden| year =1913|ISBN=|pages =67}} Disungsi26 April 2021</ref><ref name=”Pla”>{{Cite book| url =http://plantamor.com/species/info/glochidion/borneense| title =Plantamor| last =Marémé| first =Tangkal| publisher =Plantamor| location =Indonesia| year =2022| ISBN =| pages =}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104125842/http://plantamor.com/species/info/glochidion/borneense |date=2022-01-04 }} Disungsi4 Januari 2022</ref> Di [[Australia]] ieu tangkal sok disebut ''cheese trees'' atawa ''buttonwood'', dina sastra ilmiah dipiwanoh salaku ''leafflower trees''. Ieu tangkal mibanda 300 [[spésiés]]. <ref name="BergstromDugatkin2012">{{cite book|author1=Carl T. Bergstrom|author2=Lee Alan Dugatkin|title=Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0-393-92592-0|page=630|access-date=2016-10-24|archive-date=2016-11-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118183851/https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name=”Buk”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=iO0ldwKoXvQC&pg=PA68&dq=pohon+mareme&hl=id&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdh6-p-5X1AhWeH7cAHdaYCvcQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=pohon%20mareme&f=false| title =Buku Pintar Tanaman Obat: 431 jenis tanaman penggempur aneka penyakit| last =GBIF| first =GLOBAL| publisher =AgroMedia | location =Copenhagen, Denmark | year =2008|ISBN=9789790061941|pages =68}} Disungsi2 Januari 2022</ref> ==Habitat jeung sebaran== Tangkal marémé kapanggih hirup ti mimiti [[Madagaskar]] nepi ka [[kapuloan Pasifik]]. ''Glochidion'' spésiés ieu dipaké salaku tutuwuhan pangan ku [[larva]] tina sababaraha [[Lepidoptera]] kaasup spésiés ''[[Aenetus|Aenetus eximia]]'' ogé ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita damor]]''.<ref name= Plants.USDA/> Urang [[Nicobarese]] ngamangpaatkeun tangkal marémé atawa ''G. calocarpum'' salaku ubar, nyebutkeun yén kulitna ogé sikina dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran gangguan padaharan/nyeri beuteung.<ref>See p. 412 in: {{cite journal |last=Hammer |first=K |title=Barilla (Salsola soda, Chenopodiaceae)|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-botany_july-september-1990_44_3/page/410 |journal=Economic Botany|volume=44|issue=3 |pages=410–412 |date=1990 |doi=10.1007/bf03183925 |jstor=4255259|s2cid=32113455 }}</ref> Dumasar kana [[Antekologi]] ogé [[koevolusi]] ''Glochidion'' dina hirupna silih gumantung jeung gegeremet tina genus ''[[Epicephala]]'' (ngengat daun bunga), utamana mangsa ''penyerbukan'' kembang—ngabantu tangkal dina ngahasilkeun siki anu alus pikeun pibiniheun —ogé maranéhna ngendog dina dasar kembang, di mana ieu larva mun geus gedé ngadaharna sawaréh siki marémé.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kato | first1 = M. | last2 = Takimura | first2 = A. | last3 = Kawakita | first3 = A. | year = 2003 | title = An obligate pollination mutualism and reciprocal diversification in the tree genus Glochidion (Euphorbiaceae) | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA | volume = 100 | issue = 9| pages = 5264–5267 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0837153100| pmc = 154333 | pmid=12695568| bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.5264K | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hembry | first1 = D. H. | last2 = Okamoto | first2 = T. | last3 = Gillespie | first3 = R. G. | year = 2012 | title = Repeated colonization of remote islands by specialized mutualists | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 258–261 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0771| pmc = 3297384 | pmid=21900312}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Luo | first1 = S.-X. | last2 = Yao | first2 = G. | last3 = Wang | first3 = Z. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = D. | last5 = Hembry | first5 = D. H. | year = 2017 | title = A novel, enigmatic basal leafflower moth lineage pollinating a derived leafflower host illustrates the dynamics of host shifts, partner replacement, and apparent co-adaptation in intimate mutualisms | url = https://arizona.openrepository.com/bitstream/10150/623805/1/690623.pdf | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 189 | issue = 4 | pages = 422–435 | doi = 10.1086/690623 | pmid = 28350503 | pmc = 6103454 | hdl = 10150/623805 | s2cid = 3922814 | hdl-access = free | access-date = 2019-09-05 | archive-date = 2021-11-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211124172948/https://arizona.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10150/623805/690623.pdf;jsessionid=C1EBDAA7FE0678A461C480BB693B1D0A?sequence=1 | url-status = live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124172948/https://arizona.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10150/623805/690623.pdf |date=2021-11-24 }}</ref> Spésiés séjén tina ''Epicephala'' nyaéta ''pollinator'', sarta dina sababaraha kaayaan, sok ngahakan siki marémé, spésiés anu tangtu tutuwuhan dina ''genera'' [[Phyllanthus]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kawakita | first1 = A. | last2 = Kato | first2 = M. | year = 2004 | title = Evolution of obligate pollination mutualism in New Caledonian ''Phyllanthus'' (Euphorbiaceae) | url = https://archive.org/details/american-journal-of-botany_2004-03_91_3/page/410 | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 91 | issue = 3 | pages = 410–415 | doi=10.3732/ajb.91.3.410| pmid = 21653396 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kawakita | first1 = A. | last2 = Kato | first2 = M. | year = 2009 | title = Repeated independent evolution of obligate pollination mutualism in the Phyllantheae-''Epicephala'' association | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B | volume = 276 | issue = 1656 | pages = 417–426 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.1226| pmc = 2664352 | pmid=18948251}}</ref> and ''[[Breynia]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kawakita | first1 = A. | last2 = Kato | first2 = M. | year = 2004 | title = Obligate pollination mutualism in ''Breynia'' (Phyllanthaceae): further documentation of pollination mutualism involving ''Epicephala'' moths (Gracillariidae) | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 91 | issue = 9 | pages = 1319–1325 | doi=10.3732/ajb.91.9.1319| pmid = 21652364 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zhang | first1 = J. | last2 = Wang | first2 = S. | last3 = Li | first3 = H. | last4 = Hu | first4 = B. | last5 = Yang | first5 = X. | last6 = Wang | first6 = Z. | year = 2012 | title = Diffuse coevolution between two ''Epicephala'' species (Gracillariidae) and two ''Breynia'' species (Phyllanthaceae) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | page = e41657 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0041657| pmc = 3407192 | pmid=22848559| bibcode = 2012PLoSO...741657Z | doi-access = free }}</ref> duanana raket patalina jeung''Glochidion''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kathriarachchi | first1 = H. | last2 = Samuel | first2 = R. | last3 = Hoffmann | first3 = P. | last4 = Mlinarec | first4 = J. | last5 = Wurdack | first5 = K. J. | last6 = Ralimanana | first6 = H. | last7 = Stuessy | first7 = T. F. | last8 = Chase | first8 = M. W. | year = 2006 | title = Phylogenetics of tribe Phyllantheae (Phyllanthaceae: Euphorbiaceae sensu lato) based on nrITS and plastid matK DNA sequence data | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 93 | issue = 4 | pages = 637–655 | doi=10.3732/ajb.93.4.637 | pmid = 21646224| doi-access = free }}</ref> Hubungan ieu sami sareng hubungan antara [[Ficus|ki ara]] sareng [[nyiruan]] kitu deui [[yucca]] sareng [[Prodoxidae|gegeremet yucca]]. Sanajan genus ''Glochidion'' asalna ngan ti Afrika, spésiés Asia Wétan ''[[Glochidion puberum]]'' geus di naturalisasi di sababaraha lokasi di nagara bagian AS [[Alabama]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fearn | first1 = M. L. | last2 = Urbatsch | first2 = L. E. | year = 2001 | title = ''Glochidion puberum'' (Euphorbiaceae) naturalized in southern Alabama | journal = SIDA, Contributions to Botany | volume = 19 | pages = 711–714 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200012580 |title=Glochidion puberum in Flora of North America @ |publisher=Efloras.org |date= |accessdate=2021-11-24 |archive-date=2017-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411055555/http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200012580 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411055555/http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200012580 |date=2017-04-11 }}</ref> Dina révisi Phyllanthaceae taun 2006, disarankeun yén ''Glochidion'' diasupkeun kana ''Phyllanthus''.<ref name=hoffmann2006>{{cite journal | last1 = Hoffmann | first1 = Petra | last2 = Kathriarachchi | first2 = Hashendra S. | last3 = Wurdack | first3 = Kenneth J. | year = 2006 | title = A Phylogenetic Classification of Phyllanthaceae | journal = Kew Bulletin | volume = 61 | issue = 1| pages = 37–53 }}</ref> Kombinasi anyar dina "Phyllanthus" parantos bewarakeun pikeun [[Madagaskar]]. <ref>Hoffmann, P. and McPherson, G., 2003. Transfer of Madagascan Glochidion to Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae sl or Phyllanthaceae). Novon 13(3):307-310.</ref> jeung Kapuloan Pasifik,<ref>Wagner WL, Lorence DH. A nomenclator of Pacific oceanic island Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae), including Glochidion. PhytoKeys. 2011(4):67-94</ref>. ==Spésiés dipilih== An incomplete listing: {{Div col|colwidth=21em}} *''[[Glochidion apodogynum]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion barronense]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion benthamianum]]'' {{Au|Domin}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion bourdillonii]]'' *''[[Glochidion calocarpum]]'' *''[[Glochidion christophersenii]]'' *''[[Glochidion carrickii]]'' *''[[Glochidion comitum]]'' *''[[Glochidion disparipes]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion eriocarpum]]'' *''[[Glochidion ferdinandi]]'' {{Au|(Mull.Arg.) F.M.Bailey}} - cheese tree, buttonwood, pencil cedar, water gum, rain tree<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion ferdinandi var. ferdinandi|var. ''ferdinandi'']]<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion ferdinandi var. pubens|var. ''pubens'']] {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion gardneri]]'' {{Au| (Thwaites.) }} *''[[Glochidion grantii]]'' *''[[Glochidion harveyanum]]'' {{Au|Domin}} - buttonwood, daphne buttonwood<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion harveyanum var. harveyanum|var. ''harveyanum'']]<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion harveyanum var. harveyanum|var. ''pubescens'']] {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion hylandii]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion insulare]]'' *''[[Glochidion johnstonei]]'' *''[[Glochidion lanceolarium]]'' *''[[Glochidion lobocarpum]]'' {{Au|(Benth.) F.M.Bailey}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion longfieldiae]]'' *''[[Glochidion manono]]'' *''[[Glochidion marchionicum]]'' *''[[Glochidion moonii]]'' *''[[Glochidion moorei]]'' *''[[Glochidion myrtifolium]]'' *''[[Glochidion nadeaudii]]'' *''[[Glochidion orientalis]]'' *''[[Glochidion papenooense]]'' *''[[Glochidion pauciflorum]]'' *''[[Glochidion perakense]]'' {{Au|Hook.f.}} - umbrella cheese tree, buttonwood<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion perakense var. supra-axillare|var. ''supra-axillare'']] {{Au|(Benth.) Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion philippicum]]'' {{Au|(Cav.) C.B.Rob.}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion pitcairnense]]'' *''[[Glochidion pruinosum]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion puberum]]'' *''[[Glochidion pungens]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion raivavense]]'' *''[[Glochidion ramiflorum]]'' <small>J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.</small> *''[[Glochidion rapaense]]'' *''[[Glochidion seemannii]]'' <small>Müll.-Arg.</small><!-- Micronesica 40: 169. --> *''[[Glochidion sessiliflorum]]'' {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion sessiliflorum var. sessiliflorum|var. ''pedicellatum'']] {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion sessiliflorum var. sessiliflorum|var. ''sessiliflorum'']]<ref name=APNI/> :*[[Glochidion sessiliflorum var. sessiliflorum|var. ''stylosum'']] {{Au|Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion sisparense]]'' *''[[Glochidion stellatum]]'' *''[[Glochidion stylosum]]'' *''[[Glochidion sumatranum]]'' {{Au|Miq.}}<ref name=APNI/> *''[[Glochidion symingtonii]]'' *''[[Glochidion taitense]]'' *''[[Glochidion temehaniense]]'' *''[[Glochidion tomentosum]]'' *''[[Glochidion tooviianum]]'' *''[[Glochidion xerocarpum]]'' {{Au|(O.Schwarz) Airy Shaw}}<ref name=APNI/> {{Div col end}} ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist | 27em | refs= <ref name= Plants.USDA>[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=GLPU6 PLANTS Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510092942/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=GLPU6 |date=2013-05-10 }}. USDA.gov. Accessed June 2, 2012.</ref> <ref name=APNI>{{cite web | title= ''Glochidion''% | url= http://www.anbg.gov.au/cgi-bin/apni?TAXON_NAME=Glochidion%25 | access-date= 1 June 2013 | type= listing by % wildcard matching of all taxa relevant to Australia | work= [[Australian Plant Name Index]] (APNI), Integrated Botanical Information System (IBIS) database | publisher= Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104130745/https://www.anbg.gov.au/cgi-bin/apni?TAXON_NAME=Glochidion%25 |date=4 January 2022 }} <!-- {{APNI | id= 22065 | name= ''Glochidion'' }} --></ref> }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CwvrN7EA89Q Youtube video of a ''Glochidion lanceolarium'' flower being pollinated by an ''Epicephala lanceolaria'' moth] {{Taxonbar|from=Q1245856}} [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori : Tutuwuhan ubar ]] [[Kategori : Tutuwuhan Indonésia]] [[Kategori :Euphorbiaceae]] [[Kategori:Lalab]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] gllo8qcgeqrn33z2cy7d8cxbp57g2hc Supa béas 0 103171 712383 711832 2026-08-28T22:19:00Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Supa béas | image = Schizophyllum commune (Split gill) (33389628036).jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Schizophyllum commune | regnum = Fungi | divisio =Basidiomycota | classis = Agaricomycetes | ordo = Agaricales | familia =Schizophyllaceae | genus =Schizophyllum | species = S. commune | binomial =Schizophyllum commune | binomial_authority = | synonyms = {{Collapsible list Agaricus alneus L. (1755) Agaricus alneus Reichard (1780) Agaricus multifidus Batsch (1786) Merulius alneus (L.) J.F.Gmel. (1792) Merulius alneus (Reichard) Schumach. (1803) }}}} '''''Supa béas''''' nyaéta hiji spésiés [[supa]] anu aya dina genus ''[[Schizophyllum]]''.<ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =15|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/10/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 1 Jan 2022}}</ref> Wujudna kawas ombak cai atawa gundukan batu karang. Palebah "Gillies"na kelirna bodas nepika semu [[konéng]]. Palebah luhurna [[pileus (mycology)|tutup]] katempona leutik, 1–4.5&nbsp;cm rubak, katempona pejel tapi geunyal. Ieu supa sok disebut ogé supa asang lauk, duméh palebah handapna katempo gillesna ngentép kawas asang lauk. Ieu supa kapanggih hirup ampir di sakuliah dunya.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kuo |first1=M. |title=''Schizophyllum commune'' |url=https://www.mushroomexpert.com/schizophyllum_commune.html |website=Mushroom Expert |access-date=18 February 2020 |date=2003}}</ref> Hirup liar bijil dina [[catang]] [[kai]] anu geus bobo, utamana réngsé usum hujan manjing ka halodo. Ieu supa mimiti merentis jaradi kalayan sok ngahaja diarala keur anu buarutuheunmah. Utamana Ngahaja di kumpulkeun pikeun bahan nyieun [[ubar]], kalawan kiwari geus diproduksi dina ukuran industri salaku ''immunomodulator, antijamur, antineoplastic'' sarta ''antiviral, activities'' anu leuwihluhur tibatan ''glucan'' ''complex carbohydrate''. ==Ciri mandiri== ''Schizophyllum commune'' ilaharna digambarkeun salaku ''morphological'' spésiés anu geus loba kapanggih hirup, tapi numutkeun hasil panalungtikan anu leuwih jero kana rupa-rupa spésiés anu ngalimpudan sababaraha spésiés jauh anu henteu loba dipikawanoh, sababaraha supa mibanda sipat pikeun ''Basidiomycota''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=John|last2=Turner|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Townsend|first3=Jeffrey|last4=Dettman|first4=Jeremy|last5=Jacobson|first5=David|title=Eukaryotic microbes, species recognition and the geographic limits of species: examples from the kingdom Fungi|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B|date=2006|volume=361|issue=1475|pages=1947–1963|doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1923|pmc=1764934|pmid=17062413}}</ref> Asangna (gills), anu ngahasilkeun [[basidiospora]] palebah luarna, baris beulah mangsa supa ngagaringan, nya alatan éta pisan, supa ieu sok disarebut supa ''split gill''.<ref>{{citation | pmc = 100249 | pmid = 10398676 |date=Jul 1999 |author1=Guarro, J |author2=Genéj |author3=Stchigel, Am | title = Developments in Fungal Taxonomy | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 454–500 | issn = 0893-8512 | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | doi=10.1128/CMR.12.3.454}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chowdhary | first1 = A | last2 = Kathuria | first2 = S | last3 = Agarwal | first3 = K | last4 = Meis | first4 = JF | date = Nov 2014 | title = Recognizing filamentous basidiomycetes as agents of human disease: A review | journal = Med Mycol | volume = 52 | issue = 8| pages = 782–97 | doi = 10.1093/mmy/myu047 | pmid = 25202126 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Ieu supa mibanda 23.328 jinis kelamin anu béda - béda.<ref name="Kothe 1999">{{cite journal |last1=Kothe |first1=Erika |title=Mating types and pheromone recognition in the homobasidiomycete ''Schizophyllum commune'' |url=https://archive.org/details/fungal-genetics-and-biology_july-august-1999_27_2-3/page/146 |journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology |volume=27 |issue=2–3 |year=1999 |pages=146–152 |doi=10.1006/fgbi.1999.1129}}</ref> ''Individu'' tina jinis ''kelamin'' naon waé bisa kompatibel pikeun kawin jeung sakabéhna kajaba jinis ''kelamin'' manéhna sorangan. Sanajan kitu, Aya dua ''lokus'' genetik nangtukeun jenis kawin, lokus A kalawan 288 ''[[allele]]''s sarta ''lokus'' B mibanda 81 ''alleles''. Sapasang supa ngan bakal subur lamun boga ''allele'' A jeung B anu béda;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kothe|first=Erika|date=1996|title=Tetrapolar fungal mating types: Sexes by the thousands|journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews|volume=18|issue=1|pages=65–87|doi=10.1016/0168-6445(96)00003-4|pmid=8672296|doi-access=free}}</ref> nyaéta, unggal ''kelamin'' bisa asupkeun pasangan subur kalawan 22.960 batur. ''[[Hydrophobin]]'' munggaran diisolasi tina ''Schizophyllum commune''. [[Génom]] tina ''Schizophyllum commune'' diurutkeun dina 2010.<ref>{{citation |date=Jul 2010 | pages = 957–63 | issue = 9 | volume = 28 | author =Robin A Ohm | last2 = De Jong | first2 = JF | last3 = Lugones | first3 = LG | last4 = Aerts | first4 = A | last5 = Kothe | first5 = E | last6 = Stajich | first6 = JE | last7 = De Vries | first7 = RP | last8 = Record | first8 = E | last9 = Levasseur | first9 = A | last10 = Baker | first10 = Scott E | last11 = Bartholomew | first11 = Kirk A | last12 = Coutinho | first12 = Pedro M | last13 = Erdmann | first13 = Susann | last14 = Fowler | first14 = Thomas J | last15 = Gathman | first15 = Allen C | last16 = Lombard | first16 = Vincent | last17 = Henrissat | first17 = Bernard | last18 = Knabe | first18 = Nicole | last19 = Kües | first19 = Ursula | last20 = Lilly | first20 = Walt W | last21 = Lindquist | first21 = Erika | last22 = Lucas | first22 = Susan | last23 = Magnuson | first23 = Jon K | last24 = Piumi | first24 = François | last25 = Raudaskoski | first25 = Marjatta | last26 = Salamov | first26 = Asaf | last27 = Schmutz | first27 = Jeremy | last28 = Schwarze | first28 = Francis W M R | last29 = Vankuyk | first29 = Patricia A | last30 = Horton | first30 = J Stephen | title = Genome sequence of the model mushroom Schizophyllum commune | journal = Nature Biotechnology | doi = 10.1038/nbt.1643 | pmid = 20622885| display-authors = 8 | doi-access = free }}</ref> ==Kulinér== Sanajan sababaraha sumber nyebutkeun ieu suung teu bisa di dahar, alatan ukuranna leutik tur liat. Tina spésiésna anu teu matak weureu.<ref name="Miller 2006">{{cite book|last=Miller Jr.|first=Orson K.|title=North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi|url=https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill|last2=Miller|first2=Hope H.|publisher=[[FalconGuide]]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7627-3109-1|location=Guilford, CN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/northamericanmus0000mill/page/139 139]|author-link=Orson K. Miller Jr.}}</ref> Dina 2006, éta loba dikonsumsi di Mexico jeung di tempat séjén di wewengkon tropis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruán-Soto|first1=F.|last2=Garibay-Orijel|first2=R.|last3=Cifuentes|first3=J.|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|date=2006|volume=2|issue=1|page=3|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-2-3|title=Process and dynamics of traditional selling of wild edible mushrooms in tropical Mexico|pmc=1360659|pmid=16393345}}</ref> Di [[India Wétan]], di nagara [[Manipur]] éta katelah ''kanglayen'' sarta salah sahiji bahan dipikaresep pikeun [[Manipuri cuisine|Manipuri]]-gaya pancakes disebut ''paaknam''. Di [[Mizoram]], ngaran lokal nyaéta ''pasi'' (''pa'' hartina ''supa'', ''si'' hartina ''leutik'') jeung éta hiji tina pangluhurna dipeunteun supa bisa didahar diantara masarakat Mizo. Para pangarang/panulis sumanget ngaguar ieu supa, ''rubbery'' [[suung]] di wewengkon [[tropis]] salaku konsékuénsi kanyataan yén ieu supa lembut, suung ''fleshy'' gancang garing dina kondisi panas tur beueus, ngajadikeun masalah pamasaran maranéhanana. ==Gambar tambahan== <gallery> File:Schizophyllum commune, Fuzzy Fungi.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' [[Elk Grove, Illinois]] File:Schizophyllum commune - Nature does pleats.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' in [[Missouri]], US File:Split-gill bottom shot.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] Lõhkislehik.jpg|''Schizophyllum commune'' in [[Estonia]] </gallery> ==Dicutat tina== {{Reflist|2 }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == *{{Commons-inline|Schizophyllum commune}} *{{Wikispecies-inline|Schizophyllum commune}} * [http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Schizophyllum_commune.html "Schizophyllum commune"], MykoWeb * [http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/feb2000.html "Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month for February 2000] {{Taxonbar|from=Q941733}} [[Kategori:Schizophyllaceae]] [[Kategori:Supa]] gig0wt8xqsu6241zx32jhnh5efymzk7 Supa acung 0 103175 712440 711533 2026-08-28T23:32:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Supa acung | image = Phallus indusiatus from Kerala, India - 20090824.jpg | image_size = 250px | image_caption =Phallus indusiatus | regnum = Fungi | divisio =Basidiomycota | classis = Agaricomycetes | ordo = Phallales | familia =Phallaceae | genus =Schizophyllum | species = Phallus indusiatus | binomial = | binomial_authority = | synonyms = {{Collapsible list | Dictyophora indusiata | Hymenophallus indusiatus }}}} '''''Supa acung '''''; Phallus indusiatus dina basa [[Inggris]] disebut ''bamboo mushrooms'', ''bamboo pith''; ''long net stinkhorn'', ''crinoline stinkhorn'' aya ogé ''veiled lady'', nyaéta supa anu asalna tina kulawarga [[Phallaceae]], atawa ''stinkhorns''. <ref name=“Heyne”>{{Cite book | title =DE NUTTIGE PLANTEN VAN NEDERLANDSCH-INDIË| first =K.| last =Heyne| publisher =RUYGROK & Co BATAVIA| location =Library New York Botanical Garden| year =1913| pages =11|url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten1922heyn/page/11/mode/1up?view=theater|accessdate=(disungsi) 25 Mei 2021}}</ref> Ieu supa loba kapanggih hirup di daérah [[tropis]], kayaning di [[Asia Kidul]], [[Afrika]], [[Amérika]], sareng [[Australia]], di mana éta supa hirup di [[leuweung]] sareng [[kebon]] anu di jero taneuhna loba mibanda [[kai]] anu bobo tur geus buruk. ==Ciri mandiri == Ieu supa mibanda ciri anu mandiri tayalian tiungna anu ngawujud kawas [[locéng]] sarta bijil kulambu ''(indusium)'' kawas rok [[awéwé]] ngagantung tina handapeunana, ngagapuy ampir ngangsar kana [[taneuh]] . Ieu supa mimiti didadarkeun sacara ilmiah dina taun 1798 ku ahli ''[[botani]]'' urang [[Prancis]]; [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]], spésiésna remen disebut kana genus anu misah ''Dictyophora'' babarengan jeung anu séjén ''Phallus'' spésiés anu sarua nembongkeun ''indusium''. ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tiasa dibédakeun tina spésiés anu sami bédana dina tataran biologi, ukuran, kelir, sareng panjang ''indusium''. Supa anu geus déwasa jangkungna nepi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} kalayan rubak tiungna/topina anu kawas locéng/[[pileus]] {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} . Kedokna ditutupan ku spora semu héjo, ieu dipikaresep pisan ku [[laleur]] sarta [[gegeremet]] anu ngahakan spora. Ieu supa tiasa didahar, ngeunaan hal ieu tos diguar salaku bahan sayuran jeung kadaharan dina catetan bangsa [[Cina]] /''Chinese cuisine''. Tayalian diasakan kujalan digoréng atawa dicampur sareng sop [[hayam]]. Supa ieu, dipelak sacara komérsial sareng loba dijual di ''supermarket'' di Nagara-nagara "[[Asia]], ieu supa euyeub ku [[protéin]], [[karbohidrat]], jeung [[dietary fiber]]. Supa ieu ogé ngandung sagala rupa [[sanyawa bioaktif]], sareng gaduh pasipatan [[antioksidan]] jeung [[antimikroba]]. ''Phallus indusiatus'' ngabogaan sajarah anu kacatet kagunaan salaku ubar di Nagara Cina saméméh abad ka-7, Maséhi. ==Sajarah taksonomi== ''Phallus indusiatus'' mimitina diguar ku naturalis Perancis [[Étienne Pierre Ventenat]] dina taun 1798,<ref name="Ventenat 1798"/> sareng nami anu sangsi kénéh ku [[Christiaan Hendrik Persoon]] dina 1801.<ref name="Persoon 1801"/> Saurang pangarang sacara ''anonim'' masihan kesan-kesan na ngeunaan pamanggih Ventenat dina publikasina taun 1800: <blockquote>Ieu spésiés supa anu éndah, mibanda ciri mandiri pikeun ngabédakeun unggal individu tina kelas anu sanés, hirup di Guyana Walanda, kurang leuwih 300 léngkah ti laut, sareng ampir dugi ka belah kénca walungan Surinam. Éta dikomunikasikeun ka kuring ku kokolot Vaillant,<ref group=N>Bapana Ventenat langkung kawéntar [[François Levaillant]], salaku anu resep ngalalana sareng ornithologist, ogé mangrupikeun sodagar Metz anu janten konsul Perancis di Guyana Belanda dugi ka 1763.</ref> Saha anu mendakanana di 1755 dina sababaraha taneuh anu tara kungsi kaséblok ku ombak anu luhur, sareng diwangun ku keusik bodas anu alus pisan, ditutupan ku lapisan taneuh anu ipis. Kuantitas anu luar biasa pikeun jalma ti spésiés ieu anu tumuh dina waktos anu sami, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi aranjeunna, jaman anu béda pisan tina ékspansi sumbangan, némbongkeun prospék anu saé pisan.<ref name="Anonymous 1800"/></blockquote> Ieu supa teras disimpen dina genus énggal, ''Dictyophora'', dina taun 1809 ku [[Nicaise Auguste Desvaux]];<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/> éta teras dipiwanoh mangtaun-taun salaku ''Dictyophora indusiata''.<ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck]] disimpen spésiésna di ''Hymenophallus'' dina 1817, salaku ''H.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Nees 1817"/> Duanana antukna dipulangkeun ka [[sinonim (taksonomi) | sinonim]] '' [[ Phallus]] '' sareng spésiésna ayeuna dipiwanoh deui ku nami aslina.<ref name="urlMycoBank: Hymenophallus indusiatus"/><ref name="Kirk 2008"/> [[Curtis Gates Lloyd]] dijelaskeun dina [[variety (botany)|variety]] '' rochesterensis '' taun 1909, asalna salaku spésiés énggal, ''Phallus rochesterensis''. Éta aya di [[Kew, Victoria | Kew]], Australia.<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/>Kalayan [[Wangun (botani) | wujud]] indusium mibanda kelir kayas dilaporkeun ku [[Vincenzo de Cesati]] dina 1879 salaku ''Hymenophallus roseus'', sareng teras disebat ''Dictyophora indusiata'' f.&nbsp;''rosea'' Ku [[Yosio Kobayasi]] dina taun 1965;<ref name="urlMycoBank: Dictyophora indusiata f. rosea"/> éta sinonim sareng '' [[Phallus cinnabarinus]] ''.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> Hiji takson dijelaskeun dina 1936 salaku ''Dictyophora lutea''<ref name="Liou 1936"/> sarta dipiwanoh sababaraha taun salaku '' Dictyophora indusiata '' f. '' lutea '', '' D. indusiata '' f. '' aurantiaca '', atanapi '' Phallus indusiatus '' f. '' citrinus '', sacara formal dipindahkeun ka '' Phallus '' di 2008 salaku spésiés anu béda, ''[[Phallus luteus]]''.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> Nami botani asalna tina kecap [[Latin]] ''indūsǐātus'', hartina "maké baju jero".<ref name="Simpson 1979"/> Tilas nami generik ''Dictyophora'' asalna tina kecap [[Yunani kuno]] [https://archive.is/20121215125021/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.17:6:14.LSJ {{lang|grc|δίκτυον}}] (''diktyon'', "net"), and [https://archive.is/20121215062110/http://artflx.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.79:3:158.LSJ {{lang|grc|φέρω}}] (''pherō'', "to bear"), hence "bearing a net".<ref name="Desvaux 1809"/><ref name="Liddell 1940"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' mibanda loba ngaran, aya anu dumasar kana rupana, kaasup panjangna kulambu/stinkhorn, ''crinoline'' ''stinkhorn'',<ref name="Hall p.19">Hall (2003), p. 19.</ref> karinjang stinkhorn,<ref name="Arora 1986"/> supa tiung panganten,<ref name="Habtemariam 2019"/> sareng jilbab/tiung awéwé. Dina basa Jepang ngaranna {{Nihongo||衣笠茸 or キヌガサタケ|Kinugasatake}}, asalna tina kecap ''kinugasa'', nunjul kana topi lega-''brimmed'' anu katempo kawas tiung [[sutra]] ngagantung pikeun nyumput sareng nyibuatan anu makéna.<ref name="Inoki 2006"/> Dina basa [[Cinangsi, Cisitu, Sumedang|Cina]] ngaran umum ieu supa nunjul kana habitatna: "bamboo mushroom" ({{zh|s=竹荪|t=竹蓀|p=zhúsūn}}).<ref name="Ying 1987"/> ==Ciri anu mandiri== [[File:Dictyophora indusiata. Cooktown, Australia. 2010.JPG|thumb|left|''Dictyophora indusiata'' kapanggih dina [[Cooktown, Australia]]. Indisium téh "rok" anu ngagapuy handapeun tutupna]]. Supa anu ngora kénéh ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' mimitina wujudna kawas [[endog]] dugi ka buleud, anu tayalian ieu téh [[peridium]] atawa bungkus spora/pibiniheun. Kelirna bodas, sakapeung aya ogé anu semu beureum. Gedé buleudan/ diaméterna {{convert|6|cm|in|abbr=on}}, sareng biasana ngagaduhan [[mycelial cord]] kandel anu napel dina handapeunna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Nalika supa parantos asak/kolot, tekenan anu disababkeun ku struktur internal anu ngagedéan nyababkeun peridium nepi ka luhur sareng awak buah/tangkal gancang bijil tina "endog". Supa anu geus asak/kolot mibanda ukuran dugi ka {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkungna, kalawan mibanda lamad [[indusium]] (kawas rok) anu ngagantung tina handapeun tiung/congcotna. Bukaan netlike tina indusium tiasa ngawujud poligonal atanapi ngawujud buleud.<ref name="Chang p.344"/> Spesimen anu dikembangkeun kalayan saé ngagaduhan indusium anu dugi ka [[Volva (mycology)|volva]] sareng suar sakedik sateuacan lesot dina gagang.<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Rubak tutup atawa tiung {{convert|1.5|–|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}, sarta mibanda zat anu kaangseu na bau. Luhureun tutup aya liang leutik.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Panjang gagangan {{convert|7|–|25|cm|in|abbr=on}},<ref name="Chang p.344">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 344.</ref> sarta kandelna {{convert|1.5|–|3|cm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Tangkalna bodas, rubakna kurang leuwih sarua jeung panjangna, sakapeung melengkung, hampos kawas busa. Ieu peridium baris lalesotan tina tangkalna.<ref name="Arora 1986"/> Awak buah ngembang/ngagedéan nalika wengi,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> waktu anu dibutuhkeun pikeun mangkak kurang leuwih 10–15 jam, saatos bijil tina peridium.<ref>Chang & Miles (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=XO4EGzpp1M0C&pg=PA348 p. 348.]</ref> Hirupna teu lila paling ngan sababaraha poé.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/>. us), sareng ukuran 2-3 ku 1–1.5&nbsp;μm.<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> ===Spésiés anu sami=== {{multiple image | header = Compared to ''Phallus indusiatus'' ... | align = right | image1 = 2012-07-24 Phallus multicolor crop.jpg | width1 = {{#expr: (200 * 574 / 715) round 0}} | caption1 = ... ''P. multicolor'' is smaller and more brightly coloured | image2 = Phallus luteus.jpg | width2 = {{#expr: (200 * 4000 / 6000) round 0}} | caption2 = ... ''P. luteus'' is bright yellow }} ''[[Phallus multicolor]]'' saliwat mah katempo sarimbag, pédah mibanda tiung anu katempona leuwih béngras, ukuran indusiumn ilaharna langkung leutik. Éta aya di Australia, [[Guam]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Zaire]], jeung [[Tobago]] <ref name="Burk 1978"/> ogé [[Hawaii]]. Topi spésiés Indo-Pasipik ''[[Phallus merulinus|P.&nbsp;merulinus]]'' katempo leueur nalika ditutupan gleba, sareng pias tur karijut saatosna gleba pareum. Sabalikna, tutup liar tina mah ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ngagaduhan réklikasi anu jelas anu tetep katingali jelas handapeun gleba. Ogé, indusium tina ''P.&nbsp;merulinus'' langkung lemes sareng langkung pondok tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', anu matak moal matak runtuh alatan kabeuratan.<ref name="Reid 1977"/> Biasa di Amérika Kalér wétan sareng Jepang, ogé kapanggih hirup.<ref name="Kibby 2012"/> Spésiésna ''[[Phallus duplicatus|P.&nbsp;duplicatus]]'' ngagaduhan indusium anu ngagantung langkung alit {{convert|3|–|6|cm|in|abbr=on}} ti handapeun tutupna, sareng sakapeung lésot tina gagangna.<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus duplicatus"/> Kapendak di Asia, Australia, Hawaii, kidul Mexico, sareng Amérika Tengah sareng Amérika Kidul,<ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus cinnabarinus"/> ''P.&nbsp;cinnabarinus'' grows to {{convert|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} jangkung, sareng ngagaduhan bau anu langkung nyereng tibatan ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''. Éta bauna ngondang laleur tina genus ''[[Lucilia]]'' (kulawarga [[Calliphoridae]]), aya ogé lalay tina genus ''[[Musca]]'' sok ngadeukeutan éta supa ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus''.<ref name="Lee 1957"/> ''[[Phallus echinovolvatus|P.&nbsp;echinovolvatus]]'', geus diguar di nagara Cina dina taun 1988, raket patalina sareng ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', tapi tiasa dibédakeun ku volvana anu spiky/mancung ([[wikt:echinulate|echinulate]]) , suhu tempat hirup anu pikaresep langkung luhur tina {{convert|30|to|35|C|F}}.<ref name="Zeng 1988"/> ''P.&nbsp;luteus'', asalna dianggap salaku ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', boga cap retikulasi konéng, indusium konéng, sareng kayas janten peridium ungu beureum sareng rhizomorphs. Éta aya di Asia sareng Mexico.<ref name="Kasuya 2008"/> ==Ékologi sareng tempat hirup== ''Phallus indusiatus'' loba kapanggih hirup di wewengkon [[tropical]], kaasup Afrika (Congo,<ref name="Dissing 1962"/> Nigeria,<ref name="Oso 1976"/> Uganda,<ref name="Maitland 1917"/> sareng Zaire<ref name="Demoulin 1975"/>) Amerika kalér (Brazil<ref name="Trierveiler 2009"/> Guyana,<ref name="Wakefield 1934"/> sareng Venezuela<ref name="Dennis 1960"/>), America tengah (Costa Rica),<ref name="Saenz 1982"/> and Tobago.<ref name="Dennis 1953"/> Di Amérika Kalér, kisaranana dugi ka Mexico.<ref name="Guzman 1973"/> Lokalitas Asia kalebet Indonésia, Nepal, Malaysia,<ref name="Oldridge 1986"/> India,<ref name="Lloyd 1902"/> Cina Kidul, Jepang,<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> sareng Taiwan.<ref name="Chang 2000"/> Éta ogé parantos dikumpulkeun di Australia.<ref name="Smith 2005"/> Sarua jeung spésiés ''Phallus'' lianna, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' nyaéta [[saprobik]] - nurunkeun nutrisi tina ngarobog kai sareng melak zat organik. Tangkalna sakapeung hirup nyorangan sanajan kitu aya ogé dina wujud dapuran, dina taneuh anu mibanda potongan kai di jerona. Di Asia, éta tuwuh dina leuweung [[awj]], jeung ilaharna jaradi saatos hujan ageung.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/><ref>Hall (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yqHA_M7BVRcC&pg=PA247 p. 247].</ref> Cara réproduksi pikeun stinkhorn, kalebet ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'', bénten sareng anu sanésna [[agaric]] supa, anu mana sorana haliber /forcibly eject. Stinkhorn malah ngahasilkeun jisim spora anu napel dina awakna, ngahasilkeun sickly-sweet bau tina [[carrion]].<ref name="Chang p.346">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 346.</ref> Seungitna tina spora anu asak - tiasa kaangseu tina jarak anu jauh - matak pikaresepeun pikeun [[gegeremet]] anu sok ngakuan sporana.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Spésiés anu kacatet kalebet kana [[stingless bees]] tina genus ''[[Trigona]]'',<ref name="Oliveria 2000"/> sareng lalay tina kulawarga [[Drosophilidae]] jeung [[Muscidae]]. Gegeremet ngabantosan ngaliarkeun spora ku nyéépkeun gleba sareng nyimpen kotoran anu ngandung spora [[germination|germinate]] di tempat séjén.<ref name="Tuno 1998"/> Sanaos kagunaan tina indusium henteu dipikaterang sacara pasti, éta sacara visual tiasa ngadatangkeun gegeremet anu kataji ku bauna, sareng tiasa jadi [[tarajé]] pikeun gegeremet ngarayap Nepi ka gleba/luhur.<ref name="Kibby 1994"/> ==Kuliner sareng budidaya== [[File:Bamboo pith mushroom.jpg|thumb|left|Supa anu dijual garing sareng biasana dikeueum/rehidrasi sateuacan asak]] [[File:Tom yuea phai.jpg|thumb|left|''Tom yuea phai'' tayalian olahan has [[Thailand]] didamel ku ieu supa]] Di Asia wétan, ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' dianggap ngeunah sareng hiji [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name="Roberts 2011"/> Saméméhna ngan ukur ngala/ngumpulkeun ti alam liar, di mana henteu tiasa seueur, éta sesah pikeun dipulut. Kurangna supa hartosna éta biasana disimpen kanggo acara-acara khusus. Dina jaman [[Cina]] [[Dinasti Qing]], spésiésna dikumpulkeun di provinsi [[Yunnan]] sareng dikirim ka Kota Larang/Istana Kaisar pikeun nyugemakeun tuangeun [[Permaisuri Dowager Cixi]], anu resep pisan nuang rupa-rupa supa anu tiasa didahar.<ref>Hu (2005), pp. 94–5.</ref> Éta mangrupikeun salah sahiji tina dalapan bahan anu diulas tina "Sarang Burung Kadalapan Dalapan Kalanggengan" dilayanan dina pésta pikeun ngarayakeun ulang taun ka 60 na. Piring ieu, dilayanan ku katurunan ti [[Tangkal kulawarga Confucius dina garis katurunan utama | Kulawarga Confucius]] dina hajatan sareng pésta umur panjang, ngandung bahan-bahan anu "sadaya tuangeun anu mahal, ngeunah ti darat sareng laut, seger, lembut, sareng garing, pantes amis sareng asin".<ref>Hu (2005), p. 96.</ref> Pamakéan anu kasohor anu séjén nyaéta jamuan nagara anu diayakeun pikeun diplomat Amérika [[Henry Kissinger]] dina [[1972 kunjungan Nixon ka Cina | kunjungan ka Cina]] pikeun ngawangun deui [[hubungan Sino-Amérika | hubungan diplomatik]] dina awal taun 1970an.<ref name="Chang 04">Chang & Miles (2004), p. 343.</ref> Hiji sumber nyerat: "Éta supa ngagaduhan tékstur anu hipu sareng leuleus, seungit sareng pikaresepeun, wujudna seger, sareng karaos garing."<ref>Hu (2005), p. 110.</ref> Supa anu garing, biasa dijual di supermarket jeung pasar di [[Asia]], diolah ku jalan ngahidrasi atawa dikeueuman heula atanapi dibaseuhan dina cai dugi ka leuleus deui.<ref name="Halpern 2007"/> Sakapeung diasakan kujalan digoréng, remen dimangpaatkeun salaku campuran sop hayam.<ref name="Dunlop 2003"/> .<ref name="Newman 1999"/> ''Phallus indusiatus'' parantos [[Fungiculture|cultivated]] dina skala komérsial di Cina ti saprak 1979.<ref name="Chang 04" /> Di [[Provinsi Fujian]] Cina - dipikaterang ku industri supa anu maju dugi ka ngokolakeun 45 spésiés supa anu tiasa didahar - "P. indusiatus '' dihasilkeun di [[County (Républik Rahayat Cina) | kabupatén]] [[Fuan]], [[Jianou]], sareng [[Ningde]].<ref name="Hu 2004"/> Kamajuan dina widang budidaya ieu parantos ngajantenkeun harga supa langkung mirah sareng hasil panén langkung seueur; taun 1998, kurang leuwih {{convert|1100|MT}} anu dihasilkeun ti Nagara China.<ref name="Hall p.19"/> Harga di Hong Kong sakilo sup garing ngahontal US&nbsp;$770 in 1982, tapi parantos turun ka US&nbsp;$100–200 by 1988. Ku majuna téhnologi nyababkeun éta harga ragrag langkung jauh ka US&nbsp;$10–20 by 2000.<ref name="Chang 04"/> Supa dipelak dina limbah tatanén — runtah-awi anu ditutupan ku lapisan ipis tina taneuh anu henteu disterilkeun. Suhu optimal pikeun tumuh supa [[spawn]] jeung awak buah kurang leuwih {{convert|24|C|F}}, kalayan kaayaan beueus/lembab/ [[humidity]] dina 90–95%.<ref name="Yang 1987"/> [[Substrat]] (biologi) anu tiasa dianggo pikeun ngokolakeun jamur kalebet daun awi sareng régangna, cangkang atanapi tangkal kadelé, tangkal jagong, sareng daun [[willow]].<ref name="Zhou 1989"/> Analisis gizi '' P. indusiatus '' nunjukkeun yén awak buah mibanda langkung ti 90% [[cai]], sakitar 6% fiber, 4,8% protéin, 4,7% fat/gajih, sareng sababaraha unsur [[mineral]], kalebet [[kalsium]], sanajan kitu komposisi [[mineral]] anu dipibanda tiasa gumantung kana konséntrasi anu pakait dina substrat mangsa hirupna.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sitinjak RR. |title=The Nutritional Content of the Mushroom ''Phallus indusiatus Vent.'', which Grows in the Cocoa Plantation, Gaperta-Ujung, Medan |journal=Der Pharma Chemica |year=2017 |volume=9 |issue=15 |pages=44–47 |url=https://www.derpharmachemica.com/pharma-chemica/the-nutritional-content-of-the-mushroom-phallus-indusiatus-vent-which-grows-in-the-cocoa-plantation-gapertaujung-medan.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Carita rakyat== Numutkeun ka étnomikologis [[R. Gordon Wasson]], ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ieu supa tos ilahar dikonsumsi di Méksiko [[divinatory]] dina hiji upacara alatan wujudna anu sugestif. Di nagara séjén, [[New Guinea]] pribumina nganggap ieu supa suci.<ref name="Spooner 1994"/> Di Nigeria, supa mangrupikeun salah sahiji sababaraha bau anu dibéré nami ''Akufodewa'' ku Urang Yoruba. Ngaranna diturunkeun tina gabungan basa [[Yoruba]] tina kecap ''ku'' ("die"), ''fun'' ("for"), ''ode'' ("tukang moro"), jeung ''wa'' ("milarian"), alatan tukang moro mangsa harita sok salah ngangseu bau- bau supa éta kawas bau sato udagan anu geus paéh.<ref name="Oso 1975"/> Yoruba parantos dilaporkeun nganggona ieu supa salaku hiji sarat pikeun [[Jampé]] sangkan mangsana moro henteu pinanggih jeung bahaya. Di bagian sanés Nigeria, aranjeunna parantos dianggo dina nyiapkeun pesona anu ngabahayakeun ku kelompok etnis sapertos urang Urhobo jeung [[Ibibio urang]]. [[Urang Igbo]] beulah wétan-tengah Nigeria disebut stinkhorn ''éró ḿma'', tina [[basa Igbo | Igbo]] kecap pikeun "supa" sareng "kageulisan".<ref name="Oso 1976"/> ==Pasipatan biologis== Sipat ubar parantos dipasihkeun ''Phallus indusiatus'' ti jaman [[Dynasty Tang]] di Cina, nalika éta dijelaskeun dina [[pharmacopoeia]]. Supa dianggo pikeun ngubaran seueur [[inflammation|peradangan | radang]], [[nyeri beuteung]], jeung [[neurological/ saraf. Tiongkok Kidul [[Urang Miao]] ngamangoaatkeun sacara tradisional pikeun sababaraha kasakit, kaasup raheut, [[batuk]], [[disentri]], [[enteritis]], [[leukemia]], kalawan parantos diresépkeun sacara klinis salaku ubar pikeun [[laringitis]], [[leucorrhea]], [[muriang]], sareng [[oliguria]] (hésé kahampangan), [[diare]], [[hipertensi]], batuk , [[hyperlipidemia]], sareng dina terapi antikanker.<ref name="Ker 2011"/> Élmu modéren parantos niténan ​​dasar biokimia tina kauntungan ubar putative ieu. Awak buah tina jamur ngandung [[kagiatan biologis | aktip sacara biologis]] [[polysaccharide]]s. A [[beta-glucan|β-<small>D</small>-glucan]] called T-5-N and prepared from [[alkaline]] extracts<ref name="Ukai 1982"/> has been shown to have [[anti-inflammatory]] properties.<ref name="Hara 1982"/> Struktur kimia na mangrupikeun ranté tulang tonggong anu linier anu seueur didamelna α-1→3 linked <small>D</small>-[[Mannose|mannopyranosyl]] residues, kalayan ngambah tina 1→6 linked <small>D</small>-mannopyrosyl residues.<ref name="Ukai 1980"/> Polisakarida ngagaduhan aktivitas penekanan ngalawan tumor (subcutaneously) implanted [[sarcoma]]&nbsp;180 (a transplantable, [[metastasis|non-metastasizing]] jaringan konéktif [[tumor]] sering dianggo dina panilitian) dina beurit.<ref name="Hara 1982"/><ref name="Ukai 1983"/> {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 200 | image1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural.png | alt1 = Chemical structure of Hydroxymethylfurfural | caption1 = Hydroxymethylfurfural inhibits the enzyme tyrosinase. | image2 = Albaflavenone.png | alt2 = Chemical structure of Albaflavenone | caption2 = Albaflavenone has antibiotic properties. }} Bahan kimia sanés dipikaresep ogé kapendak ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' tayalian [[hydroxymethylfurfural]],<ref name="Sharma 2004"/> anu parantos narik perhatian salaku [[tyrosinase]] panghambat. Tyrosinase catalyzes léngkah awal tina [[melanogenesis]] dina mamalia, <ref name="Chang 2009"/><ref name="Sharma 2004"/> ''P.&nbsp;indusiatus'' ogé ngandung [[ribonuclease]] unik (hiji [[énzim]] anu ngepak [[RNA]] kana komponén anu langkung alit) ngagaduhan sababaraha ciri biokimia anu ngabédakeun tina ribonuklease supa anu dipikaterang.<ref name="Wang 2003"/> Dua novel [[sesquiterpene]] s, [[dictyophorine]] A sareng B, parantos dikenalkeun tina awak buah jamur. Sanyawa ieu, dumasar kana kerangka eudesmane (struktur umum anu aya dina rasa tur parfum anu diturunkeun ku pepelakan), anu mimiti eudesmane [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] diisolasi tina jamur sareng dipendakan pikeun ngamajukeun sintésis [[faktor pertumbuhan saraf]] dina [[sél astroglial]] s.<ref name="Kawagishi 1997"/> Senyawa anu aya hubunganana anu diisolasi sareng diidentifikasi tina jamur kalebet tilu turunan [[quinazoline]] (kelas sanyawa anu jarang di alam), dictyoquinazol A, B, sareng C.<ref name="Lee 2002"/> Bahan kimia ieu ditingalikeun dina tés laboratorium ngagaduhan pangaruh pelindung kana [[sél budaya | berbudaya]] beurit [[neuron]] s anu parantos kakeunaan [[neurotoxin]] s.<ref name="Liu 2005"/>[[Total sintésis]] pikeun dictyoquinazols dilaporkeun dina 2007.<ref name="Oh 2007"/> Jamur parantos lami dipikaterang ngagaduhan sipat [[antibakteri]]: nambahkeun supa kana kuah sop dipikaterang pikeun nyegah sangkan teu ruksak sahenteuna pikeun sababaraha dinten.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Salah sahiji antibiotik anu tanggung jawab, [[albaflavenone]], diisolasi dina 2011. Éta mangrupikeun [[sesquiterpenoid]] anu parantos dipikaterang tina baktéri taneuh '[[Streptomyces albidoflavus]]''.<ref name="Huang 2011"/> Ékspérimén nunjukkeun yén ekstrak 'P. indusiatus '' ngagaduhan [[antioksidan]] salian ti sipat [[antimikrobial]].<ref name="Mau 2002"/> Publikasi dina taun 2001 ''[[International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms]]'' diusahakeun pikeun nangtoskeun khasiatna salaku [[aphrodisiac]]. Dina parcobaan ngalibetkeun genep belas awéwé, genep urang ngalaporkeun cenah pangalaman tina syahwat hampang bari ngambeu awak buah, sareng sapuluh anu sanés, anu nampi dosis anu langkung alit, dilaporkeun diri ayana ngaronjat haté karasa leuwih janglar. Sadayana dua puluh lalaki anu diuji dianggap bau anu teu raoseun. Panilitianana ngagunakeun awak buah anu aya di Hawaii, sanés ragam anu tiasa didahar anu dibudidayakan di Cina.<ref name="Holliday 2001"/> Panilitian parantos nampi kritik. Hiji cara pikeun ngahontal orgasme instan bakal dipiharep bakal langkung perhatian sareng seueur usaha pikeun baranahan pangaruhna, tapi teu aya anu hasil. Teu aya jurnal ilmiah utama anu nerbitkeun panilitian, sareng teu aya panilitian anu hasilna parantos diréproduksi.<ref>[http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ Expedition Ecstasy: Sniffing Out The Truth About Hawai‘i’s Orgasm-Inducing Mushroom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025222119/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi/2016/02/14/hawaii-orgasm-mushroom/ |date=2019-10-25 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencealert.com/can-a-rare-hawaiian-mushroom-really-give-women-a-spontaneous-orgasm Can a Rare Hawaiian Mushroom Really Give Women a "Spontaneous Orgasm"?]</ref> ==Dicutat tina== ===Catetan=== {{Reflist|group=N}} ===Béréndélan cutatan=== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= <ref name="Anonymous 1800">{{cite journal |title=XXVII. A dissertation on the genus ''Phallus'', by M. 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International Mycological Association |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref> <ref name="urlMycoBank: Hymenophallus indusiatus">{{cite web |url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=330985&Fields=All |title=''Hymenophallus indusiatus'' (Vent.) Nees 1817 |publisher=[[MycoBank]]. International Mycological Association |access-date=2010-10-19}}</ref> <ref name="urlMushroom Expert: Phallus duplicatus">{{cite web |title=''Phallus duplicatus'' |url=http://www.mushroomexpert.com/phallus_duplicatus.html |publisher=MushroomExpert.com |author=Kuo M. |date=April 2011 |access-date=2012-08-24}}</ref> <ref name="Ventenat 1798">{{cite journal |author=Ventenat ÉP. |year=1798 |title=Dissertation sur le genre ''Phallus'' |trans-title=Essay on the genus ''Phallus'' |journal=Mémoires de l'institut National des Sciences et Arts |volume=1 |pages=503–23 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32166/f590.image |language=fr}}</ref> <ref name="Wakefield 1934">{{cite journal |title=Contributions to the flora of tropical America: XXI. Fungi collected in British Guiana, chiefly by the Oxford University Expedition, 1929 |journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Gardens, Kew) |volume=1934 |issue=6 |year=1934 |author=Wakefield E. |pages=238–58 |jstor=4115405 |doi=10.2307/4115405}}</ref> <ref name="Wang 2003">{{cite journal |title=A novel ribonuclease from the veiled lady mushroom ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biochemistry-and-cell-biology_2003-12_81_6/page/373 |journal=Biochemistry and Cell Biology |year=2003 |volume=81 |issue=6 |vauthors=Wang H, Ng TB |pages=373–7 |doi=10.1139/O03-067 |pmid=14663503}}</ref> <ref name="Yang 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Yang QY, Jong SC |year=1987 |chapter=Artificial cultivation of the veiled lady mushroom, ''Dictyophora indusiata'' |veditors=Wuest PJ, Royse DJ, Beelman RB |title=Cultivating Edible Fungi: International Symposium on Scientific and Technical Aspects of Cultivating Edible Fungi (IMS 86), July 15–17, 1986 |publisher=Elsevier Science Publishers |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |series=Developments in Crop Science, '''10''' |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 437–42] |isbn=0-444-42747-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cultivatingedibl0000inte/page/437 }}</ref> <ref name="Ying 1987">{{cite book |vauthors=Ying J, Mao X, Ma Q, Zong Y, Wen H |title=Icones of Medicinal Fungi from China |year=1987 |publisher=Science Press |location=Beijing, China |page=471}}</ref> <ref name="Zeng 1988">{{cite journal |title=A thermophilic delicious 'veiled lady'&nbsp;– ''Dictyophora echino-volvata'' Zang, Zheng & Hu [Abstract] |journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1988 |volume=4 |pages=5–6 |vauthors=Zeng DR, Hu ZX, Zhou CL |language=zh}}</ref> <ref name="Zhou 1989">{{cite journal |title=Initial research on the rapid cultivation of ''Dictyophora indusiata'' [Abstract] | journal=Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) |year=1989 |volume=1 |vauthors=Zhou FL, Qiao CS |pages=17–8 |language=zh}}</ref> }} ===Baca ogé === *{{cite book |vauthors=((Chang S-T)), Miles PG |chapter=''Dictyophora'', formerly for the few |title=Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact |url=https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile |url-access=limited |edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-1043-1 |doi=10.1201/9780203492086.ch18 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mushroomscultiva00mile/page/n367 343]–56}} *{{cite book |author=Hall IR. |title=Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/ediblepoisonousm0000unse |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |year=2003 |isbn=0-88192-586-1}} *{{cite report |title=Chinese food culture and mushroom |author=Hu D. |year=2005 |publisher=[[Wageningen University and Research Centre]], Agricultural Economics Research Institute, LEI BV |location=Wageningen, Netherlands |url=http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314155240/http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf |date=2012-03-14 }} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{Commons category|Phallus indusiatus}} *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=50xqP38f36U YouTube] Time-lapse video of ''P. indusiatus'' growth {{featured article}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q2701671}} [[Kategori :Sayuran]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori :suung]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan sup]] s0tmm0l6kuu0maabmsfy7pdrc1b2d7f Asam amino protéinogenik 0 103553 712391 711685 2026-08-28T22:27:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Asam amino anu diruntuykeun sacara biosintétik jadi protéin nalika translasi}} [[File:Nonproteinogenic AAs.svg|thumbnail|400 px|Asam amino protéinogenik téh saeutik ti sakabéh asam amino]] '''Asam amino protéinogenik''' nyaéta [[asam amino]] anu diruntuykeun sacara biosintétik jadi [[protéin]] nalika [[translasi (biologi)|translasi]]. Kecap "protéinogenik" hartina "nyieun protéin". Di sakur [[mahluk hirup]] anu geus kanyahoan, aya 22 asam amino anu dikode sacara genetik (protéinogenik), 20 dina [[kode genetik]] baku ditambah 2 ([[selenosistéin]] jeung [[pirolisin]]) anu bisa diruntuykeun ku cara mékanisme translasi husus.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ambrogelly A, Palioura S, Söll D | title = Natural expansion of the genetic code | journal = Nature Chemical Biology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 29–35 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17173027 | doi = 10.1038/nchembio847 }}</ref> Sabalikna ti éta, [[asam amino non-protéinogenik]] mah asam amino anu teu ngaruntuy kana protéin atawa (kawas [[asam aminobutirat Gamma|GABA]], [[L-DOPA|<small>L</small>-DOPA]], atawa [[triiodotironin]]), salah karuntuykeun ngaganti asam amino protéinogenik, atawa henteu dijieun langsung sarta diisolasi ku mesin sélulér baku (kawas [[hidroksiprolin]]). Anu pandeuri biasana balukar tina [[modipikasi pos-translasi]] kana protéin. Sababaraha asam amino non-protéinogenik diruntuykeun kana [[péptida non-ribosomal]] anu disintésis ku sintetase péptida non-ribosomal. Boh [[eukariot]] jeung [[prokariot]] bisa nyelapkeun [[selenosistéin]] kana protéinna ngaliwatan runtuyan [[nukléotida]] anu katelah [[unsur SECIS]], anu ngatur sél pikeun narjamahkeun hiji [[kodon]] UGA nu deukeut jadi [[selenosistéin]] (kuduna UGA téh [[kodon stop]]). Dina sababaraha prokariot [[métanogenik]], kodon UAG ogé bisa ditarjamahkeun jadi [[pirolisin]].<ref name="LobanovTuranov2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lobanov AV, Turanov AA, Hatfield DL, Gladyshev VN | title = Dual functions of codons in the genetic code | journal = Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 45 | issue = 4 | pages = 257–65 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20446809 | pmc = 3311535 | doi = 10.3109/10409231003786094 }}</ref> Dina eukariot, aya ukur 21 asam amino protéinogenik, 20 kode genetik baku, ditambah [[selenosistéin]]. Awak [[manusa]] bisa nyintésis 12na, anapon nu 9 anu katelah [[asam amino ésénsial]] kudu ngala tina dahareun (salaku turunan protéinna). Anu salapan nyaéta [[histidin]], [[isoleusin]], [[leusin]], [[lisin]], [[métionin]], [[fénilalanin]], [[tréonin]], [[triptopan]], jeung [[valin]] (i.e. H, I, L, K, M, F, T, W, V).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Young VR | title = Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 124 | issue = 8 Suppl | pages = 1517S–1523S | date = August 1994 | pmid = 8064412 | doi = 10.1093/jn/124.suppl_8.1517S | url = http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/8_Suppl/1517S.pdf }}</ref> Asam amino protéinogenik kapanggih tumali jeung sét asam amino anu dipiwanoh ku sistem autoaminoasilasi [[ribozim]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Erives A | title = A model of proto-anti-codon RNA enzymes requiring L-amino acid homochirality | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | volume = 73 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 10–22 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21779963 | pmc = 3223571 | doi = 10.1007/s00239-011-9453-4 | bibcode = 2011JMolE..73...10E }}</ref> Ku kituna, asam amino non-protéinogenik sigana geus disingkahkeun dina prosé évolusi. Watek séjén anu kapanggih anu sigana jadi sabab nyaéta matak teu stabil, contona [[ornitin]] jeung [[homoserin]] anu matak ngagulung jeung paregatna ranté péptida nu balukarna mondokan umur protéin. Anapon nu séjénna toksik alatan bisa napelna kana protéin kurang spésipik, contona baé [[kanavanin]] anu mangrupa analog arginin. == Baca ogé == * [[Asam amino glukogenik]] * [[Asam amino ketogenik]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} ==Rujukan umum== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Nelson |first=David L. |author2=Cox, Michael M. |title=Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry |edition=3rd |year=2000 |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-1-57259-153-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lehningerprincip01lehn }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Kyte J, Doolittle RF | title = A simple method for displaying the hydropathic character of a protein | url = https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1982-05-05_157_1/page/105 | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 157 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–32 | date = May 1982 | pmid = 7108955 | doi = 10.1016/0022-2836(82)90515-0 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.458.454 }} * {{cite book |last=Meierhenrich |first=Uwe J. |title=Amino acids and the asymmetry of life |url=https://archive.org/details/aminoacidsasymme0000meie |edition=1st |year=2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-76885-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Biochemistry |first=Harpers |title=Harpers Illustrated Biochemistry |edition=30st |year=2015 |publisher=Lange |isbn=978-0-07-182534-4 }} {{refend}} == Tutumbu kaluar == {{commons category|Proteinogenic amino acids}} * [http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/aa/Dayhoff.html The origin of the single-letter code for the amino acids] {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} {{pondok}} [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik| ]] [[Category:Daur nitrogén]] [[Category:Nutrisi]] 1xvx6hzb8fca28fqplkp67xrz20c01q Ficus 0 103634 712327 711757 2026-08-28T20:52:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Marga tutuwuhan kembangan ti suku Moraceae}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Tangkal ara | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Maastrichtian|Present}} | image = Sycomoros old.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Ficus sycomorus]]'' | parent_authority = [[Dumort.]] | taxon = Ficus | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Spésiés]] | subdivision = 800-an }} '''''Ficus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ficus |title=ficus |work=Merriam-Webster |via=merriam-webster.com}}</ref> atawa {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Sunset Western Garden Book |year=1995 |pages=606–607 |publisher=Sunset Books |isbn=978-0-37603-851-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ficus |title=Definition of 'ficus' |work=Collins English Dictionary |via=collinsdictionary.com}}</ref>) nyaéta hiji [[marga]] [[tutuwuhan]] anu ngawengku 850-an [[spésiés]] [[tangkal]] [[kai]], [[rungkun]], [[rambat]], [[épipit]], jeung [[hémiépipit]] dina [[suku]] [[Moraceae]]. Ieu marga pituin wewengkon [[tropis]], ngan sababaraha spésiés anu bisa nepi ka wewengkon [[ugahari]]/sedeng. Conto spésiésna anu kawentar di antarana [[tin]] (''F. careca'') anu pituin Asia Kulon-ngidul jeung [[Méditerania]] (ti [[Apganistan]] nepi ka [[Portugal]]), dipelak ti mangsa bihari pikeun diala [[buah]]na. Sababaraha spésiés ''Ficus'' anu dipikawanoh di [[Pasundan]] di antarana<ref>{{Cite book|title=Five hundred plant species in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java|last=H. Priyadi, G. Takao, I. Rahmawati, B. Supriyanto, W.I. Nursal, I. Rahman|publisher=CIFOR|year=2010|isbn=978-602-8693-22-6|location=Bogor}}</ref>: {{multicol}} *[[Amis mata]] - ''F. montana'' *[[Areuy warejit]] - ''F. punctata'' *[[Beunying]] - ''F. fistulosa'' *[[Caliling]] - ''F. magnoliaefolia'' *[[Caringin]] - ''F. benjamina'' *[[Darangdang]] - ''F. melinocarpa'' *[[Hampelas]] - ''F. ampelas'' *[[Hamberang]] - ''F. padana'' *[[Kiara]] - ''F. calophilla'' {{multicol-break}} *[[Kiara wunuk]]/kiara gambir - ''F. drupacea'' *[[Ki gember]] - ''Ficus'' sp. *[[Ki walén]] - ''F. ribes'' *[[Kondang]] - ''F. variegata'' *[[Ki ciat]] - ''F. septica'' *[[Loa]] - ''F. racemosa'' *[[Pangsar]] - ''F. callosa'' *[[Seuhang]] - ''F. grossularioides'' {{multicol-end}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Rujukan umum == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last=Berg |first=C.C. |title=Flora Malesiana Precursor for the Treatment of Moraceae 4: ''Ficus'' subgenus ''Synoecia'' |journal=Blumea |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=551–571 |date=28 November 2003 |doi=10.3767/000651903X489546 |url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/565443 }} *{{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Hijmann |first2=M.E.E. |title=Flora of Tropical East Africa |year=1989 |editor=R.M. Polhill |chapter=Chapter 11: ''Ficus'' |pages=43–86 }} * {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Corner |first2=E.J.H. |year=2005 |title=Flora malesiana. Series I, Seed plants. Volume 17. Part 2, Moraceae (Ficus) |location=Leiden |publisher=National herbarium Nederland, Universiteit Leiden branch|isbn= 978-9-07123-661-7|oclc= 492578589}} * {{cite book |last1=Carauta |first1=Pedro |last2=Diaz |first2=Ernani |year=2002 |title=Figueiras no Brasil |publisher=Editora UFRJ |location=Rio de Janeiro |isbn=978-85-7108-250-2 }} * {{cite book |author-link=Ira J. Condit |last=Condit |first=Ira J |date=1969 |title=Ficus: the exotic species |url=https://archive.org/details/ficusexoticspeci0000iraj |publisher=University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences |oclc= 1086743649}} * {{cite book |last=Denisowski |first=Paul |year=2007 |url=http://www.mandarintools.com/worddict.html |title=Chinese–English Dictionary |chapter-url=http://www.mandarintools.com/cgi-bin/wordlook.pl?word=fig&searchtype=english&where=whole |chapter=Fig |access-date=November 1, 2008 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Rhett D | year = 2005 | title = Figs and the diversity of tropical rain forests | url = http://eebweb.arizona.edu/courses/Ecol206/Connell1978_IntermedDisturb.pdf | journal = BioScience | volume = 55 | issue = 12 | pages = 1053–1064 | doi = 10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[1053:FATDOT]2.0.CO;2 | doi-access = free }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162520/http://eebweb.arizona.edu/courses/Ecol206/Connell1978_IntermedDisturb.pdf |date=2021-02-24 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Kislev | first1 = Mordechai E. | last2 = Hartmann | first2 = Anat | last3 = Bar-Yosef | first3 = Ofer | year = 2006 | title = Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-06-02_312_5778/page/1372 | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 312 | issue = 5778| pages = 1372–1374 | doi = 10.1126/science.1125910 | pmid=16741119 | bibcode = 2006Sci...312.1372K | s2cid = 42150441 }} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;312/5778/1372/DC1 Supporting Online Material] * {{cite journal|ref=none | last1 = Kislev | first1 = Mordechai E. | last2 = Hartmann | first2 = Anat | last3 = Bar-Yosef | first3 = Ofer | year = 2006 | title = Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 314 | issue = 5806| page = 1683b | doi = 10.1126/science.1133748 | pmid = 17170278 | bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1683K | doi-access = free }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Lev-Yadun | first1 = Simcha | last2 = Ne'eman | first2 = Gidi | last3 = Abbo | first3 = Shahal | last4 = Flaishman | first4 = Moshe A | year = 2006 | title = Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 314 | issue = 5806| page = 1683a | doi = 10.1126/science.1132636 | pmid=17170278| bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1683L | doi-access = free }} * {{cite book |last1=Lewington |first1=Anna |last2=Parker |first2=Edward |year=1999 |title=Ancient trees: Trees that live for 1000 years |url=https://archive.org/details/ancienttreestree0000lewi |location=London |publisher=Collins & Brown |isbn=978-18-5585-704-9}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Rønsted | first1 = Nina | last2 = Weiblen | first2 = George D. | last3 = Cook | first3 = James M. | last4 = Salamin | first4 = Nicholas | last5 = Machado | first5 = Carlos A. | last6 = Savoainen | first6 = Vincent | year = 2005 | title = 60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] | volume = 272 | issue = 1581| pages = 2593–2599 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2005.3249 | pmid = 16321781 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}| pmc = 1559977 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Rønsted |first1=N |last2=Weiblen |first2=G.D. |last3=Clement |first3=W.L. |last4=Zerega |first4=N.J.C. |last5=Savolainen |first5=V. |year=2008 |title=Reconstructing the phylogeny of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) to reveal the history of the fig pollination mutualism |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/RonstedEtAl2008a.pdf |journal=Symbiosis |volume=45 |issn=0334-5114 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126221654/https://geo.cbs.umn.edu/RonstedEtAl2008a.pdf |date=2022-01-26 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Shanahan | first1 = M. | last2 = Compton | first2 = S. G. | last3 = So | first3 = Samson | last4 = Corlett | first4 = Richard | year = 2001 | title = Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2001-11_76_4/page/529 | journal = [[Biological Reviews]] | volume = 76 | issue = 4| pages = 529–572 | doi = 10.1017/S1464793101005760 | pmid=11762492| s2cid = 27827864 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019170541/http://geocities.com/mikeshanahan/figs/figreview.html Electronic appendices] *{{cite journal |last1=van Noort |first1=Simon |last2=van Harten |first2=Antonius |title=The species richness of fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Agaonidae, Pteromalidae) in Yemen |journal=Fauna of Arabia |year=2006 |volume=22 |pages=449–472 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230600455 |access-date=2013-01-01 }} {{Refend}} ==Tutumbu kaluar== {{Commons category|Ficus}} * [http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/index.htm Figweb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050428035506/http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/index.htm |date=2005-04-28 }}—Major reference site for the genus ''Ficus'' * [http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019/browse/classification/kingdom/Plantae/genus/Ficus/fossil/0/match/1 World checklist of Ficus species from the Catalogue of Life], 845 species supplied by M. Hassler's World Plants. * [http://www.figweb.org/Interaction/Video/index.htm Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060212192755/http://www.figweb.org/Interaction/Video/index.htm |date=2006-02-12 }}—Multi-award-winning documentary * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/fig.html Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming] '''Pidéo''' * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCUtpmwacoE How the fig tree strangles other plants for survival in the rainforest] {{Moraceae genera}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q59798}} {{Authority control}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Ficus]] [[Kategori:Moraceae]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan tropis]] [[Kategori:Turuwuhan]] t21jyeflxxn9x5g3twu3n2d85z23rce Glutamin 0 103727 712437 652680 2026-08-28T23:25:51Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{distinguish|Asam glutamat|Asam glutarat}} {{chembox | ImageFile = L-Glutamin - L-Glutamine.svg | ImageCaption= [[Rumus rangka]] <small>L</small>-glutamin | ImageFileL2 = Glutamine-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png | ImageSizeL2 = 115 | ImageCaptionL2 = [[Modél bal jeung tongkat]] | ImageFileR2 = Glutamine-from-xtal-3D-sf.png | ImageSizeR2 = 110 | ImageCaptionR2 = [[Modél ngeusi rohang]] | ImageFile3 = Sample of L-Glutamine.jpg | IUPACName = Glutamine | OtherNames = L-Glutamin <br> (levo)glutamida <br> Asam 2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoat <br>Asam 2-amino-4-karbamoylbutanoat<br>Endari<ref name="FDA2017Glu"/> |Section1={{Chembox Identifiers | Abbreviations = '''Gln''', '''Q''' | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 0RH81L854J | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 930 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00130 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = C00303 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C5H10N2O3/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8/h3H,1-2,6H2,(H2,7,8)(H,9,10)/t3-/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = ZDXPYRJPNDTMRX-VKHMYHEASA-N | CASNo = 56-85-9 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | EC_number = 200-292-1 | PubChem = 5961 | IUPHAR_ligand = 723 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 5746 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 18050 | SMILES = O=C(N)CCC(N)C(=O)O | SMILES1 = O=C(N)CCC([NH3+])C(=O)[O-] | SMILES1_Comment = [[Zwitterion]] }} |Section2={{Chembox Properties | Properties_ref = <ref>{{RubberBible62nd|page=C-311}}.</ref> | C=5 | H=10 | N=2 | O=3 | Appearance = | Density = | MeltingPt = decomposes around 185°C | Solubility = soluble | SpecRotation = +6.5º (H<sub>2</sub>O, ''c'' = 2) | pKa=2.2 (carboxyl), 9.1 (amino) }} |Section6={{Chembox Pharmacology | ATCCode_prefix = A16 | ATCCode_suffix = AA03 }} |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | FlashPt = | AutoignitionPt = }} }} {{Infobox drug | drug_name = L-glutamine oral powder | INN = | type = <!-- empty --> | image = | width = | alt = | caption = <!-- Clinical data --> | pronounce = | tradename = Endari, Nutrestore | Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|l-glutamine}} | MedlinePlus = a617035 | licence_CA = <!-- Health Canada may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> | licence_EU = <!-- EMA uses INN (or special INN_EMA) --> | DailyMedID = Glutamine | licence_US = <!-- FDA may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --> | pregnancy_AU = <!-- A / B1 / B2 / B3 / C / D / X --> | pregnancy_AU_comment = | pregnancy_US = C | pregnancy_US_comment = <ref name="Drugs.com preganancy">{{cite web | title=Glutamine Use During Pregnancy | website=Drugs.com | date=30 September 2019 | url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/glutamine.html | access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref> | pregnancy_category= | dependency_liability = | addiction_liability = | routes_of_administration = By mouth | class = Gastrointestinal agent | ATCvet = | ATC_prefix = A16 | ATC_suffix = AA03 | ATC_supplemental = <!-- Legal status --> | legal_AU = <!-- S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled--> | legal_AU_comment = | legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F--> | legal_BR_comment = | legal_CA = <!-- OTC, Rx-only, Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII --> | legal_CA_comment = | legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled--> | legal_DE_comment = | legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --> | legal_NZ_comment = | legal_UK = <!-- GSL, P, POM, CD, CD Lic, CD POM, CD No Reg POM, CD (Benz) POM, CD (Anab) POM or CD Inv POM / Class A, B, C --> | legal_UK_comment = | legal_US = Rx-only | legal_US_comment = | legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--> | legal_UN_comment = | legal_status = <!-- For countries not listed above --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> | bioavailability = | protein_bound = | metabolism = | metabolites = | onset = | elimination_half-life = | duration_of_action = | excretion = <!-- Identifiers --> | CAS_number_Ref = | CAS_number = 56-85-9 | CAS_supplemental = | PubChem = 5961 | PubChemSubstance = | IUPHAR_ligand = | DrugBank_Ref = | DrugBank = DB00130 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = | ChemSpiderID = 5746 | UNII_Ref = | UNII = 0RH81L854J | KEGG_Ref = | KEGG = D00015 | KEGG2_Ref = | KEGG2 = C00064 | ChEBI_Ref = | ChEBI = 58359 | ChEMBL_Ref = | ChEMBL = 930 | NIAID_ChemDB = | PDB_ligand = GLN | synonyms = <!-- Chemical and physical data --> | IUPAC_name = (S)-2,5-diamino-5-oxopentanoic acid | chemical_formula = | C=5 | H=10 | N=2 | O=3 | molecular_weight = 146.15 | SMILES = C(CC(=O)N)C(C(=O)O)N | Jmol = | StdInChI = 1S/C5H10N2O3/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8/h3H,1-2,6H2,(H2,7,8)(H,9,10)/t3-/m0/s1 | StdInChI_comment = | StdInChIKey = ZDXPYRJPNDTMRX-VKHMYHEASA-N | density = | density_notes = | melting_point = | melting_high = | melting_notes = | boiling_point = | boiling_notes = | solubility = | sol_units = | specific_rotation = }} '''Glutamin''' atawa '''glutamina''' (lambangna '''Gln''' atawa '''Q''')<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | title = Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides | publisher = IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature | year = 1983 | access-date = 5 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | archive-date = 9 October 2008 | url-status = dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html |date=9 October 2008 }}</ref> nyaéta [[asam amino|asam α-amino]] anu dipaké dina biosintésis [[protéin]]. [[Ranté gigir]]na sarupa jeung [[asam glutamat]], iwal gugus karboksilatna diganti ku hiji [[amida]]. Ieu asam amino kaasup polar, tanpa muatan, teu [[asam amino ésénsial|ésénsial]] kusabab galibna bisa disintésis di jero awak, ngan kalan-kalan butuh tambahan asupan tina dahareun.<ref>{{cite book | veditors = Otten JJ, Hellwig JP, Meyers LD | author = Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine | chapter = Protein and Amino Acids | title = Dietary Reference Intakes: The Essential Guide to Nutrient Requirements | date = 2006 | publisher = National Academies Press | location = Washington, D.C. | page = 147 | isbn = 978-0-309-10091-5 | url = http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/Essential_Guide/DRIEssentialGuideNutReq.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140309020936/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/Essential_Guide/DRIEssentialGuideNutReq.pdf | archive-date = 9 April 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212072734/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI/Essential_Guide/DRIEssentialGuideNutReq.pdf |date=12 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lacey JM, Wilmore DW | title = Is glutamine a conditionally essential amino acid? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_1990-08_48_8/page/297 | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 48 | issue = 8 | pages = 297–309 | date = August 1990 | pmid = 2080048 | doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1990.tb02967.x }}</ref> Glutamina [[kode genetik|dikode]] ku [[kodon]] CAA jeung CAG. Dina [[getih manusa]], glutamina téh asam amino bébas pangceuyahna.<ref name="Brosnan">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brosnan JT | title = Interorgan amino acid transport and its regulation | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 133 | issue = 6 Suppl 1 | pages = 2068S–2072S | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12771367 | doi = 10.1093/jn/133.6.2068S | doi-access = free }}{{open access}}</ref> Asupan glutamin bisa diala tina kadaharan anu euyeub [[protéin]], kayaning [[daging sapi]], [[daging hayam]], [[lauk]], [[susu]] jeung produk olahanana, [[endog]], ogé tina [[sayuran]] kayaning [[buncis]], [[bit]], [[bayem]], [[wortel]], [[peterseli]], [[gedang]], jeung kadaharan permentasi kawas [[miso]]. == Baca ogé == * [[Isoglutamina]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://gmd.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/Spectrums/c1bca564-a7ee-4401-85f8-4a3f74dce29c.aspx Glutamine spectra] acquired through [[mass spectroscopy]] * {{cite web | url = https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/rn/56-85-9 | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | work = Drug Information Portal | title = Glutamine }} {{pondok}} {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} {{Suplemén diet}} {{Modulator reséptor GABA}} {{Modulator reséptor glutamata}} [[Category:Karboksamida]] [[Category:Suplemén diet]] [[Category:Asam amino glukogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik]] [[Category:Glutamata (neurotransmitter)]] [[Category:Multiple Chemboxes|X]] q3yl1f27n1tqp6ds6forhm70t8zdiic Isoleusin 0 103733 712415 652695 2026-08-28T22:59:33Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{chembox | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 455157745 | Name = {{sm|l}}-Isoleusin | ImageFile1 = L-Isoleucin - L-Isoleucine.svg | ImageName1 = Wangun kimia Isoleusin | ImageCaption1 = [[Rumus rangka]] <small>L</small>-isoleusin | ImageFileL2 = Isoleucine-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png | ImageNameL2 = Modél bal jeung tongkat L-isoleusin | ImageCaptionL2 = [[modél bal jeung tongkat]] | ImageFileR2 = Isoleucine-from-xtal-3D-sf.png | ImageNameR2 = Modél ngeusi rohang L-isoleusin | ImageCaptionR2 = [[Modél ngeusi rohang]] | IUPACName = Isoleucine | OtherNames = Asam (2''S'',3''S'')-2-amino-3-métilpentanoat | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | IUPHAR_ligand = 3311 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 6067 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 04Y7590D77 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = D00065 | InChI = 1/C6H13NO2/c1-3-4(2)5(7)6(8)9/h4-5H,3,7H2,1-2H3,(H,8,9)/t4-,5-/m0/s1 | InChIKey = AGPKZVBTJJNPAG-WHFBIAKZBB | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C6H13NO2/c1-3-4(2)5(7)6(8)9/h4-5H,3,7H2,1-2H3,(H,8,9)/t4-,5-/m0/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = AGPKZVBTJJNPAG-WHFBIAKZSA-N | CASNo = 73-32-5 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | PubChem = 791 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}} | DrugBank = DB00167 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 58045 | SMILES = CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)O)N | SMILES1 = CC[C@H](C)[C@@H](C(=O)[O-])[NH3+] | SMILES1_Comment = [[Zwitterion]] }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C =6 | H =13 | N =1 | O=2 | MagSus = −84.9·10<sup>−6</sup> cm<sup>3</sup>/mol }} }} '''Isoleusin''' atawa '''isoleusina''' (lambangna '''Ile''' atawa '''I''')<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | title = Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides | publisher = IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature | year = 1983 | access-date = 5 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | archive-date = 9 October 2008 | url-status = dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html |date=9 October 2008 }}</ref> nyaéta [[asam amino|asam α-amino]] anu dipaké dina [[biosintésis]] [[protéin]]. Isoleusin ngandung hiji [[Amina|gugus α-amino]] (wangun kaprotonan −NH{{su|b=3|p=+}} dina kaayaan biologis), hiji [[Asam karboxilat|gugus asam α-karboxilat]] (wangun deprotonasi −COO{{sup|−}} dina kaayaan biologis), jeung hiji ranté gigir [[hidrokarbon]] [[Asam amino ranté cagak|cagak]] (hiji atom [[karbon]] ngabeungkeut tilu atom karbon séjénna). Isoleusin kagolongkeun asam amino non-polar, tanpa muatan (dina pH pisiologis), ranté cagak, [[sanyawa alipatik|alipatik]]. Di manusa kaasup [[asam amino ésénsial|ésénsial]], kusabab teu bisa disintésis di jero awak sorangan. Isoleusin disintésis tina [[asam pirupat|pirupat]] maké [[énzim]] biosintésis leusin di séjén organisme.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kisumi M, Komatsubara S, Chibata I | title = Pathway for isoleucine formation form pyruvate by leucine biosynthetic enzymes in leucine-accumulating isoleucine revertants of Serratia marcescens | url = https://archive.org/details/journal-of-biochemistry_1977-07_82_1/page/95 | journal = Journal of Biochemistry | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | pages = 95–103 | date = July 1977 | pmid = 142769 | doi = 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a131698 }}</ref> Isoleusin [[Kode genetik|dikode]] ku [[kodon]] AUU, AUC, jeung AUA. == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/AminoAcid/IleVal.html Isoleucine and valine biosynthesis] {{pondok}} {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} {{Intermédiat métabolisme asam amino}} [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino glukogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino ketogenik]] [[Category:Asam amino ranté cagak]] [[Category:Asam amino ésénsial]] 29hze1d72xzy64nk632o3s3bsc7cvof Pirolisin 0 103737 712308 652763 2026-08-28T20:30:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Pyl}} {{distinguish|Pirolisis}} {{chembox | Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 464378022 | ImageFile1 = Pyrrolysine.svg | ImageSize1 = 240px | ImageFile2 = Pyrrolysine-from-PDB-3D-bs-17.png | ImageSize2 = 240px | IUPACName = ''N''<sup>6</sup>-{[(2''R'',3''R'')-3-methyl-3,4-dihydro-2''H''-pyrrol-2-yl]carbonyl}-<small>L</small>-lysine | OtherNames = <small>L</small>-Pyrrolysine | SystematicName = (2''S'')-2-amino-6-{[(2''R'',3''R'')-3-methyl-3,4-dihydro-2''H''-pyrrole-2-carbonyl]-amino}-hexanoic acid | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | ChemSpiderID = 4574156 | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = C16138 | InChI = 1/C12H21N3O3/c1-8-5-7-14-10(8)11(16)15-6-3-2-4-9(13)12(17)18/h7-10H,2-6,13H2,1H3,(H,15,16)(H,17,18)/t8-,9+,10-/m1/s1 | InChIKey = ZFOMKMMPBOQKMC-KXUCPTDWBO | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C12H21N3O3/c1-8-5-7-14-10(8)11(16)15-6-3-2-4-9(13)12(17)18/h7-10H,2-6,13H2,1H3,(H,15,16)(H,17,18)/t8-,9+,10-/m1/s1 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = ZFOMKMMPBOQKMC-KXUCPTDWSA-N | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo = 448235-52-7 | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = H3214Y96LP | PubChem = 5460671 | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} | ChEBI = 21860 | SMILES = C[C@@H]1CC=N[C@H]1C(=O)NCCCC[C@@H](C(=O)O)N | SMILES1 = O=C(NCCCC[C@@H](C(=O)[O-])[NH3+])[C@@H]1/N=C\C[C@H]1C | SMILES1_Comment = [[Zwitterion]] }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C=12|H=21|N=3|O=3 | MolarMass = 255.313 g/mol | Appearance = | Density = | MeltingPt = | BoilingPt = | Solubility = }} }} '''Pirolisin''' (lambang '''Pyl''' atawa '''O''';<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | title = Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides | publisher = IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature | year = 1983 | access-date = 5 March 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | archive-date = 9 October 2008 | url-status = dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009023202/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html |date=9 October 2008 }}</ref> anu dikode ku stop [[kode genetik|kodon]] '''UAG''') nyaéta [[Asam amino|asam α-amino]] anu dipaké dina biosintésis [[protéin]] dina sababaraha ''[[archaea]]'' jeung [[baktéri]] [[métanogen]]ik;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/newsletter/2009.html#item35|publisher=Biochemical Nomenclature Committee of IUPAC and NC-IUBMB|title=Newsletter 2009|editor=Richard Cammack|year=2009|at=Pyrrolysine|access-date=2012-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912194130/http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/newsletter/2009.html#item35|archive-date=2017-09-12|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="pmid20847933">{{Cite journal|title = Selenocysteine, Pyrrolysine, and the Unique Energy Metabolism of Methanogenic Archaea|journal = Archaea|date = 2010-01-01|issn = 1472-3646|pmc = 2933860|pmid = 20847933|volume = 2010|doi = 10.1155/2010/453642|first1 = Michael|last1 = Rother|first2 = Joseph A.|last2 = Krzycki|pages=1–14|doi-access = free}}</ref> teu aya di [[manusa]]. Pirolisin ngandung hiji [[Amina|gugus α-amino]] (wangun [[protonasi|kaprotonan]] –{{chem|NH|3|+}} dina [[kaayaan pisiologis|kaayaan biologis]]), hiji gugus [[asam karboxilat]] (wangun deprotonasi –COO<sup>−</sup> dina kaayaan biologis). Ranté gigir [[pirrolin]]-na sarupa jeung dina [[lisin]], watekna basa jeung boga muatan positip dina pH nétral. ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} ==Bacaan salajengna== * {{cite journal | title = The 22nd Amino Acid | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2002-05-24_296_5572/page/n56 | year = 2002 | journal = Science | volume = 296 | issue = 5572 | pages =1409–1410 | doi = 10.1126/science.1073339 | pmid = 12029118 | last1 = Atkins | first1 = J. F. | last2 = Gesteland | first2 = R | s2cid = 82054110 }} * {{cite journal| title = The direct genetic encoding of pyrrolysine | journal = Current Opinion in Microbiology| volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 706–712 | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1016/j.mib.2005.10.009 | pmid = 16256420| last1 = Krzycki | first1 = J. A. }} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * {{cite journal|issn=0009-2347|url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/topstory/8021/8021notw1.html |journal=Chemical and Engineering News |date= May 27, 2002|volume=80|issue=21|page= 13|title=22nd amino acid identified| first=Amanda | last=Yarnell |doi=10.1021/cen-v080n021.p013}} {{Asam amino protéinogenik}} [[Category:Asam amino protéinogenik]] [[Category:Pirrolina]] my1hb1450qqkybs33rv5tu5pmjk5dgu Péptida 0 103789 712357 711528 2026-08-28T21:41:08Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712357 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png|pra=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png/300px-Tetrapeptide_structural_formulae_v.1.png|jmpl|300x300px| Hiji tetrapeptida (conto Val - [[Glisin|Gly]] - [[Serin|Ser]] - [[Alanin|Ala]]). Kelir <span style="color:green;">'''héjo'''</span> nandakeun tungtung amino ( <nowiki><span id="mwEw" style="color:green;"><b id="mwFA">L-palin</b></nowiki><nowiki></span></nowiki> ), anapon tungtung karboksil ditandaan <span style="color:blue;">'''biru'''</span> ( [[Alanin|<span style="color:blue;">'''L-alanin'''</span>]] ).]] '''Péptida''' (tina Yunani kuna πεπτός, ti πέσσειν) nyaéta ranté pondok [[Asam amino|asam amino anu]] disambungkeun ku beungkeut péptida . <ref>{{Cite book|last=Hamley|first=I. W.|title=introduction to Peptide Science|date=September 2020|publisher=Wiley|isbn=9781119698173|url=https://www.wiley.com/en-ai/Introduction+to+Peptide+Science-p-9781119698173}}</ref> Ranté anu kurang ti dua puluh asam amino disebut oligopéptida, sarta ngawengku dipéptida, tripéptida, jeung tetrapéptida. '''Polipéptida''' nyaéta ranté péptida anu leuwih panjang, sinambung, tanpa cagak.<ref name="Saladin">{{Cite book|last=Saladin|first=K.|title=Anatomy & physiology: the unity of form and function|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780077691929|date=13 January 2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=9780073378251|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780077691929/page/67 67]|edition=6th}}</ref> Ku lantaran kitu, péptida kaasup kana kelas polimér biologis jeung oligomér, sarupa jeung [[asam nukléat]], oligosakarida, [[polisakarida]], jeung sajabana. Polipéptida anu ngandung leuwih ti 50 asam amino katelah [[protéin]] . <ref name="Saladin"/> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides|title=What are peptides|publisher=Zealand Pharma A/S|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429200629/https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides|archivedate=2019-04-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429200629/https://www.zealandpharma.com/what-are-peptides |date=2019-04-29 }}</ref> Protéin diwangun ku hiji atawa leuwih polipéptida nu disusun dina cara biologis pungsional, osok kabeungkeut ligan kayaning koénzim jeung kopaktor, atawa protéin séjén atawa [[makromolekul]] séjén kayaning [[DNA]] atawa [[RNA]], atawa rakitan makromolekul anu pajeujeut. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ardejani|first=Maziar S.|last2=Orner|first2=Brendan P.|date=2013-05-03|title=Obey the Peptide Assembly Rules|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2013-05-03_340_6132/page/561|journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6132|pages=561–562|bibcode=2013Sci...340..561A|doi=10.1126/science.1237708|issn=0036-8075|pmid=23641105}}</ref> Asam amino nu geus diasupkeun kana péptida disebut résidu. Molekul cai dileupaskeun nalika formasi unggal beungkeut amida.<ref name="IUPAC1">{{GoldBookRef|file=A00279|title=amino-acid residue in a polypeptide}}.</ref> Kabéh péptida iwal péptida siklik boga N-terminal (gugus amina) jeung C-terminal (gugus karboksil) résidu dina tungtung péptida (sakumaha ditémbongkeun keur tétrapéptida dina gambar). == Kelas == Aya sababaraha jinis péptida anu digolongkeun dumasar kana sumber jeung pungsina. Kelompok péptida ngawengku péptida tutuwuhan, péptida baktéri/antibiotik, péptida supa, péptida invertebrata, péptida ampibi/kulit, péptida peurah, péptida kangker/antikangker, péptida paksin, péptida imun/radang, péptida otak, péptida éndokrin, péptida ingestif, péptida cerna, péptida kardiovaskular, péptida ginjal, péptida pernapasan, péptida opiat, péptida neurotropik, jeung péptida getih-otak. <ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Biologically Active Peptides|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbiolog0000unse_n9v5|editor-last=Abba J. Kastin|edition=2nd|year=2013|isbn=978-0-12-385095-9}}</ref> Sababaraha péptida ribosom bakal ngalaman proteolisis. Ieu fungsi, ilaharna dina organisme luhur, salaku [[hormon]] jeung molekul signaling. Sababaraha mikroba ngahasilkeun péptida salaku antibiotik, sarupaning mikrosin jeung baktériosin. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2007|title=Microcins, gene-encoded antibacterial peptides from enterobacteria|journal=Natural Product Reports|volume=24|issue=4|pages=708–34|doi=10.1039/b516237h|pmid=17653356|coauthors=Duquesne S, Destoumieux-Garzón D, Peduzzi J, Rebuffat S}}</ref> == Sintésis kimia == [[Gambar:Peptide_Synthesis.svg|pra=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Peptide_Synthesis.svg/660px-Peptide_Synthesis.svg.png|al=Table of amino acids|pus|jmpl| Sintésis péptida fase padet dina résin amida maké [[asam amino]] anu dikilungan Fmoc -α- amina.]] Péptida ribosomal === Péptida antimikrobial === * Kulawarga magainin * kulawarga sékropin * kulawarga katélisidin * kulawarga defénsin === Péptida Tahikinin === * Bahan P * Kassinin * Neurokinin A * Élédoisin * Neurokinin B === Péptida peujit vasoaktif === * VIP (PHM27) * PACAP * Péptida PHI 27 * GHRH 1-24 * [[glukagon]] * Sekrétin === Péptida polipéptida pankréas === * NPY * PYY * APP * PPY === Péptida opioid === * Péptida proopiomélanokortin (POMC) * Pentapéptida énkepalin * Péptida prodinorpin === Péptida kalsitonin === * Kalsitonin * Amilin * AGG01 == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Péptida]] ove8w1a7hdpzmsmrt0v10iefnu5vpx1 Etilen glikol 0 103904 712325 684542 2026-08-28T20:48:25Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Sanyawa organik étana-1,2-diol}} {{distinguish|text=[[Poliétilén glikol]], [[Diétilén glikol]], [[Propilén glikol]], atawa [[Diol|Glikol]]}} {{Chembox | Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 457630599 | Name = | ImageFile = | ImageFile1 = Ethylene glycol.svg | ImageName1 = Wireframe model of ethylene glycol | ImageFileL2 = Ethylene-glycol-3D-vdW.png | ImageNameL2 = Spacefill model of ethylene glycol | ImageFileR2 = Ethylene-glycol-3D-balls.png | ImageNameR2 = Ball and stick model of ethylene glycol | ImageFile3 = Samlpe of Ethylene glycol.jpg | ImageName3 = Sample of ethylene glycol | PIN = Étana-1,2-diol<ref>{{cite book |author=[[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] |date=2014 |title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013 |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry|The Royal Society of Chemistry]] |pages=690 |doi=10.1039/9781849733069 |isbn=978-0-85404-182-4}}</ref> | OtherNames = {{ubl|Étilén glikol|1,2-Étanadiol|Étilén alkohol|Monoétilén glikol|1,2-Dihidroksiétana|Pelarut glikol}} | IUPACName = 1,2-Étanadiol | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | Abbreviations = MEG | ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEMBL = 457299 | StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChI = 1S/C2H6O2/c3-1-2-4/h3-4H,1-2H2 | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey = LYCAIKOWRPUZTN-UHFFFAOYSA-N | CASNo = 107-21-1 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | PubChem = 174 | ChemSpiderID = 13835235 | ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = FC72KVT52F | EINECS = 203-473-3 | DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|changed|drugbank}} | DrugBank = | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}} | KEGG = C01380 | MeSHName = Ethylene+glycol | ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} | ChEBI = 30742 | RTECS = KW2975000 | UNNumber = 3082 | SMILES = OCCO | InChI = 1/C2H6O2/c3-1-2-4/h3-4H,1-2H2 | InChIKey = LYCAIKOWRPUZTN-UHFFFAOYAD | Beilstein = 505945 | Gmelin = 943 | 3DMet = B00278 }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | C=2 | H=6 | O=2 | Appearance = Hérang, cairan tanwarna | Odor = Odorless<ref name=PGCH/> | Density = {{cvt|1.1132|g/cm3}} | MeltingPtC = −12.9 | MeltingPt_notes = | BoilingPtC = 197.3 | BoilingPt_notes = | Solubility = [[Miscible]] | SolubleOther = Leyur dina kalolobaan [[pelarut organik]] | Solvent = | VaporPressure = 0.06 mmHg (20&nbsp;°C)<ref name=PGCH/> | Viscosity = 1.61{{e|−2}} Pa·s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://physics.info/viscosity/|title=Viscosity|first=Glenn|last=Elert|website=The Physics Hypertextbook|access-date=2007-10-02}}</ref> | HenryConstant = | AtmosphericOHRateConstant = | pKa = | pKb = | LogP = -1.69<ref name="chemsrc">{{Cite web|url=https://www.chemsrc.com/en/cas/107-21-1_329621.html|title=Ethylene glycol|website=www.chemsrc.com}}</ref> }} | Section3 = | Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry | DeltaHf = | DeltaHc = | Entropy = | HeatCapacity = }} | Section5 = | Section6 = | Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards | MainHazards= Bahya, bisa kaduruk | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = 0 | NFPA-S = | GHSPictograms = {{GHS07}}{{GHS08}} | GHSSignalWord = Warning | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|302|373}} | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|260|264|270|301+312|302|314|330|501}} | ExternalSDS = [https://www.fishersci.com/msdsproxy%3FproductName%3DE1774%26productDescription%3DETHYLENE%2BGLYCOL%2BLABORATORY%2B4L%26catNo%3DE177-4%2B%26vendorId%3DVN00033897%26storeId%3D10652 External SDS 1] [https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/GB/cs/sds/sial/324558 External SDS 2] | FlashPtC = 111 | FlashPt_notes = closed&nbsp;cup | AutoignitionPtC = 410 | ExploLimits = 3.2–15.2%<ref name=PGCH/> | PEL = None<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0272}}</ref> | REL = None established<ref name=PGCH/> | IDLH = None<ref name=PGCH/> }} | Section8 = {{Chembox Related | OtherFunction = {{ubl|[[Propilén glikol]]|[[Diétilén glikol]]|[[Triétilén glikol]]|[[Polioétilén glikol]]}} | OtherFunction_label = [[diol]] | OtherCompounds = }} }} '''Étilén glikol''' ([[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC name]]: étana-1,2-diol) nyaéta [[sanyawa organik]] (a [[Vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] [[diol]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-13 |title=3.8: 3.8 Alcohols - Classification and Nomenclature |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Map%3A_Organic_Chemistry_(Wade)/03%3A_Functional_Groups_and_Nomenclature/3.08%3A_3.8_Alcohols_-__Classification_and_Nomenclature |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref>) with the formula {{chem2|(CH_{2}OH)_{2} }}. Utamana dipaké pikeun dua guna, bahan baku pabrik serat poliéster jeung resép [[antibeku]]. Rupana cairan kentel tanbau, tanwarna, jeung babari kaduruk. Karasana [[amis]], tapi toksik lamun loba.<ref>Ethylene glycol poisoning</ref> == Mangpaat == ===Agén paniis jeung pamindah panas=== Étilén glikol utamana dipaké salaku agén antibeku dina [[paniis]] (''coolant''), jeung sistem mobil jeung [[air-conditioning|AC]] anu boga [[chiller]] atawa bagian anu kudu tiis sahandapeun titik beku cai. Dina sistem paniis/[[pamanas géotermal]], étilén glikol jadi [[cairan]] anu ngakut panas ngaliwatan [[kompa panas géotermal]]. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tutumbu kaluar == * [http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C107211 WebBook page for C2H6O2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213853/http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C107211 |date=2013-10-04 }} * [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/egpg/index.html ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol Toxicity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130215155058/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/egpg/index.html |date=2013-02-15 }} * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0272.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards] * [https://lcglad.dk/glycol/ Antifreeze ratio for Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol] * [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic177.htm Medical information] * {{cite journal |author1=Hairong Yue |author2=Yujun Zhao |author3=Xinbin Ma |author4=Jinlong Gong | title = Ethylene glycol: properties, synthesis, and applications |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chemical-society-great-britain-chemical-society-reviews_2012-06-07_41_11/page/4218 | journal = Chemical Society Reviews | issue = 11 | year = 2012 | volume = 41 | pages = 4218–4244 | doi = 10.1039/C2CS15359A|pmid=22488259 }} {{pondok}} {{Alkohol}} {{Mesin otomotip}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ethylene glycol}} [[Category:Pelarut alkohol]] [[Category:Alkanadiol]] [[Category:Komoditas kimia]] [[Category:Alkohol gula]] cwm2owqx4cxkhvkxzq770j5p2qpr3bz Sapfo 0 104128 712342 711705 2026-08-28T21:19:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Ancient Greek poet from Lesbos (c. 630-c. 570 BC)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} [[File:Malarz Safony - Kalpis wykonana techniką Six.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kalpis]] lukisan Sapfo ku [['' Pelukis'' Sapfo]] ({{circa}} 510 SM), ayeuna tempatna di [[Museum Nasional, Warsawa]]]] [[File:Head Sappho Glyptothek Munich.jpg|thumb|Patung sirah awéwé ti [[Glyptothek]] di Munich, ''diidentifikasi'' "meureun" minangkatironan tina [[Silanion]]'s potrét ''imajinatif'' abad ka opat SM ngeunaan Sapfo{{sfn|Ohly|2002|page=48}}]] '''Sapfo'''; Sappho ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|f|oʊ}}; {{lang-el|Σαπφώ}} ''Sapphō'' hu ''[[Aeolic Greek]] '' {{lang|grc|Ψάπφω}} ''Psápphō''; c. 630 – c. 570 BC) Nyaéta saurang pujangga asal [[Yunani kuna]] dumuk di [[Eresos]] atawa [[Mytilene]] di pulo [[Lesbos]].{{efn|The fragments of Sappho's poetry are conventionally referred to by fragment number, though some also have one or more common names. The most commonly used numbering system is that of [[Eva-Maria Voigt]], which in most cases matches the older Lobel-Page system. Unless otherwise specified, the numeration in this article is from Diane Rayor and André Lardinois' ''Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works'', which uses Voigt's numeration with some variations to account for the fragments of Sappho discovered since Voigt's edition was published. References to ancient authors commenting on Sappho give both the conventional reference, and the numeration given in Campbell's ''Greek Lyric I: Sappho and Alcaeus''.}} Sapfo dipiwanoh dina lirik puisina, nu ditulis pikeun ditembangkeun bari dipirig ku musik/gamelan. Jaman baheula, Sapfo dina umumna dianggap salaku saurang pujangga anu mana lirik-lirikna kamashur malahan dingaranan saperti "''Tenth Muse''" jeung "''The Poetess''". Kalolobaan [[Puisi]] Sapfo kiwari geus laleungitan, sanajan aya ogé anu nyésa kalolobaan ngawujud fragmén/potongan; Kajaba ''[[Ode to Aphrodite]]'' masih kénéh dina kaayan weuteuh. Kitu deui jeung lirik puisina, Koméntator kuna nyebutkeun cenah gaya nulis Sapfo lirik puisina ''élegi'' jeung ''iambic''. Aya tilu ''épigram'' anu disangkut pautkeun jeung sapfo, Sok padahal éta mah ''Hellenistik'' meunang niron tina gaya nulisna sapfo. Saeutik pisan anu dipikanyaho ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo. Anjeuna téh kawasna katurunan kulawarga beunghar ti Lesbos, Sanajan teu kungsi kanyahoan saha ngaran kolotna. Ceuk sumber kuna nyebutkeun cenah sapfo téh boga tilu dulur lalaki; Charaxos (Χάραξος), Larichos (Λάριχος) jeung Eurygios (Εὐρύγιος). Dua diantarana, Charaxos jeung Larichos, disebutkeun dina puisina “ [[Brothers Poem]]” kapanggih taun 2014. Manéhna Safo ditundung/diasingkeun ka Sicily kurang leuwih taun 600 SM, éta ogé meureun terus lumangsung digawé nepi ka taun 570 SM. Numutkeun kana legenda, anjeuna nelasan manénéh/bunuh diri kujalan luncat tina gawir Leucadian alatan ambon sorangan mikahayang ka [[Phaon]] tukang perahu. Sapfo saurang pujangga anu loba ngahasilkeun [[puisi]], meureun lamun dikumpulkeun aya kana 10,000 baris. Puisina kakoncara sareng seueur anu mikayungyun, Safo ogé kalebet salah saurang kanon [[Salapan Pujangga Lirik]] anu paling dipihormat ku sarjana [[Hellenistic]] Alexandria. Puisi-puisi Sapfo masih dianggap luar biasa sareng karya-karyana terus mangaruhan panulis sanés. Disaluareun puisina, anjeunna kasohor salaku simbol [[Lesbian]] cinta ka sasama awéwé,{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=2–9}} dina kecap basa Inggris ''[[:wikt:sapphic|sapphic]]'' jeung ''[[:wikt:lesbian|lesbian]]'' diturunkeun tina ngaran dirina sareng pulo asalna masing-masing. ==Sumber kuna== Pangaweruh modérn ngeunaan Sapfo dumasar tina naon anu tiasa disimpulkeun tina puisina sorangan, jeung tina naskah kuno lianna anu nyebutkeun ngeunaan dirina.{{sfn|duBois|2015|p=81}} Puisi Sapfo sorangan mangrupikeun hiji-hijina sumber kontémporér pikeun hirupna.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=2}} ''Biografi'' Sapfo anu masih nyésa/salamet ti anu pangheubeulna abad kadua atawa mimiti abad katilu [[Maséhi]], kurang leuwih dalapan abad sanggeus hirup Sapfo; salajengna nyaéta ''Suda'', énsiklopédi jaman [[Bizantium]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Sumber-sumber sanés anu nyebatkeun leuwih jéntré ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo ditulis langkung caket sareng jamanna, dimimitian dina abad kalima SM.{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Inpormasi ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo anu kacatet dina sumber kuna diturunkeun tina guaran pernyataan-pernyataan dina puisina sorangan anu dianggap ku pangarang kuna salaku biografi, dibarengan ku ''tradisi lokal''.{{sfn|Kivilo|2021|p=11}} Sababaraha tradisi kuna ngeunaan Sapfo, kayaning pamadegan ngeunaan séksualitas jeung dangdanan dirina, bisa diturunkeun tina ''komedi/drama''.{{sfn|Lefkowitz|2012|p=42}} Nepi ka abad XIX, sumber kuna ngeunaan kahirupan pujangga kuna anu loba ditarima kurang jero/''uncritically''. Dina abad ka-19, kaom ''klasikis'' mimiti ''skeptis'' kana tradisi ieu, sarta tinimbang nyoba diturunkeun inpormasi biografi tina puisi-puisina anu salamet.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|pp=2&ndash;3}} Dina satengah ahir abad ka XX, sarjana janten beuki ''skeptis'' kana ''lirik'' puisi [[Yunani]] salaku sumber informasi ''otobiografi''.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|pp=3&ndash;4}} Sababaraha sarjana, sapertos [[Mary Lefkowitz]], mibanda pamadegan yén ampir euweuh anu bisa dipikawanoh ngeunaan kahirupan pujangga Yunani ti mimiti Sapfo; Seuseueurna sarjana percaya yén kasaksian kuno ngeunaan kahirupan para pujangga ngandung sababaraha bebeneran tapi kedah pariksa tur ditaluntik kalayan ati-ati.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=4}} ==Kahirupan== Tangtuna saeutik anu dipikanyaho ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=1}} Manéhna ti pulo Lesbos{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=139}}{{efn|According to the [[Suda]] she was from [[Eresos]] rather than Mytilene;{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} most ''testimonia'' and some of Sappho's own poetry point to Mytilene.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=140|loc=n.1}}}} sarta hirup di ahir abad katujuh jeung awal abad kagenep SM.{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=198|loc=n.174}} Ieu mangrupikeun tanggal anu dipasihkeun ku kalolobaan sumber kuna, anu nganggap dirina kontémporér [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] jeung [[Pittacus]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=198|loc=n.174}}{{efn|[[Strabo]] nyebutkeun yén manéhna téh kontémporér tina [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] (born {{circa|620 BC}}) jeung [[Pittacus]] ({{circa|645 BC|570 BC}}); [[Athenaeus]] yén anjeunna kontemporer [[Alyattes of Lydia|Alyattes]], raja Lidia ({{circa|610 BC|560 BC}}). The Suda nyebutkeun yén manéhna aktip salila Olimpiade 42nd(612&ndash;608 BC), bari [[Eusebius]] nyebutkeun yén manéhna kawentar ku Olimpiade ka-45 (600&ndash;599 BC).{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=x–xi}}}} Ku kituna bisa waé manéhna bisa jadi geus dilahirkeun dina kuartal katilu abad katujuh &ndash; Franco Ferrari nyimpulkeun waktu kurangleuwih 650 atanapi 640 SM;{{sfn|Ferrari|2010|pp=8&ndash;9}} David Campbell nyarankeun kira-kira atawa saméméh 630 SM.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=xi}} [[Gregory Hutchinson (classicist)|Gregory Hutchinson]] nunjukkeun yén anjeunna aktip dugi ka 570-an SM.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=140}} Ngaran tradisional indungna salaku Cleïs.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ieu tiasa diturun tina sajak atanapi catetan anu ayeuna tos leungit,{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=175}} sanajan sarjana kuna bisa ngan geus ditebak ieu ngaran, asumsina yén putri Sapfo urang Cleïs dingaranan dirina.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} Ngaran bapana Sapfo urang kirang pasti. Sapuluh ngaran dipikawanoh pikeun bapana Sapfo urang ti sumber kuna;{{efn|Two in the [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1800|Oxyrhynchus biography (P.Oxy. 1800)]], seven more in the Suda, and one in a [[scholion]] on Pindar.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 4 n. 65}}}} ''proliferasi'' ieu tina ngaran mungkin nunjukkeun yén anjeunna teu éksplisit ngaranna dina salah sahiji sajakna Sapfo.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=3–4}} Ngaran pangheubeulna jeung paling ilahar #attesteds pikeun bapana Sapfo urang nyaéta Scamandronymus.{{efn|Σκαμανδρώνυμος in Greek. Given as Sappho's father in the Oxyrhynchus biography, Suda, a scholion on Plato's ''Phaedrus'', and Aelian's ''Historical Miscellanies'', and as Charaxos' father in Herodotus.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 4}}}} In Ovid's ''[[Heroides]]'', Bapana Sapfo maot nalika yuswa tujuh.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=20}} Anjeunna teu disebutkeun dina salah sahiji karyana anu salamet, tapi Campbell nunjukkeun kalawan jéntré ieu mungkin geus dumasar kana sajak anu ayeuna-leungit.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=15|loc=n.1}} Ngaran Sapfo sorangan kapanggih dina sababaraha rupa éjaan;{{efn|Inscriptions on Attic vase paintings read ΦΣΑΦΟ, ΣΑΦΟ, ΣΑΠΠΩΣ, and ΣΑΦΦΟ; on coins ΨΑΠΦΩ, ΣΑΠΦΩ, and ΣΑΦΦΩ all survive.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 2}}}} wangun nu nembongan dina puisi ''extant'' dirina sorangan nyaéta Sapfo (Ψάπφω).<ref>Sappho, frr. 1.20, 65.5, 94.5, 133b</ref>{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|page=98}} [[File:1877_Charles_Mengin_-_Sappho.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=|''Sappho'' (1877) by [[Charles Mengin]] (1853–1933). Hiji tradisi nyebutkeun yén Sapfo bunuh diri ku luncat tina gawir Leucadian.{{sfn|Lidov|2002|pp=205–6|loc=n.7}}]] Sapfo cenah gaduh tilu sadulur: Erigyius, Larichus, jeung Charaxus. Numutkeun [[Athenaeus]], anjeunna sering muji Larichus pikeun tuang anggur di aula kota Mytilene, hiji kantor dicekel ku budak kulawarga pangalusna.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=xi, 189}} Indikasi ieu yén Sapfo lahir dina kulawarga bangsawan saluyu sareng lingkungan anu sakapeung jarang anu dirékam ayat-ayat na.. Hiji tradisi kuno nyarioskeun hubungan antara Charaxus sareng courtesan Mesir [[Rhodopis (hetaera)|Rhodopis]]. Herodotus, sumber carita pangkolotna, ngalaporkeun yén Charaxus nebus Rhodopis ku jumlah anu ageung sareng yén Sapfo nyerat sajak anu ngahukum anjeunna pikeun ieu.{{efn|Other sources say that Charaxus' lover was called Doricha, rather than Rhodopis.{{sfn|Campbell|1982|pp=15, 187}}}}<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'', 2.135 = Sappho 254a</ref> Ngaran dua lanceukna, Charaxus jeung Larichus, anu disebutkeun dina [[Brothers Poem]], kapanggih dina 2014; lanceukna pamungkas, Erigyius, disebatkeun dina tilu sumber kuno tapi henteu aya dina karya Sapfo anu masih aya.{{sfn|Lardinois|2021|p=172}} Manéhna bisa jadi geus miboga putri ngaranna Cleïs, nu disebut dina dua fragmén.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=3}} Henteu sadayana sarjana nampi yén Cleïs mangrupikeun putri Sapfo. Fragment 132 ngajelaskeun Cleïs salaku "παῖς" (''pais''), anu, ogé hartina "anaking", ogé bisa ngarujuk kana "youthful beloved in a male homosexual liaison".{{sfn|Hallett|1982|p=22}} Geus ngusulkeun yén Cleïs éta salah sahiji pencinta ngora Sappho urang, tinimbang putrina,{{sfn|Hallett|1982|p=22}} sanajan [[Judith Hallett]] pamadegan yén basa nu dipaké dina fragmén 132 nunjukkeun yén Sappho ngarujuk Cleïs salaku putri nya..{{sfn|Hallett|1982|pp=22–23}} Nurutkeun kana [[Suda]], Sapfo ieu nikah ka Kerkylas ti [[Andros]].{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=4}} Ngaran ieu sigana geus invented by pujangga komik: nami "Kerkylas" ({{lang|grc|Κερκύλας}}) kaciri mangrupa kecap ''diminutif'' {{lang|grc|κέρκος}} ({{transl|grc|kerkos}}), kamungkinan hartina "sirit"/"penis", tur teu disebutkeun ''attested'' salaku ngaran,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=309}}{{efn|Padahal ngaran sarupa kaasup {{lang|grc|Κερκύλος}} ({{transl|grc|Kerkylos}}) anu dibuktoskeun.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=Ch.4 n.36}}}} sedengkeun "Andros", sakumaha ogé jadi ngaran hiji pulo Yunani, mangrupa wangun kecap Yunani {{lang|grc|ἀνήρ}} ({{transl|grc|aner}}), anu hartina "lalaki".{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ku kituna, ngaranna bisa jadi lulucon.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=309}} Dina basa Inggris sarua bakal éta Sapfo ieu nikah ka "Dick-Allcock ti Pulo Man".{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ceuk hiji tradisi yén Sapfo diasingkeun ti Lesbos sabudeureun 600 SM.{{sfn|Hutchinson|2001|p=139}} Babad Parian/ [[Parian Chronicle]] catetan Sapfo badé diasingkeun di Sisilia sababaraha waktu antara 604 jeung 595, meureun ''coinciding''/bertepatan jeung [[Pittacus]] nyandak kakuatan dina 597.{{sfn|Ferrari|2010|pp=18&ndash;19}} Ieu bisa jadi salaku hasil tina ''involvement'' kulawargana jeung ''konflik'' antara élit pulitik di Lesbos dina mangsa ieu.,{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=10}} alesan anu sami pikeun pengasingan Alcaeus kontémporér Sapfo ti Mytilene sakitar waktos anu sami.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=158}} Hiji tradisi balik deui sahenteuna ka [[Menander]] (Fr. 258 K) ngusulkeun éta Sapfo bunuh diri ku luncat tina [[Lefkada|Leucadian cliffs]] pikeun cinta ka [[Phaon]], tukang kapal. Ieu dianggap salaku ahistorical ku sarjana moderén, meureun diciptakeun ku para panyajak komik atawa asalna tina kasalahan maca rujukan jalma kahiji dina sajak ''non-biografi''.{{sfn|Lidov|2002|pp=205–6|loc=n.7}} Legénda éta tiasa nyababkeun sabagian tina kahayang pikeun negeskeun Sapfo salaku hétéroséksual.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|pp=448–449}}{{clear left}} ==Pagawéna== [[File:P.Sapph.Obbink.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Black and white photograph of a fragment of papyrus with Greek text|P.&nbsp;Sapph.&nbsp;Obbink: hiji fragmén anu kapanggih tina papirus salahsahiji puisi Sapfo [[Brothers Poem]]/sajak baraya] Sapfo dipercaya geus nulis kurang leuwih 10,000 baris sajak; kiwari, ngan kari 650 anu salamet.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} Anu dipikawanoh ti manéhna téh tayalian pangalusna dina [[puisi liris]], ditulis pikeun dipirig ku musik.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} ''Suda'' ogé nyebutkeun kana karya Sappho mibanda ciri mandiri /genre ''[[epigrams]]'', ''[[elegiacs]]'', jeung ''[[iambus (genre)|iambics]];'' tilu tina ''epigrams'' ieu aya, engkéna sajak-sajakna Hellenistic diideuan ku ieukaryana Sappho.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} ''The iambic'' jeung ''elegiac'' sajak dikaitkeun ka dirina di Suda ogé bisa jadi ''imitations'' engkéna.{{efn|Scholars such as Alexander Dale and Richard Martin have suggested that some of Sappho's surviving fragments may have been considered iambic in genre, even though they were not composed in iambic trimeter, by ancient sources.{{sfn|Dale|2011|pp=47&ndash;55}}{{sfn|Martin|2016|pp=115&ndash;118}}}}{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}}Baheula pangarang ngaku yén Sappho utamana nulis cinta sajak,{{sfn|Campbell|1982|p=xii}} sarta transmisi teu langsung karya Sappho ngarojong pamanggih ieu.{{sfn|Bierl|Lardinois|2016|p=3}} Sanajan kitu, tradisi papirus nyarankeun yén ieu bisa jadi teu jadi: runtuyan papirus diterbitkeun dina 2014 ngandung fragmen sapuluh padeukeut sajak ti Buku I tina édisi Alexandrian of Sapfo, di antarana waé dua anu pasti cinta puisi, sedengkeun sahanteuna tilu jeung kamungkinan opat utamana paduli kulawarga.{{sfn|Bierl|Lardinois|2016|p=3}} ===Édisi Baheula=== Puisi-puisi Sapfo éta meureun mimiti ditulis di Lesbos, boh dina hirupna atawa teu lila saterusna,{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} mimitina meureun dina wangun skor pikeun palaku karyana.{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} Dina abad kalima SM, Buku Athena penerbit meureun mimiti ngahasilkeun salinan puisi lirik Lesbian, sababaraha kaasup katerangan bahan jeung glosses ogé sajak sorangan.{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} Sababaraha waktu dina abad kadua atawa katilu, [[Alexandrian school|Alexandrian scholars]] ngahasilkeun édisi kritis puisi Sapfo.{{sfn|de Kreij|2015|p=28}} Aya meureun geus leuwih ti hiji édisi Alexandrian – [[John J. Winkler]] boga dua pamanggih, hiji diédit ku [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] jeung hiji deui ku muridna [[Aristarchus of Samothrace]].{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} eu henteu pasti – sumber kuna béjaan kami itu édisi Aristarchus ti Alcaeus gaganti édisi ku Aristophanes, tapi teu kanyahoan ngeunaan karya Sapfo naha ogé ngaliwat sababaraha édisi.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=180|loc=n.4}} Édisi Alexandrian tina puisi Sapfo ieu dumasar kana aya kumpulan Athena,{{sfn|Bolling|1961|p=152}} sarta éta dibagi jadi sahenteuna dalapan buku, sanajan jumlah pastina teu pasti.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=181}} Loba sarjana modern geus dituturkeun Nolak Kaca, anu ngaduga buku kasalapan dina édisi standar;{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=181}} Yatromanolakis ieu ragu, sanajan yén teu aya sumber kuna ngarujuk kana buku kadalapan puisi Sapfo, taya nu nyebut kasalapan.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|1999|p=184}} Édisi Alexandrian tina Sapfo sigana dikelompokeun sajak-sajakna ku waktuna: sumber kuna ngabejaan urang yén tiap tina tilu buku munggaran ngandung sajak dina méter husus tunggal.{{sfn|Lidov|2011}} Édisi kuno Sapfo, kamungkinan dimimitian ku édisi Alexandrian, sigana geus maréntahkeun sajak dina sahenteuna buku munggaran puisi Sapfo – nu ngandung karya nu diwangun dina [[Sapphic stanza]]s – ''alphabetically''.{{sfn|Obbink|2016|p=42}} Malah sanggeus publikasi tina édisi Alexandrian standar, Puisi Sapfo terus medar dina kumpulan puisi séjénna. Contona, nu dina ''Cologne Papyrus'' [[Tithonus poem]] éta dilestarikeun bagian tina hiji puisi ''antologi'' Hellenistic, anu eusina puisi disusun dumasar téma, tinimbang ku waktu medalna, sakumaha anu kasebut dina édisi Alexandrian.{{sfn|Clayman|2011}} ===Puisi Anu Salamet=== {{multiple image | total_width = 320 | image1 = P.Köln XI 429.jpg | alt1 = Fragments of papyrus | width1 = 1608 | height1 = 1628 | image2 = Ostrakon PSI XIII 1300, II sec. ac, frammento di un'ode di saffo sul culto di afrodite.JPG | alt2 = A fragment of teracotta pottery, written on with black ink. | width2 = 1664 | height2 = 2080 | footer = Most of Sappho's poetry is preserved in manuscripts of other ancient writers or on papyrus fragments, but part of one poem survives on a potsherd.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} The papyrus pictured (left) preserves the [[Tithonus poem]] (fragment 58); the potsherd (right) preserves [[Sappho 2|fragment 2]]. }} Naskah puisi Sapfo anu pangheubeulna masih keneh aya kapanggih, kaasup tulisan nu aya dina gerabah [[Sappho 2|fragment 2]] masih kaburu dilestarikeun, éta asalna ti abad ka katilu SM, kawasna baé tiasa sateuacanna édisi Alexandrian.{{sfn|Winkler|1990|p=166}} Salinan anu pang panderina tina sajak Sapfo anu dikirimkeun langsung ti jaman baheula ditulis dina parchment [[codex]] kaca ti kagenep jeung abad katujuh Masehi, tur éta pasti dihasilkeun tina papirus kuno ayeuna geus leungit.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=81–2}} Salinan naskah karya Sapfo mungkin geus salamet dina sababaraha abad, ngan kawasna abad ka-9 puisi kacirina geus ngiles,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=81}} sarta ku abad ka 12, [[John Tzetzes]] bisa nulis éta "the passage of time has destroyed Sappho and her works".{{refn|1=Tzetzes, ''On the Metres of Pindar'' 20–22 = T. 61}} Nurutkeun legenda, Puisi Sapfo leungit kusabab [[gareja]] teu satuju kana moralna.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Ieu legenda nembongan geus asalna dina [[Renaissance]] – kurang leuwih dina 1550, [[Jerome Cardan]] nulis anu [[Gregory of Nazianzus|Gregory Nazianzen]] karya Sapfo sacara umum ancur, sarta dina ahir abad 16 [[Joseph Justus Scaliger]] ngaku yén karya Sappho diduruk di Roma jeung [[Konstantinopél]] di 1073 dumasar pesenan ti [[Pope Gregory VII]].{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=81}} bisa nulis éta|p=18}} Faktor nyumbang kana kaleungitan sajak Sapfo meureun nya [[dialék Aeolic]], dianggap propinsi dina hiji periode dimana éta [[Attic dialék]] dianggap salaku Yunani klasik asli,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=18}} jeung kungsi jadi patokan karya sastra.{{sfn|Williamson|1995|page=41}} Balukarna, loba pamiarsa kapanggih hésé ngarti kana dialek Sapfo: dina abad kadua [[Maséhi]], pangarang [[Romawi]] [[Apuleius]] specifically remarks on its "strangeness",<ref>Apuleius, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu v/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0501%3Asection%3D9 ''Apologia'' 9]</ref> jeung sababaraha komééntator dina subjék démonstrasi kungsi ngalaman kasusah nu maca dina hésé ngahartikeun.{{sfn|Williamson|1995|pp=41&ndash;42}} Ieu bagian tina turunna leuwih umum dina minat para pujangga kuna;{{sfn|Williamson|1995|p=42}} leres pisan, papirus salamet nyarankeun yén puisi Sapfo urang salamet leuwih panjang batan nu kontémporée dirina kayaning Alcaeus.{{sfn|Finglass|2021|pp=232, 239}} Ngan kira-kira 650 baris puisi Sapfo urang masih salamet, nu ngan hiji sajak – the "Ode to Aphrodite" – geus lengkep, sarta leuwih ti satengah tina garis aslina salamet dina sabudeureun sapuluh deui fragmén. Loba sempalan salamet tina Sapfo ngandung ukur hiji kecap{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=7}} – salaku conto, fragment 169A ngan saukur harti kecap "kado kawinan",{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=85}} tur salamet salaku bagian tina kamus kecap langka.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=148}} Dua sumber utama tina fragmen salamet tina Sapfo mangrupa cutatan dina kuna séjén dianggo, tina sajak gembleng nepi ka saeutik jadi hiji kecap, jeung fragmén tina papirus, loba nu kapanggih di [[Oxyrhynchus]] di Mesir.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|pp=7–8}} sempalan lianna salamet dina bahan séjén, kaasup ''parchment''jeung ''potsherds''.{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=8}} Pangkolotna salamet sempalan puisi Sapfo ayeuna dipikawanoh nyaéta ''Cologne papyrus'' nu ngandung sajak ''Tithonus'',{{sfn|West|2005|p=1}} ti abad ka tilu SM.{{sfn|Obbink|2011}} Sampai kuartal terakhir abad ka salapan belas, ngan kutipan kuna puisi Sapfo anu nyesa. Di 1879, munggaran anyar kapanggihna tina sempalan pisi Sapfo dijieun di [[Fayum]].{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=289}} Nepi ka tungtun taun abad XIX, [[Bernard Pyne Grenfell|Grenfell]] jeung [[Arthur Surridge Hunt|Hunt]] geus dimimitian ngagali tempat pamiceunan runtah kuna di Oxyrhynchus, ngarah kana pamanggihan tina loba fragmén/sempalan puisi Sapfo saméméhna kungsi kanyahoan.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Fragmén puisi Sapfo terus kapanggih deui. Loba Nu panganyarna, pamanggihan utama dina 2004 ''(the "Tithonus poem" and a new, previously unknown fragment)''{{sfn|Skinner|2011}} jeung 2014 (sempalan salapan sajak: lima geus dipikawanoh tapi ku bacaan anyar, opat, kaasup nu "[[Brothers Poem]]", teu dipikawanoh saméméhna){{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=155}} geus dilaporkeun dina média sakuliah dunya.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} ===Gaya=== Sapfo digawé dina tradisi anu alus-dimekarkeun tina puisi Lesbian, nu kungsi mekar diksi puitis sorangan, méter, jeung konvénsi.{{sfn|Burn|1960|page=229}} Sateuacan Sapfo sareng Alcaeus kontemporer na, Lesbos ieu pakait kalawan puisi jeung musik ngaliwatan mistis [[Orpheus]] jeung [[Arion]], dina abad katujuh SM pujangga [[Terpander]].{{sfn|Thomas|2021|p=35}} The [[Aeolic verse|Lesbian metrical tradition]] dimana Sapfo ngarang puisina béda tinu séjén di Yunani sabab baris na salawasna ngandung jumlah suku kata tetep &ndash; kontras jeung tradisi séjén nu diwenangkeun pikeun substitusi dua suku kata pondok pikeun hiji panjang atawa sabalikna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=121}} Sapfo mangrupikeun salah sahiji pujangga Yunani anu munggaran ngadopsi "lyric 'I'" – nulis sajak nyoko kana panéénjo/''sudut pandang'' jalma nu tangtu, kontras jeung pujangga éépik saméméhna [[Homer]] jeung [[Hesiod]], anu nembongkeun n diri leuwih salaku "saluran tina ''divine''''/ ilham pangééean".{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=6}} Puisi nya explores individu jati diri jeung pribadi émosi – kahayang, timburuan, jeung cinta; éta ogé adopts jeung napsirkeun deui nu geus aya gambaran puisi épik dina ngokolakeun ieu téma.{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=7}} Sigana geus diwangun pikeun rupa-rupa kasempetan boh publik jeung swasta, sarta meureun ''encompassed'' duanana dianggi dina [[paduan suara]] dianggo.{{sfn|Kurke|2021|p=95}} Dibarengan ku puisi cinta anu anjeunna paling dikenal, karya-karyana anu masih kénéh hirup diantarana sajak museur kana kulawarga, naratif dipangaruhan epik, lagu kawinan, ''hymns kultus'', jeung ''invective''.{{sfn|Budelmann|2019|pp=113&ndash;114}} Puisi Sapfo dipikanyaho ku basa anu jelas sareng pikiran anu sederhana, jeung ngagunakeun cutatan langsung nu brings rasa immediacy.{{sfn|Campbell|1967|p=262}} Kecap-muter anu teu kaduga mangrupikeun ciri khas tina gayana.{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=435}} Contona nyaéta tina sempalan 96: "ayeuna manehna nangtung kaluar diantara awéwé Lydian sakumaha sanggeus Panonpoé Tilelep the rose-meraba bulan melebihi semua bintang",{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=66}} variasi dari [[Homeric epithet]] "Fajar berjari kemerahan".{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=439}} Puisi Sapfo sering digunakan [[hyperbole]], menurut kritikus kuno "karena pesonanya".{{sfn|Zellner|2008|p=438}} Contoh ditemukan dalam fragmen 111, di mana Sapfo menulis itu "Pengantin pria pendekatan seperti Ares [...] Jauh lebih besar dari pria besar".{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=73}} [[Leslie Kurke]] ngagolongkeun Sapfo dengan itu penyair Yunani kuno dari apa yang disebut "élit" ''ideologis tradisi'',{{efn|Though the word "élite" is used as a shorthand for a particular ideological tradition within Archaic Greek poetic thought, it is highly likely that all Archaic poets in fact were part of the elite, both by birth and wealth.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=152}}}} nu hargana méwah (''habrosyne'') jeung lahir luhur. Ieu pujangga élit condong ngaidentipikasi diri jeung dunya mitos Yunani, déwa, jeung pahlawan, kitu ogé Wétan jegud, utamana [[Lydia]].{{sfn|Kurke|2007|pp=147–148}} Thus in fragment 2 Sapfo boga Aphrodite "tuang kana cangkir emas nectar lavishly dicampurkeun jeung joys",{{refn|Sappho 2.14–16}} sedengkeun dina sajak Tithonus anjeunna sacara éksplisit nyatakeun yén "Abdi resep hal anu langkung saé [''habrosyne'']".{{refn|Sappho 58.15}}{{sfn|Kurke|2007|p=150}}{{efn|M.L. West comments on the translation of this word, "'Loveliness' is an inadequate translation of ''habrosyne'', but I have not found an adequate one. Sappho does not mean 'elegance' or 'luxury'".{{sfn|West|2005|page=7}}}} Numutkeun Page DuBois, basa, ogé eusina, puisi Sapfo evokes hiji lapisan aristocratic.{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=176–7}} Manéhna kontras Sapfo urang"flowery,[...] adorned" style with the "austere, decorous, restrained" style embodied in the works of saterusna pangarang klasik kayaning [[Sophocles]], [[Demosthenes]], dan [[Pindar]].{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=176–7}} ===Musik=== [[File:Brygos Painter ARV 385 228 Alkaios and Sappho - Dionysos and maenad (07).jpg|thumb|alt=Red-figure vase painting of a woman holding a barbitos. On the left, a bearded man with a barbitos is partially visible.|Salah sahiji gambar Sapfo pangheubeulna anu masih bisa disalametkeun, ti c. 470 SM. Manéhna ditémbongkeun keur nyekel hiji ''[[barbitos]]'' jeung ''plectrum'' (samodél harpa), bari ngaregepkeun [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]].{{sfn|McClure|2002|page=38}}]] Puisi Sapfo ditulis keur ditembangkeun tapi éta henteu tangtu gumantung kaperluanna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=129}} Salaku éta sapertina teu mirip kanu mana wae tina sistem [[Musical system of ancient Greece|notasi musik]] nuaya di Yunani Kuna harita saméméh abad kalima, musik aslina anu bakal marengan lagu Sapfo urang meureun moal mikanyaho nepi ka panggih naskah séjén ti jaman klasik anu salamet,{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=129}} tur kitu deui euweuh sahiji ogé musik kuna nu dipiwanoh pikeun marengan puisi Sapfo anu salamet atawa kapanggih kiwari .{{sfn|Gordon|2002|p=xii}} Puisi Sapfo ieu cenah geus ditulis dina[[Mixolydian mode#Greek Mixolydian|mixolydian mode]],{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} nu dianggap sedih; ieu ilahar dipaké dina [[tragedi Yunani]], jeung [[Aristoxenus]] percaya yén tragedi diajar ti Sapfo .{{sfn|West|1992|p=182}} Aristoxenus nyangkut pautkeunn Safpo tina pamanggih tina mode ieu, tapi ieu tetep klaim dubious.{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} '' The classicist Stefan Hagel'' boga panyangga éta sugan waé Sapfo mimiti ngapopulerkeun téh pakaitna antara mixolydian na mournfulness.{{sfn|Hagel|2010|p=373}} Bari aya euweuh attestations yén Aisyah dipaké lianna [[Mode (music)|mode]]s, nya meureun variatif aranjeunna gumantung kana sajak karakterna.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} Nalika mimiti ditembangkeun, unggal suku kata téks nya sigana pakait sareng hiji catetan salaku pamakéan panjangna [[melisma]]s dimekarkeun dina jaman klasik engké..{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sapfo utamina nyerat pikeun dua format: panyanyi solo sareng paduan suara.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Kalayan Alcaeus, anjeunna naratas gaya nyanyian énggal [[monody]] (single-line melody) anu undur tina gaya paduan suara multi-bagian anu umumna diartikeun musik Yunani baheula.{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Gaya ieu dipasihan nya leuwih kasempetan pikeun ngaindividualkeun eusi sajakna; the historian [[Plutarch]] nyatet yén manéhna "speaks kecap dicampur sabenerna jeung seuneu, sarta ngaliwatan lagu nya, manéhna tarik panas ngagambarkeun haténa".{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Beberapa sarjana téori yén sajak Tithonus éta diantara karyana maksudna pinanggih pikeun penyanyi solo.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Ngan fragmen karya paduan suara Sapfo masih aya, jeung ieu, saeutik leuwih ti dirina [[épithalamia]] lagu kawin masih aya bisa disalametkeun .{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} Nu engké komposisi éta meureun dimaksudkeun pikeun [[Call and response (music)|antiphonal]] prakna antara boh paduan suara lalaki jeung awéwé atawa soloist jeung paduan suara.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Dina waktosna Sapfo, puisi ditembangkeun éta dipirig ku [[musical instrument]]s, which usually [[Voicing (music)#Doubling|doubled]] the voice in [[unison]] atawa diputer [[Homophony|homophonically]] hiji [[octave]] luhur atawa handap.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=130}} Sajakna nyebut loba instrumén, kaasup the [[Ancient Greek harps#Pektis, trigonus|pēktis]], hiji harpa ti [[Lydians|Lydian]] asal usul,{{efn|The [[Ancient Greek harps#Pektis, trigonus|pēktis]] harpa, ogé katelah plektron atawa plectrum, bisa jadi sarua jeung [[magadis]].{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 3}}}} jeung [[lyre]].{{efn|Sappho names both the {{lang|grc|λύρα}} (''lyra'') and {{lang|grc|χελύννα}} (''chelynna'', {{lit|tortoise}});{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} duanana nuduhkeun [[bowl lyre]]s.{{sfn|West|1992|p=50}}}}{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sappho paling raket pakaitna jeung [[barbitos]],{{sfn|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} a lyre-kawas instrumen string anu jero dina pitch.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} [[Euphorion of Chalcis]] ngalaporkeun yén anjeunna ngarujuk kana sajakna,{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 3}} sareng vase abad ka-5 anu kasohor ku boh nu [[Dokimasia Painter]] atawa [[Brygos Painter]] ngawengku Sappho na Alcaeus kalawan barbitoi.{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=131}} Sappho nyebatkeun [[aulos]], a wind instrument kalawan dua pipa, in [[Sappho 44|fragment 44]] salaku pamirig lagu wanoja-wanoja Trojan di [[Hector]] jeung [[Andromache]]'s kawinan, tapi henteu sebagé pamirig puisina sorangan .{{sfn|Battezzato|2021|p=132}} Engké Koméntator Yunani salah percaya anu mana manéhna geus manggihan [[plectrum]].{{sfn|West|1992|p=65}} ==Sexuality== {{multiple image|total_width=300|direction=vertical |image1=Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, R.A., O.M. - Sappho and Alcaeus - Google Art Project.jpg|width1=7628|height1=4172 |image2=Simeon Solomon - Sappho and Erinna in a Garden at Mytilene.jpg|width2=1536|height2=1338 |footer=Seksualitas Sapfo geus lila jadi bahan padungdengan. Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]'s ''[[Sappho and Alcaeus]]'' (luuhur) katempo manéhna keur mencrong ka Alcaeus kalawan dilimpudan ku rasa birahi; gambar-gambar Sapfo lesbian, seperti lukisan Sapfo ku [[Simeon Solomon]] jeung [[Erinna]] (handap), jauh lewih jarang mangsa abad ke-19.}} Istilah umum ''lesbian'' tayalian métafora pikeun Sapfo, anu asalna tina ngarana ti pulo [[Lesbos]], tempat manéhna gumelar.{{efn|The adjective ''sapphic'', which means "relating to lesbians and/or lesbianism", and the related words ''sapphist'', ''sapphism'' etc. all also come from Sappho.}}{{sfn|Most|1995|p=15}} Sanajan kitu, manéhna teu salawasna dianggap kitu. Dina komedi Athena klasik (ti éta [[Old Comedy]] ti abad kalima ka Menander dina ahir kaopat jeung mimiti abad katilu SM), Sapfo karikatur salaku awéwé hétéroséksual promiscuous,{{sfn|Most|1995|p=17}} sarta teu nepi ka Hellenistic periode nu kahiji sumber anu sacara éksplisit ngaguar homoeroticism Sapfo dilestarikan. Pangheubeulna ieu mangrupa fragmentary biografi ditulis dina papyrus dina ahir abad katilu atawa awal abad kadua SM,<ref>P.Oxy. 1800 fr. 1 = T 1</ref> nu mertahankeun yén Sapfo éta "dituduh ku sababaraha anu henteu sajalan dina cara dirina sareng kabogoh awéwé".{{sfn|Campbell|1982|page=3}} meureun kaca koméntar éta frasa "ku sababaraha" nunjukkeun yén sanajan korpus pinuh ku puisi Sapfo teu nyadiakeun bukti konklusif naha manéhna digambarkeun salaku gaduh dorongan sex jeung awewe.{{sfn|Page|1959|page=142}} Ieu pangarang kuna teu kaciri boga dipercaya yén Sapfo tuh, kanyataanna, gaduh hubungan seksual jeung awéwé séjén, jeung ahir abad kasapuluh teh Suda ngarékam éta Sapfo "dituduh fitnah" gaduh hubungan seksual sareng anjeunna "murid awéwé".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448}} Di antara sarjana modern, seksualitas Sapfo masih jadi padungdengan – André Lardinois ngagambarkeun salaku "Patarosan Sapfo Hébat".{{sfn|Lardinois|2014|p=15}} Tarjamahan mimiti tina puisi Sapfo sakapeung eusina némbongkeun heterosexualised.{{sfn|Gubar|1984|p=44}} [[Ambrose Philips]]' 1711 tarjamah tina [[Ode to Aphrodite]] ngagambarkeun objek kahayang Sapfo salaku lalaki, bacaan anu dituturkeun ku ampir unggal penerjemah sajak lianna nepi ka abad ka,{{sfn|DeJean|1989|p=319}} Tisaprak 1781 Alessandro Verri nafsirkeun séjén [[Sappho 31|fragment 31]] salaku saurang anu némbongkeun cintana Sapfo pikeun Phaon.{{sfn|Most|1995|pp=27–28}} [[Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker]] pamadegan yén parasaan Sapfo pikeun awéwé séjén éta "sakabéhna nembongkeun idealis tur lain hubunganna jeung sensualitas",{{sfn|Most|1995|p=26}} Nalika [[Karl Otfried Müller]] nulis tina fragment 31 digambarkeun "euweuh micinta tapi ngan saukur sikep ramah":{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} [[Glenn Most]] ngoméntaran "hiji kaluhungan Basa nu dipaké Sapfo dipaké pikeun ngajelaskeun parasaan dirina lamun maranéhna geus leuwih ti pikagumbiraeun dina séksual", lamun téori ieu bener.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} Ku 1970, éta bakal mibanda pamadegan yén sajakna sarua ngandung "buktina positip tina [Sapfo] memang saurang lesbianisme".{{sfn|Devereux|1970}} Kiwari, umumna ditarima yén puisi Sapfo ngagambarkeun parasaan homoérotik:{{sfn|Klinck|2005|p=194}} salaku Sandra Boehringer nempatkeun éta, karyana "jelas ngagungkeun eros antara awéwé".{{sfn|Boehringer|2014|p=151}} Nuju ahir abad ka XX, sanajan, sababaraha Sarjana mimiti nolak pananya tina naha Sapfo éta lesbian atawa sanes – Glenn Kalolobaan panulis ngeunaan Sapfo "bakal teu boga pamanggih naon-naon nalika aranjeunna nelepon dirina naha manéhna saurang homoseksual",{{sfn|Most|1995|p=27}} André Lardinois nyatakeun yén éta téh "omong kosong" nanya naha Sapfo éta lesbian,{{sfn|Lardinois|2014|p=30}} jeung Page duBois nelepon nepikeun hiji patarosan "khususna madungdengkeun hiji hal anu matak bingung".{{sfn|duBois|1995|p=67}} Salah sahiji anu jadi tujuan utama para sarjana nalungtik Sapfo tayalian usaha pikeun nangtukeun kontéks budaya di mana Puisi Sapfo disusun sareng dipintonkeun.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Rupa-rupa kontéks budaya jeung peran sosial anu geus ditempokeun ku Sapfo geus kungsi disodorkeu, kaasup guru, pamingpin séké, katut pujangga anu minton pikeu lingkungan batur awéwé.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Tangtu, kontéks nu ditembongkeun tina loba fragménn Sapfo henteu gampang ditangtukeun, sarta bisa dibayangkeun pikeun leuwih ti hiji kamungkinan konteks ..{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|pp=216–218}} Hiji saran anu parantos lami ngeunaan peran sosial pikeun Sapfo nyaéta "Sapfo salaku guru sakola".{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=310}} Dina awal abad ka dua puluh, ahli klasik ti Jerman [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]] sapamadegan yén Sappho éta jenis guru sakola, pikeun "ngécéskeun jauh gairah Sapfo pikeun budak awéwéna jeung melaan dirina tina tuduhan homoseksualitas.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=313}} Panalungtikan terus jadi pangaruh, boh di kalangan sarjana anapon masarakat umum,{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=314–315}} sanajan kamari ieu éta gagasan dikritik ku para sajarawan salaku anakronistik {{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=15}} kalawan meunang panolak ku sababaraha ahli klasik anu kamashur alatan henteu dibenerkeun ku bukti. Jeroning taun 1959, Denys Page, salaku conto, nyatakeun yén fragmén Sapfo anu masih aya ngagambarkeun "kaasih sareng timburu, kasenangan sareng kanyeri, ti Sapfo jeung babaturanna"; sarta anjeunna nambihan, "Kami geus manggihan, sarta bakal manggihan, henteu aya tapak formal kitu ogé hubungan resmi atau profesional di antara maranéhanana ."{{sfn|Page|1959|p=|pages=139–140}} David A. Campbell dina 1967 boga pamadegan yén Sapfo meureun "mingpin hiji paguyuban sastra", tapi itu "bukti pikeun penunjukan formal salaku panduta atawa guru hésé kapanggihna".{{sfn|Campbell|1967|page=261}} Teu aya hiji oge dina puisi Sapfo anu nyebutkeun ajarana, kitu deu sumber nu ngamimitian ngadukung pamadegan Sapfo saurang guru mimiti ti Ovid, genep abad sabada masa hidup Sapfo .{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=314–316}} Sanajan masalah ini, loba interpretasi anyar ngeunaan peran sosial Sapfo masih dumasar kana ieu pamadegan.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=316}} Dina interpretasi ieu, Sapfo ilubiung dina ngatik ritual budak Awéwé,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=316}} saperti salaku pelatih ''paduan suara'' budak awéwé.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=216}} Sanaos Sapfo ngadamel lagu pikeun ngalatih ''paduan suara'' barudak awéwé, henteu sakabeh puisina bisa ditafsirkeun maké cara séjén,{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=218}} kitu deui sanajan sarjana upaya anu hadé pikeun manggihan, Yatromanolakis boga pamadegan yén henteu aya kontéks pintonan tunggal anu bisa dikaitkeun jeung sakabeh puisi Sapfo. Parker argues cenah Sapfo kudu dianggap salaku bagian tina paguyuban batur awéwé anu baris dipintonkeun ku manéhna, sarua saperti jalma anu sazananna [[Alcaeus of Mytilene|Alcaeus]] .{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=342}} Sababaraha puisina katempo dijieun pikeun acara resmi,{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=343}} tapi loba ngeunaan tina laguna - jeung kawasna baris dipaké pikeun parasmanan .{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=344}} ==Warisan== ===Reputasi kuno=== [[File:NAMA Sappho lisant.jpg|thumb|alt=Red-figure vase, depicting a seated woman reading, surrounded by three standing women, one holding a lyre.|Sappho mere ilham penyair sareng seniman kuno, kalebet pelukis vas ti Grup Polygnotos anu ngagambarkeun anjeunna dina hydria beureum ieu..]] Dina jaman baheula, Puisi Sapfo kalintang dipiyungyun, katut sababaraha sumber kuna nyebutna salaku "Muse kasepuluh".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=447}} Puisi paling awal anu masih kénéh aya dina wangun epigram abad ketiga SM ku [[Dioscorides (penyair)|Dioscorides]],<ref>AP 7.407 = T 58</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|pp=28–29}} Puisi disimpan dina "Antologi Yunani" ku Antipater ti Sidon<ref>AP 7.14 = T 27</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|p=33}} sarta dikaitkeun jeung Plato<ref>AP 9.506 = T 60</ref>{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|p=32}} dina téma anu sami. Anjeunna sakapeung sok disebut salaku "The Poetess", kawas Homer "The Poet".{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=312}} Sarjana - Sarjana ti Alexandria kaasup kana lirik pupuh salapan panyajak.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=340}} Dumasar [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], the Athenian lawmaker and poet [[Solon]] dipenta diajarkeun lagu ku Sapfo "nepi ka kuring bisa diaja".<ref>Aelian, quoted by Stobaeus, ''Anthology'' 3.29.58 = T 10</ref> Carita ieu meureun apokrif/rusiah, utamana sabab Ammianus Marcellinus ngabejaan carita sarupa ngeunaan Socrates jeung lagu [[Stesischorus]], tapi nembongkeun kumaha puisi Sapfo dianggap kacida luhurna di dunya kuPuisina.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2009|p=221}} Sapfo ogé mangaruhan pujangga kuna lianna. dina basa Yunani, the Hellenistic pujangga [[Nossis]] dijelaskeun ku Marilyn B. Skinner salaku sok niron karya Sapfo, kitu deui Kathryn Gutzwiller mibanda pamadegan yén Nossis sacara éksplisit nempatkeun dirina salaku wawaris tina kalungguhan Sapfo salaku pujangga awéwé.{{sfn|Gosetti-Murrayjohn|2006|pp=27–28}} Di luar puisi, Plato mengutip Sapfo dina bukuna ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', ogé [[Socrates]]' pidato kedua ngeunaan cinta dina hiji dialog anu kawasna kamandang deskripsi Sapfo ngeunaan épék fisik kahayang jero fragmen 31.{{sfn|duBois|1995|pp=85–6}} Dina abad kahiji SM, [[Catullus]] ngadegkeun téma sareng méter puisi Sapfo salaku bagian tina literatur Latin, nganut ''stanza Sapphic'', dipercaya ku jaman baheula geus jadi pamanggih ku Sapfo,{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} méré ngaran kakasihna dina puisina "[[Lesbia]]" dina rujukan pikeun Sappho,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=72}} jeung nyaluyukeun ogé narjamahkeun fragmen ka-31 Sapfo dina [[Catullus 51|sajak 51]].{{sfn|Rayor|Lardinois|2014|p=108}}{{sfn|Most|1995|p=30}} Pujangga kuno lainna nulis ngeunaan kahirupan Sapfo. Manéhna téh mibanda karakter anu populer di [[Komedi Yunani kuno|''ancient Athenian comedy'']]/Komedi Yunani kuno ,{{sfn|Most|1995|p=17}} ogé sahenteuna aya genep komedi anu misah ogé disebut mikawanoh "Sapfo" .{{sfn|Parker|1993|pp=309–310|loc=n. 2}}{{efn|Parker lists plays by [[Ameipsias]], [[Amphis]], [[Antiphanes (comic poet)|Antiphanes]], [[Diphilos]], [[Ephippus of Athens|Ephippus]], jeung [[Timocles]], sapanjang dengan dua drama disebut ''Phaon'', opat disebut ''Leucadia'', hiji ''Leukadios'', jeung hiji ''Antilais'' sakabéh nu meureun geus ngeunaan Sappho.}} Komedi kuna pangheubeulna dipikawanoh nyandak Sapfo salaku subjék utamana nyaéta awal kalima atawa ahir abad kaopat SM ''Sappho'' ku [[Ameipsias]], sanaos teu aya anu dipikanyaho salian ti namina.{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2008|loc=ch. 1}} Salaku komedi ieu salamet ngan dina fragmen, teu yakin kana kumaha maranéhna bakal ngajelaskeun Sapfo, tapi anjeunna dipikaresep dicirikeun salaku awéwé promiscuous. Dina kaulinan Diphilos, anjeunna kekasih para pujangga [[Anacreon]] sareng [[Hipponax]].{{sfn|Kivilo|2010|p=190}} Sapfo ogé janten subjek paling dipikaresep dina seni visual. Anjeunna mangrupikeun pujangga anu paling sering digambarkeun dina vas gambar beureum Loteng abad kagenep sareng kalima. lukisan{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} &ndash; meskipun tidak seperti penyair laki-laki seperti Anacreon dan Alcaeus, dalam empat vas yang bertahan di mana dia diidentifikasi oleh sebuah prasasti dia tidak pernah ditampilkan bernyanyi.{{sfn|Snyder|1997|p=114}} Anjeunna ogé dipidangkeun dina koin ti Mytilene sareng Lesbos ti mimiti dugi ka abad katilu Masehi, sarta dilaporkeun digambarkeun dina wujud patung ku [[Silanion]] di Syracuse, arca di Pergamon jeung Konstantinopel, sarta lukisan ku seniman Hellenistic Leon.{{sfn|Richter|1965|p=70}} Ti abad kaopat SM, karya kuno menggambarkan Sapfo salaku pahlawan awéwé anu tragis, disorong pijeun nelasan maneh alatan cintana anu ambon sorangan ka Phaon.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448}} Hiji panggalan drama ku Menander nyebutkeun cenah Sapfo luncat tina gawir di Leucas alatan cinta.{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448|loc=n. 3}} Ovid's "Heroides" 15 ditulis salaku surat ti Sapfo ka Phaon, sarta nalija munggaran kapanggih dina abad ke-15 dianggap salaku tarjemahan tina surat asli Sapfo.{{sfn|Most|1995|p=19}} Bunuh diri Sapfo ogé digambarkeun dina seni klasik, umpamana dina basilika SM abad kahiji di deukeut Roma [[Porta Maggiore]].{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=448|loc=n. 3}} Sedengkeun puisi Sapfo dipigandrum di dunya kuna, karakterna henteu salawasna dianggap kalawan hadé. Dina jaman Romawi, kritikus boga anggapan ieu kacida nafsu jeung meureun homoseksual.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=73}} [[Horace]] nyebutna ''"mascula Sappho"'' dina "Epistles", nu engkéna dikoméntaran ku [[Pomponius Porphyrion|Porphyrio]] tayalian "sabab anjeunna kawentar ku puisina, di mana lalaki lewih mindeng onjoy, atawa kumargi anjeunna difitnah janten [[Tribadism|tribad]]".{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=72–3}} Nepi ka abad katilu Masehi, bédana antara reputasi sastra Sapfo salaku saurang penyair jeung reputasi moralna salaku saurang awéwé jadi kacida signifikan matakna anggapan yén sebenarna aya dua Sapfo mimiti mekar..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=73–4}} Dina "Historical Miscellanies" na, Aelian nyerat yén aya "Sappho anu sanés, pelacur, sanés pujangga.".<ref>Aelian, ''Historical Miscellanies'' 12.19 = T 4</ref> ===Panarimaan Modern=== [[File:SapphoWoodcut.jpg|thumb|left|Dina période abad pertengahan, Sappho ngagaduhan reputasi salaku awéwé berpendidikan sareng pujangga anu berbakat. Dina potongan kayu ieu, ngagambarkeun [[incunable]] awal Boccaccio''De mulieribus claris'', anjeunna digambarkeun dikurilingan ku buku sareng alat musik.]] Menjelang periode abad pertengahan, Karya Sappho laleungit, sok sanajan kitu masih dicutat di panulis satuluyna. Karyana jadi lebih gampil diaksés dina abad ka genep belas ngaliwatan édisi citak ti para panulis anu nyutatna. Dina taun 1508 [[Aldus Manutius]] nyitak edisie [[Dionysius ti Halicarnassus]], anu eusina Sapfo 1, "Ode to Aphrodite", jeung édisi citak munggaran ti Longinus '''On the Sublime'', kumplit jeung cutatanna ngeunaan Sapfo 31, mucunghul taun 1554. Dina tahun 1566,' 'pencetak' ' Prancis Robert Estienne édisi diterbitkeun puisi lirik Yunani anu eusina aya kana 40 fragmén anu pakait sareng Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=84}} Pada tahun 1652, tarjamahan basa Inggris kahiji ti hiji puisi karya Sapfo diterbitkeun, dina tarjamah [[John Hall (penyair)|John Hall]] ngeunaan ''On the Sublime''. Dina taun 1681 [[Anne Le Fèvre]] Sapfo édisi Prancis ngajadikeun karyana leuwih lega dipikawanoh.{{sfn|Wilson|2012|p=501}} Édisi [[Theodor Bergk]] taun 1854 janten édisi standar Sapfo dina satengah abad kadua abad ka-19;{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=229}} dina bagian mimiti ka-20, panemuan papirus sajak anyar karya Sapfoo nyababkeun édisi sareng tarjamahan ku [[Edwin Marion Cox]] sareng [[John Maxwell Edmonds]], sareng puncakna dina publikasi tina 1955 ti [[Edgar Lobel]] jeung [[Denys Page]]'s ''Poetarum Lesbiorum Fragmenta''.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=337}} Kawas baheula, kritikus modern geus condong nganggap puisi Sappho "luar biasa".{{sfn|Hallett|1979|p=449}} Dina awal abad ka-9, Sappho disebut salaku pujangga awéwé berbakat,{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} sarta dina karya-karya kawas [[Boccaccio]]'s ''[[De Claris Mulieribus]]'' ogé [[Christine de Pisan]]'s ''[[Book of the City of Ladies]]'' manéhna meunangkeun reputasi salaku awéwé didikan.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=82–3}} Malah sanggeus karya Sapfo leungit, bait Sapphic terus dipaké dina lirik puisi abad pertengahan.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} sarta kalawan pamanggihna karyana dina Renaissance, anjeunna mimiti beuki mangaruhan loba sajak Eropa. Dina abad ka-16, anggota [[La Pléiade]], lingkungan pujangga Prancis, dipangaruhan ku éta pikeun ékspérimén kalawan bait Sapphic sarta nulis sajak cinta dina sora jalma awéwé munggaran.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} Komposer modern jeung modern mimiti ogé geus diideuan ku Sappho; komposisi kasohor dumasar kana kahirupan atawa karyana kaasup opera kayaning ''Sapfo'' (1794) ku [[Jean-Paul-Égide Martini]], ''[[Sapho (Massenet)|Sappho]]'' (1897) ku [[Jules Massenet]], ''Sappho'' (1963) ku [[Peggy Glanville-Hicks]]; potongan perkusi ''[[Psappha (Xenakis)|Psappha]]'' (1975) jeung karya orkestra ''[[Aïs (Xenakis)|Aïs]]'' (1980) ku [[Iannis Xenakis]]; jeung komposisi ''Charaxos, Eos and Tithonos'' (2014) ku [[Theodore Antoniou]].{{sfn|Yatromanolakis|2019|loc=§ "Early Modern and Modern Reception"}} Ti [[Era Romantis]], karya Sappho - hususna "Ode to Aphrodite" - parantos janten pangaruh konci tina konsépsi ngeunaan naon anu kedah janten lirik puisi.{{sfn|Kurke|2007|pp=165–166}} Panyajak anu boga pangaruh sapertos [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]] dina abad ka-19, sareng [[A. E. Housman]] dina ka dua puluh, geus dipangaruhan ku puisi na. Puisi dumasar Tennyson kalebet "Eleanore" sareng "Fatima" dina sempalan Sapfo 31,{{sfn|Peterson|1994|p=123}} sedengkeun tilu karya Housman téh adaptasi tina [[Puisi tengah malam]], nu geus lila dianggap ku Sapfo najan ngeunaan pangarangna ayeuna aya bantahan.{{sfn|Sanford|1942|pp=223–4}} Dina awal abad ka-20, [[Imagists]] – hususna [[Ezra Pound]], [[H. D.]], dan [[Richard Aldington]] – kapangaruhan ku fragmen Sapfo; sajumlah puisi Pound dina koléksi awalna Lustra mangrupa adaptasi tina puisi Sapphic, sedangkeun puisi H.D. nyuhunkeun tulisan Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=310–312}} [[File:Cropped image of Sappho from Raphael's Parnassus.jpg|thumb|right|Sapfo leuwih jéntré ku [[Raphael]]'s ''[[The Parnassus|Parnassus]]'' (1510–11), dipintonkeun bareng jeung pujangga séjénna. Dina leungeun kéncana, manéhna nyepeng gulungan anu didinya ngaranna ditulis.{{sfn|Johannides|1983|page=20}}]] Teu lila sanggeus kapanggih deui puisi-puisina Sapfo, seksualitasna sakali deui janten fokus perhatian kritis. Dina awal abad tujuh belas, [[John Donne]] nulis "Sapho to Philaenis", mulang ka pamanggih Sappho salaku anu mikaresep ka awewe kalawan hiperseksual.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=85–6}} Perdebatan modérn ngeunaan seksualitas Sapfo dimimitian dina abad ka-19, Welcker dina 1816, kalayan nyebarkeun hiji artikel ngabéla Sapfo tina tuduhan prostitusi sareng lesbianisme, nyatakeun yén anjeunna suci.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} – posisi nu engkéna bakal dicokot ku Wilamowitz dina ahir abad ka-19 jeung [[Henry Thornton Wharton]] dina awal abad ka-20..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=295}} Dina abad ka-19 Sapfo dipilih ku [[Decadent Movement]] salaku "putri de Sade" lesbian, ku [[Charles Baudelaire]] di Perancis sareng engké [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]] di Inggris..{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=231–2}} Dina ahir abad ka-19, panulis lesbian sapertos [[Michael Field (pangarang)|Michael Field]]{{efn|Michael Field was the shared pseudonym of the poets and lovers Katherine Bradley and Edith Cooper.}} jeung [[Amy Levy]] janten museurkeun Sapfo pikeun seksualitas dirina,{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=261}} dan pada pergantian abad ke-20 dia adalah semacam "santo pelindung lesbian".{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=294}} Ti mimiti abad ka-19, pujangga awéwé kawas [[Felicia Hemans]] (''The Last Song of Sappho'') katut [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] (''Sketch the First. Sappho'', ogé dijero ''Ideal Likenesses'') nyandak Sapfo salaku salah sahiji karuhun maranéhanana. Sapfo ogé mimiti dianggap salaku panutan pikeun kampanye hak-hak awéwé, dimimitian ku karyana kawas [[Caroline Norton]]'s "Gambar Sapfo''.{{sfn|Schlesier|2015}} Engké dina abad éta, manéhna bakal jadi modél pikeun nu disebut [[Awéwé Anyar]] - awéwé mandiri jeung berpendidikan anu mikahayang otonomi sosial jeung seksual. –{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|pp=258–9}} sareng dina 1960s, féminis Sapfo éta – bareng jeung hypersexual, mindeng tapi teu éksklusif lesbian Safo – salah sahiji dua persepsi budaya pangpentingna Sapfo.{{sfn|Reynolds|2001|p=359}} Kapanggihna sajak anyar nu dijieun ku Sapfo di 2004 jeung 2014 ngagumbirakeun duanana ilmiah jeung perhatian média.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2015}} Pangumuman tina Tithonus sajak éta subyek internasional sinyalna warta, sarta digambarkeun ku Marilyn Skinner salaku "the ''[[wikt:trouvaille|trouvaille]]'' of a lifetime".{{sfn|Skinner|2011}}{{sfn|Payne|2014}} ==Tempo ogé== * [[Ancient Greek literature]] * [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7]] – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 5 * [[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231]] – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 15–30 * [[List of poets portraying sexual relations between women|Lesbian poetry]] ==Catetan== {{notelist}} ==Rujukan== {{Reflist|20em}} ==Karya dicutat== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Anderson |first=Warren |others=Revised by [[Thomas J. Mathiesen]] |year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Sappho |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24571 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000024571 |ref={{sfnRef|Anderson|Mathiesen|2001}} }} {{Grove Music subscription}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Barnstone|editor-first=Willis|editor-link = Willis Barnstone|title=The Complete Poems of Sappho|publisher= Shambhala Publications |year=2009|isbn= 9780834822009}} * {{cite book |last=Battezzato |first=Luigi |editor1-last=Finglass |editor1-first=P. J. |editor2-last=Kelly |editor2-first=Adrian |year=2021 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho |chapter=Sappho's Metres and Music |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-316-63877-4 |pages=121–134 }} * {{cite book|last1=Bierl|first1=Anton|last2=Lardinois|first2=André|chapter=Introduction|title=The Newest Sappho: P. Sapph. Obbink and P. GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{cite book|last=Boehringer|first=Sandra|chapter=Female Homoeroticism|editor-last=Hubbard|editor-first=Thomas K.|title=A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|location=Chichester|year=2014}} * {{cite journal|last=Bolling|first=George Melville|year=1961|title=Textual Notes on the Lesbian Poets|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_1961-04_82_2/page/151|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=82|issue=2|pages=151–163|doi=10.2307/292403|jstor=292403}} * {{cite book|last=Budelmann|first=Felix|title=Greek Lyric: A Selection|year=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} * {{citation|title=The Lyric Age of Greece|last=Burn|first=A. R.|publisher=St Martin's Press|year=1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_8cAAAAYAAJ|location=New York City}} <!--* {{cite book|last=Burnett|first=Anne Pippin|title=Three Archaic Poets: Archilochus, Alcaeus, Sappho|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1983}}--> * {{cite book|first=D. A.|last=Campbell|title=Greek lyric poetry: a selection of early Greek lyric, elegiac and iambic poetry|url=https://archive.org/details/greeklyricpoetry0000davi|year=1967}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=D. A.|title=Greek Lyric 1: Sappho and Alcaeus (Loeb Classical Library No. 142)|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=1982|isbn=0-674-99157-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Clayman|first=Dee|title=The New Sappho in a Hellenistic Poetry Book|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210418/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210418/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3408 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite journal|last=Dale|first=Alexander|title=Sapphica|journal=Harvard Studies of Classical Philology|volume=106|year=2011}} * {{cite book|last=DeJean|first=Joan|year=1989|title=Fictions of Sappho: 1546–1937|url=https://archive.org/details/fictionsofsappho00deje|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}} * {{cite book|last=de Kreij|first=Mark|chapter=Transmissions and Textual Variants: Divergent Fragments of Sappho's Songs Examined|title=Texts, Transmissions, Receptions: Modern Approaches to Narratives|year=2015|editor1-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=André|editor2-last=Levie|editor2-first=Sophie|editor3-last=Hoeken|editor3-first=Hans|editor4-last=Lüthy|editor4-first=Christoph|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|url=http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=613359}} * {{cite journal|last=Devereux|first=George|title=The Nature of Sappho's Seizure in Fr. 31 LP as Evidence of Her Inversion|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-quarterly_1970-05_20_1/page/17|journal=The Classical Quarterly|year=1970|volume=20|issue=1|pages=17–31|doi=10.1017/S0009838800044542|pmid=11620360|s2cid=3193720 }} * {{cite book|last=duBois|first=Page|title=Sappho Is Burning|url=https://archive.org/details/sapphoisburning0000dubo|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1995|isbn=0-226-16755-0}} * {{cite book|last=duBois|first=Page|title=Sappho|year=2015|series=Understanding Classics|publisher=I. B. Tauris}} * {{cite book|last=Ferrari|first=Franco|translator1-last=Acosta-Hughes|translator1-first=Benjamin|translator2-last=Prauscello|translator2-first=Lucia|title=Sappho's Gift: The Poet and Her Community|year=2010|publisher=Michigan Classical Press|location=Ann Arbor|url=https://www.academia.edu/7893820}} * {{cite book|last=Finglass|first=P. J.|chapter=Sappho on the Papyri|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. 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O.|title=Greek Lyric Poetry: A Commentary on Selected Larger Pieces|url=https://archive.org/details/greeklyricpoetry0000hutc|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-924017-5}} * {{citation|last=Johannides|first=P.|title=The Drawings of Raphael: With a Complete Catalogue|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|year=1983|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsV1ZASkP0kC&q=Parnassus+Raphael+Vatican+Segnatura+Apollo&pg=PA19|isbn=0-520-05087-8}} * {{cite book|last=Kivilo|first=Maarit|title=Early Greek Poets' Lives: The Shaping of the Tradition|year=2010|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004193284|url=https://brill.com/view/title/18797?language=en}} * {{cite book|last=Kivilo|first=Maarit|chapter=Sappho's Lives|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Klinck|first=Anne L.|author-link=Anne Klinck|title=Sleeping in the Bosom of a Tender Companion|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-homosexuality_2005_49_3-4/page/193|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|year=2005|volume=49|issue=3–4|pages=193–208|doi=10.1300/j082v49n03_07|pmid=16338894|s2cid=35046856}} * {{cite book|last=Kurke|first=Leslie V.|chapter=Archaic Greek Poetry|year=2007|title=The Cambridge Companion to Archaic Greece|editor-last=Shapiro|editor-first=H.A.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} * {{cite book|last=Kurke|first=Leslie V.|chapter=Sappho and Genre|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite book|last=Lardinois|first=André|chapter=Lesbian Sappho and Sappho of Lesbos|year=2014|orig-year=1989|editor-last=Bremmer|editor-first=Jan|title=From Sappho to De Sade: Moments in the History of Sexuality|publisher=Routledge|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Lardinois|first=André|chapter=Sappho's Personal Poetry|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite book|last=Lefkowitz|first=Mary R.|title=The Lives of the Greek Poets|year=2012|edition=2|publisher=Bloomsbury}} * {{cite journal|last=Lidov|first=Joel|title=Sappho, Herodotus and the ''Hetaira''|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-philology_2002-07_97_3/page/203|journal=Classical Philology|year=2002|volume=97|issue=3|pages=203–237|doi=10.1086/449585|s2cid=161865691}} * {{cite journal|last=Lidov|first=Joel|title=The Meter and Metrical Style of the New Poem|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210519/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210519/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3406 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard P.|chapter=Sappho, Iambist: Abusing the Brother|title=The Newest Sappho: P. Sapph. Obbink and P. GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{citation|last=McClure|first=Laura K.|date=2002|title=Sexuality and Gender in the Classical World: Readings and Sources|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W742ZLpdLBoC&q=Glyptothek+Sappho+and+Alcaeus&pg=PA38|isbn=0-631-22589-7}} * {{cite magazine|last=Mendelsohn|first=Daniel|date=16 March 2015|title=Girl, Interrupted: Who Was Sappho?|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/16/girl-interrupted|magazine=The New Yorker|access-date=17 June 2016}} * {{cite journal|last=Most|first=Glenn W.|title=Reflecting Sappho|journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies|volume=40|year=1995|pages=15–38|doi=10.1111/j.2041-5370.1995.tb00462.x}} * {{cite journal|last=Obbink|first=Dirk|title=Sappho Fragments 58–59: Text, Apparatus Criticus, and Translation|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400|access-date=2 July 2016|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210448/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302210448/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3400 |date=2 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|last=Obbink|first=Dirk|chapter=Ten Poems of Sappho: Provenance, Authority, and Text of the New Sappho Papyri|title=The Newest Sappho: P. Sapph. Obbink and P. GC inv. 105, frs.1–4|editor1-last=Bierl|editor2-last=Lardinois|editor1-first=Anton|editor2-first=André|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-31483-2}} * {{citation|last=Ohly|first=Dieter|year=2002|orig-year=1972|title=The Munich Glyptothek: Greek and Roman Sculpture: A Brief Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZsBeXP3LAEC&q=Glyptothek+Sappho+Silanion&pg=PA48|location=Munich|publisher=C. H. Beck|isbn=3-406-48355-0}} * {{cite book|last=Page|first=D. L.|title=Sappho and Alcaeus|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1959}} * {{cite journal|last=Parker|first=Holt|title=Sappho Schoolmistress|journal=Transactions of the American Philological Association|volume=123|year=1993}} * {{cite news|last=Payne|first=Tom|title=A new Sappho poem is more exciting than a new David Bowie album|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/10607569/A-new-Sappho-poem-is-more-exciting-than-a-new-David-Bowie-album.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/10607569/A-new-Sappho-poem-is-more-exciting-than-a-new-David-Bowie-album.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=The Telegraph|date=30 January 2014|access-date=14 July 2016}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Linda H.|title=Sappho and the Making of Tennysonian Lyric|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_elh_spring-1994_61_1/page/121|journal=ELH|year=1994|volume=61|issue=1|pages=121–137|doi=10.1353/elh.1994.0010|s2cid=162385092}} * {{cite book|last1=Rayor|last2=Lardinois|first1=Diane|first2=André|title=Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works|url=https://archive.org/details/sapphonewtransla0000sapp|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2014|isbn=978-1-107-02359-8}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Reynolds|editor-first=Margaret|year=2001|title=The Sappho Companion|publisher=Vintage|location=London|isbn=9780099738619}} * {{cite book|title=The Portraits of the Greeks|last=Richter|first=Gisela M. A.|publisher=Phaidon Press|year=1965|volume=1|location=London|pages=172|isbn=978-0801416835}} * {{cite journal|last=Sanford|first=Eva Matthews|author-link=Eva Matthews Sanford|journal=The Classical Journal|year=1942|volume=37|issue=4|title=Classical Poets in the Work of A. E. Housman}} * {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Brill's New Pauly Supplements II – Volume 7: Figures of Antiquity and Their Reception in Art, Literature, and Music|year=2015|title=Sappho|last=Schlesier|first=Renate|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly-supplements-ii-7/sappho-SIM_004732?s.num=1|access-date=27 April 2017}} * {{cite journal|last=Skinner|first=Marilyn B.|title=Introduction|journal=Classics@|volume=4|year=2011|url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399|access-date=3 July 2016|archive-date=3 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303082601/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303082601/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3399 |date=3 March 2019 }} * {{cite book|first=Jane McIntosh|last=Snyder|chapter=Sappho in Attic Vase Painting|title=Naked Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gender in Classical Art and Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/nakedtruthswomen0000unse|editor1-last=Koloski-Ostrow|editor1-first=Ann Olga|editor2-last=Lyons|editor2-first=Claire L.|editor3-last=Kampen|editor3-first=Natalie Boymel|year=1997 }} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Rosalind|chapter=Sappho's Lesbos|title=The Cambridge Companion to Sappho|year=2021|editor1-last=Finglass|editor1-first=P. J.|editor2-last=Kelly|editor2-first=Adrian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1-316-63877-4}} * {{cite book |last=West |first=Martin Litchfield |author-link=Martin Litchfield West |year=1992 |title=Ancient Greek Music |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-158685-9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=So-Qpz6WDS4C}} }} * {{cite journal|last=West|first=Martin. L.|title=The New Sappho|journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|volume=151|year=2005}} * {{citation|last=Williamson|first=Margaret|date=1995|title=Sappho's Immortal Daughters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnHreiBi6XoC&q=Sappho+Aeolic+dialect&pg=PA41|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0-674-78912-1}} * {{cite book|first=Penelope|last=Wilson|chapter=Women Writers and the Classics|title=The Oxford History of Classical Reception in English Literature: Volume 3 (1660–1790)|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Hopkins|editor2-first=Charles|editor2-last=Martindale|year=2012|isbn=9780199219810}} * {{cite book|last=Winkler|first=John J.|title=The Constraints of Desire: The Anthropology of Sex and Gender in Ancient Greece|url=https://archive.org/details/constraintsofdes0000wink|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0415901235}} * {{cite journal|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=1999|title=Alexandrian Sappho Revisited|journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|volume=99|pages=179–195|doi=10.2307/311481|jstor=311481}} * {{cite book|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=2008|title=Sappho in the Making: the Early Reception|url=https://chs.harvard.edu/book/yatromanolakis-dimitrios-sappho-in-the-making-the-early-reception/|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=9780674026865}} * {{cite book|last=Yatromanolakis|first=Dimitrios|year=2009|chapter=Alcaeus and Sappho|title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Lyric|editor-last=Budelmann|editor-first=Felix|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9781139002479}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Yatromanolakis |first=Dimitrios |date=27 February 2019 |orig-date=10 May 2017 |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Classics |title=Sappho |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195389661-0074 |isbn=978-0-19-538966-1 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0074.xml |url-access=subscription }} {{subscription}} * {{cite journal|last=Zellner|first=Harold|title=Sappho's Sparrows|journal=The Classical World|year=2008|volume=101|issue=4}} {{refend}} ==Bacaeun salajengna== {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book|last=Balmer|first=Josephine|year=2018|edition=2|title=Sappho: Poems and Fragments|publisher=Bloodaxe}} * {{cite book|last=Boehringer|first=Sandra|year=2021|title=Female Homosexuality in Ancient Greece and Rome|publisher=Routledge|translator-last=Preger|translator-first=Anna|isbn=9780367744762}} * {{cite journal |last1=Burris |last2=Fish |last3=Obbink |first1=Simon |first2=Jeffrey |first3=Dirk |title=New Fragments of Book 1 of Sappho |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=189 |year=2014}} * {{cite book |last=Carson |first=Anne |title=If Not, Winter: Fragments of Sappho |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |year=2002 |isbn=0-375-41067-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/ifnotwinterfragm00sapp }} * {{cite book|last=Duban|first=Jeffrey M.|year=1983|title=Ancient and Modern Images of Sappho: Translations and Studies in Archaic Greek love Lyric|publisher=University Press of America}} * {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Philip|title=Searching for Sappho: The Lost Songs and World of the First Woman Poet|location=New York City|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2016|isbn=978-0393242232|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/searchingforsapp0000free}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Greene|editor-first=Ellen |url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3199n81q/ |title=Reading Sappho |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=1996}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Lobel |editor-last2=Page |editor-first1=E. |editor-first2=D. L.| title=Poetarum Lesbiorum fragmenta |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1955}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Neri|editor-first=Camillo|title=Saffo: Testimonianze e Frammenti|year=2021|publisher=de Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110735918 |isbn=9783110735918 |s2cid=239602934 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110735918/html|language=it}} * {{cite journal |last=Obbink |first=Dirk |title=Two New Poems by Sappho |journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik |volume=189 |year=2014}} * {{cite book|last=Powell|first=Jim|year=2019|title=The Poetry Of Sappho|url=https://archive.org/details/poetryofsapphoex0000sapp|publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book|last=Snyder|first=Jane McIntosh|year=1997|title=Lesbian Desire in the Lyrics of Sappho|url=https://archive.org/details/lesbiandesireinl00snyd|url-access=registration|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=9780231099943|ref=CITEREFSnyder1997b}} * {{cite book|last=Voigt|first=Eva-Maria|title=Sappho et Alcaeus. Fragmenta |publisher=Polak & van Gennep |location=Amsterdam |year=1971}} {{refend}} ==Tutumbu ka luar == {{sister project links|b=no|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|author=yes|commonscat=yes|d=Q17892}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Sappho |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} * [http://digitalsappho.org/title-page/ The Digital Sappho] * [http://www.aoidoi.org/poets/sappho/ Commentaries on Sappho's fragments], William Annis. * [https://chs.harvard.edu/primary-source/sappho-sb/ Fragments of Sappho], translated by Gregory Nagy and Julia Dubnoff * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b05pqsk4 Sappho], [[BBC Radio 4]], ''In Our Time''. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tbhbc Sappho], BBC Radio 4, ''Great Lives''. * {{Gutenberg author|id=32618|name=Sappho}} * {{Librivox author |id=3605}} * [https://rhapsodoi.org/index-of-ancient-greek-recitations/ Ancient Greek literature recitations]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, hosted by the Society for the Oral Reading of Greek and Latin Literature. Including a recording of Sappho 1 by Stephen Daitz. {{Sappho}} {{Lyric poets}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Kategori : Istilah dina sastra Sunda]] [[Category:Sastra| ]] [[Category:7th-century BC births]] [[Category:7th-century BC women poets]] [[Category:7th-century BC Greek people]] [[Category:7th-century BC poets]] [[Category:6th-century BC Greek people]] [[Category:6th-century BC poets]] [[Category:6th-century BC women writers]] [[Category:Aeolic Greek poets]] [[Category:Ancient Eresians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek erotic poets]] [[Category:Nine Lyric Poets]] [[Category:Poets from ancient Lesbos]] [[Category:Greek women composers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek women poets]] [[Category:Ancient Mytileneans]] [[Category:7th-century BC Greek women]] [[Category:6th-century BC Greek women]] [[Category:Ancient LGBT people]] 0q9bkwko1tldva4qx2xhu29xz87s4d0 Caladi buruk 0 104292 712439 655293 2026-08-28T23:29:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Species of bird}} {{speciesbox | image = Rufous woodpecker.jpg |image_caption = Male rufous woodpecker in the [[Western Ghats]] | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn |title=''Micropternus brachyurus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2016 |page=e.T22681314A92901215 |access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Micropternus | parent_authority = [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1845 | species = brachyurus | authority = ([[Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot|Vieillot]], 1818) | synonyms = * ''Celeus brachyurus'' <small>(Vieillot, 1818)</small> }} '''Caladi buruk'''; ''rufous woodpecker'' (''Micropternus brachyurus'') nyaéta hiji manuk anu asalna tina kulawarga Picidae. [[ieu manuk loba kapanggih hirup diwewengkon [[Asia Kidul]] jeung [[Asia Tenggara]]. ==Ciri mandir== Buluna coklat kolot kolot, palebah jangjang aya polét hideung ti puhu nepi ka tungtung jang–jang. Pamatuk jeung cékérna hideung. Salah sahiji anu ngabédakeun jalu jeung bikang, jaluna mibanda totol beureum dina handapeun panonna. Ieu manuk hirup sumebar di sakuliah pulo Jawa.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Robinson, H.C.|year=1919|title=Note on certain recently described subspecies of woodpeckers|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16342418|journal=Ibis|series=11|volume=1|issue=2|pages=179–181}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14477561|pages=128–129|title=Check-list of birds of the world. Volume VI.|author=Peters, James Lee |year=1948| publisher=Harvard University Press| place=Cambridge}}</ref><ref name= short /> == Taxonomy == Spésiés ieu baheulana disimpen dina genus "Celeus" alatan mibanda ka miripan dina katempona, tapi palebah sebaranna ieu nimbulkeun rasa cangcaya. Panalungtikan dina taun 2006 kana ngabandingkeun runtuyan [[DNA]], dikonfirmasi yén rufous woodpecker teu raket patalina jeung "Celeus" sarta mangrupakeun sadulur ti genus "[[Meiglyptes]]" sarta pangalusna disimpen dina [[monotypic|] genus "Micropternus".<ref name=Benz/> The.<ref name=Benz/> Genus ''Micropternus'' didadarkeun ku [[Edward Blyth]] anumana bandinganana téh ''Meiglyptes'' dumasar kana kukuna anu panjang. Genu séjén mibanda sipat [[cukang]] irungna leuwih heureut. Sarta buntut leuwih purek/pondok.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Blyth, Edward|year=1845|title=Notices and descriptions of various new or little known species of birds|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/40131965|journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal|volume=14|pages=173–212}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4.|author1=Ali, Salim|author2=Ripley, S. Dillon|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1983|edition=2|place=Delhi|pages=171–181}}</ref> * ''M. b. brachyurus'' {{small|(Vieillot, 1818)}} – Java. * ''M. b. humei'' {{small|Kloss, 1918}} – along the western Himalayas has a streaked throat, greyish head and a pale face. * ''M. b. jerdonii'' {{small|(Malherbe, 1849)}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Malherbe, Alfred |year=1849|title= Description de quelques nouvelles especes de Picines (''Picus'', Linn.)|journal= Revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliquée|pages=529–544|url= https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2343765 }}</ref> [includes ''kanarae'' from the northern western ghats noted as larger by [[Walter Koelz|Koelz]]<ref>{{cite journal|author=Koelz, W|year=1950|title=New subspecies of birds from southwestern Asia.|journal=Am. Mus. Novit.|volume=1452|pages=1–10|hdl=2246/4237}}</ref>] – peninsular India and Sri Lanka * ''M. b. phaioceps'' {{small|(Blyth, 1845)}} – eastern Himalayas from central Nepal to Myanmar, Yunnan and southern Thailand. * ''M. b. fokiensis'' {{small|(Swinhoe, 1863)}} – (has a sooty abdomen) southeast China and northern Vietnam. * ''M. b. holroydi'' {{small|Swinhoe, 1870}} – Hainan. * ''M. b. williamsoni'' {{small|Kloss, 1918}} – southern Thailand. Sometimes included within ''badius'' * ''M. b. annamensis'' {{small|Delacour & Jabouille, 1924}} – Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam. * ''M. b. badius'' {{small|(Raffles, 1822)}} – [includes ''celaenephis'' of Nias Island] Malay Peninsula south to Sumatra * ''M. b. badiosus'' {{small|(Bonaparte, 1850)}} – (has a very dark tail) Borneo and north Natuna Islands {{cladogram|align=left|caption=Relationship to other genera.<ref name=Benz>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.021|pmid=16635580|title=Evolutionary history of woodpeckers and allies (Aves: Picidae): Placing key taxa on the phylogenetic tree|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=40|issue=2|pages=389–399|year=2006|last1=Benz|first1=B.W.|last2=Robbins|first2=M.B.|last3=Peterson|first3=A.T.|url=http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/China/PDFs/TaxaBirds4.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185441/http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/china/PDFs/TaxaBirds4.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.03.036|pmid=18487062|title=Molecular support for a rapid cladogenesis of the woodpecker clade Malarpicini, with further insights into the genus ''Picus'' (Piciformes: Picinae)|url=https://archive.org/details/molecular-phylogenetics-and-evolution_2008-07_48_1/page/34|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=48|issue=1|pages=34–46 |year=2008 |last1=Fuchs |first1=J. |last2=Pons |first2=J.-M. |last3=Ericson |first3=P.G.P. |last4=Bonillo|first4=C. |last5=Couloux |first5=A. |last6=Pasquet |first6=E.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.bse.2016.12.003 |title=The first complete mitogenome of ''Picumnus innominatus'' (Aves, Piciformes, Picidae) and phylogenetic inference within the Picidae |journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |volume=70 |pages=274–282 |year=2017 |last1=Zhou|first1=C. |last2=Hao|first2=Y. |last3=Ma |first3=J. |last4=Zhang|first4=W. |last5=Chen |first5=Y. |last6=Chen|first6=B. |last7=Zhang|first7=X. |last8=Yue|first8=B.}}</ref> |cladogram= {{clade|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75% |label1=Malarpicini |1={{clade |label1=&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=''[[Dryocopus]]'' |label2=&nbsp; |2={{clade |label1=&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=''[[Piculus]]'' |2=''[[Colaptes]]'' }} |2=''[[Celeus]]'' }} }} |label2=&nbsp; |2={{clade |label1=&nbsp; |1={{clade |1=''[[Picus (bird)|Picus]]'' |label2=&nbsp; |2={{clade |1=''[[Campethera]]'' |2=''[[Geocolaptes]]'' }} }} |label2=&nbsp; |2={{clade |1=''[[Dinopium]]'' |2=''[[Gecinulus]]'' |label3=&nbsp; |3={{clade |1=''[[Meiglyptes]]'' |2='''''Micropternus''''' }} }} }} }} }} }} {{clear}} == Katerangan== [[File:Micropternus.jpg|left|thumb|Gado leuwih deukeut kana tungtung tagihna]] Panjang awakna kurang leuwih 25&nbsp;cm, Buluna coklat poék, paselang jeung polét hideung dina puhu nepi ka tungtung jang-jangna. Bulu sirahna leuwih pias sarta leuwih kolot di palebah handapna. Dina liang irung tagihanana heureut. Buntutna pondok tur rufous kalawan mibanda polét hideung tapi dina subspésiés "badiosus" buntut poék jeung rufous gurat ipis. <ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25005661|title=A Review of the Species of Crematogaster, Sensu Stricto, in North America (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Part I|journal=Journal of the New York Entomological Society|volume=66|issue=3/4|pages=119–134|last1=Buren|first1=William F.|year=1958}}</ref><ref name=short>{{cite book|author=Short, Lester L.|year=1982|title=Woodpeckers of the World|publisher=Delaware Museum of Natural History |pages=[https://archive.org/details/woodpeckersofwor00unse/page/390 390]–393|url=https://archive.org/details/woodpeckersofwor00unse}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/birdsindia03oaterich|title=The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. Volume III.|author=Blanford, W.T.|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=1895|place=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/birdsindia03oaterich/page/54 54]–58}}</ref> == Kabiasaan jeung ékologi == [[File:Celeus brachyurus.jpg|thumb|''M. b. phaioceps'' in [[Thailand]]]] Caladi buruk sok nyiar hakaneun dina tatangkalan, [[catang]] kai, sayang [[sireum]] , sayang rinyuh anu ngajumpluk luhureun taneuh, kituna dibaturan ku pasanganana.<ref name=":0" /> Sagigireun ngakan [[gegeremet]], sakapeung sok ngakan nektar tina kekembangan ''[[Bombax]]'' jeung ''[[Erythrina]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Short, L.L. |year=1973|title=Habits of some Asian woodpeckers (Aves, Picidae)|journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=152|issue=5|pages=281–283|hdl=2246/603}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Santharam, V. |year=1998 |title=Drumming frequency in Woodpeckers|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48605056 |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=95 |issue=3|pages=506–507}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Proud, Desiree|year=1958|title=Woodpeckers drumming|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48068857|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=55|pages=350–351}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal|author=Santharam, V. |year=1997|title=Display behaviour in Woodpeckers |url=https://archive.org/details/NLBW37_6/page/n8 |journal=Newsletter for Birdwatchers|volume=37|issue=6|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moreau|first=R.E. |date=1936 |title=Bird-Insect Nesting Associations|journal=Ibis |volume=78 |issue=3|pages=460–471 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1936.tb03399.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Betts, F.N.|year=1934 |title=South Indian Woodpeckers |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48185475|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=37|issue=1|pages=197–203}}</ref> Boh jalu atawa bikangna nyieun sayang babarengan, endogna dua bodas anu baris disileungleunan nepi ka megar salila 12-14 poé. <ref name=short /> Anakna baris diparaban dina éta sayang nepika mancing gedé. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Wilson, N.F.T. |year=1898 |title=The nesting of the Malabar Rufous Woodpecker ''Micropternus gularis'' |url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30157529 |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=11|issue=4|pages=744–745}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dalgleish|first=R.C.|date=1972 |title=The Penenirmus (Mallophaga: Ischnocera) of the Picidae (Aves: Piciformes) |journal=Journal of the New York Entomological Society |volume=80|issue=2|pages=83–104 |jstor=25008805}}</ref> Ieu spésiés loba kapanggih hirup di [[rawa]]-rawa [[Malaysia]] sanajan kiwari loba tempat maranéhna geus diganti ku tangkal sawit.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hawa |first1=A. |last2=Azhar |first2=B. |last3=Top |first3=M.M. |last4=Zubaid |first4=A. |date=2016 |title=Depauperate Avifauna in Tropical Peat Swamp Forests Following Logging and Conversion to Oil Palm Agriculture: Evidence from Mist-netting Data |journal=Wetlands |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=899–908 |d20andoi=10.1007/s13157-016-0802-3 |s2cid=23767238 |url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/55439/1/Depauperate%20avifauna%20in%20tropical%20peat%20swamp%20forests%20following%20logging%%20conversion%20.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Biasana manukieu hirup di landeuh anu perenahna 3000 m.<ref>{{cite book|title=Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2|author1=Rasmussen, P.C.|author2=Anderton, J.C. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions |year=2005 |page=285}}</ref> This bird is not considered threatened on the [[IUCN Red List]]. == Tempo ogé == {{commons category|position=left}} ==Dicutat tina == <!-- Forktail16:147. --> {{Reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q1274095}} [[Kategori:Micropternus]] [[Kategori:Manuk Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Manuk Asia Tenggara]] [[Kategori:Aves]] [[Kategori:Sato Asia]] [[Kategori:Sato Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Sasatoan Sunda]] [[Kategori:Taratas sasatoan]] h409j3wki38l2c9yyjph77mhsrebceb Perang Punik I 0 104309 712384 711735 2026-08-28T22:19:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kotak info konflik militér|konflik=Perang Punic munggaran|partof=[[Perang Punic]]|gambar=File: Perang Punic munggaran 264 SM v3.png|ukuran_gambar=300|caption=Wewengkon Mediterania kulon taun 264 SM. Wewengkon beureum mangrupa wewengkon daulat Roma, wewengkon wungu mangrupa wewengkon daulat Carthage, jeung wewengkon héjo mangrupa wewengkon daulat Syracuse.|titimangsa=264-241 SM ({{Umur dina taun, bulan, minggu, jeung poé|taun1=241|taun2=264}})|casus=Sengketa [[Républik Romawi|Roma]]-[[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]] ngeunaan kota [[Patempuran Messana|Messana]] dikawasa ku [[tentara Mamertini]]|tempat=[[Mediterania]], [[Sisilia]], [[Afrika Kalér]], [[Italia (Romawi)|Italia]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]]|wilayah=[[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Sisilia]] (iwal [[Daptar tiran Syracuse|Syracuse]]) dianéksasi ku Roma|hasilna=meunangna Romawi|combatant1=[[Républik Romawi|Roma]]|combatant2=[[Carthage Purba|Carthage]] <!--| commander1 = [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]]{{pasrah}}<br>[[Gaius Duilius]]<br>[[Publius Claudius Pulcher]]<br>[[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus ]]<br>[[Lucius Postumius Megellus (konsul 262 SM)|Lucius Postumius Megellus]]<br>[[Quintus Mamilius Vitulus]]<br>[[Hiero II of Syracuse]] | commander2 = [[Hamilkar Barka]]<br>[[Hanno the great|Hano the great]]<br>[[Hasdrubal, putra Hano|Hasdrubal]]<br>[[Ksantipos of Carthage|Ksantipos]]<br >[ [Adherbal (admiral)|Adherbal]]<br>[[Hamilkar (Drepanum)|Hamilkar]]-->}} '''Perang Punik Kahiji''' (264-241 SM) nyaéta perang munggaran antara [[Républik Romawi|Roma]] jeung [[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]], dua nagara bagian nu pangkuatna di wewengkon Mediterania kulon. Salila 23 taun, dua nagara pajoang pikeun kaunggulan dina konflik kontinyu pangpanjangna jeung perang laut pangbadagna dina [[Sajarah kuna|Abad Kuna]]. Tempat anu pangseringna ningali perangna nyaéta pulo [[Sisilia]], cai di sabudeureun pulo Sisilia, jeung basisir Afrika Kalér. Saatos ngonsumsi seueur korban jiwa sareng material ti dua pihak, perang ieu dipungkas ku kameunangan bangsa Romawi. Perang Punic Kahiji dimimitian dina 264 SM, nalika tentara Républik Romawi nangkep kota [[Patempuran Messana|Messana]] (ayeuna [[Messina]]) di pulo Sisilia. Pasukan Romawi tuluy ngadesek [[Syracuse, Sisilia|Syracuse]], hiji-hijina nagara merdéka di pulo Sisilia anu patut diperhitungkeun, pikeun jadi sekutu jeung ngabantu maranéhna ngepung [[Agrigento|Akragas]], markas utama Carthaginian. pulo. Hiji tentara badag prajurit Carthaginian nyoba megatkeun pangepungan dina 262 SM, tapi éléh dina [[Patempuran Agrigentum|Patempuran Akragas]]. Républik Roma ahirna ngawangun angkatan laut sorangan pikeun ngalawan angkatan laut Carthaginian, sarta diadopsi taktik anyar nu nempo Carthaginians ngalaman sababaraha eleh. Pangkalan Carthaginian di [[Corsica]] dicandak, tapi serangan ka [[Sardinia]] rusak, sareng Carthage tiasa ngawasa deui Corsica. The victories kahontal ngaliwatan exertion angkatan laut ditanya Roma pikeun narajang Afrika Kalér. Carthage nyoba ngalawan deui, tapi ieu sakali deui dielehkeun dina [[Patempuran Cape Ecnomus]]. Dina hal jumlah prajurit aub, ieu bisa jadi [[perang laut pangbadagna dina sajarah]]. Invasi ka Afrika Kalér mimitina alus, sarta Carthage kapaksa nyieun tawaran karapihan dina 255 SM, tapi kaayaan karapihan ti Romawi teuing beurat jadi Carthaginians mutuskeun pikeun tetep tarung sarta ahirna hasil [[Patempuran Bagradas. Walungan (255 SM)|ngalahkeun penjajah]]. Républik Roma nyebarkeun armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun sésa-sésa pasukanana di Afrika Kalér. Angkatan laut Carthaginian nyoba ngagagalkeun usaha nyalametkeun ieu dina [[Patempuran Cape Hermaeum]] di basisir Afrika Kalér, tapi dielehkeun ku armada Romawi. Tapi, armada Romawi kajebak dina badai dina perjalanan mulang, kaleungitan kalolobaan kapal sareng sakitar 100.000 urang. Perang dituluykeun, najan teu aya pihak anu bisa ngéléhkeun lawanna. Dina 255 SM, Carthage nyerang tur junun ngarebut deui kota Akragas. Henteu yakin naha aranjeunna tiasa ngabéla éta, aranjeunna ngantunkeun kota saatosna dirusak. Républik Roma gancang ngawangun deui armadana kalayan tambahan 220 kapal anyar, teras dikerahkan pikeun nyandak Panormus (ayeuna [[Palermo]]) dina 254 SM. Sataun saterusna, 150 kapal maranéhanana leungit dina badai. Carthage nyoba ngarebut deui kota Panormus dina 251 SM, tapi dielehkeun ku bangsa Romawi dina [[Patempuran Panormus|patempuran anu lumangsung di luar benteng kota]]. Bangsa Romawi laun-laun ngarebut daratan Sisilia, teras maju ngurilingan dua benteng Carthaginian anu terakhir di ujung kulon pulo taun 249 SM. Armada Romawi ogé nyobian serangan kejutan ngalawan armada Carthaginian, tapi dielehkeun dina [[Patempuran Drepana]]. The Carthaginians nuturkeun nepi kameunangan maranéhanana sarta junun ngaleungitkeun lolobana kapal perang Romawi dina [[Patempuran Phintias]]. Sanggeus stalemate sababaraha taun, Républik Romawi sakali deui ngawangun deui armada na di 243 SM, sarta [[diblokade]] garnisun Carthaginian. The Carthaginians deployed armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun maranéhna, tapi ancur dina [[Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates]] dina 241 SM, ku kituna pasukan maranéhanana ditinggalkeun di Sisilia kapaksa neangan hungkul perdamaian. Kadua pihak tungtungna sapuk kana pajangjian perdamaian anu ngawajibkeun Carthage mayar [[reparasi]] sareng nyababkeun [[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Pulo Sisilia dianéksasi]] ka [[Propinsi Romawi|koloni Romawi]]. Saprak harita, Roma geus jadi nagara nu boga kakuatan militér paling unggul di wewengkon Mediterania barat, sarta laun-laun jadi punjul di sakuliah wewengkon Tengah. Karya bangsa Romawi ngawangun 1.000 [[galleys]] salila Perang Punic Kahiji ngahasilkeun pangalaman berharga nu jadi dasar dominasi maritim 600 taun Roma. Dina ahir perang ieu, [[Perang Mercenary|pemberontakan hébat]] lumangsung di jero Kakaisaran Carthaginian, tapi éta dibasmi. Kompetisi strategis anu masih ngagantung antara Roma jeung Carthage ngabalukarkeun [[Perang Punic II]] kaluar dina 218 SM. == Sumber primér == [[Koropak:Stele des Polybios.jpg|thumb|upright=0,5|[[Polibios]], ahli sajarah Yunani Kuno]] Istilah ''Punic'' asalna tina kecap Latin ''Punicus'' (atawa ''Poenicus''), hartina "[[Sajarah Carthage|Carthage|Carthage]]", nujul kana karuhun Carthaginians, anu [[Phoenicians]] ({{lang-la|Phoenices}}; {{lang-el|Φοινίκη}}, ''Foinike'').{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} Sumber utama pikeun ampir sakabéh aspék Perang Punic Kahiji nyaéta tulisan [[Polibios]] (''[[Circa|ca.]]''200–''ca.''118 SM), sarjana Yunani nu indit ka [[Roma]] dina taun 167 SM salaku sandera .{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}} Kumpulan tulisanna ngawengku buku manual ngeunaan taktik militér anu geus teu aya. ,{{sfn|Shutt|1938|p=53}} tapi karya anu ngajadikeun anjeunna kasohor di jaman modern nyaéta [[Historíai (Polibios)|''Historíai'']] (''Anthony of History''), anu manéhna nulis sanggeus 146 SM, atawa c. -kira-kira abad sanggeus Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Walbank|1990|pp=11–12}} Tulisan Polibios nyaéta lega dianggap obyektif jeung netral, sabab nyokot posisi panengah antara sudut pandang Carthaginian jeung sudut pandang Romawi.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi}}{{sfn|Hau|2016|pp=23– 24}} Catetan sajarah Carthaginians [[Pengepungan Carthage (Perang Punic III)|ancur]] babarengan jeung ibukota maranéhanana, [[Carthage]], dina 146 SM, ku kituna informasi ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji disarikeun ku Polibios tina sababaraha sumber sastra [[Yunani]] jeung Latin nu kiwari geus punah.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=23}}<nowiki> Polibios mangrupa ahli sajarah analitik, jeung sabisa-bisa wawancara langsung jeung aktor sajarah nu kalibet dina perang.{ { sfn|Shutt|1938|p=55}}</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21}} Mung jilid kahiji tina 40 jilid ''Historíai'' anu ngabahas ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}} Katepatan akun Polyebus geus loba didebatkeun dina 150 taun ka tukang, tapi konsensus anu dihontal di jaman modéren nyaéta pikeun nyandak akun Polyebus sacara harfiah, sareng ampir sadaya detil ngeunaan First Punic. Perang dina sumber modern dumasar kana pernyataan Polibios.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=x–xi, 82–84}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|pp=432–433}} Numutkeun pangamatan sejarawan Andrew Curry, "Polibios tétéla cukup dipercaya",{{sfn|Kari|2012|p=34}} sedengkeun Dexter Hoyos ngajéntrékeun Polibios salaku "sejarawan. anu jelas-jelas terang pisan, aktip dina padamelan, sareng kuat dina panalungtikan". {{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=102}} Aya tulisan sajarah sejenna ngeunaan Perang Punic Kahiji anu dijieun sanggeus ''Historíai'' , tapi teu lengkep atawa ngan ngandung déskripsi singget.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=432}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=22}} Sejarawan modéren umumna museurkeun kana petikan tina karya rupa-rupa analis Romawi, hususna [[Titus Livius|Livius]] (nu dumasar kana karya manéhna nulis dina akun Polibius), [[Diodoros Siculus]] (sajarawan Yunani asal Sisilia), ogé [[Appianos|<nowiki>Apianos]</nowiki>]] jeung [[Cassius Dio|Dion Kasios]] (sajarah Yunani engké). {{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111–127}} Ahli klasik [[Adrian Goldsworthy]]<nowiki> nunjukkeun yén "pernyataan Polibios biasana leuwih bisa dipercaya lamun kapanggih ngabantah bukti-bukti lianna nu urang boga". {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=21} }</nowiki>{{#tag:ref|Sumber daya lian ti karya Polibios dibahas ku Bernard Mineo dina ''"Principal Literary Sumber Perang Punic (salain Polybius)"''.{{sfn|Mineo|2015|pp=111– 127}}|group=description}} Sumber séjén kaasup prasasti, bukti tina penggalian arkéologis, jeung bukti émpiris ti rekonstruksi objék sajarah saperti triremis [[Olympias (triremis)|''Olympias'']] .{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=23, 98}} Kusabab 2010, arkeolog geus manggihan 19 parunggu [[rampers]] dijieun ku Romawi atawa Carthaginians di cai lepas basisir kulon Sisilia. Sapuluh helm parunggu jeung ratusan [[amphoras]] ogé geus kapanggih.{{sfn|RPM Foundation|2020}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=12}}{{sfn|Pragg|2013}} {{sfn|Murray|2019|}} Sanggeus éta, rammers, tujuh helm, genep amphora anu masih gembleng, sarta jumlah badag fragmen kapanggih. {{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=12, 26, 31–32}} Unggal rammer dipercaya geus napel dina kapal karam nalika eta tilelep ka dasar laut.{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|p=39}} Nurutkeun ahli arkeologi nu kalibet, lokasi dimana artefak ieu disimpen. kapanggih ngarojong informasi ieu. Polibios ngeunaan mana [[Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates|Patempuran Aegates]].{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=35–36}} Dumasar kana ukuran rammers, arkeolog nalungtik aranjeunna. percaya yén éta kabéh asalna tina kapal tipe [[Trireme|triremis]], sabalikna tina pernyataan Polybius yén sakabéh kapal perang nu kalibet dina perangna téh tina tipe [[Kapal perang era Hellenistic|quinqueremis]].{{sfn|Murray|2019|}}{{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=39–42}} Tapi, maranéhna yakin yén loba amphora anu geus diidentifikasi ngarojong katepatan aspék séjén tina akun Polybius ngeunaan perangna. "Ieu mangrupikeun catetan arkéologis sareng sajarah anu coveted [[Perang walungan|pertempuran]]," aranjeunna nyatakeun. {{sfn|Tusa|Royal|2012|pp=45–46}} == Latar == [[Gambar:Carthage_view.jpg|kiri|jmpl|Poto hawa sésa-sésa dasar laut di kota Carthage. Tilas palabuhan komérsial katingal di tengah poto, sedengkeun tilas palabuhan militér katingali di katuhu handap poto. Saméméh Perang Punic Kahiji, Carthage boga angkatan laut pangkuatna di Mediterania kulon.]] Saacanna Perang Punic Kahiji, [[Républik Romawi]] mangabad-abad [[Ekspansi Romawi di Italia|ekspansi ngaliwatan kakuatan militér]] di wewengkon kidul Semenanjung Italia.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=157– 158}} Roma nalukkeun Semenanjung Italia kiduleun Walungan [[Arno]] dina 272 SM, nalika kota-kota Yunani di Italia kidul ([[Magna Graecia]]) nyerah dina tungtung [[Perang Pyros]. ]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=21–22}} Samentara éta, bangsa [[Carthage Kuno|Carthage]], pusatna di [[Tunisia]] ayeuna, geus ngawasa kidul [[Spanyol] ], lolobana basisir Afrika Kalér, [[Kapuloan Balearic]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], jeung bagian kulon Pulo [[Sisilia]]. Kalayan wewengkon daulat anu lega, Carthage jadi sajenis kakaisaran militér jeung dagang. hasilna pasti]] ngalawan Yunani [[nagara kota]]-nagara di Pulo Sisilia dina kapamimpinan [[Syracuse, Sisilia|Syracuse]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=115, 132}} Carthage jeung Roma mangrupa nagara pangkuatna di wewengkon kuloneun Laut Tengah dina taun 264 SM.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}} Dua nagara éta geus ngajalin silaturahim sababaraha kali ngaliwatan [[Perjangjian antara Roma jeung Carthage.|perjangjian resmi aliansi]] anu ditandatanganan dina 509 SM, 348 SM, sareng sakitar 279 SM. Hubungan antara Roma jeung Carthage éta alus, sarta hubungan dagang antara dua nagara éta mulus. Dina mangsa Perang Pyroan (280–275 SM) ngalawan hiji raja ti [[Epirus]] anu giliran narajang Roma di Semenanjung Italia jeung Carthage di pulo Sisilia, Carthage nyadiakeun [[Materiel|panangan]] ka tentara Romawi jeung sahenteuna sakali ngirimkeun kapal angkatan lautna pikeun ngangkut pasukan Romawi.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=94, 160, 163, 164–165}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=69–70}} Dina 289 SM, [[tentara Mamertini]], pasukan [[Upahan|upah]] Italia anu diupahan ku Syracuse, nempatan kota Messana (ayeuna [[Messina, Italia|Messina]]<nowiki>) di ujung wétan. pulo Sisilia.{ {sfn|Warmington|1993|p=165}} Ditimpa tekanan ti Syracuse, tentara Mamertini menta tulung ka Roma jeung Carthage dina taun 265 SM. Carthage nindak heula ku cara ngadesek </nowiki>[[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], Raja Syracuse, pikeun ngeureunkeun lampahna, sarta ngayakinkeun tentara Mamertini pikeun narima postingan garnisun Carthaginian di Messana.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=44}} Numutkeun Polibios, timbul perdebatan sengit di Roma ngeunaan naha bakal ngabulkeun paménta pasukan Mamertini. Kusabab Carthage geus boga garnisun di Messana, bringing di bantuan ti Roma bakal gampang provoked perang jeung Carthage. Roma henteu kantos nunjukkeun minat ka pulo Sisilia sateuacanna, sareng henteu gaduh niat ngabantosan tentara anu ngarebut kota ti anu gaduh hakna. Mangkaning, loba di antarana anu enticed ku kasempetan pikeun Fedi mangpaat moneter gaining foothold di Sisilia. Teu bisa ngahontal konsensus, [[Sénat Romawi|dewan sesepuh Romawi]] ngantepkeun kaputusan dina panangan majelis rahayat dina taun 264 SM, paling dipikaresep ku saran [[Appius Claudius Caudex]]. Caudex ngayakinkeun jalma-jalma pikeun milih pilihan pikeun ngagerakkeun bantosan ku mamingan kasempetan pikeun nampi jumlah [[jarah]] anu ageung. Majelis rahayat ahirna mutuskeun pikeun ngabulkeun paménta tentara Mamertini. } Caudex diangkat jadi komandan ekspedisi militér ditugaskeun ka Sisilia jeung nempatkeun garnisun Romawi di Messana.{{sfn|Starr|1991|p=479}}<nowiki>{ {sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=168–169}}</nowiki> Perang dimimitian nalika pasukan Romawi badarat di Sisilia dina 264 SM. Sanajan boga angkatan laut, urang Carthaginians teu bisa ngagagalkeun pasukan Romawi meuntas [[Straights of Messina]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=48–49}} Dua legion Romawi prajurit di handapeun Caudex [[Patempuran of Messana|berbaris nuju Messana]], sedengkeun tentara Mamertini parantos ngusir garnisun Carthaginian anu dipimpin ku [[Hanno, kapala garnisun Messana|Hanno]] (teu aya hubunganana sareng [[Hanno Agung]]<nowiki> ]) sarta keur dikurilingan ku pasukan Carthaginian jeung Syracuse.{ ​​{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=52}} Ku sababaraha alesan, pasukan Syracuse tungtungna ngangkat pangepungan, dituturkeun engké ku Carthaginians. Sumber anu aya henteu ngajelaskeun naha. Bangsa Romawi pindah ka kidul jeung ngepung ka Syracuse, tapi pangepungan ieu geura-giru ditinggalkeun, boh alatan pasukan Romawi teu cukup kuat atawa alatan kurangna jalur suplai aman. </nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=52–53} } Dumasar dina pangalaman tempur salila dua abad saméméhna di Sisilia, Carthaginians ngartos yen kameunangan mutlak teu mungkin pikeun ngahontal. Usaha militer ahirna ngaleungit saatos ngalaman karugian anu ageung sareng ngabiayaan seueur artos. Panglima Carthaginian ngaharepkeun yén perang ieu bakal diteruskeun sapertos sateuacanna. Samentara éta, kapamilikan angkatan laut ngamungkinkeun aranjeunna pikeun nyegah perang sumebar ka mana-mana, malah ngamungkinkeun aranjeunna pikeun terus aktip dina nyieun kauntungan.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Ku cara ieu aranjeunna tiasa ngarekrut sareng mayar. Gajih pasukan anu dilayanan bakal dikerahkan pikeun ngalawan Romawi sacara terang-terangan, sedengkeun kota-kota anu dibenteng beurat tiasa disayogikeun ku laut sareng dianggo salaku pangkalan pertahanan sareng titik angkat pikeun serangan.{{sfn|Warmington|1993| p=171}} === Tentara === {{utama|Tentara Romawi dina période pertengahan républik|Militér Carthage}} [[Koropak:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3 (dipotong).jpg|jempol|kénca|tegak=0.7|Relief dua prajurit suku Romawi abad ka-2 SM dina [[Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus]]]] Unggal warga nagara Romawi lalaki sawawa pantes jadi prajurit. Rata-rata jadi [[prajurit|prajurit suku]], sarta sakeupeul warga anu leuwih makmur jadi [[kavaleri|hussar]]. Sacara tradisional, urang Romawi biasana ngawangun dua [[légion Romawi|legiun]], masing-masing mibanda 4.200 prajurit suku{{#tag:ref|Jumlah ieu bisa ngaronjat jadi 5.000 dina kaayaan nu tangtu.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999 |p=23 }}|group=remark}} jeung 300 prajurit kuda. Sajumlah leutik prajurit suku ngajabat salaku anggota [[velites|pasukan mogok]] bersenjata [[javelins]], sarta sésana jadi anggota [[infanteri beurat|pasukan suku beurat]] dilengkepan [[armor]] , [[Scutum ( tameng)|tameng gede]], jeung [[Gladius|pedang pondok]]. Aranjeunna dibagi kana tilu tingkatan. Prajurit [[hastati|pangkat kahiji]] ogé dilengkepan ku dua lembing, sedengkeun prajurit [[principes|gelar kadua]] jeung [[triari|katilu]] dilengkepan ku [[siga (tumbak)|tumbak]]. Duanana [[manipulus|tim]] dina legion jeung [[legionnaires]] tarung dina jajaran jarang. Pasukan tempur biasana diwangun ku pasukan Romawi jeung legiun [[Socii|Sekutu Latini]] kalayan jumlah prajurit jeung pakarang anu sarua.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=22–25}} Warga Carthaginian ngan ukur jadi prajurit nalika kota Carthage aya dina bahaya diserang ku musuh. Sanajan kaayaan precarious misalna, Carthage direkrut asing kana tentara na, lolobana ti Afrika Kalér. Prajurit ti Afrika Kalér dibagi jadi sababaraha jenis pasukan, nyaéta prajurit suku dina [[formasi garis padet|padet padet]] dilengkepan tameng badag, helm, pedang pondok, sarta panjang [[tumbak]]-tusuk; pasukan neunggeul suku lampu; Pasukan pembuli berkuda dina jajaran deukeut{{#tag:ref|Pasukan "bullying" nyaéta pasukan anu dilatih jeung dikerahkan pikeun ngempur musuh sagancang-gancangna, kalawan maksud pikeun ngabubarkeun barisan musuh saméméh atawa sanggeus lumangsungna pabalatak.{ {sfn|Jones|1987|p =1}}|group=remark}} (disebut oge "kavaleri beurat") bersenjata tumbak; jeung pasukan pemukul anu dipasang lampu ngalungkeun lembing ti kajauhan sarta ngahindarkeun tempur deukeut.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Spanyol jeung [[Gaul]] mangrupa suplai nagara pikeun prajurit suku seasoned. Pasukan ieu galak dina serangan sanajan teu boga armoured, tapi dipikawanoh pikeun bubarkeun di will lamun perangna nyered.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}} { {#tag:ref|Senjata prajurit Spanyol nyaéta tumbak lémparan beurat anu saterusna diadopsi ku bangsa Romawi sarta dibéré ngaran ''[[pilum]]''.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32} }|grup=catetan}} Kalolobaan prajurit suku Carthaginian perang dina formasi ketat disebut ''[[phalanx]]'', biasana dina dua atawa tilu garis.{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Pasukan[[[aisan]] direkrut ti Kapuloan Balearic. {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=8}} Carthage ogé ngagunakeun [[gajah perang]]. Dina waktos éta, Afrika Kalér masih gaduh populasi [[gajah leuweung Afrika]]<nowiki>.{{#tag:ref|Gajah ieu umumna jangkungna 2,5 méter (8 suku) ti suku nepi ka taktak, sarta béda ti [[Gajah rungkun Afrika] ] nu ukuranana leuwih badag.</nowiki>{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=240}}<nowiki>|group=caption}}</nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=27}} Tina sumber nu aya, teu bisa dipastikeun lamun ieu gajah dipaké pikeun ngangkut bénténg nu dieusi prajurit.{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=70, n. 76}} === Angkatan Laut === [[Kapal perang Hellenistic#Quinqueremis|Quinqueremis]], hartina "lima dek dayung", {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} nyaéta jenis kapal anu dipaké ku armada Romawi jeung Carthaginian dina [[Punic] Perang|perang perang Punic]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} Jumlahna kacida gedéna nepi ka ngadominasi adegan éta Polibios ngagunakeun istilah ''quinqueremis'' salaku istilah umum pikeun " kapal perang".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}}<nowiki> Hiji quinqueremis boga awak 300 urang, nyaéta 280 dayung jeung 20 awak dek babarengan jeung perwira kapal,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100} } sarta dikawal ku 40 prajurit laut (biasana prajurit darat nu ditugaskeun ka kapal).</nowiki>{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}<nowiki> Lamun perang geus deukeut, jumlah prajurit laut bakal ngaronjat nepi ka maksimum 120. jalma.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}} [[Gambar:Corvus.svg|kiri|jmpl|''[[Corvus (pakarang perang)|Corvus]]'', hiji alat anu digunakeun ku pasukan Romawi pikeun ngaluncurkeun [[serangan kapal]]]] Nyiapkeun awak dayung sangkan mahir dina dayung babarengan salaku tim terpadu, utamana pikeun mahér nanganan manuver kapal kompléks dina tempur, merlukeun loba latihan diulang.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=278–280}} Dina raraga Pikeun kapal bisa diatur sacara éféktif, sahenteuna satengah tina sakabéh awak dayung kudu rowers ngalaman.{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=358}} Ieu naha angkatan laut Romawi mimiti teu cocog jeung Carthaginian ngalaman. angkatan laut. Pikeun ngungkulan kalemahan ieu, bangsa Romawi nyiptakeun ''[[Corvus (pakarang perang)|corvus]]'', sajenis sasak salega {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} kalawan panjangna nepi ka {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}}, dilengkepan ku pasak beusi di handapeun tungtung-tungtungna sangkan bisa nempel pageuh kana dek kapal musuh.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}} Alat ieu ngamungkinkeun para legionnair Romawi anu ditugaskeun salaku prajurit laut pikeun [[Serangan kapal|nyebrang ka kapal musuh]] sarta nangkep aranjeunna, tinimbang ngadopsi [[Taktik perang angkatan laut tradisional jaman galley.|taktik]] [[nyebut kapal]] anu geus tradisional.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}} Kabéh kapal perang dilengkepan ku rammers, nu tilu 60-sentimeter (2&nbsp;ft) wilah parunggu rubak dirakit kana {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} pakarang sarta dipasang sajajar jeung freeboard dina élévasi ruku. A abad saméméh perang Punik, taktik ramming kapal beuki umum jeung taktik ramming ieu beuki ditinggalkeun. Kacenderungan ieu timbul sabab kapal-kapal anu digunakeun dina tempur dina jaman harita nyaéta [[Kapal perang jaman Hellenistic|kapal-kapal anu ukuranana jeung beuratna leuwih badag]], sahingga teu cukup gancang jeung lincah dina ngalaksanakeun manuver anu diperlukeun dina usaha ram. kapal musuh. Sajaba ti éta, konstruksi stiffer na ngurangan dampak dampak rammer urang, sanajan serangan éta hits target. "Corvus" anu diciptakeun ku bangsa Romawi mangrupikeun tuluyan tina kacenderungan ieu, sareng tiasa ngiringan kamajuanana dina widang gerak kapal. Sanajan kitu, beurat tambahan kana haluan ngurangan maneuverability sarta seaworthiness kapal, sarta "corvus" teu bisa dipaké nalika laut keur kasar.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}} == Sisilia 264-256 SM == {{Play|Patempuran Messana|Patempuran Agrigentum}} [[Koropak:Sisilia - prima guerra punica.svg|jempol|Sisilia, adegan utama Perang Punic Kahiji]] The battles tina Perang Punic Kahiji lolobana perang di pulo daratan Sisilia ogé di cai sabudeureun. Pedalaman pulo Sisilia, nu pagunungan jeung taringgul, mangrupakeun rupa bumi hésé pikeun grup badag prajurit ngaliwatan tapi cocog pikeun pertahanan ngalawan serangan musuh. Sabagéan ageung operasi militér anu dilaksanakeun di darat dugi ka operasi [[(militer) razia|razia]], [[pengepungan]], sareng [[blok]]. Salila 23 taun perang di pulo Sisilia, ngan dua perang utama lumangsung, nyaéta [[Patempuran Agrigentum|Patempuran Akragas]] dina 262 SM jeung [[Patempuran Panormus]] dina 250 SM. Garrison alert and ground [[blockade]] mangrupikeun operasi anu paling umum dilakukeun ku angkatan bersenjata ti dua sisi.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}} Bangsa Romawi boga kabiasaan nunjuk dua jenderal unggal taun pikeun mingpin pasukan pakarang nagara maranéhanana. Komandan taunan ieu disebut "[[Konsul Romawi|konsul]]". Dina 263 SM, dua konsul incumbent ditugaskeun ka Sisilia, nyandak tentara 40.000 urang, {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=74}} jeung deui dikepung ka Syracuse. Teu bisa ménta bantuan ti Carthage, Syracuse buru-buru neangan perdamaian jeung Romawi. Syracuse jadi sekutu Roma, mayar [[indemnitas]] 100 [[bakat]] pérak,{{#tag:ref|100 talenta pérak kira-kira sarua jeung {{convert|2.6|lt|lk=out |kg |disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=inpormasi}} jeung nu pangpentingna daék mantuan meuli suplai pikeun angkatan bersenjata Romawi di Sisilia.{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=71}} Sanggeus Syracuse sisi Roma, sababaraha kota leutik arah Carthage ogé sided jeung Roma.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=171}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=72–73}} Akragas ({{lang-la|Agrigentum}}, ayeuna [[Agrigento]]), hiji kota palabuan di basisir kidul Sisilia, dipilih ku Carthage pikeun jadi puseur strategis maranéhanana. Tentara Romawi narajang Akragas sarta ngepung kotana dina taun 262 SM.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Sistem suplai Romawi teu cukup, boh ku sabab angkatan laut Carthaginian anu kuat ngahalangan pengiriman barang ku laut, jeung keur maranehna. teu boga pangalaman dina nyoco hiji tentara 40.000 prajurit. Dina usum panén, loba prajurit paburencay di sabudeureun pikeun panén gandum jeung ngumpulkeun susukan. Pasukan Carthaginian di handapeun komando [[Hannibal Gisco]], ujug-ujug narajang pasukan Romawi sarta nyerang kubu maranéhna. Prajurit Romawi berebut pikeun nutup barisan sarta ahirna junun ngajuru para panyerang. Pangalaman ieu dijadikeun palajaran pikeun kadua pihak pikeun ngaronjatkeun kaparigelan.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=77}} [[Gambar:Romanadvance_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 260 nepi ka 256 SM]] Samentara éta, Carthage ngangkat hiji tentara di Afrika, nu lajeng diangkut ku kapal ka Sisilia. Tentara ieu 50.000 prajurit leumpang, 6.000 kuda jeung 60 gajah perang dipingpin ku [[Hanno, putra Hannibal]]. Sababaraha prajurit nyaéta [[Ligurian]], [[Celtic]], jeung [[Ibéria]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=171–172}} Lima bulan sanggeus tentara Romawi ngepung ka Akragas, Hanno mingpin pasukan Carthaginian asup ka kota.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} Sanggeus aya, Hanno ngan masangkeun kemah di hiji tempat jangkungna, pemicu battles pondok acak, jeung ngalatih pasukanana. Dua bulan ti harita, di cinyusu 261 SM, Hanno ngaluncurkeun serangan gedé. Dina Patempuran Akragas, Carthaginians dielehkeun sarta ngalaman karugian beurat. Pasukan Romawi di handapeun komando dua konsul, [[Lucius Postumius Megellus (konsul taun 262 SM)|Lucius Postumius Megellus]] jeung [[Quintus Mamilius Vitulus]], ngaburu pasukan Carthaginian sarta junun nangkep gajah jeung [[transportasi]]. logistik|ngangkut suplai maranéhanana. Peuting anu sami, garnisun Carthaginian ngungsi ka kota Akragas bari urang Romawi kacekel. Poé isukna, pasukan Romawi nyerbu Akragas jeung nangkep wargana; 25.000 warga kota Akragas dijual jadi budak.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=179–180}} Sanggeus Romawi meunang Patempuran Akragas, battles séjén lumangsung di ditu di dieu salila sababaraha taun. Kadua pihak silih ganti meunang kalawan hasil anu teu pati penting, sarta tacan manggih léngkah anu bener pikeun ngeureunkeun perang. Salah sahiji alesanana nyaéta kaputusan bangsa Romawi pikeun ngalihkeun loba sumber daya maranéhna pikeun kapentingan kampanye militer di Corsica jeung Sardinia anu ahirna teu mawa hasil nanaon, lajeng ngulang deui tindakan anu sarua pikeun kapentingan ékspédisi militér ka Afrika anu sarua. sia-sia.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} Sanggeus ngarebut Akragas, pasukan Romawi maju ka kulon jeung ngepung [[Mytistraton]] salila tujuh bulan tanpa hasil.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=82}} Dina 259 SM, tentara Romawi pindah ka arah [[Termini Imerese|Thermae]] di basisir kalér Sisilia. Sanggeus altercation sengit, pasukan Romawi jeung sekutu camped misah. [[Hamilcar (Drepanum)|Hamilcar]] ngamangpaatkeun kaayaan ieu pikeun ngaluncurkeun [[serangan balik]], ku nyerbu tempat kemah salah sahiji kontingén anu kemah misah tur junun maéhan 4.000 nepi ka 6.000 prajurit. Hamilcar salajengna ngarebut kota [[Enna]] di tengah pulo,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=65–66}} jeung kota [[Kamarina, Sisilia|Camarina]] di tenggara. pulo anu cukup deukeut jeung Syracuse. Sigana mah Hamilcar ngan ukur sababaraha léngkah pikeun ngawasa sakabéh Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=75, 79}} Taun saterusna, pasukan Romawi ngarebut deui kota Enna sarta ahirna junun nalukkeun Mytistraton. Aranjeunna teras pindah ka arah Panormus (ayeuna [[Palermo]]), tapi kapaksa mundur, sanaos aranjeunna tiasa ngarebut kota [[Hippana]]. Dina 258 SM, pasukan Romawi ngarebut Camarina sanggeus lila ngepung kota.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=82–83}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=75}} Dina sababaraha taun ka hareup, terus aya aliran pasea, pasea sakeudeung, jeung pergeseran kasatiaan kota ti hiji sisi ka sisi séjén di Pulo Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=77–78}} == Bangsa Romawi ngawangun armada == {{Utama|Patempuran Mylae|Patempuran Sulci}}{{Tempo ogé|Angkatan Laut Romawi#Perang Punik I|l1=Angkatan Laut Romawi|Patempuran Kapuloan Lipara}} [[Gambar:Trireme_cut-fr.svg|jmpl|Yunani [[Trireme|triremis]] katerangan posisi awak dayung dina tilu tingkat dayung [[Trireme|triremis]] Perang di Sisilia geus ngahontal stalemate a, salaku Carthaginians konsentrasi dina defending kota bénténg maranéhanana. Kalolobaan kota ieu aya di basisir, ngarah bisa ngirim suplai jeung pasukan tanpa dihalangan ku pasukan Romawi unggul di darat.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=97}} Fokus perang pindah ti darat ka cai, hiji widang nu urang Romawi teu acan cukup mastered. Saacanna éta, bangsa Romawi geus sababaraha kali sadar kudu boga armada sorangan. Aranjeunna biasa ngandelkeun [[Eskadron (angkatan laut)|eskadron]] leutik anu disayogikeun ku sekutu Latin atanapi Yunani.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=66}} {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=91–92, 97}} Dina 260 SM, bangsa Romawi mimiti nyiapkeun pikeun ngabentuk [[Angkatan Laut Romawi|armada]] sorangan, sarta ngagunakeun bangkai kapal quinqueremis Carthaginian salaku conto pikeun {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=97, 99–100}} Kusabab masih héjo dina widang [[Ngawangun kapal|pengiriman barang]], urang Romawi ngan ukur bisa ngahasilkeun réplika kapal anu leuwih beurat - kapal Carthaginian. Balukarna, kapal-kapal ngaluncur lalaunan dina cai sarta kurang lincah dina manuver.{{sfn|Murray|2011|p=69}} Républik Roma ngawangun 120 kapal perang anu satuluyna dileupaskeun ka Sisilia dina taun 260 SM sangkan awak-awakna bisa ngalaman latihan dasar. [[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina|Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio]], salah sahiji konsul anu ngajabat taun éta, mangkat mawa 17 kapal munggaran ka [[Kapuloan Aeolian|Kapuloan Lipara]], teu jauh ti basisir kalér-wétaneun Sisilia, kalawan niat [[Patempuran Kapuloan Lipara|ngarebut]] kota [[Lipara]], kota palabuan utama di kapuloan. The laksamana commanding armada Carthaginian éta Hannibal Gisco, urut kapala garnisun Akragas. Armada Carthaginian dumasar di Panormus, kurang leuwih {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=off}} ti Lipara. Sanggeus narima béja ngeunaan panyebaran kapal-kapal Romawi ka Lipara, Hanibal ngirimkeun 20 kapal di handapeun komando [[Bodo (hipostrategos)|Boodes]] ka éta kota. Pasukan Carthaginian sumping nalika wengi sareng nyegat kapal-kapal Romawi di palabuhan. Boodes mobilized kapal-Na pikeun nyerang, bari lalaki inexperienced Scipio urang éta teu bisa nempatkeun up loba lalawanan. Sababaraha prajurit Romawi panik sarta kabur ka darat. Scipio tungtungna ditawan. Sakabéh kapal Romawi direbut, lolobana kalawan saeutik ruksakna. armada Romawi bari dina pelayaran pangintipan jeung 50 kapal Carthaginian. Anjeunna junun kabur, tapi kaleungitan seueur kapalna.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=67}} Sanggeus perang pondok ieu, urang Romawi mimiti ngalengkepan kapalna ku ''corvus''.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=68}}{{sfn|Mil|2011|p=182}} The konsul [[Gaius Duilius]], a peerage of Scipio, delegated komando unit tentara Romawi ka bawahan sarta dianggap komando armada. Manéhna langsung balayar néangan lawan. Armada Romawi papanggih jeung armada Carthaginian di basisir [[Mylae]]. Dua armada bentrok saling dina [[Patempuran Mylae]]. Hannibal maréntahkeun 130 kapal, jeung numutkeun itungan sejarawan John Lazenby, Duilius maréntahkeun jumlah kapal anu kurang leuwih sarua.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=70–71}} Alatan leuwih gancang, kapal leuwih lincah maneuver, jeung diawakan ku pelaut ngalaman, urang Carthaginians yakin maranéhna bisa meunang perangna sahingga maranéhna ninggalkeun formasi perangna pikeun balayar leuwih gancang ka kapal Romawi.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}} 30 mimitina kapal Carthaginian ngadeukeutan langsung struck ku patok ' 'corvus'' nu nempel pageuh dina papan dek. Ngaliwatan ''corvus'', prajurit Romawi meuntas ka kapal musuh sarta direbut aranjeunna, kaasup kapal nu Hannibal keur iinditan. Laksamana junun kabur maké [[kanoe]]. Ningali sadayana ieu, sesa kapal Carthaginian sumebar, nyoba narajang armada Romawi ti dua sisi atawa pungkur. Bangsa Romawi bisa nahan lalawanan jeung nangkep 20 kapal deui.{{#tag:ref|Angka ieu dumasar kana informasi ti Polibios. Sumber-sumber kuno anu sanés masihan angka 30 atanapi 31 kapal anu direbut sareng 13 atanapi 14 tenggelam.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=73–74}}|group=remarks}} Sésana kapal Carthaginian eureun narajang . Lantaran leuwih gancang batan kapal-kapal Romawi, maranéhna gampang kabur ti ngungudag kapal-kapal Romawi. Duilius teras balayar ka [[Segesta]] pikeun ngabébaskeun kota anu dikuasai Romawi tina pangepungan Carthaginian.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=63}} Dina awal 262 SM, kapal Carthaginian geus raided basisir Italia ti pangkalan maranéhanana di Sardinia jeung Corsica.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=58}}<nowiki> Sanggeus perang Mylae, dina 259 SM, konsul [[ Lucius Cornelius Scipio] (konsul 259 SM)|Lucius Cornelius Scipio]] mingpin sabagian armada Romawi ka </nowiki>[[Aléria]] di Korsika sarta ngarebutna. Anjeunna teras nyerang [[Olbia|Ulbia]] di Sardinia, tapi dielehkeun ku Carthage,{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} sareng Aléria deui dikawasa ku Carthage.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=154}} Dina taun 258 SM, armada Romawi anu leuwih kuat ngalibatkeun armada Carthaginian leutik dina [[Patempuran Sulci]] di perairan lepas basisir [[Sulci]], kuloneun Sardinia. Armada Carthaginian ngalaman eleh ongkosna mahal pikeun aranjeunna. Hannibal Gisco, komandan Carthaginian anu ditinggalkeun lalaki sarta ngungsi ka Sulci, engké ditahan sarta disalib ku lalaki sorangan. Sanajan meunang perang, pasukan Romawi {{snd}} nu nyoba narajang duanana Sardinia jeung Sisilia dina waktu nu sarua {{snd}} gagal ngarebut kota Sulci, sarta usaha narajang Sardinia handapeun Carthage laun laun.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=65}} Dina 257 SM, armada Romawi kabeneran berlabuh di basisir [[Tindari|Tyndaris]], kalér-wétaneun Sisilia, nalika armada Carthaginian{{snd}}, teu sadar ayana armada Romawi{{snd}}. , balayar kaliwat dina formasi gaping. . Panglima Romawi, [[Gaius Atilius Regulus Serranus|Gaius Atilius Regulus]], geuwat maréntahkeun serangan, sahingga [[Patempuran Tyndaris]] pecah. Alatan awal perang ngadadak, kapal Romawi anu deployed dina ragam teratur. Armada Carthaginian langsung ngaréspon, nyerang sareng ngalelepkeun salapan tina sapuluh kapal Romawi anu unggul. Sanggeus pasukan tempur utama armada Romawi nepi ka tengah perang, dalapan kapal Carthaginian anu sunk sarta sapuluh deui direbut. Armada Carthaginian sésana mundur sarta junun kabur tanpa diudag sabab kapal na dihareupeun Romawi, sahingga nyingkahan karugian badag. '']] Pulo. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=78}} == Diserbu Afrika == {{play|Patempuran Cape Ecnomus|Kepungan Aspis|Patempuran Adis|Patempuran Tunis}} [[Gambar:Perang_Punic_munggaran_di_Afrika_256-255BC.svg|jmpl|1: Pasukan Romawi darat jeung ngarebut Apsis (256 SM)<br /> 2: Bangsa Romawi meunang Patempuran Adis (256 SM)<br /> 3: Pasukan Romawi ngarebut Tunis (256 SM)<br /> 4: Ksantipos pindah ti Carthage jeung tentara badag prajurit (255 SM)<br /> 5: Bangsa Romawi éléh dina Patempuran Tunis (255 SM)<br /> 6: Pasukan Romawi mundur ka Apsis sarta ninggalkeun Afrika (254 SM)]] Kameunangan di Mylae sareng Sulci ogé jenuh anu disababkeun ku jalan buntu di Sisilia nyababkeun bangsa Romawi ngadopsi strategi dumasar-laut sareng mimitian ngembangkeun rencana pikeun nyerang inti Carthaginian Afrika Kalér, ku kituna ngancam kota Carthage (deukeut ka dayeuh [[Tunis]]<nowiki>).{ {sfn|Rankov|2015|p=155}} Kadua belah pihak boga tekad pikeun jadi nagara </nowiki>[[master of the sea]], sarta bakti duit gede. jeung SDM pikeun ngajaga jeung ngagedéan kakuatan tempur angkatan laut maranéhanana.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=110}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=83}} Armada Romawi 330 kapal perang jeung jumlah nu teu dipikanyaho. angkutan laut séjén indit ti [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], palabuan Roma, dina awal 256 SM, dina [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] jeung [[Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus]], konsul anu ngajabat taun éta. {{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=434}} Kurang leuwih 26.000 legionnair ti pasukan Romawi di Sisilia diasupkeun kana kapal teu lila saméméh invasi dimimitian. Dua konsul éta rencanana rék balayar ka Afrika jeung narajang wewengkon nu kiwari disebut Tunisia.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{sfn|Walbank|1959|p=10}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=84–85}} Saatos diajar niat Roma, Carthage langsung nyebarkeun sadaya 350 kapal perangna ka cai di basisir kidul Sisilia handapeun Hanno Agung sareng Hamilcar pikeun nyegat armada Romawi. Kusabab éta ngalibatkeun 680 kapal perang anu mawa maksimal 290.000 awak sareng pasukan laut, [[Patempuran Cape Ecnomus]] sigana mangrupikeun perang laut panggedéna dina sajarah dina hal jumlah pejuang anu kalibet.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=110 –111}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=87}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=436}} Patempuran ieu dimimitian ku serangan ku armada Carthaginian nu ngandelkeun kaunggulan maranéhanana dina pengiriman barang.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=112–113}}{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=459}} Sanggeus sapoe tarung sambarangan, armada Carthaginian tungtungna eleh. Carthage kaleungitan 30 kapal kalelep sareng 64 kapal direbut ku pasukan Romawi, sedengkeun armada Romawi mung kaleungitan 24 kapal kalelep ku armada Carthaginian.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=69}} Sanggeus Patempuran Cape Ecnomus, tentara Romawi di handapeun Regulus darat di Afrika, teu jauh ti kota Aspis (ayeuna [[Kelibia]]) ayana di [[Cape Bon]], sarta langsung narajang désa-désa sabudeureun kota Carthage. . Sanggeus [[Pengepungan Aspis|pengepungan sakeudeung]], Aspis ahirna direbut.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=176}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} Seuseueurna kapal Romawi balayar deui ka Sisilia, ninggalkeun Regulus kalawan 15.000 prajurit leumpang jeung 500 horsemen neruskeun perang di Afrika. Regulus teras ngepung kota [[Uthina|Adis]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=186}} Urang Carthaginians parantos ngingetkeun Hamilcar ti Sisilia kalayan 5.000 prajurit leumpang sareng 500 pasukan kuda. Hamilcar, [[Hasdrubal, putra Hanno|Hasdrubal]], jeung jenderal Carthaginian séjénna nu ngaranna Bostar ditugaskeun pikeun babarengan mingpin tentara nu loba pasukan kuda jeung gajah perang, jeung kakuatan kasarna sarua jeung tentara Romawi. Pasukan Carthaginian berkemah di hiji pasir deukeut Adis.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=85}} Pasukan Romawi pindah kaluar peuting jeung nyieun serangan ngareureuwas ka kemah Carthaginian ti dua arah nalika subuh. Sanggeus tarung ambing, prajurit Carthaginian tungtungna bubar sarta ngungsi. Teu écés sabaraha kasangsaraan maranéhna, tapi gajah perang Carthaginian jeung prajurit kuda luput sarta ngalaman sababaraha korban jiwa.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=86}} Bangsa Romawi nyusul kameunanganana sarta ngarebut kota Tunis, ngan 16&nbsp;km (10 mil) ti Carthage. Ti Tunis, pasukan Romawi nyerang jeung ngancurkeun wewengkon sabudeureun dayeuh Carthage. Putus asa, urang Carthaginians [[Ngintunkeun perdamaian|nyiptakeun perdamaian]], tapi Regulus ngabales ku ngajukeun istilah perdamaian anu beurat teuing pikeun urang Carthaginians mutuskeun pikeun neraskeun perang.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=87}} Tugas ngalatih prajurit dipasrahkeun ka [[Ksantipos of Carthage|Ksantipos]], pamingpin tentara bayaran [[Sparta]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} Kalawan 12.000 prajurit leumpang, 4.000 prajurit kuda, jeung 100 gajah perang, Ksantipos ngéléhkeun bangsa Romawi dina [[Patempuran Walungan Bagradas (255 SM)|Patempuran Tunis]] dina 255 SM. Kira-kira 2.000 pasukan Romawi mundur ka Aspis; 500 prajurit, kaasup Regulus, ditawan ku Carthaginians; jeung sésana tiwas. Sieun yén komandan Carthaginian bakal sirik kana prestasina, Ksantipos buru-buru ngumpulkeun ganjaranna sareng uih deui ka Yunani.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=188}} Bangsa Romawi ngirimkeun armada kapal pikeun nyalametkeun prajuritna anu salamet, tapi éta kapal dicegat ku armada Carthaginian di cai off [[Cape Bon]] (kalér-wétaneun Tunisia kiwari). Dina [[Patempuran Cape Hermaeum]], armada Romawi ngéléhkeun armada Carthaginian, sarta ngarebut 114 kapal maranéhanana.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{#tag:ref|Numutkeun G. K. Tipps , sigana jumlahna aya 114 kapal nu dibawa ku armada Romawi dina perjalanan mulang.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}|group=inpormasi}} Armada Romawi kajebak dina badai dina perjalanan mulang. ka Italia, kaleungitan 384 tina 464 kapalna, sareng 100.000 prajurit dina kapalna. lolobana prajurit Latini sekutu.{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=438}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=189}}{{sfn|Erdkamp|2015|p=66}} Paling dipikaresep, pamasangan alat-alat ''corvus'' ngajadikeun kapal-kapal Romawi teu pantes. Sanggeus musibah ieu, catetan Romawi teu nyebutkeun deui pamakéan ''corvus''. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=112, 117}} == Sisilia 255-248 SM == {{Utama|Patempuran Panormus|Patempuran Drepana|Patempuran Phintias|Pengepungan Lilybaeum (250–241 SM)}} [[Gambar:Attacksrenewed_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 253 nepi ka 251 SM]] Sanggeus kaleungitan kalolobaan kapalna dina badai taun 255 SM, urang Romawi gancang ngawangun deui armadana ku tambahan 220 kapal anyar.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=114}}<nowiki> Dina 254 SM, pasukan Carthaginian narajang sarta ngarebut Akragas, tapi, teu yakin bisa ngajaga eta, ninggalkeun kota sanggeus eta kaduruk nepi ka taneuh jeung tembok diroboh. {{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp =114–116, 169} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=158}} Samentara éta, pasukan Romawi nyerang Sisilia tékad pikeun ngahontal kameunangan nu tangtu. Sakabéh armada Romawi, di handapeun komando dua konsul, raided Panormus saméméhna taun éta. Kota Panormus dikepung sareng diblokade, mesin pengepungan dipasang pikeun ngalanggar témbokna. Sanggeus tembok kota Panormus dilanggar, pasukan Romawi narajang pedalaman, ngarebut pinggiran kota, sarta dibantai wargana [[tanpa ampun]]. Wewengkon puseur dayeuh buru-buru pasrah. 14.000 warga Panormus anu boga duit nebus diri, sedengkeun 13.000 padumuk sésana dijual jadi budak. Kalolobaan hinterland kulon Sisilia urang éta dina kontrol Romawi. Boh [[Ietas]], [[Solous]], Petra, atawa [[Tyndaris]] neangan [[Perdamaian|perjangjian perdamaian]] jeung Roma.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=80}} Dina 253 SM, Roma sakali deui nyetél tetempoan na on Afrika, sarta nyieun sababaraha razia di dinya. Tina 220 kapal anu aranjeunna kumpulkeun, armada Romawi kaleungitan 150 ku badai nalika mulih ti nyerang basisir Afrika Kalér wétaneun Carthage. Républik Romawi ngawangun deui armadana.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=189–190}} Taun saterusna, Roma malikeun perhatian ka Sisilia barat laut. Ekspedisi laut dikirim ka [[Lilybaeum]]. Dina jalan ka tujuanana, pasukan Romawi junun nangkep jeung ngaduruk Karthaginian [[Selinunte|Selinous]] jeung [[Heraclea Minoa]], tapi ahirna maranéhna gagal ngarebut Lilybaeum, udagan utama maranéhanana. Dina 252 SM pasukan Romawi nangkep Thermae jeung Lipara nu geus diisolasi saprak Panormus murag ka aranjeunna, tapi dihindari tarung dina 252 jeung 251 SM. Numutkeun Polybius, pasukan Romawi teu wani nyanghareupan gajah perang anu dibawa ku kapal Carthaginian ku kapal ka Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=118}}<nowiki>{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159} } [[Koropak:C._Caecilius_Metellus_Caprarius,_denarius,_125_BC,_RRC_269-1.jpg|alt=|kénca|jempol|jejeg=|Kaluaran Denarius </nowiki>[[Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius]], dicitak taun 125 SM, mintonkeun gambar na , [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul taun 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], jeung gajah-gajah nu direbut dina [[Patempuran Panormus|Panormus]].{{sfn|Crawford|1974|p=292, 293}} ] ] Nepi ka ahir usum panas taun 251 SM,{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=93}} jenderal Carthaginian Hasdrubal{{snd}}anu tarung ngalawan Regulus di Afrika{{snd}}ngadangu yen salah sahiji konsul geus ninggalkeun Sisilia méakkeun usum kalawan satengah tentara-Na. Anjeunna mingpin tentara Carthaginian nuju Panormus sarta ngancurkeun désa sabudeureunana.{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=159}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=169}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=82}} Prajurit Romawi anu ditugaskeun pikeun ngumpulkeun panén langsung ngungsi ka kota Panormus. Hasdrubal ngagerakkeun sabagéan ageung pasukanana, kalebet gajah, pikeun ngadeukeutan témbok kota Panormus. Komandan Romawi, [[Lucius Caecilius Metellus (konsul taun 251 SM)|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], ngirimkeun pasukan pemukul pikeun ngaganggu pasukan Carthaginian. Javelin anu dianggo ku prajurit perang dicandak tina cadangan lembing anu tos lami disimpen di kota. [[Benteng|gundukan taneuh]] sabudeureun Panormus, diadegkeun nalika pasukan Romawi ngepung kota, ngajadikeun gajah perang hésé ngadeukeutan témbok kota. Disiram ku lembing tanpa bisa neunggeul deui, gajah-gajah nyemprung ngaliwatan prajurit suku Carthaginian di tukangeunana. Metellus lajeng mobilized awak badag prajurit Romawi narajang sarta paburencay flank kénca Carthaginian. Prajurit Carthaginian tungtungna bubar sareng kabur. Sanajan néwak sapuluh gajah, Metellus teu ngidinan Romawi pikeun moro prajurit musuh.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=82–83}} Sumber-sumber kontemporer teu nangtukeun karugian anu ditanggung ku dua pihak, sarta sejarawan modern ngabantah akun. ti sumber saterusna yén Carthaginians kaleungitan 20.000 nepi ka 30.000 pasukan.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=93–94}} [[Gambar:Attacksrenewed2_(dipotong).JPG|jmpl|Serangan Romawi ti 250 nepi ka 249 SM]] Kameunangan di Panormus ngajurung pasukan Romawi pikeun nyerang kota Lilybaeum, pangkalan utama Carthage di pulo Sisilia. Dina 249 SM, hiji tentara badag prajurit Romawi di handapeun [[Publius Claudius Pulcher (konsul taun 249 SM)|Publius Claudius Pulcher]] jeung [[Lucius Junius Pullus (konsul taun 249 SM)|Lucius Junius Pullus]], konsul- konsul anu nyandak kantor taun éta, ieu deployed ngurilingan kota Lilybaeum. 200 kapal milik armada Romawi anyar dikerahkan pikeun ngablokir palabuhan.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=190}} Nalika blokade anyar dimimitian, 50 quinqueremis Carthaginian ditempatkeun di perairan lepas [[Kapuloan Aegates]] , {{convert|15|-|40|km|0|abbr=off}} di kuloneun Sisilia. Salaku angin barat ngangkat, kapal Carthaginian rode arah Lilybaeum unhindered ku kapal blokade Romawi, sarta unloaded jumlah badag pasukan jeung suplai. Kapal-kapal lésot kaluar ti palabuhan peuting, ngangkut pasukan kuda Carthaginian ti Sisilia.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=117}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=85}} Bangsa Romawi nutup jalur darat nuju Lilybaeum sareng kemah anu dikuatkeun tina gundukan bumi sareng pager kai. Maranéhna rék nutup lawang palabuan ku [[halangan]] kai, tapi arus jeung ombak ngahalangan éta. kapal, nyaéta quinqueremis- quinqueremis nu lincah jeung lincah dimanuver jeung diawaki ku [[Pilot boat|pilot]]. {{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–118}} Pulcher mutuskeun pikeun nyerang armada Carthaginian nu ieu anchored di Drepana (ayeuna Trapani), teu jauh ti Lilybaeum. Kapal-kapal Romawi balayar kaluar peuting dina serangan reuwas, tapi paburencay dina gelap. Laksamana [[Adherbal (admiral)|Adherbal]] junun ngalungkeun kapal Carthaginian ka laut sateuacan kajebak di palabuhan, sareng males serangan armada Romawi dina [[Patempuran Drepana]]. Saatos kadorong ka darat sareng dinten perang sengit, armada Romawi tungtungna dielehkeun ku kapal Carthaginian, anu langkung lincah dina manuver sareng diurus ku pelaut berpengalaman. Kameunangan di Drepana nyaéta nu panggedéna pikeun armada Carthaginian dina mangsa Perang Punic Kahiji.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=117–121}} Urang Carthaginians balik pikeun nyerang, sarta meunang deui kameunangan longsor ngalawan armada Romawi dina [ [Patempuran Phintias] ], tapi teu bisa miceun bangsa Romawi ti cai.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=88–91}} Ngan tujuh taun ti harita Roma bisa deui ngencarkeun armada anu cukup kuat. , Samentawis di Carthage parantos ngeureunkeun panggunaan seueur kapal kapalna pikeun nyalametkeun sareng ngabebaskeun awak.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=163}} == Tungtung == {{Utama|Kepungan Drepana|Kepungan Lilybaeum (250 SM)|Patempuran Kapuloan Aegates}} [[Koropak:CILI(2)p47fgtXXFastitriumphales.jpg|kénca|jempol|jejeg=1|Sesa-sésa [[Fasti Triumphales]], prasasti-prasasti nu ngandung ngaran sakabéh [[Pawai meunangna (Romawi Kuna)|Komandan Romawi nu meunang perang]]]]] Dina 248 SM, ngan dua kota di Sisilia anu masih dikawasa ku Carthage, nyaéta Lilybaeum jeung [[Drepana]]. Duanana ditangtayungan ku benteng-benteng anu kuat sarta ayana di basisir kulon, sangkan suplai jeung pasukan ngagantian bisa dikirim tanpa dihalang-halang ku pasukan Romawi unggul di darat.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=64–66}}<nowiki>{ {sfn |Goldsworthy|2006|pp=94–95}} Nalika </nowiki>[[Hamilcar Barca]]<nowiki>{{#tag:ref|Hamilcar Barca nyaéta [[Hannibal] bapana].</nowiki>{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=165}} }|group=information}} dipercayakeun maréntahkeun tentara Carthaginian di Sisilia dina 247 SM, anjeunna dipercayakeun ngan hiji tentara leutik prajurit, sarta kapal tina armada Carthaginian ditarik hiji-hiji. Permusuhan antara tentara Romawi jeung Carthaginian diréduksi jadi operasi militér leutik di darat, luyu jeung strategi Carthaginian. Hamilcar nerapkeun taktik [[Panangan gabungan|elemen tempur ngahiji]] dina ngaluncurkeun [[strategi Fabius]] ti pangkalanna di [[Eryx (Sisilia)|Eryx]], kaléreun Drepana. Perang [[Perang gerilya|gerilya]] ieu ngajaga pasukan Romawi ka tempatna sangkan Carthage bisa ngajaga ayana diwilayahna di Sisilia.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=144}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=92–94}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=95}} Sanggeus leuwih ti 20 taun perang, kamampuhan waragad duanana nagara sarta jumlah pasukan tungtungna turun.{{sfn|Bringmann|2007|p=127}} Salah sahiji bukti kasusah finansial nyanghareupan Carthage nyaéta aplikasi pikeun injeuman. tina 2.000 talenta pérak{{#tag:ref|2.000 talenta pérak kira-kira sarua {{convert|51|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p =158}}|group=remarks}} maranéhna banding ka [[Karajaan Ptolemaic|Karajaan Ptolemaic Mesir]] tapi teu dikabulkeun.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=92}} Roma oge di ambang [[standar nasional|bangkrut]]. Sajaba ti éta, populasi lalaki sawawa, kontributor sumber daya manusa pikeun angkatan laut jeung pasukan Romawi, turun ku 17 persén saprak perang peupeus.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=91}} Numutkeun Adrian Goldsworthy, nu turunna jumlah SDM di Républik Indonésia Roma geus ngahontal tingkat "jero pikahariwangeun".{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=131}} Nepi ka ahir taun 243 SM, majelis sesepuh Romawi mutuskeun pikeun ngawangun armada anyar sabab sadar yén pasukan Romawi ngan ukur tiasa ngarebut Drepana sareng Lilybaeum upami blokade ogé dilaksanakeun dina cai.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} Alatan kas kaayaan ieu thinning, déwan sesepuh narékahan pikeun pangadilan jalma beunghar di Roma. Unggal jalma jegud dipénta pikeun ngabiayaan pangwangunan hiji kapal. Dana aranjeunna tuang kaluar bakal reimbursed sanggeus pamaréntah narima [[parotries]] pangmayaran nu bakal kapaksa on Carthage sakali perang dimeunangkeun. Inisiatif ieu ngahasilkeun armada anyar kira-kira 200 quinqueremis anu diwangun, dilengkepan jeung diawaskeun tanpa ngaluarkeun duit nagara.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=49}} Pikeun nyieun kapal armada anyar ieu, Romawi. nuturkeun conto selop blokade kualitas alus teuing anu aranjeunna junun ngarebut ti Carthaginians.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} Bangsa Romawi dina waktu éta ngalaman pangalaman ngawangun kapal, sarta ku niru kapal anu kualitasna alus. Teu diragukeun, kapal quinqueremis kualitas luhur dihasilkeun.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=124}} Kapal-kapal anyar ieu teu dilengkepan deui ku ''corvus'' sangkan leuwih gancang jeung leuwih lincah dina gerakna,{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=195}} tapi kusabab kitu taktik tempur kudu dirobah. Pikeun ngéléhkeun urang Carthaginians, maranéhna kudu jadi pelaut unggulan, tinimbang prajurit darat unggul.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=150}}<nowiki>{{sfn|Casson|1991|p=150} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=95}} The Carthaginians ngawangun anyar, armada gedé pikeun dipaké pikeun ngirim suplai ka Sisilia, sarta engké bakal imah lolobana pasukan tentara Carthaginian di Sisilia anu bakal empowered salaku seamen. Armada anyar ieu dicegat ku armada Romawi dina kapamimpinan [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] jeung [[Quintus Valerius Falto]]. Dina tarung sengit di perairan Kapuloan Aegates, prajurit Romawi anu dilatih leuwih alus bisa ngéléhkeun armada Carthaginian, anu kawates jeung kurang dilatih.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=96}} Sanggeus unggul dina perang angkatan laut ieu sacara unanimously, urang Romawi nuluykeun operasi darat di Sisilia dina usaha pikeun ngarebut Lilybaeum jeung Drepana.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=125–126}} Déwan sesepuh Carthaginian nampik ngaluarkeun sumber daya -sumber daya anu diperlukeun pikeun ngawangun sareng ngadamel armada énggal.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}} Aranjeunna malah maréntahkeun Hamilcar pikeun milarian rundingan damai sareng Roma. Hamilcar ngadelegasikeun ieu tugas ka bawahanna, [[Gisco (d. 239 SM)|Gisco]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=97}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=157}} The peace ceramah réngsé ku nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Lutatius]] nu mungkas Perang Punic Kahiji. Urang Carthaginians diwajibkeun geuwat ninggalkeun Sisilia, nyerahkeun sakabéh tawanan anu dicandak nalika perang, sareng mayar di cicilan bayaran [[indemnity]] 3.200 talents pérak{{#tag:ref|3.200 talents pérak. kira-kira sarua jeung {{#tag:ref| {{convert|81|lt|kg|disp=flip|abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=remark}} dina jero sapuluh taun.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=196}} == Pasca Perang == [[Koropak:Perang Punic Kahiji 237 SM.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Daérah warna pink nyaéta bagian tina Carthage anu diserahkeun ka Roma dina perjangjian perdamaian]] Kusabab lumangsung 23 taun, Perang Punic Kahiji jadi perang pangpanjangna dina sajarah Romawi-Yunani, sarta perang laut pangbadagna dina sajarah Dunya Kuna.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=x}} Sanggeus perang, Carthage diusahakeun ulah mayar gajih tentara urang - prajurit asing anu geus ngagabung tarung. [[Perang Upah|Prajurit Asing ahirna barontak]], sarta loba golongan jalma nu teu sugema kana pamaréntahan ngagabung.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=112–114}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Hoyos|2000|p=371}} Sanggeus loba usaha, pamaréntahan Carthaginian ahirna bisa maéhan pemberontakan ieu ku cara anu cukup kejam. Dina 237 SM, Carthage siap ngajalankeun ekspedisi militér pikeun ngarebut deui pulo Sardinia, nu geus murag ka pemberontak.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=135}}{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=209, 212 –213}} Républik Romawi sacara sinis ngumumkeun yén gerakan Carthaginian dianggap tindakan perang. Pikeun mulangkeun katengtreman, Carthage wajib nyerahkeun Sardinia jeung Korsika sarta mayar tambahan indemnity 1.200 talents pérak.{{#tag:ref|1.200 talents pérak kurang leuwih {{convert|30|lt|kg|disp= flip| abbr=off}} pérak.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=158}}|group=remark}} Béak perang salila 30 taun, Carthage mutuskeun pikeun nurut kana tungtutan Roma tinimbang balik deui kana konflik. Pangmayaran tambahan sarta sékrési Sardinia jeung Corsica dijieun artikel anyar dina perjangjian karapihan nu disaluyuan ku dua nagara.{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}} Aksi- kalakuan Roma ieu nganyenyeri Carthage, tinimbang nyerah sakumaha anu dikira Roma, sareng dianggap salah sahiji faktor anu nyababkeun wabah [[Perang Punik II]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=175}} Kapamingpinan Hamilcar Barca anu pinunjul dina usaha pikeun ngancurkeun pemberontakan asing sareng kelompok pemberontak Afrika ningkatkeun darajat sareng kakawasaan kulawarga [[Kulawarga Barqa|Barca]]. Dina 237 SM, Hamilcar mingpin ékspédisi militér anu tujuanana pikeun ngalegaan kadaulatan Carthaginian di wewengkon kidul [[Iberia Carthage|Iberia]] (ayeuna [[Spanyol]]). Loba prajurit di pasukan ekspedisi militér éta urut pasukan na dina Perang Punic Kahiji. Salila 20 taun ka hareup, kiduleun Iberia jadi sajenis semi-otonom [[fief]]<nowiki> kulawarga Barça ogé supplier sabagian gedé pérak anu dikirim ka Roma minangka reparasi.{{sfn|Collins|1998 |p=13} }</nowiki>{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=152–155}} Pikeun Roma, ahir Perang Punic Kahiji ditandaan awal ékspansi na saluareun jazirah Italia. Pulo Sisilia jadi [[Sisilia (provinsi Romawi)|Provincia Sicilia]], jajahan Romawi munggaran ([[Propinsi Romawi|''provincia'']]) Roma. [[pretor]] pensiunan diangkat kapala administrasi régional. Satuluyna, Sisilia jadi wewengkon penting pikeun Roma, sabab éta [[Panyediaan gandum pikeun kota Roma|sumber suplai gandum]].{{sfn|Sidwell|Jones|1997|p=16}} [[Provincia Sardinia et Korsika|Sardinia jeung Korsika]] ngahiji jadi hiji "provincia" nu diparéntah ku pretor, sarta ogé dipaké salaku sumber suplai gandum, sanajan Roma kudu nyimpen hiji tentara badag di "provincia" salila sahenteuna tujuh taun, sabab pamaréntah kolonial kawalahan nyanghareupan pribumi anu teu diatur.{{sfn|Hoyos|2015|p=211}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=136}} [[Syracusa, Italia|Syracusa]] dilélér kamerdékaan nominal jeung sekutu saumur hirup status King Hiero II.{{sfn|Allen|Myers|1890|p=111}} Ti saprak meunangna Perang Punic Kahiji, Roma geus mecenghul minangka nagara nu boga kakuatan militér pangpunjulna di wewengkon Mediterania kulon, sarta laun-laun jadi punjul. di sakuliah wewengkon Mediterania .{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=213}}<nowiki> Bangsa Romawi ngawangun leuwih ti 1.000 galleys salila Perang Punic Kahiji. Pangalaman akumulasi dina commissioning, manning, latihan, supplying jeung ngajaga sajumlah badag kapal jadi pondasi kamulyaan maritim Roma salila 600 taun.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=128–129, 357, 359–360} } Sanajan Perang Punic Kahiji geus réngsé, masih can écés nagara mana nu ngawasa Mediterania kulon, sarta nalika Carthage ngepung kota </nowiki>[[Saguntum]]<nowiki> nu ditangtayungan Romawi di Iberia wétan dina 218 SM, [[Perang Punic II] ] peupeus.{ {sfn|Collins|1998|p=13}}</nowiki> == Katerangan, rujukan, jeung sumber == === Katerangan === {{Review|group=caption|30em}} === Rujukan === {{reflist|20em}} === Sumber === {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=William|last2=Myers|first2=Philip Van Ness|author-link2=Philip van Ness Myers|title=Ancient History for Colleges and High Schools: Part II – A Short History of the Roman People|location=Boston|publisher=Ginn & Company|year=1890|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028286692|oclc=702198714}} * {{cite 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the Punic Wars|location=Chichester, Sussex Barat|publisher=John Wiley|pages=58–76|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4}} * {{cite book|last=Goldsworthy|first=Adrian|author-link=Adrian Goldsworthy|title=The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC|url=https://archive.org/details/fallofcarthagepu0000gold|publisher=Phoenix|location=London|year=2006|isbn=978-0-304-36642-2}} * {{cite book|last=Harris|first=William|title=War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 BC|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|date=1979|isbn=978-0-19-814866-1}} * {{cite book|last=Hau|first=Lisa|date=2016|title=Moral History from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-1-4744-1107-3}} * {{cite book|first=Dexter|last=Hoyos|date=2015|orig-year=2011|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars|location=Chichester, Sussex Barat|publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4}} * {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Archer|date=1987|title=The Art of War in the Western 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Literary Sources for the Punic Wars (apart from Polybius)|date=2015|orig-year=2011|title=A Companion to the Punic Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzJ3BwAAQBAJ&q=A+companion+to+the+Punic+Wars|location=Chichester, Sussex Barat|publisher=John Wiley|pages=111–128|isbn=978-1-119-02550-4}} * {{Cite book|title=The Age of Titans: The Rise and Fall of the Great Hellenistic Navies|url=https://archive.org/details/ageoftitansrisef0000murr|last=Murray|first=William|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-19-993240-5|location=Oxford}} * {{cite web|url=https://classicalstudies.org/annual-meeting/145/abstract/ship-classes-egadi-rams-and-polybius’-account-first-punic-war|title=The Ship Classes of the Egadi Rams and Polybius' Account of the First Punic War|last=Murray|first=William|website=Society for Classical Studies|publisher=Society for Classical Studies|date=2019|access-date=16 Januari 2020}} * {{cite 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web|url=https://rpmnautical.org/projects/egadi-islands-project/|title=Battle of the Egadi Islands Project|publisher=RPM Nautical Foundation|ref={{sfnRef|RPM Foundation|2020}}|date=2020|access-date=7 Oktober 2020}} * {{Cite journal|last=Sabin|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Sabin|date=1996|title=The Mechanics of Battle in the Second Punic War|journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. Supplement|volume=67|issue=67|pages=59–79|jstor=43767903}} * {{cite book|first=H.H.|last=Scullard|author-link=Howard Hayes Scullard|chapter=Carthage and Rome|pages=486–569|editor1-first=F. W.|editor1-last=Walbank|editor2-first=A. E.|editor2-last=Astin|editor3-first=M. W.|editor3-last=Frederiksen|editor4-first=R. M.|editor4-last=Ogilvie|title=Cambridge Ancient History: Jilid 7, Bagian 2, Edisi ke-2|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|name-list-style=amp|year=2006|orig-year=1989|isbn=978-0-521-23446-7}} * {{Cite journal|last=Shutt|first=Rowland|date=1938|title=Polybius: A Sketch|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_greece-rome_1938-10_8_22/page/50|journal=Greece & Rome|volume=8|issue=22|pages=50–57|doi=10.1017/S001738350000588X|jstor=642112}} * {{cite book|last1=Sidwell|first1=Keith C.|author1-link=Peter Jones (classicist)|location=Cambridge; New York|last2=Jones|first2=Peter V.|title=The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/worldofromeintro0000unse|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-38600-5}} * {{Cite book|first=Philip|last=de Souza|chapter=Naval Forces|pages=357–367|editor1-first=Philip|editor1-last=Sabin|editor2-first=Hans|editor2-last=van Wees|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Whitby|name-list-style=amp|title=The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Jilid 1: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-85779-6}} * {{cite book|last=Starr|first=Chester|author-link=Chester Starr|title=A History of the Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000star|location=New York, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year=1965|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-506628-9}} * {{Cite journal|last=Tipps|first=G.K.|date=1985|title=The Battle of Ecnomus|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=34|issue=4|pages=432–465|jstor=4435938}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Tusa|first1=Sebastiano|last2=Royal|first2=Jeffrey|date=2012|title=The Landscape of the Naval Battle at the Egadi Islands (241 B.C.)|journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=25|pages=7–48|doi=10.1017/S1047759400001124|issn=1047-7594|author1-link=Sebastiano Tusa|s2cid=159518193}} * {{Cite journal|last=Walbank|first=Frank|author-link=F. W. Walbank|date=1959|title=Naval Triaii|journal=The Classical Review|volume=64|issue=1|pages=10–11|doi=10.1017/S0009840X00092258|jstor=702509}} * {{cite book|last=Walbank|first=F.W.|date=1990|title=Polybius|volume=1|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06981-7}} * {{cite book|last=Wallinga|first=Herman|title=The Boarding-bridge of the Romans: Its Construction and its Function in the Naval Tactics of the First Punic War|oclc=458845955|publisher=J.B. Wolters|location=Groningen|year=1956}} * {{cite book|last=Warmington|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Herbert Warmington|title=Carthage|url=https://archive.org/details/carthage0000warm_a5q6|publisher=Barnes & Noble, Inc|year=1993|orig-year=1960|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56619-210-1}} {{refend}} === Bacaan lanjutan === * {{Cite journal|last=Biggs|first=T.|date=2017|title=Primus Romanorum: Origin Stories, Fictions of Primacy, and the First Punic War|journal=Classical Philology|volume=112|issue=3|pages=350–367|doi=10.1086/692606|issn=0009-837X|ref=none|s2cid=164526422}} * {{cite book|last=Dexter|first=Hoyos|date=1998|title=Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ja4fAAAAQBAJ&q=Unplanned+wars:+The+origins+of+the+First+and+Second+Punic+Wars|location=Berlin; New York|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-080835-3|ref=none}} * {{cite web|url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/1*.html|title=Historiai|last=Polibios|website=Situs Web Bill Thayer|publisher=Universitas Chicago|orig-year=''[[circa|ca.]]'' 167–118 Pramasehi|ref=none|date=2020|translator-last1=Paton|translator-first1=William Roger|translator-last2=Thayer|translator-first2=Bill|translator1-link=William Roger Paton|access-date=4 Mei 2020}} {{kotak navigasi Perang Punik}} {{Perang Romawi Kuno}} [[Katégori:264 SM]] <references group="description" /> <references group="remark" /> <references group="inpormasi" /> [[Kategori:Perang Punic I]] [[Kategori:Konflik taun 260-an SM]] [[Kategori:Konflik dina 250-an SM]] [[Kategori:Konflik taun 240-an SM]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-3 SM di Républik Romawi|Perang Punic 01]] [[Kategori:Abad ka-3 SM|Perang Punic 01]] [[Kategori:Perang Punic|.01]] [[Kategori:Perang ngalibetkeun Carthage]] [[Kategori:Perang anu ngalibatkeun Républik Romawi]] qfjfa8695biw79388cgdmqq7mczxqmn Gagajahan 0 104317 712347 681144 2026-08-28T21:23:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox| color = lightgreen| name = Gagajahan| image = Echinochloa crus-galli01.jpg| image_size = 250px| image_caption =| regnum = Plantae| divisio =Tracheophytes| classis =Angiosperms| ordo = Poales| familia =Poaceae| genus =Echinochloa| species = crus-galli | binomial =| binomial_authority =| synonyms =Panchax pictum Valenciennes, 1846{{Collapsible list| ''Digitaria hispidula'' (Retz.) Willd.| ''Echinochloa caudata'' Roshev.|''Echinochloa crus-corvi'' (L.) P.Beauv. |''Echinochloa crus-pavonis'' var. ''austrojaponensis'' (Ohwi) S.L.Dai|''Echinochloa dubia'' Roem. & Schult.}}}} '''Gagajahan'''; ''(Echinochloa crus-galli)''; ''Barnyard grass'' nyaéta hiji tutuwuhan anu asalna tina kulawarga Poaceae. Salaku jujukutan, gagajahan hirupna ngan sausum kalawan jangkung bisa nepika 2 méter.<ref name=”Par”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=tZkwEAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false| title =Ensiklopedia Gulma Lahan PesawahanParadisaIndah Yuliana| last =ParadisaIndah Yuliana| first =Anggi| publisher =Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat | location =Indonesia | year =2020|ISBN=9786236794197|pages =7}} Disungsi21 April 2023</ref> Ieu jukut liar anu asalna ti wewengkon Asia baheulana digolongkeun kana kulawarga jukut [[panicum]]. Dina basa Inggris sok dipiwanoh oge ku '''cockspur''' atawa ( '''cockspur grass'''), ''barnyard millet''', '''Japanese millet''', '''water grass''', '''common barnyard grass'', atawa gampangna '''"barnyard grass"''' (nu bisa nujul kana sagala spésiés ''[[Echinochloa]]''. Ieu jukut jangkungna bisa nepi ka 60" (1.5 m), dauna ipis panjang kawas daun paré mindeng katempo [[bungur]] palebah puhuna. Seuseueurna tangkalna nangtung, tapi sababaraha aya ogé anu ngampar dina taneuh. sikina ngumpul dina ranggeuyan anu ngawangun [[spikelet]] remen kelirna semu bungur, kalawan dibungkus kucangkang kawas paré. Ieu jukut kagolongkeun kana [[gulma]] anu matak ngarugikeun kana tatanén, salian ngaganggu kana tutuwuhan paré hususna ogé bisa ngaleungitkeun [[nitrogén]] [[taneuh]] nepika 80%. Malahan jadi imah pikeun sababaraha hama atawa [[mosaic virus]] panyakit.<ref name="fao">Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2017. Cockspur grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) forage. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/451</ref> Bisa ngabalukarkeun karugian gedé tur matak méakeun modal dina tatanén. == Ciri mandiri== [[File:Echinochloa crus-galli 2006.08.27 15.00.13-p8270053.jpg|thumbnail|left]] [[File:Echinochloa crus-galli 2006.08.27 15.00.29-p8270054.jpg|thumbnail|left]] [[wikt:Polymorphous|Polymorphous]] kasar, [[tufted]] nahun, kagolongkeun jukut jangkung 0.8–1.5 m; ajeg, rada kandel, dahan dina puhuna. Daunna ipis panjang, 30–50&nbsp;cm, 1–2&nbsp;cm rubakna, Rada kandel palebah puhu; [[ligule]]s teu aya; [[Leaf sheath|sheath]]s sollobong daun rata, remen katempo semu beureum ka palebah puhu; panjang gagang [[panicle]] 8–30&nbsp;cm, héjo atawa semu bungur, exerted, rada ngeluk, dahanna rapet, panjang dahan 5&nbsp;cm, ajeg aya ogé anu ngampar [[Sessility (botany)|sessile]]; Panjang ''spikelets'' 3–4&nbsp;mm, padet ngéntép dina dahan, lonyod/''ovoid'', remen panjang, héjo ngora nepika semu bungur, buluan pondok di sapanjang ''vena''; sajumpluk manjang, Aya anu jocong aya ogé anu ngeluk, anu pang handapna rada anggang, panjang kurang leiwih 10&nbsp;, sakapeung nyagak; kalawan buluan disaluareunna leuwih panjang ogé heuras dina palebah veins; kantétan ka hiji dua per lima na tina panjanh ''spikelet'', nyiku tilu, anu kadua sapanjang ''spikelet'', panutupna pondok; ''membran lemma'' steril, panjang 2–4&nbsp;atawa teu aya panutupna ;cm; ''lemma'' subur ''ovate-elips'', ''acute'', konéng ngora, hérang, lemes, panjang 3–3.5&nbsp;mm. Agustus – Oktober ; sikina arasak leuwih ti 40,000/tangkal. Var. ''crus-galli'' leuwih panjang, kembangna rada nyebar [[Papillosa]] [[silia]] di tungtung bukuna/ruas jeung puhu dahan, ''papillose cilia'' kandel jeung panjang, ''lema steril'', sakapeung loba nu nyebar, lemmas steril 0–10&nbsp;mm long.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Echinochloa_crusgalli.html |title = Echinochloa crusgalli}}</ref> ==Habitat == Gagajahan loba kapanggih hirup di [[Asia]] [[tropis]] jeung [[Afrika]] di pasawahan, sisi jalan, solokan, sapanjang jalur karéta api, sarta di wewengkon anu kaganggu kayaning lahan keusik jeung liang cai. Gagajahan ogé hirup di sisi [[susukan]], [[situ]], jeung [[balong]]. Kitu ogé di sakabeh daérah tatanén. Spésiés ieu digolakeun kana [[Gulma]] di [[Amérika Kalér ]] ieu tutuwuhan kapanggih meh di sakabéh [[benua Amérika Serikat]]. Kitu deui di kiduleun [[Kanada]] ti mimiti [[Kolumbia Britania Raya]] nepi ka wétan [[New Zealand]].<ref>http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Echinochloa+crusgalli{{Dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Map showing distribution</ref> Mimitina katémbong hirup di Great Lakes dina taun 1843.<ref>{{cite web |title= List of invasive species in the Great Lakes Great Lakes United / Union Saint-Grands Lacs |url= http://www.glu.org/en/node/199 |access-date= 2009-02-07 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090429205753/http://www.glu.org/en/node/199 |archive-date= 2009-04-29 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429205753/http://www.glu.org/en/node/199 |date=2009-04-29 }}</ref> ==Ékologi== Gagajahan hirup liar di iklim tropis, mikaresepna tempat anu baseuh nepika tempat jemlék. Gagajahan remen jadi [[Gulma]] utamana di pasawahan. Loba katempo hirup liar di sisi jalan, kokocoran [[cai]], tegalan baseuh, [[pabinihan]], jeung di [[sawah]]. Gagajahan bisa waé hirup dina cuaca tiis. Ngan bakal keuwih hadé hirupna dina suhu rata-rata 14–16&nbsp;°C. Henteu masalah jeung kadar haseumna taneuh/[[ pH taneuh]].<ref name="fao" /> ==Kagunaan == Gagajahan geus dimangpaatekun kurang leuwih saprak 4,500 taun anu kaliwat.<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> Mangsa usum [[halodo]] ieu jukut dimangpaatkeun pikeun parab ingon-ingon, Gagajahan bisa jadi sumber pakan héjo anu bisa nyukupan kabutuhan pakan sapanjang taun, ieu tutuwuhan bisa ditunda nepika 6 taun. Ieu jukut dimangpaatekun oke pikeun reklamasi/nyaeur daérah salinitas ogé taneuh [[alkaline]]/basa, utamana di [[Mesir]]. Ieu jukut ogé jadi sumber kadaharan sasatoan liar kayaning: [[kelenci]], [[uncal]], [[unggas]] cai, jeung réa-réa deui.<ref name="fao" /> Usum paceklik siki gagajahan bisa waé dimangpaatekun salaku tambahan bahan pangan, malah sakapeung aya anu ngamangpaatkeun pikeun ngaganti [[adas]] .<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Echinochloa_crusgalli.html | title=Echinochloa crusgalli }}</ref> Di [[Philipina]], akarna anu ngora sok digodog pikeun ngubaran gangguan padaharan. Saripati ieu tutuwuhan bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngubaran kasakit limpa/[[Kawaya]]. Di Jawa pucukna anu ngora dimangpaatkeun pikeun campuran sayuran. Di Koréa, [[DynastyJoseon]] ieu jukut ngahaja dipelak. Pamaréntahan [[Koréa selatan]] nyebutkeun cenah, ieu jukut sacara éféktif bisa nurunkeun gula darah jeuk kolésterol.<ref>http://m.yna.co.kr/amp/kr/contents/?cid=MYH20161109007600038{{dead link|date=July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> <Gallery> File:Echinochloa crus-galli 2006.08.27 15.00.13-p8270053.jpg File:Noordwijk - Europese hanenpoot (Echinochloa crus-galli).jpg File:Echinochloa crus-galli (3212255358).jpg File:Echinochloa crus-galli, hanenpoot.jpg File:Echinochloa crus-galli 15-p.bot-echi.crugal-23.jpg </Gallery> ==sinonim== * ''Digitaria hispidula'' (Retz.) Willd. * ''Echinochloa caudata'' Roshev. * ''Echinochloa commutata'' Schult. * ''Echinochloa crus-corvi'' (L.) P.Beauv. * ''Echinochloa crus-pavonis'' var. ''austrojaponensis'' (Ohwi) S.L.Dai * ''Echinochloa crus-pavonis'' var. ''breviseta'' (Döll) S.L.Dai * ''Echinochloa crus-pavonis'' var. ''praticola'' (Ohwi) S.L.Dai * ''Echinochloa disticha'' St.-Lag. nom. illeg. * ''Echinochloa dubia'' Roem. & Schult. * ''Echinochloa echinata'' (Willd.) Nakai * ''Echinochloa formosensis'' (Ohwi) S.L.Dai * ''Echinochloa glabrescens'' Kossenko * ''Echinochloa hispida'' (E.Forst.) Schult. * ''Echinochloa macrocarpa'' var. ''aristata'' Vasinger * ''Echinochloa macrocarpa'' var. ''mutica'' Vasinger * ''Echinochloa macrocorvi'' Nakai * ''Echinochloa madagascariensis'' Mez * ''Echinochloa micans'' Kossenko * ''Echinochloa muricata'' var. ''occidentalis'' Wiegand * ''Echinochloa occidentalis'' (Wiegand) Rydb. * ''Echinochloa paracorvi'' Nakai * ''Echinochloa persistentia'' Z.S.Diao * ''Echinochloa pungens'' var. ''occidentalis'' (Wiegand) Fernald & Griscom * ''Echinochloa spiralis'' Vasinger * ''Echinochloa zelayensis'' (Kunth) Schult. * ''Milium crus-galli'' (L.) Moench * ''Oplismenus crus-galli'' (L.) Dumort. * ''Oplismenus dubius'' (Roem. & Schult.) Kunth * ''Oplismenus echinatus'' (Willd.) Kunth * ''Oplismenus limosus'' J.Presl * ''Oplismenus zelayensis'' Kunth * ''Orthopogon crus-galli'' (L.) Spreng. * ''Orthopogon echinatus'' (Willd.) Spreng. * ''Panicum alectorocnemum'' St.-Lag. nom. illeg. * ''Panicum alectromerum'' Dulac nom. illeg. * ''Panicum corvi'' Thunb. nom. illeg. * ''Panicum corvipes'' Stokes nom. illeg. * ''Panicum cristagalli'' Gromov ex Trautv. * ''Panicum crus-galli'' L. * ''Panicum cruscorvi'' L. * ''Panicum echinatum'' Willd. * ''Panicum goiranii'' Rouy * ''Panicum grossum'' Salisb. nom. illeg. * ''Panicum hispidum'' G.Forst. * ''Panicum limosum'' J.Presl ex Nees * ''Panicum oryzetorum'' Sickenb. nom. illeg. * ''Panicum scindens'' Nees ex Steud. * ''Panicum zelayense'' (Kunth) Steud. * ''Pennisetum crus-galli'' (L.) Baumg. |synonyms_ref =<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-410191|title=Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. — The Plant List|website=www.theplantlist.org}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427133935/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-410191 |date=2023-04-27 }}</ref> |subdivision_ranks=Varieties |subdivision_ref=<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009">{{cite journal | last1=Purugganan | first1=Michael D. | last2=Fuller | first2=Dorian Q. | title=The nature of selection during plant domestication | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-02-12_457_7231/page/843 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | publisher=[[Nature Research]] | volume=457 | issue=7231 | year=2009 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/nature07895 | pages=843–848| pmid=19212403 | bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P | s2cid=205216444 }}</ref> |subdivision= * ''E. cg.'' var. ''utilis'' syn. [[Echinochloa esculenta|''E. esculenta'']] |}} {{Wikispecies}} {{Commons}} ==Dicutat Tina ==<!-- BiolConserv137:248. --> {{Reflist}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q163527}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Echinochloa Crus-Galli}} [[Kategori :Poaceae]] [[Kategori :Gulma]] [[Kategori :Tutuwuhan ubar ]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] ojdswgjxjcy28ocgqkqgie9jhxrwkcz Génom manusa 0 104712 712328 676118 2026-08-28T20:55:24Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Runtuyan asam nukléat pikeun manusa}} {{Infobox genome | image = Human karyotype with bands and sub-bands.png | caption = Skéma [[karyotipe]] diploid manusa, némbongkeun susunan/wangun/organisasi génom dina [[kromosom]], katut '[[Karyotipe#Tipe banding|pita]]' jeung 'sub-pita' [[G banding]]. Ieu gambar némbongkeun pasangan kromosom ka-23 pikeun awéwé (XX) jeung lalaki (XY). Parobahan kromosom nalika [[daur sél]] ditémbongkeun di luhur tengah. [[Genetika mitokondria manusa|Génom mitokondria]] ditémbongkeun di handap kénca.<br>| taxId = 51 | ploidy = diploid | chromosomes = 23 pasang | size = 3.117.275.501 pasang basa (pb)<ref>{{Cite web |title=T2T-CHM13v2.0 – Genome – Assembly – NCBI |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCF_009914755.1/#/st |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> <!-- (basepairs) per haploid genome (including Y and X chromosomes) and 16,569 bp in mtDNA<br /> 6,109,630,944 bp total (female diploid). --> }} '''Génom manusa''' nyaéta runtuyan asam nukléat [[manusa]] anu jejeg, minangka [[DNA]] dina 23 pasang [[kromosom]] dina [[inti sél]] jeung DNA sirkulér dina mitokondria, atawa katelah génom inti jeung génom mitokondria.<ref name="Brown">{{Cite book|coauthors=Brown TA|title=The Human Genome|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21134/|publisher=Wiley-Liss|language=en|date=2002|edition=2nd|location=Oxford}}</ref> Génom manusa ngawengku boh runtuyan DNA anu nyandi protéin jeung rupa-rupa DNA anu teu nyandi protéin. Anu panungtung bisa mangrupa DNA anu nyandi RNA husus sarupaning RNA ribosom, RNA transper, ribojim, RNA inti leutik, sarta sababaraha tipe [[RNA|RNA pangatur]] . Aya ogé anu kaasup promotor jeung unsur pangatur génna, DNA anu boga pancén dina pangaturan struktur jeung réplikasi kawas daérah parancah, telomér, séntromér, jeung asal-usul réplikasi. Nu teu éléh lobana nyaéta unsur transposabel, DNA [[virus]] nyelap, pseudogén non-pungsional, ulangan runtuyan, jeung [[intron]]. Génom manusa haploid, nu dikandung dina sél germinal (sél gamét [[endog]] jeung spérma nu dijieun dina pase méiosis réproduksi séksual saméméh [[Fértilisasi|pértilisasi]]) diwangun ku 3.054.815.472 pasangan basa [[DNA]] (lamun maké kromosom X),<ref name="Complete">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=April 2022|title=The complete sequence of a human genome|url=https://archive.org/details/science_2022-04-01_376_6588/page/44|journal=Science|volume=376|issue=6588|pages=44–53|bibcode=2022Sci...376...44N|doi=10.1126/science.abj6987|pmc=9186530|pmid=35357919|coauthors=Nurk S, Koren S, Rhie A, Rautiainen M, Bzikadze AV, Mikheenko A, Vollger MR, Altemose N, Uralsky L, Gershman A, Aganezov S, Hoyt SJ, Diekhans M, Logsdon GA, Alonge M, Antonarakis SE, Borchers M, Bouffard GG, Brooks SY, Caldas GV, Chen NC, Cheng H, Chin CS, Chow W, de Lima LG, Dishuck PC, Durbin R, Dvorkina T, Fiddes IT, Formenti G, Fulton RS, Fungtammasan A, Garrison E, Grady PG, Graves-Lindsay TA, Hall IM, Hansen NF, Hartley GA, Haukness M, Howe K, Hunkapiller MW, Jain C, Jain M, Jarvis ED, Kerpedjiev P, Kirsche M, Kolmogorov M, Korlach J, Kremitzki M, Li H, Maduro VV, Marschall T, McCartney AM, McDaniel J, Miller DE, Mullikin JC, Myers EW, Olson ND, Paten B, Peluso P, Pevzner PA, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Rogaev EI, Rosenfeld JA, Salzberg SL, Schneider VA, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shew CJ, Shumate A, Sims Y, Smit AF, Soto DC, Sović I, Storer JM, Streets A, Sullivan BA, Thibaud-Nissen F, Torrance J, Wagner J, Walenz BP, Wenger A, Wood JM, Xiao C, Yan SM, Young AC, Zarate S, Surti U, McCoy RC, Dennis MY, Alexandrov IA, Gerton JL, O'Neill RJ, Timp W, Zook JM, Schatz MC, Eichler EE, Miga KH, Phillippy AM}}</ref> anapon génom diploid awéwé (aya dina sél somatik) mibanda dua tikeleunana. Sanajan aya béda anu signifikan antara génom individu manusa (0,1% alatan varian nukléotida tunggal <ref name="nature.com">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=November 2012|title=An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes|journal=Nature|volume=491|issue=7422|pages=56–65|bibcode=2012Natur.491...56T|doi=10.1038/nature11632|pmc=3498066|pmid=23128226|coauthors=Abecasis GR, Auton A, Brooks LD, DePristo MA, Durbin RM, Handsaker RE, Kang HM, Marth GT, McVean GA}}</ref> jeung 0,6% lamun ngitung indel),<ref>{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=October 2015|title=A global reference for human genetic variation|journal=Nature|volume=526|issue=7571|pages=68–74|bibcode=2015Natur.526...68T|doi=10.1038/nature15393|pmc=4750478|pmid=26432245|coauthors=Auton A, Brooks LD, Durbin RM, Garrison EP, Kang HM, Korbel JO, Marchini JL, McCarthy S, McVean GA, Abecasis GR}}</ref> ieu kaitung leuwih saeutik batan béda antara manusa jeung baraya pangdeukeutna, bonobo jeung simpanse (~ 1,1% tetep varian nukléotida tunggal <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chimpanzee Sequencing Analysis Consortium|date=September 2005|title=Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2005-09-01_437_7055/page/69|journal=Nature|volume=437|issue=7055|pages=69–87|bibcode=2005Natur.437...69.|doi=10.1038/nature04072|pmid=16136131|archiveurl=free}}</ref> jeung 4% lamun kaasup indel).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 2005|title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack|journal=Genome Research|volume=15|issue=12|pages=1746–1758|doi=10.1101/gr.3737405|pmid=16339373|archiveurl=free|coauthors=Varki A, Altheide TK}}</ref> Ukuran pasang basa ogé bisa béda; panjang telomér ngurangan sanggeus unggal rintakan réplikasi DNA. Sanajan runtuyan génom manusa geus jejeg runtuyan DNAna taun 2022 (kaasup métilasi),<ref name="Complete">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=April 2022|title=The complete sequence of a human genome|journal=Science|volume=376|issue=6588|pages=44–53|bibcode=2022Sci...376...44N|doi=10.1126/science.abj6987|pmc=9186530|pmid=35357919|coauthors=Nurk S, Koren S, Rhie A, Rautiainen M, Bzikadze AV, Mikheenko A, Vollger MR, Altemose N, Uralsky L, Gershman A, Aganezov S, Hoyt SJ, Diekhans M, Logsdon GA, Alonge M, Antonarakis SE, Borchers M, Bouffard GG, Brooks SY, Caldas GV, Chen NC, Cheng H, Chin CS, Chow W, de Lima LG, Dishuck PC, Durbin R, Dvorkina T, Fiddes IT, Formenti G, Fulton RS, Fungtammasan A, Garrison E, Grady PG, Graves-Lindsay TA, Hall IM, Hansen NF, Hartley GA, Haukness M, Howe K, Hunkapiller MW, Jain C, Jain M, Jarvis ED, Kerpedjiev P, Kirsche M, Kolmogorov M, Korlach J, Kremitzki M, Li H, Maduro VV, Marschall T, McCartney AM, McDaniel J, Miller DE, Mullikin JC, Myers EW, Olson ND, Paten B, Peluso P, Pevzner PA, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Rogaev EI, Rosenfeld JA, Salzberg SL, Schneider VA, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shew CJ, Shumate A, Sims Y, Smit AF, Soto DC, Sović I, Storer JM, Streets A, Sullivan BA, Thibaud-Nissen F, Torrance J, Wagner J, Walenz BP, Wenger A, Wood JM, Xiao C, Yan SM, Young AC, Zarate S, Surti U, McCoy RC, Dennis MY, Alexandrov IA, Gerton JL, O'Neill RJ, Timp W, Zook JM, Schatz MC, Eichler EE, Miga KH, Phillippy AM}}</ref> angger can kaharti kabéh. Kaseueuran, tapi henteu sadayana, gen parantos diidentipikasi ku kombinasi pendekatan ékspérimén sareng bioinformatika throughput tinggi, tapi seueur padamelan anu masih kedah dilakukeun pikeun langkung ngajelaskeun fungsi biologis protéin sareng produk [[RNA]]na (khususna, anotasi CHM13v2 lengkep. .0 runtuyan masih lumangsung <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/annotation_euk/Homo_sapiens/110/|title=Homo sapiens Annotation Report|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=17 April 2022}}</ref> ). Sanajan kitu, gén tumpang tindihna cukup umum, dina sababaraha kasus ngamungkinkeun dua gén coding protéin ti unggal untaian ngagunakeun deui pasangan basa dua kali (contona, gén DCDC2 jeung KAAG1).<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 1999|title=Antisense translates into sense|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=190|issue=12|pages=1729–1732|doi=10.1084/jem.190.12.1729|pmc=2195709|pmid=10601348|coauthors=Peltz SW, Dougherty JP}}</ref> Hasil panganyarna nunjukkeun yén sabagéan ageung jumlah DNA noncoding dina génom gaduh kagiatan biokimiawi, kalebet pangaturan éksprési gen, organisasi arsitektur kromosom, sareng sinyal anu ngatur warisan épigénétik .{{Fact|date=April 2022}}</link> Aya ogé sajumlah signifikan retrovirus dina DNA manusa, sahenteuna 3 di antarana geus kabuktian mibanda hiji fungsi penting (ie, [[HIV]] -like HERV-K, HERV-W, sarta HERV-FRD maénkeun peran. dina formasi plasénta ku inducing fusi sél-sél). Taun 2021, para élmuwan ngalaporkeun urutan génom jejeg ti wanoja.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_009914755.3|title=CHM13 T2T v1.1 – Genome – Assembly – NCBI|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|accessdate=2021-07-26}}</ref> Runtuyan ieu ngidéntipikasi 19.969 sekuen panyandi [[protéin]], kira-kira 1.5% génom, sarta kabéhna 63.494 gén, anu lolobana mangrupa gén RNA non-nyandi.<ref name="Complete">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=April 2022|title=The complete sequence of a human genome|journal=Science|volume=376|issue=6588|pages=44–53|bibcode=2022Sci...376...44N|doi=10.1126/science.abj6987|pmc=9186530|pmid=35357919|coauthors=Nurk S, Koren S, Rhie A, Rautiainen M, Bzikadze AV, Mikheenko A, Vollger MR, Altemose N, Uralsky L, Gershman A, Aganezov S, Hoyt SJ, Diekhans M, Logsdon GA, Alonge M, Antonarakis SE, Borchers M, Bouffard GG, Brooks SY, Caldas GV, Chen NC, Cheng H, Chin CS, Chow W, de Lima LG, Dishuck PC, Durbin R, Dvorkina T, Fiddes IT, Formenti G, Fulton RS, Fungtammasan A, Garrison E, Grady PG, Graves-Lindsay TA, Hall IM, Hansen NF, Hartley GA, Haukness M, Howe K, Hunkapiller MW, Jain C, Jain M, Jarvis ED, Kerpedjiev P, Kirsche M, Kolmogorov M, Korlach J, Kremitzki M, Li H, Maduro VV, Marschall T, McCartney AM, McDaniel J, Miller DE, Mullikin JC, Myers EW, Olson ND, Paten B, Peluso P, Pevzner PA, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Rogaev EI, Rosenfeld JA, Salzberg SL, Schneider VA, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shew CJ, Shumate A, Sims Y, Smit AF, Soto DC, Sović I, Storer JM, Streets A, Sullivan BA, Thibaud-Nissen F, Torrance J, Wagner J, Walenz BP, Wenger A, Wood JM, Xiao C, Yan SM, Young AC, Zarate S, Surti U, McCoy RC, Dennis MY, Alexandrov IA, Gerton JL, O'Neill RJ, Timp W, Zook JM, Schatz MC, Eichler EE, Miga KH, Phillippy AM}}<cite class="citation journal cs1" data-ve-ignore="true" id="CITEREFNurkKorenRhieRautiainen2022">Nurk S, Koren S, Rhie A, Rautiainen M, Bzikadze AV, Mikheenko A, et&nbsp;al. </cite></ref> Génom diwangun ku runtuyan DNA pangaturan, LINE, SINE, intron, jeung sekuens anu can ditangtukeun pungsina. [[Kromosom Y|Kromosom Y manusa]], diwangun ku 62.460.029 pb ti garis sél anu béda, jejeg dibaca runtuyanana Januari 2022.<ref>{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=December 2022|title=The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome|url=http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2022.12.01.518724|language=en|doi=10.1101/2022.12.01.518724|coauthors=Rhie A, Nurk S, Cechova M, Hoyt SJ, Taylor DJ, Altemose N, Hook PW, Koren S, Rautiainen M, Alexandrov IA, Allen J, Asri M, Bzikadze AV, Chen N, Chin C, Diekhans M, Flicek P, Formenti G, Fungtammasan A, Giron CG, Garrison E, Gershman A, Gerton J, Grady PG, Guarracino A, Haggerty L, Halabian R, Hansen NF, Harris R, Hartley GA, Harvey WT, Haukness M, Heinz J, Hourlier T, Hubley RM, Hunt SE, Hwang S, Jain M, Kesharwani RK, Lewis AP, Li H, Logsdon GA, Lucas JK, Makalowski W, Markovic C, Martin FJ, Mc Cartney AM, McCoy RC, McDaniel J, McNulty BM, Medvedev P, Mikheenko A, Munson KM, Murphy TD, Olsen HE, Olson ND, Paulin LF, Porubsky D, Potapova T, Ryabov F, Salzberg SL, Sauria ME, Sedlazeck FJ, Shafin K, Shepelev VA, Shumate A, Storer JM, Surapaneni L, Taravella Oill AM, Thibaud-Nissen F, Timp W, Tomaszkiewicz M, Vollger MR, Walenz BP, Watwood AC, Weissensteiner MH, Wenger AM, Wilson MA, Zarate S, Zhu Y, Zook JM, Eichler EE, O'Neill R, Schatz MC, Miga KH, Makova KD, Phillippy AM}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rhie|first=Arang|last2=Nurk|first2=Sergey|last3=Cechova|first3=Monika|last4=Hoyt|first4=Savannah J.|last5=Taylor|first5=Dylan J.|last6=Altemose|first6=Nicolas|last7=Hook|first7=Paul W.|last8=Koren|first8=Sergey|last9=Rautiainen|first9=Mikko|date=2023-08-23|title=The complete sequence of a human Y chromosome|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06457-y|journal=Nature|language=en|pages=1–11|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06457-y|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Taun 2023, draf rujukan pan-genom manusa diwawarkeun<ref name="2023-human-pangenome-47">{{Cite journal|displayauthors=6|date=May 2023|title=A draft human pangenome reference|journal=Nature|volume=617|issue=7960|pages=312–324|bibcode=2023Natur.617..312L|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05896-x|pmc=10172123|pmid=37165242|coauthors=Liao WW, Asri M, Ebler J, Doerr D, Haukness M, Hickey G, Lu S, Lucas JK, Monlong J, Abel HJ, Buonaiuto S, Chang XH, Cheng H, Chu J, Colonna V, Eizenga JM, Feng X, Fischer C, Fulton RS, Garg S, Groza C, Guarracino A, Harvey WT, Heumos S, Howe K, Jain M, Lu TY, Markello C, Martin FJ, Mitchell MW, Munson KM, Mwaniki MN, Novak AM, Olsen HE, Pesout T, Porubsky D, Prins P, Sibbesen JA, Sirén J, Tomlinson C, Villani F, Vollger MR, Antonacci-Fulton LL, Baid G, Baker CA, Belyaeva A, Billis K, Carroll A, Chang PC, Cody S, Cook DE, Cook-Deegan RM, Cornejo OE, Diekhans M, Ebert P, Fairley S, Fedrigo O, Felsenfeld AL, Formenti G, Frankish A, Gao Y, Garrison NA, Giron CG, Green RE, Haggerty L, Hoekzema K, Hourlier T, Ji HP, Kenny EE, Koenig BA, Kolesnikov A, Korbel JO, Kordosky J, Koren S, Lee H, Lewis AP, Magalhães H, Marco-Sola S, Marijon P, McCartney A, McDaniel J, Mountcastle J, Nattestad M, Nurk S, Olson ND, Popejoy AB, Puiu D, Rautiainen M, Regier AA, Rhie A, Sacco S, Sanders AD, Schneider VA, Schultz BI, Shafin K, Smith MW, Sofia HJ, Abou Tayoun AN, Thibaud-Nissen F, Tricomi FF, Wagner J, Walenz B, Wood JM, Zimin AV, Bourque G, Chaisson MJ, Flicek P, Phillippy AM, Zook JM, Eichler EE, Haussler D, Wang T, Jarvis ED, Miga KH, Garrison E, Marschall T, Hall IM, Li H, Paten B}}</ref>, dusamar kana 47 génom ti rupa-rupa bangsa.<ref name="2023-human-pangenome-47" /> == Sékuénsing == [[Génom#Sékuénsing jeung pametaan|Sékuéns génom]] manusa munggaran dipublikasi [[Pébruari]] [[2001]] dina wangun drap ampir jejeg ku [[Human Genome Project|Proyék Génom Manusa]]<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.genome.gov/10002192 | title = International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium Publishes Sequence and Analysis of the Human Genome | work = National Human Genome Research Institute | publisher = National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources | date = 12 Pébruari 2001 }}</ref> and [[Celera Corporation]].<ref name="Celera2001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pennisi E | author-link = Elizabeth Pennisi | title = The human genome | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2001-02-16_291_5507/page/1177 | journal = Science | volume = 291 | issue = 5507 | pages = 1177–1180 | date = February 2001 | pmid = 11233420 | doi = 10.1126/science.291.5507.1177 | s2cid = 38355565 }}</ref> Tarékah pikeun sékuénsing jejeg Human Genome Project diwawarkeun taun [[2004]] ku medalna drap sékuéns génom, nyésakeun 341 karawang dina sékuénsna, anu dina jaman harita can aya téhnologina.<ref name="IHSGC2004" />. Taun 2018, génom ti leuwih ti sayuta manusa geus hasil ditangtukeun sékuénsna maké ''[[next-generation sequencing]]'' (NGS).<ref>{{cite magazine | vauthors = Molteni M | date=19 Nopémber 2018 | title=Now You Can Sequence Your Whole Genome For Just $200 | magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/whole-genome-sequencing-cost-200-dollars/}}</ref> Jumlah [[gén]] anu hasil ditangtukeun geus nepi ka 46.831,<ref>{{cite journal | journal= Science News | title=A recount of human genes ups the number to at least 46,831 | vauthors = Saey TH | date=17 Séptémber 2018| url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/recount-human-genes-ups-number-least-46831}}</ref> katambah 2.300 gén [[mikro-RNA]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Alles J, Fehlmann T, Fischer U, Backes C, Galata V, Minet M, Hart M, Abu-Halima M, Grässer FA, Lenhof HP, Keller A, Meese E | display-authors = 6 | title = An estimate of the total number of true human miRNAs | journal = Nucleic Acids Research | volume = 47 | issue = 7 | pages = 3353–3364 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30820533 | doi = 10.1093/nar/gkz097 | pmc = 6468295 }}</ref> Surpéy populasi taun 2018 manggihan 300 jutaan basa génom manusa anu can aya dina sékuéns rujukan.<ref name="divers">{{cite journal |journal=The Atlantic|title= 300 Million Letters of DNA Are Missing From the Human Genome | vauthors = Zhang S | date=28 Nopémber 2018}}</ref> <!--Prior to the acquisition of the full genome sequence, estimates of the number of human genes ranged from 50,000 to 140,000 (with occasional vagueness about whether these estimates included non-protein coding genes).<ref>{{cite news | title=Number of Human Genes Is Put at 140,000, a Significant Gain | date= 23 September 1999 | vauthors = Wade N | journal=The New York Times | url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/national/science/092399sci-human-genome.html}}</ref> As genome sequence quality and the methods for identifying protein-coding genes improved,<ref name="IHSGC2004">{{cite journal | author = International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium | title = Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome | journal = Nature | volume = 431 | issue = 7011 | pages = 931–945 | date = Oct 2004 | pmid = 15496913 | doi = 10.1038/nature03001 | bibcode = 2004Natur.431..931H | doi-access = free }}</ref> the count of recognized protein-coding genes dropped to 19,000–20,000.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ezkurdia I, Juan D, Rodriguez JM, Frankish A, Diekhans M, Harrow J, Vazquez J, Valencia A, Tress ML | title = Multiple evidence strands suggest that there may be as few as 19,000 human protein-coding genes | journal = Human Molecular Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 22 | pages = 5866–5878 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 24939910 | pmc = 4204768 | doi = 10.1093/hmg/ddu309 }}</ref> In June 2016, scientists formally announced [[Human Genome Project - Write|HGP-Write]], a plan to synthesize the human genome.<ref name="NYT-20160602">{{cite news | vauthors = Pollack A |title=Scientists Announce HGP-Write, Project to Synthesize the Human Genome |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/03/science/human-genome-project-write-synthetic-dna.html |date=2 June 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2 June 2016 }}</ref><ref name="SCI-20160602">{{cite journal | vauthors = Boeke JD, Church G, Hessel A, Kelley NJ, Arkin A, Cai Y, Carlson R, Chakravarti A, Cornish VW, Holt L, Isaacs FJ, Kuiken T, Lajoie M, Lessor T, Lunshof J, Maurano MT, Mitchell LA, Rine J, Rosser S, Sanjana NE, Silver PA, Valle D, Wang H, Way JC, Yang L | display-authors = 6 | title = The Genome Project-Write | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_science_2016-07-08_353_6295/page/126 | journal = Science | volume = 353 | issue = 6295 | pages = 126–127 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 27256881 | doi = 10.1126/science.aaf6850 | bibcode = 2016Sci...353..126B | s2cid = 206649424 }}</ref> In 2022 the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium reported the complete sequence of a human female genome,<ref name="Complete"/> filling all the gaps in the [[X chromosome]] (2020) and the 22 autosomes (May 2021).<ref name="Complete"/><ref name="NatureMile">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wrighton K | title = Filling in the gaps telomere to telomere |journal=Nature Milestones: Genomic Sequencing |date=February 2021 |page=S21 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d42859-020-00117-1}}</ref> The previously unsequenced parts contain [[immune response]] genes that help to adapt to and survive infections, as well as genes that are important for predicting [[drug response]].<ref name="cnn">{{cite web | url =https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/31/health/first-complete-human-genome-sequence/index.html |title=Scientists sequence the complete human genome for the first time|work=CNN| date=31 March 2022| accessdate =1 April 2022}}</ref> The completed human genome sequence will also provide better understanding of human formation as an individual organism and how humans vary both between each other and other species.<ref name="cnn"/>--> == Baca ogé == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * [[Organisasi Génom Manusa|Human Genome Organisation]] * [[Konsorsium Génom Rujukan|Genome Reference Consortium]] * [[Proyék Génom Manusa|Human Genome Project]] * [[Genetika]] * [[Genomika]] * [[Proyék Genographic]] * [[Organisasi génomik]] * [[Karyotype]] * [[Low copy repeats]] * [[Non-coding DNA]] * [[Whole genome sequencing]] * [[Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights]] {{div col end}} == Rujukan == {{reflist|30em}} == Tumbu éksternal == * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/gdv/browser/genome/?id=GCF_009914755.1 annotated (versi 110) génom panempo T2T-CHM13 v2.0] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCA_009914755.4 Génom manusa lengkep T2T-CHM13 v2.0 (henteu aya sela)] * [https://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/Location/Genome?db=core;g=ENSG00000139618;r=13:32315086-32400268 Ensembl] The Ensembl Genome Browser Proyék * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/gdv/?org=homo-sapiens&group=catarrhini Perpustakaan Nasional Kedokteran Genom Data Viewer (GDV)] * [https://genome.ucsc.edu/h/GCA_009914755.4 UCSC Genome Browser ngagunakeun T2T-CHM13 v2.0] * [https://www.uniprot.org/proteomes/UP000005640 Uniprot: per daptar gén kromosom] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130102065343/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml Proyék génom manusa] * [https://www.genome.gov/ National Human Genome Research Institute] * [https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/default.htm Kantor Nasional Genomics Kaséhatan Umum] * [https://grrreggg.github.io/gene/ Panempo Génom Asasi Manusa] {{genom manusa}} [[Kategori:Kromosom (manusa)]] [[Kategori:Épolusi manusa]] [[Kategori:Genetika manusa]] [[Kategori:Genomika]] eem3jfx6arbnmm0tjnhvtii8pe6wr8e Revolusi Héjo 0 104744 712432 661397 2026-08-28T23:21:50Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712432 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Revolusi Héjo''', atawa '''Revolusi Pertanian Katilu''', nya éta periode prakarsa alih téhnologi anu ngahasilkeun kanaékan signifikan dina produksi hasil tatanén.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ourworldindata.org/yields-vs-land-use-how-has-the-world-produced-enough-food-for-a-growing-population|title=Yields vs. Land Use: How the Green Revolution enabled us to feed a growing population|website=Our World in Data|accessdate=2022-11-28}}</ref> Parobihan téhnologi tatanén ieu dimimitian di [[Nagara maju|nagara-nagara maju]] dina awal abad ka-20 tuluy sumebar sacara global dugi ka ahir taun 1980-an.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hazell|first=Peter B.R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=frNfVx-KZOcC&pg=PA1|title=The Asian Green Revolution - IFPRI Discussion Paper|publisher=Intl Food Policy Res Inst|year=2009|id=GGKEY:HS2UT4LADZD}}</ref> Dina ahir taun 1960-an, para patani mimiti ngagunakeun téhnologi anyar saperti variétas séréal unggul, utamana [[Tarigu|gandum]] jeung [[béas]], sarta pamakéan [[Pupuk|pupuk kimia]] (pikeun ngahasilkeun luhur maranéhanana, kusabab binih anyar merlukeun pupuk anu jauh leuwih loba tibatan variétas tradisional), [[péstisida]], sareng [[irigasi]] anu dikontrol. Dina waktos anu sami, metode budidaya anu langkung énggal, kaasup [[Mékanisasi|mekanisasi]], diadopsi, sering janten prakték pikeun ngagentos téknologi tatanén tradisional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Farmer|first=B. H.|year=1986|title=Perspectives on the 'Green Revolution'in South Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_modern-asian-studies_1986-02_20_1/page/175|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=20|pages=175–199|doi=10.1017/s0026749x00013627}}</ref> Ieu sering dibarengan ku pinjaman anu sarat kana parobahan kawijakan anu dilakukeun ku [[Nagara ngembang|nagara-nagara berkembang]] anu ngadopsina, sapertos privatisasi pabrik sareng distribusi pupuk. [[Yayasan Ford]] jeung [[Yayasan Rockefeller]] loba aub dina pangwangunan awal di [[Méksiko]]. Pamingpin utama ieu révolusi nyaéta élmuwan [[Norman Borlaug]], "Bapak Révolusi Héjo", anu narima [[Hadiah Nobel]] dina taun 1970. Anjeunna dipuji sangkan nyalametkeun jutaan jelema tina kalaparan.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Easterbrook|first=Gregg|date=January 1997|title=Forgotten Benefactor of Humanity|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1997/01/forgotten-benefactor-of-humanity/306101/|work=[[The Atlantic]]|access-date=March 24, 2023}}</ref> Inohong ilmiah séjénna nyaéta [[Yuan Longping]], anu naliti varietas béas hibrida, ogé meunang pujian sangkan nyalametkeun hirup jalma sarua lobana. Pendekatan dasar anu dipaké nyaéta pengembangan séréal variétas unggul, panglegaan infrastruktur irigasi, modernisasi téknik manajemen, pupuk sintétis, jeung [[péstisida]] jang patani. Nalika hasil tatanén geus ngahontal hasil maksimum ngaliwatan pembibitan séléktif, modifikasi genetik dikembangkeun sangkan bisa ngarojong usaha anu tuluy lumangsung. ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Agroindustri]] 2it2sspzxpta5rkvoto4q190cwt3i6o Oray bedul 0 105230 712442 708023 2026-08-28T23:35:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712442 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Oray bedul | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref =<ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Ophiophagus hannah'' |author=Stuart, B. |author2=Wogan, G. |author3=Grismer, L. |author4=Auliya, M. |author5=Inger, R.F. |author6=Lilley, R. |author7=Chan-Ard, T. |author8=Thy, N. |author9=Nguyen, T.Q. |author10=Srinivasulu, C. |author11=Jelić, D. |date=2012 |page=e.T177540A1491874 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T177540A1491874.en |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> | status2 = CITES_A2 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref name=iucn/> | fossil_range = | image = Ophiophagus hannah2.jpg | image_caption = | image2 = | image2_caption = | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animalia]] | subregnum = | phylum = [[Chordata]] | subphylum = | superdivisio = | divisio = | subdivisio = | superclassis = | classis = [[Reptil|Reptilia]] | subclassis = | infraclassis = | subterclassis = | superordo = | ordo = [[Squamata]] | subordo = [[Ular|Serpentes]] | infraordo = | zoosectio = | superfamilia = | familia = [[Elapidae]] | subfamilia = [[Elapinae]] | supertribus = | tribus = | subtribus = | genus = '''''Ophiophagus''''' | species = '''''Ophiophagus hannah''''' | ordo_authority = | familia_authority = | genus_authority = [[Albert Günther|Günther]], 1864 | species_authority = [[Theodore Edward Cantor|Cantor]], 1836 |subdivision_ranks = |subdivision = | range_map = Distribution O. hannah.png | range_map_caption = {{legend|#c20000|border=1px solid #aaaaaa|Peta persebaran}} | range_map_alt = | type_genus = | type_genus_authority = | synonyms = Genus: * ''Hamadryas'' <small>Cantor, 1836 (''non'' [[Jacob Hübner|Hübner]], 1804: [[junior homonym|preoccupied]])</small> * ''Naja'' <small>Schlegel, 1837</small> | synonyms_ref = }} {{SpeciesTitle | main = ular Lanang | 1 = kobra raja | ref = <ref name="KBBID ular lanang">{{cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/{{urlencode: ular lanang|WIKI}}|title=Arti kata ular lanang|website=KBBI Daring|department=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kemendikbud|access-date=8 Desember 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318034442/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/ular_lanang |date=2022-03-18 }}</ref> }} '''Oray bedul'''; ''Ophiophagus hannah''; (Bahasa Inggris: '''''King cobra''''') nyaéta hiji [[spésiés]] oray anu peurahna matih kalawan pangawakanna panjang.<ref name="mehrtens">{{cite book |last=Mehrtens |first=J. |title=Living Snakes of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/livingsnakesofwo00mehr |url-access=registration |year=1987 |publisher=Sterling |location=New York |isbn=0-8069-6461-8 |chapter=King Cobra, Hamadryad (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |page=263–}}</ref> Ieu oray maneuh di sawaréh [[India]] nepi ka [[Asia Tenggara]].<ref name="mehrtens"/> Oray ieu mangrupakeun salahsahiji [[réptil]] nasional [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=King Cobra – National Reptile of India |url=http://www.indiamapped.com/national-symbols-of-india/national-reptile/ |publisher=indiamapped }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131517/http://www.indiamapped.com/national-symbols-of-india/national-reptile/ |date=2018-01-17 }}</ref> Ieu oray mibanda ngaran daérah kayaning : "''tedung selor''"; "''tedung selar''" (Melayu), sarta ''ula anang / dumung enthong'' (Jawa).<ref name=”Mar”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=uTKyDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14&dq=sato+sunda&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjo9P3M_JCGAxU6cGwGHVzeAr8Q6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=sato%20sunda&f=false| title =Venoms, Animal and Microbial Toxins, Volume IIMarc Sabatier, Herve Kovacic, Delavar Shahbazzadeh, Jing-Lin Wang, Zhijian Cao, Patrick Michael McNutt, Heike Wulff, Yuri N. Utkin| last =Marc Sabatier, Herve Kovacic, Delavar Shahbazzadeh, Jing-Lin Wang, Zhijian Cao, Patrick Michael McNutt, Heike Wulff, Yuri N. Utkin| first =Jean| publisher =Frontiers Media SA| location =Jakarta| year =2022|ISBN=9782832501146|pages =23}} Disungsi17 Mei 2024</ref> == Taksonomi == ''Hamadryas hannah'' téh ngaran ilmiah anu munggaran dipaké ku ''naturalis'' [[Theodore Edward Cantor]] dina tahun 1836 anu ngaguar 4 [[spésimén]] oray bedul, tilu spésimén dipibanda ti [[Sundarban]], India, sarta hiji spésimén dipibanda ti [[Kolkata]].<ref name=Cantor1836>{{Cite journal |last=Cantor |first=T. E. |year=1836 |title=Sketch of an undescribed hooded serpent, with fangs and maxillar teeth |journal=Asiatic Researches |volume= 19 |pages=87−93 |url=https://archive.org/stream/asiaticresearche181836cal#page/86/mode/2up}}</ref> Takson ''Naja bungarus'' diusulkeun ku [[Hermann Schlegel]] dina taun 1837 anu ngadéskripsikeun spésimén oray bedul ti [[Jawa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schlegel |first1=H. |year=1837 |title=Essai sur la physionomie des serpens |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Schonekat |pages=476 |chapter=Le Naja Bongare. ''N. bungarus'' |chapterurl=https://archive.org/details/essaisurlaphysio02schl/page/476}}</ref> Takson genus ''Ophiophagus'' diusulkan ku Albert Günther dina taun 1864.<ref>{{cite book |author=Günther, A. C. L. G. |year=1864 |title=The Reptiles of British India |publisher=Ray Society |location=London |chapter=''Ophiophagus'', Gthr. |pages=340−342 |chapterurl=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.42645/2015.42645.The-Reptiles-Of-British-India#page/n371/mode/2up}}</ref> Takson ieu dumasar kana kabiasaan oray sok ngahakan oray séjénna.<ref name="OSHEA">{{cite book|last= O'Shea|first= Mark|title= Venomous Snakes of the World|url= https://archive.org/details/venomoussnakesof0000oshe/page/96|url-access= registration|pages= [https://archive.org/details/venomoussnakesofewww0000oshe/page/96 96-97]|publisher= Princeton University Press|location= New Jersey, USA|isbn= 978-0-691-12436-0}}</ref> == Ciri mandiri== Panjang awak oray bedul téh ilaharna ti mimiti 3.18 nepi ka 4 méter. Spésimén pangpanjangna anu kungsi kapanggih tayalian 5.85 méter.<ref name="Chanhome2011">{{cite journal |author=Chanhome, L. |author2=Cox, M. J. |author3=Vasaruchapong, T. |author4=Chaiyabutr, N. |author5=Sitprija, V. |year=2011 |title=Characterization of venomous snakes of Thailand |journal=Asian Biomedicine 5 |issue=3 |pages=311–328}}</ref> Jaluna leuwih badag batan bikangna. Awak palebah luhurna ''(dorsal)'' kelirna [[zaitun]], [[coklat]] semu konéng, aya ogé kulawu, palebah huluna katempo kelirna leuwih béngras. Awak palebah handapna ''(ventral)'' kelirna kulawu nepika semu [[coklat]], palebah beuheungna semu konéng paselang jeung borontok hideung. Dina oray anu ngora kénéh, kelir awakna leuwih poék nepika semu hideung, kalawan paselang jeung belang-belang leutik kelir bodas atawa semu konéng. Sok sanajan kitu, ieu belang-belang téh masih kénéh katempo nepika mangsa déwasa, sanajan ngan saukur ngalangkang wungkul.<ref name="tweedie">Tweedie, M.W.F. 1983. ''The Snakes of Malaya''. The Singapore National Printers. Singapore. p.38.</ref><ref name="stuebing">Stuebing, R.B. & R.F. Inger. 1999. ''A Field Guide to The Snakes of Borneo''. Natural History Publications (Borneo). Kota Kinabalu. p. 199-201. ISBN 983-812-031-6</ref> Hulu oray bedul ukuranna kawilang badag teu pati monyong tur katempo bentelu. henteu kawas oray séjéna, di satukangeun sisit palebah embun-embunna mibanda sapasang ''perisai oksipital'' ukuranna gedé. ''Perisai labial'' (biwir) lobana 7 siki, sawaréh nepi ka palebah panonna. ''Pupil'' matana buleud tur gedé. Sisit-sisit ''dorsal'' aya 15 jajar di tengah awakna. Sisit ''ventral'' lobana 215 nepi ka 262 siki. Sisit ''anal'' nunggal, sisit-sisit ''subkaudal'' lobana 80 nepi ka 120 buah, sawaréhna ngawangun sisit nunggal sawaréhna mangrupa sisit anu papasangan.<ref name="tweedie"/> == Sebaran jeung ékologi == Oray bedul loba kapanggih hirup di sawaréh [[India]] (Maharashtra, Karnataka (Dandeli), Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Bengal kulon, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, sarta [[Kapulauan Andaman]]), [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Bangladésh]], [[Myanmar]], [[Tiongkok|Cina]] (Fukien, Kwangtung, Hong Kong, Kwangsi, Hainan, Yunnan, SW Sichuan, Tibet), [[Laos]], [[Viétnam]], [[Kamboja]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapura]], [[Indonésia]] ([[Sumatra]], Kapuloan. [[Mentawai]], [[Riau]], [[Bangka]]-Belitung, [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Kalimantan]]), jeung [[philipina]] (Balabac, Jolo, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Cebu, Bohol, Samar).<ref name=NRDB/> Oray bedul hirup di daérah landeuh nepi ka tonggohna 1800 méter dpl. Habitat utamana ngalimpudan [[leuweung]], [[rawa]]-rawa, sabangsaning rungkun, [[kebon]] jeung [[sawah]], malahan sakapeung kapanggih hirup di sabudeuren imah. Ieu oray ilaharna nyayang ngaliang di jero [[taneuh]], tumpukan batu, rungkun anu hieum, aya ogé dina sela-sela akar tatangkalan.<ref name="david">David, P and G. Vogel. 1996. ''The Snakes of Sumatra. An annotated checklist and key with natural history.'' Edition Chimaira. Frankfurt. p.148-149. ISBN 3-930612-08-9</ref> Oray bedul utamana mikaresep tempat saperti kebon [[awi]] jeung leuweung [[babakoan]].<ref>[https://www.aboutanimals.com/reptile/king-cobra/ About Animal: King Cobra]</ref> == Kabiasaan hirup== Oray bedul dipikanyaho salaku sato ''diurnal'' tayalian ngider unggal poé, sanjan kitu ari peuting mah ieu oray téh arang ka panggih ngider.<ref name="mehrtens"/> === Kahakanan === Oray bedul geus kasohor salaku oray anu sok ngahakan oray séjén, kaasup oray anu mibanda peurah. Spésiés oray anu sok dihakan ku oray bedul kayaning [[kobra India]], [[krait]], [[oray beurit]], ''[[Rhabdophis]]'', [[oray cai]], malahan ngakan anak oray [[sanca]].<ref name=Wall1924>{{cite journal |author=Wall, F. |year=1924 |title=The Hamadryad or King Cobra ''Naja hannah'' (Cantor) |journal=The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=189–195 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalof301219241925bomb/page/n271}}</ref> sagigireun ngakan oray séjén, oray bedul ogé sok ngahakan rupa-rupa [[kadal]], [[beurit]], sarta [[manuk]]. Sabada ngakan mangsa anu kawilang gedé, ieu oray bisa hirup sababara bulan kahareup bari jeung teu baranghakan. Ieu ku ayana ''metabolisme'' dina awakna anu ngendoran/ngalilaan.<ref name="mehrtens"/><ref name="coborn">{{cite book |last=Coborn |first=J. |title=The Atlas of Snakes of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofsnakesofw0000cobo |publisher=TFH Publications |year=1991 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/atlasofsnakesofw0000cobo/page/30 30], 452 |isbn=978-0-86622-749-0}}</ref> === Pertahanan diri === Oray bedul dianggap henteu ''agresif''.<ref name="tweedie"/> Ilaharna bakal nyingkah lamun ngarasa ka ganggu, tapi kanyhoan bakal ''agresif'' mangsa keur ngajaga sayang jeung endogna. Mangsa keur ngarasa kaancam, ieu oray bris campego/ngangkat huluna nepi ka kawas nangtung, beuheugna ngarubakan kawas séndok kawas [[kobra]], disada ngajéos bari jeung nembongkeun sihungna. Mangsa macok, ieu oray bakal nahan pacokanna bari ngégél salila dalapan menit.<ref name=Wall1924/> === Baranahan=== Oray bedul mangsa baranahan sok nyieun [[sayang]] tina tumpukan daun garing, ilaharna di kebon [[awi]] (numpukeun daun awi garing).<ref name=Whitaker_al2013>{{cite journal |author1=Whitaker, N. |author2=Shankar, P. G. |author3=Whitaker, R. |year=2013 |title=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in India |journal=Hamadryad |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=101–107 |url=http://www.academia.edu/download/32064158/Whitaker_et_al_Nesting_Ecology_of_the_King_Cobra_(Ophiophagus_hannah)_in_India.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Pranala mati|date=Januari 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[https://www.riverbanks.org/animals/arc/king-cobra King Cobra :: Riverbanks Zoo & Garden<!-- Judul yang dihasilkan bot -->]</ref> [[Sayang]]na ditempatkeun dina handapeun tatangkalan, ngagunduk nepika jangkungna 55&nbsp;cm (0.55 méter) rubakna nepi ka 140&nbsp;cm (1.4 méter) pada bagian dasarnya. Sayang ieu sahenteuna aya sarohangan pikeun oray ngendog ''(ovipar)''.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hrima, V. L. |author2=Sailo, V. H. |author3=Fanai, Z. |author4=Lalronunga, S. |author5=Lalrinchhana, C. |year=2014 |chapter=Nesting ecology of the King Cobra, ''Ophiophagus hannah'', (Reptilia: Squamata: Elapidae) in Aizawl District, Mizoram, India |title=Issues and Trends of Wildlife Conservation in Northeast India |pages=268–274 |publisher=Mizo Academy of Sciences |location=Aizawl |editor1=Lalnuntluanga |editor2=Zothanzama, J. |editor3=Lalramliana |editor4=Lalduhthlana |editor5=Lalremsanga, H. T. |isbn=9788192432175 |chapterurl=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263008786}}</ref> Lobana endog oray bedul timimiti 7 nepi ka 43 siki, kalayan 6 nepika 38 siki bisa mengar sabada si sileungleuman 66 nepi ka 105 poé. ''Temperatur'' di jero sayang gumantung kana ''élevasina'' mimiti 13.5 nepi ka 37.4&nbsp;°C. Oray anu bikangna baris ngajaga sayangna salila dua nepi ka 77 poé. Anak oray anu kakara megar mibanda panjang awakna kurang leuwih 37.5 nepi ka 58.5&nbsp;cm tur beuratna ti 9 nepi ka 38 gram.<ref name=Whitaker_al2013/> == Galeri == <gallery mode=packed heights=135px> Image:Ophiophagus hannah2.jpg|Ular jaluna mébér Beuheungna Image:KingCobra01.jpg|''Close-up'' huluna Image:King-Cobra.jpg Image:12 - The Mystical King Cobra and Coffee Forests.jpg Image:All Snake, No Vestiage of Beginning, No Prospect of an End (2812436637).jpg|Pangawakanna Image:Baby king cobra front view.JPG|Oray ngora Image:Baby king cobra neck pattern.JPG|Ditempo ti tukang Image:Ular anang Ophiophagus hannah Bandung Zoo.jpg|Ular jaluna, spésimén di [[Kebon Binatang Bandung]], [[Jawa Kulon]] Image:Ophiophagus hannah Genève 24102014 1.jpg|Ular jaluna, spésimén di paméran Reptiles du Monde, Palexpo, [[Geneva]] 2014 Image:Ophiophagus hannah (1).jpg Image:King Cobra 045.jpg </gallery> == Peurah == Oray bedul ieu kagolongkeun oray sendok anu mibanda peurah. Peurahna mibanda ''[[sitotoksisitas|sitotoksin]]'' jeung ''[[neurotoksin]]'', kaasup dijerona ''alfa-neurotoksin sarta'' ''Three-finger toxin''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chang, L.-S. |author2=Liou, J.-C. |author3=Lin, S.-R. |author4=Huang, H.-B. |pmid=12056805 |year=2002 |title=Purification and characterization of a neurotoxin from the venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemical-and-biophysical-research-comms_2002-06-14_294_3/page/574 |volume=294 |issue=3 |pages=574–578 |doi=10.1016/S0006-291X(02)00518-1 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=He, Y. Y. |author2=Lee, W. H. |author3=Zhang, Y. |year=2004 |title=Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_toxicon_2004-09-01_44_3/page/295 |journal=Toxicon |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=295–303 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.06.003|pmid=15302536 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Li, J. |author2=Zhang, H. |author3=Liu, J. |author4=Xu, K. |year=2006 |title=Novel genes encoding six kinds of three-finger toxins in ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (king cobra) and function characterization of two recombinant long-chain neurotoxins |journal=Biochemical Journal |volume=398 |issue=2 |pages=233–342 |doi=10.1042/BJ20060004|pmid=16689684 |pmc=1550305 }}</ref><ref name="HT">{{cite journal |pmid=20071329 |title=Structural and Functional Characterization of a Novel Homodimeric Three-finger Neurotoxin from the Venom of ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biological-chemistry_2010-03-12_285_11/page/8302 |year=2010 |last1=Roy |first1=A. |last2=Zhou |first2=X. |last3=Chong |first3=M. Z. |last4=d'Hoedt |first4=D. |last5=Foo |first5=C. S. |last6=Rajagopalan |first6=N. |last7=Nirthanan |first7=S. |last8=Bertrand |first8=D. |last9=Sivaraman |first9=J. |volume=285 |issue=11 |pages=8302–8315 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M109.074161 |pmc=2832981 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |last10=Kini|first10=R. M.}}</ref> Kandungan peurah séjéna baris ngabalukarkeun ''[[kardiomiopati|kardiotoksin]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rajagopalan, N. |author2=Pung, Y. F. |author3=Zhu, Y. Z. |author4=Wong, P. T. H. |author5=Kumar, P. P. |author6=Kini, R. M. |title=β-Cardiotoxin: A new three-finger toxin from ''Ophiophagus hannah'' (King Cobra) venom with beta-blocker activity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_faseb-journal_2007-11_21_13/page/3685 |doi=10.1096/fj.07-8658com |year=2007 |journal=The FASEB Journal |volume=21 |issue=13 |pages=3685–3695 |pmid=17616557}}</ref> Peurah oray ieu bisa ngabalukarkeun kana sistem saraf korban anu dipacok, baris ngarasa kacida nyeri, tetempoan ranyany (''blurred vision''), ''vertigo'', tunduh, jeung ''[[paralisis]]''. Korban baris tilar dunya dina waktu 30 menit sabada di pacok.<ref name=Tin-MyintMyint_al1991>{{Cite journal |author=Tin-Myint |author2=Rai-Mra |author3=Maung-Chit |author4=Tun-Pe |author5=Warrell, D. |title=Bites by the king cobra (''Ophiophagus hannah'') in Myanmar: Successful treatment of severe neurotoxic envenoming |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Medicine |volume=80 |issue=293 |pages=751–762 |year=1991 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.qjmed.a068624 |pmid=1754675 }}</ref> == Dicutat tina == {{reflist|2}} == Tutumbu kaluar== * Cantor, 1836 : ''Sketch of undescribed hooded serpent with fangs and maxillar teeth. '' Asiatic Researches, Calcutta, , {{p.|87-94}}. * Günther, 1864 : ''The reptiles of British India.'' {{p.|1-452}} ([https://archive.org/details/reptilesofbritis00gn lihat teks]). ---- * {{ITIS|id=700646|taxon=''Ophiophagus hannah'' (Cantor, 1836)}} * {{NRDB species|genus=Ophiophagus|species=hannah}} * [http://ularindonesian.blogspot.com Ular Asli Indonesia]: [http://ularindonesian.blogspot.com/p/ophiophagus-hannah.html Ular anang] * [https://www.thailandsnakes.com/cobras/king-cobra-venomous-deadly/ ''Ophiophagus hannah'' Research and Information] * [https://reptilepark.com.au/animals/reptiles/snakes/exotic-snakes/king-cobra/ Australian Reptile Park: King Cobra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207095415/https://reptilepark.com.au/animals/reptiles/snakes/exotic-snakes/king-cobra/ |date=2020-02-07 }} * [https://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/reptiles/snakes/kingcobra King Cobra | Saint Louis Zoo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526152905/https://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/reptiles/snakes/kingcobra |date=2022-05-26 }} * [https://www.riverbanks.org/animals/arc/king-cobra King Cobra | Riverbanks Zoo & Garden] {{Taxonbar|from=Q48186}} [[Kategori:Squamata]] qexu23x2o7idl1eezrrfwuerufrpxs7 Taksonomi (biologi) 0 105331 712393 711745 2026-08-28T22:29:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712393 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width: 22em; font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaa; padding: 0.2em; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em;" |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; background: #ccf;" | Taksonomi |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip nij.svg|220px]]<br /><small>Hierarki klasifikasi biologis.</small> |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Widang élmu | [[Biologi]], [[Sistematika]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Objék | Organisme (Hirup & Fosil) |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Konsep konci | [[Takson]], [[Klasifikasi ilmiah]], [[Nomenklatur]] |- ! scope="row" style="text-align: left; background: #ddf;" | Inohong | [[Carl Linnaeus]], [[A.P. de Candolle]] |- ! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: #ccf;" | Tingkatan Takson |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | * [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] * [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]] * [[Filum]] / [[Divisi (biologi)|Divisi]] * [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]] * [[Ordo (biologi)|Ordo]] * [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]] * [[Marga (biologi)|Marga]] * [[Spésiés]] |} '''Taksonomi (biologi)''' nyaéta élmu pangaweruh anu maluruh ngeunaan tata ngaran papasingan (klasifikasi), sarta idéntifikasi [[organismeu]] dumasar kana kasarimbagan ciri-cirina. Dina sistem ieu, organismeu digolongkeun kana sababaraha tingkatan anu disebut [[taksa]] (tunggal: [[takson]]). Organismeu disusun sacara ngaruntuy (hirarki) ti mimiti tingkatan anu paling umum nepi ka anu paling spésifik. Ku ayana ieu hirarki, unggal golongan taksonomi; grup tina pangkat nu tangtu bisa dikumpulkeun pikeun ngabentuk grup anu undakanna leuwih luhur sarta ''inklusif'', sahingga nyiptakeun rundayan/''hirarki'' taksonomi. Rundayan poko dina pamakéan modérn nyaéta: * ''[[Domain]]'' * [[Karajaan]] * ''[[Filum]]'' (pikeun sato) atawa [[Divisi]] (pikeun tutuwuhan), * [[Kelas]], * ''[[Ordo]]'' * [[Kulawarga]] * ''[[Génus]]'' * [[Spésiés]] Ahli botani ti [[Swédia]], [[Carl Linnaeus]] dianggap salaku anu mitembeyan dina ngadegkeun sistem taksonomi nu aya kiwari, sakumaha anjeunna ngembangkeun sistem réngking nu katelah ''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'' pikeun ngategorikeun organismeu, sarta sistem tata ngaran [[binomial nomenklatur]] pikeun méré ngaran ilmiah ka mahluk hirup. Balukarna ayana kamajuan dina téori, data, sareng téknologi ''analitik sistematika biologis'', sistem Linnaéan téh kiwari geus mekar jadi ''sistem klasifikasi biologis'' modérn, Ieu sistem anyar miboga tujuan pikeun nembongkeun hubungan [[évolusi]] di antara rupa-rupa organismeu, boh nu masih hirup boh anu geus tumpur. Wangenan (définisi) ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama, nyaéta: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] (klasifikasi) golongan organismeu. == Harti taxonomi == Wangenan définisi ngeunaan taksonomi téh mémang béda-béda gumantung kana sumberna. Sanajan kitu, dina prak-prakanna mah ieu élmu téh tetep museur kana tilu hal utama: [[konsép]], [[tata ngaran]], sarta [[papasingan]] ngaklasifikasikeun golongan organismeu.<ref name="Wilkins2011">{{Cite web |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |date=5 February 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 |access-date=21 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Salaku bahan babandingan, ieu di handap aya sababaraha wangenan panganyarna ngeunaan taksonom taksonomi saperti handap ieu: # Téori sarta prakték dina ngagolongkeun individu kana tingkatan spésiés, nu tuluy disusun jadi kelompok anu leuwih gedé, sarta dibéré ngaran éta grup, sahingga ngahasilkeun klasifikasi anu jéntré.<ref name="Judd">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach |last1=Judd |first1=W. S. |last2=Campbell |first2=C. S. |last3=Kellogg |first3=E. A. |last4=Stevens |first4=P. F. |last5=Donoghue |first5=M. J. |date=2007 |publisher=Sinauer Associates |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland |chapter=Taxonomy}}</ref> # Hiji widang élmu (sarta komponén utama [[sistematika]]) anu ngawengku katerangan, idéntifikasi, [[tata ngaran]], jeung klasifikasi<ref name="Simpson">{{Cite book |title=Plant Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0000simp |last=Simpson |first=Michael G. |date=2010 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=9780123743800 |edition=2nd |chapter=Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview}}</ref> # Élmu klasifikasi, dina susunan organismeu biologi kana hiji klasifikasi.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kirk |editor-first1=P. M. |editor-last2=Cannon |editor-first2=P. F. |editor-last3=Minter |editor-first3=D. W. |editor-last4=Stalpers |editor-first4=J. A. |date=2008 |chapter=Taxonomy |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |edition=10th |publisher=CABI}}</ref> # "Élmu klasifikasi sakumaha dilarapkeun ka organismeu hirup, kaasup élmu ngeunaan cara ''formasi'' spésiés, jsb."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology |date=1988 |publisher=W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Walker |editor-first=P. M. B.}}</ref> # "Analisis karakteristik hiji organismeu pikeun tujuan klasifikasi"<ref name="Henderson">{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-PLgy6DWe0wC |title=Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology |last=Lawrence |first=E. |date=2005 |publisher=Pearson/Prentice Hall |isbn=9780131273849}}</ref> # "Studi sistimatika [[filogéni]] pikeun nyadiakeun pola nu bisa ditarjamahkeun kana klasifikasi jeung ngaran widang taksonomi nu leuwih inklusif" (didaptarkeun salaku harti nu dipikahoyong tapi teu ilahar)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=Quentin D. |title=Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny |date=2004 |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |editor1-first=H. C. J. |editor1-last=Godfray |editor2-first=S. |editor2-last=Knapp |volume=359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century |pages=571–583 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2003.1452 |pmc=1693342 |pmid=15253345 |author-link=Quentin D. Wheeler |issue=1444}}</ref> Watesan anu rupa-rupa boh nempatkeun taksonomi salaku sub-wewengkon sistematika (harti 2), balikkeun éta hubungan (harti 6), atawa sigana nganggap dua istilah sinonim. Aya sababaraha kaayaan teu satuju naha ''[[nomenclature biologis]]'' dianggap bagian tina taksonomi (definisi 1 jeung 2), atawa bagian tina sistematika luar taksonomi.<ref name="Herbarium">{{Cite web |title=Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy |url= http://herbarium.usu.edu:80/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |date=2005 |website=Intermountain Herbarium |publisher=Utah State University |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161123030604/http://herbarium.usu.edu/teaching/4420/botnom.htm |archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent">{{cite book |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |title=The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature |date=3 August 2023 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=9781003092827 |pages=xv + 209 |doi=10.1201/9781003092827 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=5 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230905140719/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.1201/9781003092827/advent-phylocode-michel-laurin |url-status=live }}</ref> Salaku conto, harti 6 dipasangkeun jeung harti sistematika handap nu nempatkeun tata ngaran luar taksonomi:<ref name="Henderson" /> * ''Sistimétika'': "Ulikan ngeunaan idéntifikasi, taksonomi, jeung tata ngaran organisme, kaasup klasifikasi mahluk hirup nu patali jeung hubungan alam maranéhanana sarta ulikan ngeunaan variasi jeung évolusi taksa". Dina taun 1970, Michener '' jeung nu lian.'' ngadéfinisikeun "biologi sistimatis" jeung "taksonomi" (istilah anu mindeng bingung tur dipaké silih tukeur) patalina jeung nu séjénna saperti ieu di handap:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michener |first1=Charles D. |first2=John O. |last2=Corliss |first3=Richard S. |last3=Cowan |first4=Peter H. |last4=Raven |first5=Curtis W. |last5=Sabrosky |first6=Donald S. |last6=Squires |first7=G. W. |last7=Wharton |date=1970 |title=Systematics In Support of Biological Research |publisher=Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council |location=Washington, DC}}</ref> <blockquote> sistimatis biologi (engkéna disebut saukur sistematika) nyaéta widang anu: (a) nyadiakeun ngaran ilmiah pikeun organismeu, (b) ngajelaskeun aranjeunna, (c) ngawétkeun koléksi aranjeunna, (d) nyadiakeun klasifikasi pikeun organismeu, konci pikeun idéntifikasi maranéhanana, sarta data ngeunaan sebaran maranéhanana, (é) nalungtik sajarah évolusionér maranéhna, jeung (f) tinimbangan adaptasi lingkungan maranéhanana. Ieu mangrupikeun kaayaan anu gaduh sajarah panjang anu dina taun-taun ayeuna parantos ngalaman ronjotan anu kasohor, utamana ngeunaan eusi téoritis. Bagian tina bahan téoritis aya hubunganana sareng daérah évolusionér (jéjér é sareng f di luhur), sésana patali utamana jeung masalah klasifikasi. Taksonomi nyaéta bagian tina Sistematika anu patali jeung jejer (a) nepi ka (d) di luhur. </blockquote> Sakabeh sét istilah kaasup taksonomi, biologi sistimatis, [[sistematika]], klasifikasi ilmiah, klasifikasi biologis, jeung [[filogenetik]] sakapeung mibanda maksud anu papalimpang– sakapeung sarua, sakapeung beda saeutik, ngan sok pacorok.<ref name="Wilkins2011" /><ref name="Small1989">{{Cite journal |last=Small |first=Ernest |date=1989 |title=Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy) |journal=Taxon |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=335–356 |doi=10.2307/1222265 |jstor=1222265}}</ref> Harti anupang legana "taksonomi" dipaké didieu. Istilah ieu di tepangkeun dina taun 1813 ku [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|de Candolle]], dina milikna ''[[Théorie élémentaire de la botanique]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA20 |title=Plant systematics: An integrated approach |last=Singh |first=Gurcharan |date=2004 |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=9781578083510 |page=20 |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[John Lindley]] disadiakeun définisi awal sistematika dina taun 1830, sanajan manéhna nulis ngeunaan "sistematis botani" tinimbang ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika".<ref>{{cite web |last=Wilkins |first=J. S. |url=http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |title=What is systematics and what is taxonomy? |work=EvolvingThoughts.net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/ |date=27 August 2016 }}</ref> Urang Éropa resep ngagunakeun istilah "sistematika" jeung "biosistematika" pikeun ulikan ngeunaan ''biodiversity'' sacara gembleng, sedengkeun Amérika Kalér leuwih remen ngagunakeun "taksonomi".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brusca |first1=R. C. |last2=Brusca |first2=G. J. |date=2003 |title=Invertebrates |url=https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus |edition=2nd |location=Sunderland, Massachusetts |publisher=Sinauer Associates |page=[https://archive.org/details/invertebrates0002brus/page/27 27]}}</ref> Tapi, taksonomi, sareng hususna ''[[taksonomi alfa]]'', langkung spésifikna idéntifikasi, déskripsi, sareng nami (nyaéta, nomenklatur/tata ngaran) organismeu.<ref name="Fortey">{{Cite book |last=Fortey |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Fortey |date=2008 |title=Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum |url=https://archive.org/details/drystoreroomno1s0000fort |location=London |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=9780007209897}}</ref> Sedengkeun "klasifikasi" museurkeun kana nempatkeun organismeu dina grup hirarki anu némbongkeun hubungan maranéhanana jeung organismeu séjén. === Monograf jeung révisi taksonomi === Hiji '''révisi taksonomi''' atawa '''résénsi taksonomi''' mangrupa pedaran analisis ngeunaan pola variasi dina [[takson]] anu tinangtu. Analisis ieu tiasa dilaksanakeun dumasar kana kombinasi naon waé tina sababaraha jinis karakter anu sayogi, sapertos [[morfologis]], [[anatomi]], [[palinologis]], [[biokimia]] sareng [[génetik]]. [[monograf]] atanapi révisi lengkep nyaéta révisi anu kompréhénsif keur takson pikeun inpormasi anu dipasihkeun dina waktos anu tangtu, sareng pikeun sakuliah dunya. Révisi séjén (parsial) bisa diwatesan dina harti yén maranéhna ngan bisa ngagunakeun sababaraha sét karakter sadia atawa boga wates wengkuan husus. Révisi ngahasilkeun konformasi atanapi wawasan anyar dina hubungan antara subtaksa dina takson anu ditalungtik, nu bisa ngakibatkeun parobahan dina klasifikasi subtaxa ieu, idéntifikasi subtaxa anyar, atawa ngahiji tina subtaxa saméméhna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maxted |first=Nigel |date=1992 |title=Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology |url=https://archive.org/details/taxon_1992-11_41_4/page/653 |journal=Taxon |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=653–660 |doi=10.2307/1222391 |jstor=1222391}}</ref> === Aksara taksonomi === Karakter taksonomi nyaéta mangrupa ''atribut taksonomi'' anu bisa dipaké pikeun méré bukti di mana hubungan ([[filogéni]]) antara taksa dipuguhkeun.<ref name="Hennig 1965">{{cite journal |last1=Hennig |first1=Willi |title=Phylogenetic Systematics |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=January 1965 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=97–116 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |issn=0066-4170 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101423/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1991 |title=Principles of Systematic Zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofsyst0000mayr_s2i3/page/159 159]}}</ref> Jinis karakter taksonomi ngawengku:<ref>Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162.</ref> {{div col|colwidth=35em}} * [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] Karakter; ciri mandiri ** Umum éksternal [[Morfologis (biologi)|Morfologis]] ** Struktur husus (misalna., [[alat sanggama]]) ** Morfologi internal ([[anatomi]]) ** [[Émbriologi]] ** [[Karyologi]] jeung lianna ''[[cytological]]'' ''faktor'' * [[Fisiologis]] karakter ** [[paktor métabolik]] ** sékrési awak ** ''Faktor'' sterility gén * [[Molekul]] karakter ** Jarak imunologis ** Béda éléktroforétik ** Runtuyan protéin asam amino ** DNA ''hibridisasi'' ** Runtuyan DNA jeung RNA ** Watesan ''endonuclease'' nganalisa ** Bédana molekular séjén * ''[[Behavioral]]'' karakter ** Tatacara jeung mékanismeu isolasi ''ethological'' séjén ** Pola kabiasaan séjén * ''[[Ecological]]'' karakter ** Kabiasaan jeung habitat ** Kadaharan ** Robahna usum-usuman ** Sabangsaning parasit * [[Géografis]] karakter ** Umum ''[[biogeographic distribution]]'' pola ** hubungan populasi [[Simpatric]]-[[allopatric]] {{div col end}} === Alfa jeung béta taksonomi === {{distinguish|Alpha diversity}} Syaratna "'''taksonomi alfa'''" utamana dipaké pikeun ngarujuk kana disiplin tatacarana manggihan, ngajéntrékeun, jeung ngaranan [[taxa]]na, spésiés utamana .<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Dina litelatur saméméhna, istilah éta miboga harti anu béda, jeung produk panalungtikan nepi ka ahir abad ka-19.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rosselló-Mora |first1=Ramon |last2=Amann |first2=Rudolf |date=1 January 2001 |title=The species concept for prokaryotes |journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=39–67 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x |issn=1574-6976 |pmid=11152940|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[William Bertram Turrill]] ngawanohkeun istilah "taksonomi alfa" dina runtuyan makalah anu medal dina taun 1935 ogé 1937 di mana anjeunna ngaguar filsafat jeung nyawang disiplin taksonomi dina mangsa nu baris datang. {{sfn|Turrill|1938}}<blockquote> ... Aya kahayang anu beuki gedé diantara para ahli taksonomi pikeun nganggap masalahna dina panempo anu langkung lega, pikeun nalungtik kemungkinan gawé babarengan leuwih deukeut jeung cytological maranéhanana, koléga ékologis jeung genetika sarta pikeun ngaku yén sababaraha révisi atawa ékspansi, meureun alam drastis, tujuan jeung métode maranéhanana, bisa jadi desirable ... Turrill (1935) geus ngusulkeun yén bari narima taksonomi invaluable heubeul, dumasar kana struktur, jeung merenah ditunjuk "alfa", kasebut nyaéta dimungkinkeun pikeun sawangan urang anu jauh taxonomy diwangun dina salega dasar fakta morfologis jeung fisiologis jéntré, jeung hiji nu "tempat kapanggih pikeun sakabéh data observasi jeung ékspérimén patali, sanajan teu langsung, kana konstitusi, kana konstitusi, asal, jeung kabiasaan spésiés jeung grup taksonomi séjén". Cita-cita tiasa, bisa disebutkeun, pernah jadi sagemblengna sadar. Aranjeunna ngagaduhan, anu mana, niléy hébat akting salaku stimulan permanén, jeung lamun urang boga sababaraha, malah samar, idéal hiji "omega" taksonomi urang bisa maju saeutik handap alfabét Yunani. Sababaraha urang nyenangkeun diri sorangan ku mikir urang ayeuna groping dina taksonomi "béta".{{sfn|Turrill|1938}}</blockquote> Turrill antukna sacara éksplisit ngaluarkeun tina alfa taksonomi sagala rupa wewengkon tina ulikan yén anjeunna kaasup kana taksonomi sakabéhna, kayaning ékologi, fisiologi, génétika, jeung sitologi. Anjeunna salajengna ngaluarkeun rekonstruksi filogenetik tina taksonomi alfa.{{sfn|Turrill|1938|pp=365–366}} Engké pangarang geus dipaké istilah dina hiji béda rasa, hartina wates spésiés (sanés subspésiés atawa taksa tina jajaran séjén), ngagunakeun naon waé téhnik investigative sadia, jeung kaasup téhnik komputasi atawa laboratorium canggih.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steyskal |first=G. C. |date=1965 |title=Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1965-08-20_149_3686/page/880 |journal=Science |volume=149 |issue=3686 |pages= 880–882 |bibcode=1965Sci...149..880S |doi=10.1126/science.149.3686.880 |pmid=17737388|s2cid=36277653}}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Ku kituna, [[Ernst Mayr]] dina taun 1968 didefinisikeun "'''beta taxonomy'''" salaku klasifikasi pangkat leuwih luhur ti spésiés (jenis).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |title=The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1968-02-09_159_3815/page/595 |date=9 February 1968 |journal=Science |volume=159 |issue=3815 |pages=595–599 |bibcode=1968Sci...159..595M |doi=10.1126/science.159.3815.595 |pmid=4886900 |author-link=Ernst Mayr}}</ref><blockquote>Hiji pamahaman biologis hartina tina variasi jeung tina nu évolusionér asal grup spésiés patali malah leuwih penting pikeun tahap kadua aktivitas taksonomi, diurutkeun spésiés kana grup baraya ("taxa") jeung susunan maranéhanana dina hirarki kategori luhur. Kagiatan ieu anu dimaksud klasifikasi istilah; Éta ogé disebut "taksonomi béta".</blockquote> === Mikrotaksonomi jeung makrotaksonomi === {{Main|Species problem}} Kumaha spésiés kudu dihartikeun dina hiji grup husus organisme méré naék kana masalah praktis jeung téoritis anu disebut salaku [[masalah spésiés]]. Karya ilmiah mutuskeun kumaha nangtukeun spésiés geus disebut microtaxonomy.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674364462 |chapter=Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703072557/https://books.google.com/books?id=pHThtE2R0UQC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |title=Result of Your Query |website=biological-concepts.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170414/http://www.biological-concepts.com/views/search.php?term=1508 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref><ref name="BiologyDiscussion">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |title=Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role |date=27 May 2016 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073645/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/taxonomy/taxonomy-meaning-levels-periods-and-role/32373 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref> Ku éksténsi, makrotaksonomi nyaéta ulikan ngeunaan grup dina subgenus [[pangkat taksonomi]] nu leuwih luhur.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> atawa ngan saukur dina clades nu ngawengku leuwih ti hiji takson dianggap specie as, dinyatakeun dina istilah [[nomenklatur filogenetik]].<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020">{{cite book |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Queiroz |first2=Kevin |title=International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature |date=29 April 2020 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0429821356 |pages=xl + 149 |url=https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014042402/https://www.routledge.com/International-Code-of-Phylogenetic-Nomenclature-PhyloCode/Queiroz-Cantino/p/book/9781138332829 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Sajarah == Sedengkeun sawatara pedaran ngeunaan taksonomi sajarah nyoba tanggal taksonomi ka peradaban kuna, usaha sabenerna ilmiah pikeun ngaklasifikasikeun organismeu teu lumangsung nepi ka abad ka-18, iwal mungkin Aristoteles, nu karya pituduh di taksonomi. <ref name="Voultsiadou & Vafidis 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Vafidis |first2=Dimitris |title=Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology |journal=Contributions to Zoology |date=1 January 2007 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=103–120 |doi=10.1163/18759866-07602004 |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/18759866-07602004 |issn=1875-9866 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425063507/https://brill.com/view/journals/ctoz/76/2/article-p103_4.xml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Voultsiadou et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Voultsiadou |first1=Eleni |last2=Gerovasileiou |first2=Vasilis |last3=Vandepitte |first3=Leen |last4=Ganias |first4=Kostas |last5=Arvanitidis |first5=Christos |title=Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms |journal=Mediterranean Marine Science |date=2017 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=468–478 |doi=10.12681/mms.13874 |issn=1791-6763 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Karya-karya saméméhna utamana déskriptif sarta museur kana tatangkalan anu mangpaat dina tatanén atawa ubar. Aya sababaraha tahap dina pamikiran ilmiah ieu. Taksonomi mimiti dumasar kana kritéria saayana, nu disebut "sistem jieunan", kaasup [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]'s Sistim klasifikasi seksual pikeun tutuwuhan (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled "[[Sistema Alam]]" ("the System of Nature"), implying yén manéhna, sahenteuna, percaya yén éta leuwih ti hiji "sistem jieunan"). Kadieunakeun sumping sistem dumasar kana tinimbangan leuwih lengkep tina ciri taksa, disebut salaku "sistem alam", kayaning tina pamadegan [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|de Jussieu]] (1789), de Candolle (1813) sarta [[Bentham and Hooker]] (1862–1863). Klasifikasi ieu ngajelaskeun pola émpiris sareng pra-[[évolusi]] dina pamikiran. Publikasi tina [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859) ngabalukarkeun katerangan anyar pikeun klasifikasi, dumasar kana hubungan évolusionér. Ieu konsép [[filotik]] sistem, ti 1883 saterusna. Ieu dumasar pamadegan [[August Eichler|Eichler]] (1883) sarta [[Adolf Engler|Engler]] (1886–1892). Datangna tina [[cladistic]] metodologi dina 1970an ngarah kana klasifikasi dumasar kana hiji-hijina kritéria [[monofil]], dirojong ku ayana [[synapomorphies]]. Ti saprak éta, dasar evidentiary geus dimekarkeun kalawan data ti [[genetik molekular]] nu keur sabagian complements tradisional [[Morfologi]].{{sfn|Datta|1988}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stace|1989}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}}{{sfn|Stuessy|2009}}{{page needed|date=July 2019}} === Saméméh-Linnaean === ==== Ahli taksonomi mimiti ==== Ngaran jeung klasifikasi lingkungan manusa kawasnamah dimimitian ku awal basa. Ngabédakeun tutuwuhan kana pepelakan matak weureu sareng anu tiasa didahar tayalian integral pikeun kalumangsungan hirup tina masarakat manusa. Ilustrasi tutuwuhan ubar muncul dina lukisan témbok Mesir ti {{Circa|1500 BC}}, nunjukkeun yén pamakéan spésiés béda anu dipikaharti sarta yén hiji taksonomi dasar aya dina tempat.<ref name="Manktelow">{{cite web |last=Manktelow |first=M. |date=2010 |url=http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |title=History of Taxonomy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2015 |publisher=Dept. of Systematic Biology, [[Uppsala University]] }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529020546/http://atbi.eu/summerschool/files/summerschool/Manktelow_Syllabus.pdf |date=29 May 2015 }}</ref> ==== Jaman Baheula ==== {{further|Aristotle's biology#Classification}} [[File:Huang-Quan-Xie-sheng-zhen-qin-tu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|''Gambaran tina sato langka'' (写生珍禽图), ti [[Song dinasti]] digambar ku [[Huang Quan (painter)|Huang Quan]] (903–965)]] Organismeu munggaran digolongkeun ku [[Aristoteles]] ([[Yunani]], 384–322 BC) salila anjeunna maneuh di [[Lesbos|Pulo Lesbos]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |date=1982 |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref><ref name="Palaeos">{{Cite web |url= http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |title= History of Taxonomy |website= Palaeos |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |archive-date= 31 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331022648/http://palaeos.com/taxonomy/history.html |date=31 March 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Anjeunna ngagolongkeun mahluk dumasar bagian maranéhanana, atawa dina istilah modern ''atribut'', kayaning hirup tina anakan, ngabogaan opat suku, [[endog]], [[getih]] atawa panas awaka.[38] Anjeunna ngabagi sakabeh mahluk hirup kana dua golongan: tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan..<ref name="Roanoke">{{Cite web |url= http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |title=Biology 101, Ch 20 |date=23 March 1998 |website=cbs.dtu.dk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628023508/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/courses/genomics_course/roanoke/bio101ch20.htm |archive-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> He divided all living things into two groups: [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Sawatara kelompokna sato, sapertos ''Anhaima'' (sato henteu mibanda getih, ditarjamahkeun salaku [[invertebrata]]) sarta ''Enhaima'' (sasatoan anu mibanda [[getih]], kasarna téh sabangsaning [[vertebrata]]), sakumaha ogé kawas grup sabangsaning [[hiu]] jeung [[cetacean]], anu ilahar dipaké.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |date=2014 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9781408836224 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lagoonhowaristot0000lero_m5a9/page/384 384]–395 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi}}</ref><ref name="von Lieven & Humar 2008">{{cite journal |last1=von Lieven |first1=Alexander Fürst |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium" |journal=History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences |date=2008 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=227–262 |jstor=23334371 |pmid=19203017 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |issn=0391-9714 |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127081940/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23334371 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Laurin & Humar 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Laurin |first1=Michel |last2=Humar |first2=Marcel |title=Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |date=2022 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1 |language=fr |doi-access=free }}</ref> muridna [[Theophrastus]] (Yunani, 370–285 BC) ngalaksanakeun tradisi ieu, mentioning sababaraha 500 tutuwuhan jeung kagunaan maranéhanana di na ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]''. Sababaraha tutuwuhan [[Genus|genera]] bisa disusud deui ka Theophrastus, sapertos ''[[Cornus (genus)|Cornus]]'', ''[[Crocus]]'', sarta ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]''.<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Abad Pertengahan==== Taksonomi dina [[Abad Pertengahan]] ieu sakitu legana dumasar kana[[Sistim Aristoteles]],<ref name="Roanoke" /> kalawan tambahan ngeunaan tatanan filosofis jeung ''existential'' mahluk. Ieu kalebet konsép sapertos éta [[ranté sasatoan anu ageung]] tradisi ​​di Kulon ''[[skolastik]]'',<ref name="Roanoke" /> deui deriving pamustunganana ti Aristoteles. Sistim Aristotelian teu ngaklasifikasikeun tutuwuhan anapon sabangsaning [[supa]], alatan kurangna mikroskop dina waktos éta.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> sakumaha gagasan na dumasar kana nyusun dunya lengkep dina hiji kontinum tunggal, sapertos 'scala naturae'' (tangga alam).<ref name="Palaeos" /> Ieu, ogé, dibawa kana tinimbangan dina ranté gedé sasatoan.<ref name="Palaeos" /> Kamajuan anu dilakukeun ku élmuwan sapertos [[Procopius]], [[Timotheus of Gaza]], [[Demetrios Pepagomenos]], ogé [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Pamikir abad ''pertengahan'' ngagunakeun ''categorizations filosofis'' jeung ''logis abstrak'' leuwih cocog kana filsafat abstrak batan taksonomi pragmatis..<ref name="Palaeos" /> ==== Renaissance jeung mimiti modern ==== Dina mangsa [[Renaissance]] atawa ''[[Jaman Pencerahan]],'' categorizing organismeu janten langkung umum,<ref name="Palaeos" /> jeung karya taksonomi jadi cukup ambisius pikeun ngaganti téks kuna. Ieu dipangaruhan ku ayana ngembangkeun lénsa optik canggih, nu ngidinan morfologi organismeu bisa diulik leuwih jéntré. Salah sahiji pangarang pangheubeulna pikeun ngamangpaatkeun ieu téhnologi éta dokter ti Italia [[Andrea Cesalpino]] (1519–1603), anu disebut "the first taxonomist".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu hasil gawé anu onjoy ''De Plantis'' diguar di taun 1583, sarta digambarkeun leuwih ti 1500 spésiés tutuwuhan.<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/deplantislibrixv00cesa |title=De plantis libri XVI |last1=Cesalpino |first1=Andrea |last2=Marescotti |first2=Giorgio |date=1583 |publisher=Apud Georgium Marescottum |location=Florence |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |title=Andrea Cesalpino {{!}} Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075220/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrea-Cesalpino#ref130098 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>Dua kulawarga pepelakan ageung anu kiwari mimiti dikenal sarta dianggo nepi ka ayeuna : [[Asteraceae]] jeung [[Brassicaceae]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding) |last=Jaime |first=Prohens |date=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781441924742}}</ref> Dina abad ka 17 [[John Ray]] ([[Inggris]], 1627–1705) nulis loba karya taksonomi penting.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |title=taxonomy {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075451/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Bisa disebut hasil gawé anu pang gedéna tayalian ''Methodus Plantarum Nova'' (1682),<ref>{{Cite book |last=John |first=Ray |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |title=Methodus plantarum nova |publisher=impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli |date=1682 |language=la |trans-title=New Method of Plants |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170929060003/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/84226#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=29 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> dimana anjeuna ngaguar lewih ti 18,000 spésiés tutuwuhan. Dina waktos éta, meureun moal aya deui hasil ti ahli taksonomi anu pang rumitna, nalika anjeuna ngagolongkeun taksana dina loba karakter gabungan. Karya taksonomi séjén anu henteu éléh kasohor dijieun ku [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] (France, 1656–1708).<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |title=Joseph Pitton de Tournefort {{!}} French botanist and physician |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075951/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joseph-Pitton-de-Tournefort |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Ieu karyana taun 1700, ''Institutiones Rei Herbariae'', kaasup leuwih ti 9000 spésiés 698 genera, nu langsung mangaruhan Linnaeus, sakumaha éta téks anjeunna dipaké salaku murid ngora.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Mangsa Linnaean === {{Main|Linnaean taxonomy}} [[File:Linné-Systema Naturae 1735.jpg|thumb|upright|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', Leiden, 1735]] Ahli botani Swedia [[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707–1778)<ref name="Roanoke" /> ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' 1st Edition in 1735,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1735 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> ''[[Spésiés Plantarum]]'' dina taun 1753,<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1753 |title=Species Plantarum |language=la |location=Stockholm}}</ref> and [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|''Systema Naturae'' 10th Edition]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |date=1758 |title=Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species |edition=10th |language=la |publisher=Haak |location=Leiden}}</ref> anjeunna ngarévolusi taksonomi modern. Karya-karyana ngalaksanakeun sistem tata ngaran binomial standar pikeun spésiés sato jeung tutuwuhan,<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |title=taxonomy – The Linnaean system {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074215/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/The-Linnaean-system |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> anu geus kabukti ngajadi solusi ampuh pikeun literatur taksonomi anu kacau jeung henteu puguh éntép sureuhna. Anjeunna henteu ngan nepangkeun standar kelas, order, genus, and&nbsp;spésiés, tapi ogé ngamungkinkeun pikeun ngaidentipikasi pepelakan sareng sasatoan tina bukuna, kalayan ngagunakeun sabagean leutik tina kembang (dipikawanoh salaku [[Linnaean system]]).<ref name="Britannica – Linnaean" /> ''Taxonomists'' tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan regard Linnaeus' dianggo salaku "titik mimiti" pikeun ngaran anu loyog (at 1753 and 1758 respectively).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Donk |first=M. A. |date=December 1957 |title=Typification and later starting-points |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Taxon |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=245–256 |doi=10.2307/1217493 |jstor=1217493 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091529/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1959/Prop018-019.pdf |archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> Ngaran anu diterbitkeun sateuacan tanggal ieu disebut "pra-Linnaean", tur teu dianggap ''valid'' (iwal spiders diterbitkeun dina ''[[Svenska Spindlar]]''. <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carl |first1=Clerck |last2=Carl |first2=Bergquist |last3=Eric |first3=Borg |last4=L. |first4=Gottman |last5=Lars |first5=Salvius |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |title=Svenska spindlar |publisher=Literis Laur. Salvii |date=1757 |language=sv |trans-title=Swedish Spiders |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171201181959/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209583#page/7/mode/1up |archive-date=1 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>). Malah ngaran taksonomi dipedalkeun ku Linnaeus sorangan saméméh tanggal ieu dianggap ''pra-Linnaean''.<ref name="Manktelow" /> === Jaman taksonomi digital=== Taksonomi modern dipangaruhan pisan ku téknologi sapertos [[DNA sequencing]], [[bioinformatics]], [[Biological database|databases]], sareng [[imaging]]. == Sistem klasifikasi modern == {{Main|Evolutionary taxonomy|Phylogenetic nomenclature}} [[File:Spindle diagram.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Evolution of the [[vertebrates]] at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for [[evolutionary taxonomy]].]] [[File:Cladogram vertebrata.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Hubungan anu sarua, ditepikeun salaku hiji [[cladogram]] has pikeun [[cladistics]]]] Hiji pola pikeun golongan anu nyayang sajeroning golongan anu geus ditangtukeun ku Linnaeus' klasifikasi tina tutuwukan tur sasatoan, sarta pola ieu mimiti jadi salaku gambaran [[dendrograms]] pikeun sasatoan sarta tutuwuhan [[Kingdom (biology)|karanaa]] lajeng dugi ka ahir abad ka 18, ogé saméméh Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' dipedalkeun.<ref name="Britannica – Taxonomy" /> Hiji pola "Natural System" teu merlukeun prosés generating , saperti dina evolusi, tapi bisa waé geus kasawang, mereun pamikir transmutationist. Diantara karya mimiti neuleuman tina pamikiran [[transmutation of species]] anu tayalian ''[[Zoonomia]]'' dina taun 1796 ku [[Erasmus Darwin]] ( akina Charles Darwin's), jeung [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]'s ''[[Philosophie zoologique]]'' dina taun 1809.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hiji ideu anu geus dipopulerkeun dina dunya Anglophone sanajan loba anu sipatna spekulatif tapi loba ogé anu maraca ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'', dipedalkeun sacara anonim ku [[Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)|Robert Chambers]] in 1844.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |title=Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation |last=Secord |first=James A. |date=2000 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=9780226744100 |author-link=James A. Secord |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |archive-date=16 May 2008 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl |date=16 May 2008 }}</ref> Ayana téori Darwin, hiji anu disaluyuan kalawan gancang ditarima tayalian hiji klasifikasi kudu numutkeun kana prinsip Darwinian [[katangtuan umum]].<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus">{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |title=taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus {{!}} biology |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405075916/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Classification-since-Linnaeus |archive-date=5 April 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[Tangkal kahirupan]] élmu pangaweruh Répréséntasi jadi populér dina karya ilmiah, kalawan grup fosil dipikawanoh diasupkeun. Salah sahiji grup modéren munggaran anu dihijikeun ka karuhun fosil nyaéta manuk.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Black |first=Riley |date=7 December 2010 |title=Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |magazine=Smithsonian Magazine |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=10 November 2023 |archive-date=10 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110094503/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/thomas-henry-huxley-and-the-dinobirds-88519294/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngagunakeun fosil lajeng anyar kapanggih tina ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' jeung ''[[Hesperornis]]'', [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] Nyebutkeun yén maranéhna geus mekar tina dinosaurus, hiji group resmi anu dingaranan ku [[Richard Owen]] taun 1842.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Thomas Henry Huxley |last=Huxley |first=Thomas Henry |date=1876 |chapter=Lectures on Evolution |title=Collected Essays |volume=IV |pages=46–138 |url= http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110628224543/http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE4/LecEvol.html |archive-date=28 June 2011}} Original text w/ figures. First published as ''New York Tribune'', Extra no. 36.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |title=Thomas Henry Huxley {{!}} British biologist |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114405/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Henry-Huxley |archive-date=6 February 2018 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Pedaran anu dihasilkeun, éta dinosaurus "nimbulkeun" atawa mahluk "karuhun ti" manuk, mangrupa ciri penting tina pamikiran [[taksonomi évolusionér]]. Beuki loba grup fosil anu kapanggih sarta bisa dipikanyaho sahenteuna dina akhir abad ka 19 jeung mimiti abad 20, [[palaeontologists]] digawé pikeun mikanyaho sajarahna sasatoan ngaliwatan umur ku cara ngaitkeun babarengan jeung grup anu geus dipikawanoh.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NuYXr8BszwC&pg=PA24 |last=Rudwick |first=M. J. S. |date=1985 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226731032 |page=24}}</ref> kitu deui [[sintésis évolusionér modern]] ti mimiti 1940-an, dasarna pamahaman modérn ngeunaan évolusi tina grup utama di éta tempat. Salaku taksonomi évolusionér dumasar kana jajaran taksonomi Linnaean, dua istilah anu sakitu legana ditukeurkeun dina pamakéan modern.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paterlini |first=Marta |date=September 2007 |title=There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular biology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=814–816 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7401061 |doi-access=free |pmc=1973966 |pmid=17767191}}</ref> Métode [[kladistik]] muncul ti taun 1960-an.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Dina taun 1958, [[Julian Huxley]] ngagunakeun istilah ''clade''.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Engké, dina 1960, Cain jeung Harrison ngawanohkeun istilah "cladistic".<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Fitur anu penting nyaéta nyusun taksa dina hirarki [[tangkal évolusionér]], kalawan desideratum yén sakabéh taksa ngaranna téh monophyletic.<ref name="Britannica – since Linnaeus" /> Hiji takson disebut monophyletic lamun ngawengku sakabéh turunan tina wangun karuhun.<ref name="Mike Taylor">{{Cite web |url= http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |date=17 July 2003 |title=What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean? |last=Taylor |first=Mike |website=miketaylor.org.uk |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100801072310/http://www.miketaylor.org.uk/dino/faq/s-class/phyletic/ |archive-date=1 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="NCSE">{{Cite web |url= https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |title=Polyphyletic vs. Monophyletic |website=National Center for Science Education |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170039/https://ncse.com/book/export/html/2206 |archive-date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Grup anu ngagaduhan grup turunan dikaluarkeun tina aranjeunna disebut [[paraphyletic]],<ref name="Mike Taylor" /> sedengkeun grup nu ngawakilan leuwih ti hiji cabang tina tangkal kahirupan disebut [[polyphyletic]].<ref name="Mike Taylor" /><ref name="NCSE" /> Grup monophyletic dipikawanoh tur didiagnosis dumasar kana [[synapomorphies]], kaayaan karakter turunan dibagikeun.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brower |first1=Andrew V. Z. |first2=Randall T. |last2=Schuh |date=2021 |title=Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications |edition=3rd |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, New York |page=13}}</ref> Klasifikasi kladistik taksonomi Linnean cocog sareng Kodeu tradisional ‘’ [[Nomenklatur Zoologis]] ‘’ jeung [[nomenklatur botani]], ka extent tangtu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schuh |first=Randall T. |title=The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_botanical-review_january-march-2003_69_1/page/59 |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=69 |issue=1 |date=2003 |page=59|doi=10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref> Sistem tata ngaran alternatip, nyaéta PhyloCod/ ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Filogénétik]]'' atawa ''PhyloCode'' geus diajukeun, nu ngatur ngaran formal klad.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |title=The PhyloCode |last1=Queiroz |first1=Philip D. |last2=de Cantino |first2=Kevin |website=Ohio.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160510200022/https://www.ohio.edu/phylocode/ |archive-date=10 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /><ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> Jajaran Linnaean téh pilihan jeung teu boga status resmi dina ''PhyloCode'', nu dimaksudkeun pikeun hirup babarengan jeung kode ayeuna, dumasar-rank..<ref name="Cantino & de Queiroz 2020" /> Samentara popularitas nomenklatur filogenetik parantos ningkat sacara stabil dina sababaraha dekade katukang, <ref name="Laurin 2023 Advent" /> tetep katingalna seuseueurna ahli sistematis antukna ngadopsi ''PhyloCode'' atanapi neraskeun ngagunakeun sistem tatangaran kiwari anu parantos dianggo (sareng dirobih, tapi panginten henteu sakumaha anu dipikahoyong ku sababaraha sistematis)<ref name="Dubois 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |title=Naming taxa from cladograms: A cautionary tale |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=1 February 2007 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |pmid=16949307 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007 |issn=1055-7903 |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101502/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790306002375?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dubois et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Dubois |first1=Alain |last2=Bauer |first2=Aaron M. |last3=Ceríaco |first3=Luis M. P. |last4=Dusoulier |first4=François |last5=Frétey |first5=Thierry |last6=Löbl |first6=Ivan |last7=Lorvelec |first7=Olivier |last8=Ohler |first8=Annemarie |last9=Stopiglia |first9=Renata |last10=Aescht |first10=Erna |title=The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019) |journal=Bionomina |date=17 December 2019 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–111 |doi=10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> sahenteuna leuwih 250 taun. === Karajaan jeung domain === [[File:Biological classification L Pengo vflip.svg|thumb|upright|Skéma dasar klasifikasi modérn. Seueur tingkatan anu sanés tiasa dianggo; domain, tingkat pangluhurna dina kahirupan, duanana anyar jeung dibantah.]] {{Main|Kingdom (biology)|Domain (biology)}} Sateuacan kapanggihna Carl Linnaeus (Botanist) tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan dianggap Karajaan anu misah.<ref name="Kingdom classification">{{Cite news |url=http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |title=Kingdom Classification of Living Organism |date=2 December 2014 |work=Biology Discussion |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |archive-date=5 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405073641/http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biology/kingdom-classification-of-living-organism/5542 |date=5 April 2017 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2017}} Linnaeus ngagunakeun ieu salaku pangkat luhur, ngabagi dunya fisik kana sayur, karajaan sato jeung mineral. Salaku kamajuan dina mikroskop ngajadikeun klasifikasi mikroorganismeu, jumlah karajaan ngaronjat, sistem lima jeung genep karajaan anu paling umum. [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]] mangrupa grup nu kawilang anyar. Mimiti diajukeun dina 1977, [[Carl Woese]] [[sistem tilu domain]] sacara umum teu ditarima nepi ka engké.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |title=Carl Woese {{!}} Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology |website=www.igb.Illinois.edu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |archive-date=28 April 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428163950/http://www.igb.illinois.edu/about/archaea |date=28 April 2017 }}</ref>Salah sahiji ciri utama metode tilu domain nyaéta pamisahan [[Archaea]] sareng [[Baktéri]], anu sateuacana dikelompokkeun kana karajaan tunggal Baktéri (hiji karajaan anu sok disebut [[Monera]]),<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> kalawan [[Eukariota]] pikeun sakabéh organisme anu sélna ngandung [[Inti (biologi)|inti]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-link=Joel Cracraft |editor1-last=Cracraft |editor1-first=Joel |editor2-last=Donaghue |editor2-first=Michael J. |date=2004 |title=Assembling the Tree of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195172345 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/assemblingtreeof0000unse/page/45 45], 78, 555}}</ref> Sajumlah leutik élmuwan kalebet karajaan kagenep, Archaea, tapi henteu nampi metode domain.<ref name="Kingdom classification" /> [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]], anu dipedalkeun sacara éksténsif ngeunaan klasifikasi [[protista]], taun 2002<ref name="pmid11931142">{{cite journal |last=Cavalier-Smith |first=T. |title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=52 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=297–354 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11931142 |doi=10.1099/00207713-52-2-297 |url=http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11931142 |access-date=21 November 2022 |archive-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729113756/http://ijs.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem |date=29 July 2017 }}</ref> ngusulkeun yén [[Neomura]], clade anu ngahijikeun Archaea jeung [[Eukariota|Eucarya]]<!--yeah, Woese used a 'c' here-->, bakal mekar tina Baktéri, langkung tepatna tina [[Actinomycetota]]. Klasifikasi na 2004 nganggap [[archaeobacteria]] salaku bagian tina subkingdom karajaan Baktéri, nyaéta, anjeunna nampik sistem tilu domain sagemblengna.<ref name="CavalierSmith2004" /> Stefan Luketa di 2012 ngusulkeun lima sistem "dominion", nambahan [[Prion]]obiota ([[kahirupan non-sélular|asélular]] jeung tanpa [[asam nukléat]]) jeung [[Virus]]obiota (asélular tapi ' 'kalayan'' asam nukléat) kana tilu domain tradisional.<ref name="Luketa2012">{{Cite journal |last=Luketa |first=S. |date=2012 |title=New views on the megaclassification of life |url= http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Protistology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=218–237 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150257/http://protistology.ifmo.ru/num7_4/luketa_protistology_7-4.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> {{center|{{Biological systems}}}} === Klasifikasi komprehensif panganyarna === Klasifikasi lengkep; parsial aya pikeun loba grup individu organismeu sarta dirévisi jeung diganti sakumaha informasi anyar anu sadia; kumaha ogé, kompréhénsif, diterbitkeun lumaku sawaréh atawa sagemblengna; conto panganyarna nyaéta jeung sajabana., 2012 jeung 2019,<ref name="Adl-et-al-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Simpson |first2=A. G. B. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Bass |first5=D. |last6=Bowser |first6=S. S. |display-authors=etal |date=December 2015 |title=The revised classification of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x |pmc=3483872 |pmid=23020233}}</ref><ref name="Adl-et-al-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Adl |first1=S. M. |last2=Bass |first2=D. |last3=Lane |first3=C. E. |last4=Lukeš |first4=J. |last5=Schoch |first5=C. L. |last6=Smirnov |first6=A. |display-authors=etal |date=2019 |title=Revisions to the classification, nomenclature, and diversity of eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=4–119 |doi=10.1111/jeu.12691 |pmc= 6492006|pmid=30257078|doi-access=free}}</ref> nu ngawengku eukariot wungkul kalawan tekenan kana protista, sarta Ruggiero jeung sajabana. taun 2015,<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Ruggiero |first1=Michael A. |last2=Gordon |first2=D. P. |last3=Orrell |first3=T. M. |last4=Bailly |first4=N. |last5=Bourgoin |first5=T. |last6=Brusca |first6=R. C. |display-authors=etal |date=2015 |title=A higher level classification of all living organisms |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0119248 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1019248R |bibcode-access=free |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0119248 |pmc=4418965 |pmid=25923521|doi-access=free}}</ref> ngawengku boh eukariot jeung [[prokariot]]s kana pangkat Orde, sanajan duanana ngaluarkeun wawakil fosil.<ref name="Ruggiero-et-al-2015" /> Kompilasi anu misah (Ruggiero, 2014)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Döring |first=Markus |title=Families of Living Organisms (FALO) |url=https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |website=GBIF |date=August 13, 2015 |doi=10.15468/tfp6yv |access-date=11 March 2020 |archive-date=2 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302232032/https://www.gbif.org/dataset/8067e0a2-a26d-4831-8a1e-21b9118a299c |url-status=live }}</ref> nambahkeun taksa anu masih aya pikeun pangkat Kulawarga. Lain, Pangobatan dumasar basis data kalebet [[Ensiklopedia Kahirupan]], éta [[Fasilitas Émbaran Keanekaragaman Hayati Global]], [[database taksonomi NCBI]], [[Pendaptaran Interim Genera Kelautan sareng Nonmarine]], éta [[Buka Tangkal Kahirupan]], jeung [[Katalog Kahirupan]]. [[Database Paleobiologi]] mangrupa sumber pikeun fosil. == Aplikasi== Taksonomi biologis mangrupa sub-disiplin [[biologi]], sareng umumna dipraktékkeun ku ahli biologi anu katelah "ahli taksonomi", sanajan antusias [[Sajarah alam|naturalis]] ogé sering kalibet dina publikasi taksa anyar.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |first1=Benjamin |last1=Jones |date=September 7, 2017 |title=A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy |website=Smithsonian |access-date=24 February 2019 |archive-date=8 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208041357/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-big-ugly-problem-heart-of-taxonomy-180964629/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusabab taksonomi boga tujuan pikeun ngajelaskeun tur ngatur [[kahirupan]], karya anu dilakukeun ku ahli taksonomi penting pisan pikeun ulikan ngeunaan [[biodiversitas]] jeung hasil widang [[biologi konservasi]].<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |title=What is taxonomy? |publisher=Natural History Museum |location=London |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131001152618/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html |archive-date=1 October 2013 |access-date=23 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=McNeely |first=Jeffrey A. |date=2002 |title=The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal for Nature Conservation |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=145–153 |doi=10.1078/1617-1381-00015 |bibcode=2002JNatC..10..145M |s2cid=16953722 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2017 |via=Semantic Scholar }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224155349/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7b06/e3d09692ef9f2b464fbfb7807ff32a35ce47.pdf |date=24 December 2017 }}</ref> === Klasifikasi organismeu === {{Main|Taxonomic rank}} Klasifikasi biologis mangrupakeun komponén kritis prosés taksonomi. Hasilna, éta informs pamaké sakumaha naon baraya tina takson nu dihipotesiskeun. Klasifikasi biologis ngagunakeun pangkat taksonomi, kaasup antara séjén (urutan ti paling inklusif ka nu henteu inklusif): [[Domain (biologi)|Domain]], [[Karajaan (biologi)|Karajaan]], [[Filum]], [[Kelas (biologi)|Kelas]], [[Urutan (biologi)|Urutan]], [[Kulawarga (biologi)|Kulawarga]], [[Genus]], [[Spésiés]], jeung [[Galur (biologi)|Galur]].<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |title=Mnemonic taxonomy / biology: Kingdom Phylum Class Order... |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170606171902/https://www.mnemonic-device.com/biology/taxonomy/domain-kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-species/ |archive-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>{{NoteTag|This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"}} === Katerangan taksonomi === {{See also|Species description}} [[File:Nepenthes smilesii type specimen.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tipe]] spécimén tina ''[[Nepenthes smilesii]]'', hiji tutuwuhan lokal sok disebut [[kantong semar]] [[pitcher plant]]]] Pedaran takson ieu di encapsulated ku déskripsi atawa diagnosis na atawa gabungan ku duanana. Henteu aya aturan anu diatur anu ngatur definisi taksa, tapi ngaran jeung publikasi taksa anyar diatur ku susunan aturan.<ref name="Herbarium" /> Dina [[zoologi]], [[nomenklatur]] pikeun jajaran anu leuwih ilahar dipaké ([[Superfamili (taksonomi)|superfamili]] nepi ka [[subspésiés]]), diatur ku ''[[Kode Internasional Nomenklatur Zoologis]]'' (''Kode ICZN'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |title=ICZN Code |website=animalbase.uni-goettingen.de |access-date=8 April 2017 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003055350/http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/loadcachedpage?url=animalbase-code.html |date=3 October 2022 }}</ref> Dina widang [[phycology]], [[mycology]], jeung [[botani]], ngaran taksa diatur ku ''[[Kode Nomenklatur Internasional pikeun ganggang, fungi, jeung tutuwuhan]]'' (''ICN'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants |url= http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |work=IAPT-Taxon.org |publisher=[[International Association for Plant Taxonomy]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130111104255/http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php |archive-date=11 January 2013}}</ref> Katerangan awal hiji takson ngalibatkeun lima sarat utama:<ref>{{Cite web |title=How can I describe new species? |url= http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |work=ICZN.org |publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306133052/http://iczn.org/content/how-can-i-describe-new-species |archive-date=6 March 2012 |access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> # Taksonna kudu dibéré ngaran dumasar kana 26 hurup alfabét Latin ([[binomial nomenclature|binomial]] pikeun spésiés anyar, atawa uninomial pikeun jajaran séjén). # Ngaranna kudu unik (nyaéta lain [[homonim (biologi)|homonim]]). # Katerangan kudu dumasar kana sakurang-kurangna hiji [[Spésiés Tipe|spésimén]]. #Éta kedah kalebet pernyataan ngeunaan atribut anu cocog pikeun ngajelaskeun (ngahartikeun) takson atanapi ngabédakeun tina takson anu sanés. (diagnosis, ''Kode ICZN'', Pasal 13.1.1, ''ICN'', Pasal 38, anu tiasa atanapi henteu dumasar kana morfologi<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lawley |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Gamero-Mora |first2=Edgar |last3=Maronna |first3=Maximiliano M. |last4=Chiaverano |first4=Luciano M. |last5=Stampar |first5=Sérgio N. |last6=Hopcroft |first6=Russell R. |last7=Collins |first7=Allen G. |last8=Morandini |first8=André C. |date=19 September 2022 |title=Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590) |url=https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=118 |issue=9/10 |doi=10.17159/sajs.2022/14495 |s2cid=252562185 |issn=1996-7489 |doi-access=free |access-date=20 October 2022 |archive-date=20 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020063714/https://sajs.co.za/article/view/14495 |url-status=live }}</ref>). Kadua kodeu ngahaja misahkeun nangtukeun eusi takson ([[circumscription (taksonomi)|circumscription]]) tina nangtukeun ngaranna. # Opat sarat munggaran ieu kedah dipedalkeun dina karya anu tiasa dicandak dina sababaraha salinan anu sami, salaku catetan ilmiah anu permanén. Nanging, sering langkung seueur inpormasi anu kalebet, sapertos rentang geografis takson, catetan ékologis, kimia, kabiasaan, jsb Kumaha panaluntik anjog di taksa maranéhna béda-béda: gumantung kana data anu sadia, jeung sumber, métode béda ti basajan [[Sipat kuantitatif|kuantitatif]] atawa [[Sipat kualitatif|kualitatif]] babandingan fitur-fitur anu aya, pikeun ngajéntrékeun analisa komputer tina jumlah badag data [[DNA]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190422143927/https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/Evaluating-taxonomic-characters |archive-date=22 April 2019 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> === Cutatan pangarang === {{Main|Author citation (botany)|Author citation (zoology)}} "Otoritas" tiasa ditempatkeun saatos nami ilmiah.<ref name="AJE">{{Cite web |url= http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |title=Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species |publisher=American Journal Experts, Research Square Company |website=AJE.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021714/http://www.aje.com/en/arc/editing-tip-scientific-names-species/ |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Wewenang nyaéta ngaran élmuwan atawa élmuwan anu mimiti sah medalkeun ngaran éta.<ref name="AJE" /> Contona, dina taun 1758 Linnaeus méré ngaran ilmiahna [[gajah Asia]]; ''Elephas maximus'', jadi ngaran ieu sakapeung ditulis jadi "''Elephas maximus'' Linnaeus, 1758".<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |title=Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript |website=Study.com |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021600/http://study.com/academy/lesson/carolus-linnaeus-classification-taxonomy-contributions-to-biology.html |archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref> Ngaran pangarang mindeng disingget: singketan ''L.'', keur ''Linnaeus,'' ilahar dipaké. Dina botani, kanyataanna, aya daptar singketan standar anu diatur (tingali [[daptar ahli botani dumasar singgetan pangarang]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |title=Biological Classification |last=Biocyclopedia.com |website=biocyclopedia.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |archive-date=14 May 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514164313/http://www.biocyclopedia.com/index/biological_classification.php |date=14 May 2017 }}</ref> Sistem pikeun nangtukeun otoritas rada béda antara [[Kutipan pangarang (botani)|botani]] jeung [[Kutipan pangarang (zoologi)|zoologi]].<ref name="Herbarium" /> Sanajan kitu, éta standar yén lamun genus spésiés geus robah ti déskripsi aslina, ngaran otoritas aslina urang disimpen dina kurung.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |title=Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors |website=Annelida.net |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |archive-date=16 March 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316112709/http://www.annelida.net/zootax-tutor.html |date=16 March 2017 }}</ref> == Pénétika == [[File:Phylogenetics.svg|thumb|300px|A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts]] {{Main|Phenetics}} Dina phenetics, ogé katelah taximetrics, atawa taksonomi numerik, organismeu digolongkeun dumasar kana kasaruaan sakabéh, paduli filogeni atawa hubungan évolusionér maranéhanana.<ref name="BiologyDiscussion" /> Hasilna dina ukuran hypergeometric "jarak" antara taksa. Métode fénétik geus kawilang jarang di jaman modéren, lolobana diganti ku analisis [[Kladistik|kladistik]], sabab métode fénétik teu ngabédakeun sipat karuhun (atawa [[plesiomorph]] ic) tina turunan babarengan (atawa [[apomorphic]]). ) ciri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Classification |url= https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |publisher=[[North Carolina State University]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163250/https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/evoresources/Evolutionary%20medicine/classification/classification16.htm |archive-date=14 April 2017 |access-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, métode phenetic tangtu, kayaning [[tatangga gabung]], tetep, salaku estimators gancang tina hubungan lamun métode leuwih canggih (saperti [[Bayesian inferensi]]) teuing komputasi mahal.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molecular Marker Glossary |url= http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/mcdgloss.html |last=McDonald |first=David |date=Fall 2008 |publisher=[[University of Wyoming]] |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070610123503/http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/McDGloss.html |archive-date=10 June 2007}}</ref> == Basis data == {{Main|Taxonomic database}} Taksonomi modern ngagunakeun téknologi database pikeun milarian sareng katalog ''klasifikasi'' sareng dokuméntasina.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Dylan |last2=King |first2=Margaret |last3=Landis |first3=Drew |last4=Courtney |first4=William |last5=Wang |first5=Runtang |last6=Kelly |first6=Ross |last7=Turner |first7=Jessica A. |last8=Calhoun |first8=Vince D. |date=26 August 2014 |title=Harnessing modern web application technology to create intuitive and efficient data visualization and sharing tools |journal=Frontiers in Neuroinformatics |volume=8 |pages=71 |doi=10.3389/fninf.2014.00071 |issn=1662-5196 |pmc=4144441 |pmid=25206330|doi-access=free}}</ref> Bari euweuh database ilahar dipaké, aya pangkalan data anu ''komprehensif'' sapertos ''[[Katalog Kahirupan]]'', nu tos nyoba ngadaptar unggal spésiés.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |title= About – The Plant List |website= theplantlist.org |access-date= 8 April 2017 |archive-date= 21 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170621190909/http://www.theplantlist.org/about/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Katalog didaptarkeun 1,64&nbsp;juta spésiés pikeun sadaya karajaan {{as of|2016|4|lc=on}}, ngaku liputan leuwih ti tilu-suku tina estimasi spésiés dipikawanoh pikeun élmu modern.<ref name="About the Catalogue of Life">{{Cite web |url=http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |title=About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist |website=Catalogue of Life |publisher=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System]] (ITIS) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |archive-date=15 May 2016 |access-date=22 May 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515032942/http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2016/info/about |date=15 May 2016 }}</ref> == Tempo ogé== {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Automated species identification]] * [[Bacterial taxonomy]] * [[Cluster analysis]] * [[Consortium for the Barcode of Life]] * [[Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities]] * [[Genetypes]] * [[Glossary of scientific naming]] * [[Identification (biology)]] * ''[[Incertae sedis]]'' * [[Open Tree of Life]] * [[Parataxonomy]] * [[Phenogram]] * [[Set theory]] * [[Taxonomy]] (general) * [[Virus classification]] {{div col end}} == Dicutat tina== {{Reflist}} == Bibliografi == {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |title=Systematic Botany |last=Datta |first=Subhash Chandra |date=1988 |publisher=New Age International |isbn=9788122400137 |edition=4 |location=New Delhi |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101351/https://books.google.com/books?id=X7lfMACvjs4C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |title=Plant taxonomy and biosystematics |last=Stace |first=Clive A. |date=1989 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521427852 |edition=2nd. |location=Cambridge |author-link=Clive A. Stace |access-date=19 April 2015 |orig-year=1980 |archive-date=13 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113180249/https://books.google.com/books?id=VfQnuwh3bw8C |url-status=live }} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |title=Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data |last=Stuessy |first=Tod F. |date=2009 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231147125 |access-date=6 February 2014 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113101356/https://books.google.com/books?id=0bYs8F0Mb9gC |url-status=live }} *{{Cite journal |last=Turrill |first=W. B. |date=1938 |title=The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta |journal=Biological Reviews |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=342–373 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x|s2cid=84905335}} * {{cite book |last1=Wiley |first1=Edward O. |first2=Bruce S. |last2=Lieberman |date=2011 |title=Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780470905968 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=2nd |isbn=9780470905968}} {{refend}} == Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/taxonomy-systematics/what-is-taxonomy/index.html What is taxonomy?] at the [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/ ''Natural History Museum London''] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ NCBI] the ''National Center for Biotechnology Information'' * [https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/ Taxonomy] at [https://www.uniprot.org/ UniProt] the ''Universal Protein Resource'' * [https://www.itis.gov/ ITIS] the ''Integrated Taxonomic Information System'' * [http://www.cetaf.org/ CETaF] the ''Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities'' * [http://species.wikimedia.org/ Wikispecies] ''free species directory'' * [https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html Biological classification.] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200813180358/https://www.thescienceclass.online/2019/10/biological-classification.html |date=13 August 2020}} {{Branches of biology}} {{Subject bar |wikt = yes |wikt-search = taxonomy |commons = yes |q = yes |s = yes |v = yes |d = yes |portal1 = Biology }} [[Kategori:biologi ]] [[Kategori :Élmu]] [[Kategori :Élmu Alam]] pu85upp03pk6uw9152at3xft3nxb4eu Eukaryota 0 105905 712337 711651 2026-08-28T21:07:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Domain of life whose cells have nuclei}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Eukaryota | fossil_range = [[Statherian]]–[[Holocene|Present]] {{long fossil range|1650|0 |earliest=2300}} | image = {{Multiple image | perrow = 2/2/2 | total_width = 270 | image1 = Rhodomonas salina CCMP 322.jpg | caption1 = [[Cryptista]] | image2 = Ranunculus asiaticus4LEST.jpg | caption2 = [[Viridiplantae]] (plants) | image3 = Trypanosoma sp. PHIL 613 lores.jpg | caption3 = [[Discoba]] | image4 = Chaos carolinensis Wilson 1900.jpg | caption4 = [[Amoebozoa]] | image5 = Ammonia tepida.jpg | caption5 = [[Rhizaria]] | image6 = Isotricha intestinalis.jpg | caption6 = [[Alveolata]] | image7 = Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg | caption7 = [[Animalia]] | image8 = Boletus edulis (Tillegem).jpg | caption8 = [[Fungi]] | border = infobox }} | taxon = Eukaryota | authority = ([[Édouard Chatton|Chatton]], 1925) [[Robert Whittaker (ecologist)|Whittaker]] & [[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]], 1978 | subdivision_ranks = [[Supergroup (biology)|Supergroups]] and [[Kingdom (biology)|kingdoms]] | subdivision = * [[Diaphoretickes]] ** [[SAR supergroup]] ** [[Haptista]] ** [[Cryptista]] ** [[Archaeplastida]] (incl. [[Plants]]) ** [[Provora]]<ref name="Provora"/> * [[Hemimastigophora]] * [[Metamonada]] * [[Malawimonadida]] * [[Ancyromonadida]] * [[CRuMs]] * [[Amorphea]] ** [[Amoebozoa]] ** [[Breviatea]] ** [[Apusomonadida]] ** [[Opisthokonta]] *** [[Holomycota]] (incl. [[Fungi]]) *** [[Holozoa]] (incl. [[Animals]]) {{!}}- style="background:#e0d0b0;" {{!}} | synonyms = * Eucarya {{au|[[Carl Woese|Woese]] et al. 1990}}<ref name="w1990"/> * Eukarya {{au|[[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]] 1996}}<ref name="Margulis 1996"/> }} '''Eukariota''' nyaéta sakumpulan organismeu anu sélna mibanda [[nukleus]] anu ngabeungkeut mémbran (lamad). Ieu anu ngabédakeun maranéhanana jeung [[prokariota]], anu sélna teu boga nukleus atawa organél mémbran (lamad).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |title=Sequoia sempervirens |work=The Gymnosperm Database |editor=Earle CJ |date=2017 |access-date=2017-09-15 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401041103/http://www.conifers.org/cu/Sequoia.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Ngaran "Eukariota" asalna tina basa [[Yunani]], "eu" anu hartina "hadé" atawa "alus" sarta "karyon" anu hartina "inti". Hal ieu ngagambarkeun ciri husus maranéhanana anu boga inti sél anu ''terorganisir'' jeung alus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eme |first1=Laura |last2=Tamarit |first2=Daniel |last3=Caceres |first3=Eva F. |last4=Stairs |first4=Courtney W. |last5=De Anda |first5=Valerie |last6=Schön |first6=Max E. |last7=Seitz |first7=Kiley W. |last8=Dombrowski |first8=Nina |last9=Lewis |first9=William H. |last10=Homa |first10=Felix |last11=Saw |first11=Jimmy H. |last12=Lombard |first12=Jonathan |last13=Nunoura |first13=Takuro |last14=Li |first14=Wen-Jun |last15=Hua |first15=Zheng-Shuang |last16=Chen |first16=Lin-Xing |last17=Banfield |first17=Jillian F. |last18=John |first18=Emily St |last19=Reysenbach |first19=Anna-Louise |last20=Stott |first20=Matthew B. |last21=Schramm |first21=Andreas |last22=Kjeldsen |first22=Kasper U. |last23=Teske |first23=Andreas P. |last24=Baker |first24=Brett J. |last25=Ettema |first25=Thijs J. G. |title=Inference and reconstruction of the heimdallarchaeial ancestry of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=29 June 2023 |volume=618 |issue=7967 |pages=992–999 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06186-2 |pmid=37316666 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=10307638|bibcode=2023Natur.618..992E }}</ref> Anu kalebet kana eukariota téh naon waé [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], [[fungi]], sareng seueur [[organismeu]] [[unisélular]]. Aranjeunna mangrupakeun kumpulan anu penting dina ngawangun kahirupan barengan jeung dua grup [[prokariot]] : [[Baktéri]] jeung [[Archaea]].<ref name="Hoek 95">{{cite book |last1=van den Hoek |first1=C. |last2=Mann |first2=D.G. |last3=Jahns |first3=H.M. |name-list-style=vanc |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |title=Algae An Introduction to Phycology |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-30419-9 |access-date=7 April 2023 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210172546/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuUoiFesSHMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi dumasar kana ukuranana umumna leuwih badag, [[biomassa]] global koléktip maranéhanana leuwih badag batan ''prokariot''. ''Eukariota'' kawasna bijil tina ''archaea Asgard'', sareng caket hubunganana sareng ''Heimdallarchaeia''.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |name-list-style=vanc |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood |publisher=Enfield, Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives }}</ref> Ieu tiasa ngandung harti yén ngan aya dua domain kahirupan, [[Baktéri]] jeung ''Archaea'', kalawan ''eukariota'' diasupkeun kana ''Archaea''. Eukariota mimiti aya dina mangsa ''Paleoproterozoikum'', kawasna salaku sél ''flagellated''.<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565">{{cite journal |last1=Seenivasan |first1=Ramkumar |last2=Sausen |first2=Nicole |last3=Medlin |first3=Linda K. |last4=Melkonian |first4=Michael |name-list-style=vanc |title=Picomonas judraskeda Gen. Et Sp. Nov.: The First Identified Member of the Picozoa Phylum Nov., a Widespread Group of Picoeukaryotes, Formerly Known as 'Picobiliphytes' |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2013 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0059565 |page=e59565|pmid=23555709 |pmc=3608682 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...859565S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Téori évolusionér anu utama nyaéta aranjeunna diciptakeun ku ''simbiogenesis'' antara ''archaean'' ''Asgard'' anaérobik sareng ''proteobacterium'' aérobik, anu ngawangun ''mitokondria''. Épisode kadua simbiogenesis sareng ''cyanobacterium'' nyiptakeun pepelakan, kalayan kloroplas. Sél ''eukariot'' ngandung organél anu kabeungkeut mémbran sapertos inti, ''retikulum endoplasma'', sareng aparat Golgi. Eukariota bisa jadi uniselulér atawa multiselulér. Dina babandingan, prokariot ilaharna unisélular. Eukariota ''uniséluler'' sakapeung disebut ''protista''. Eukariota bisa réproduksi boh sacara aséksual ngaliwatan ''[[mitosis]]'' jeung séksual ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'' jeung fusi gamét ''(fertilisasi)''. ==Karagaman== Eukariota téh organismeu anu dimimitian tina sél tunggal ''[[mikroskopis]]'', kayaning ''[[picozoans]]'' kurang leuwih handapeun 3 ''microméters'' sakuliah, nepika [[sato]] kawas [[paus biru]]. Beuratna nepi ka 190 [[ton]] jeung panjangna nepi ka 33,6 méter (110 ft), atawa tutuwuhan kawas tangkal [[kai]] pang jangkungna/''[[redwood]]'', jangkungna nepi ka 120 méter (390 ft).<ref name="Seenivasan Sausen Medlin Melkonian 2013 p=e59565"/> Loba eukariota anu unisélular; Eukariota multisélular kaasup [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], jeung [[fungi]], tapi deui, grup ieu ogé ngandung loba spésiés unisélular.<ref name=Wood/> Sél eukariot biasana leuwih badag batan sél prokariot—baktéri jeung ''archaea''—''volume'' kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih gedé.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parfrey |first1=L.W. |last2=Lahr |first2=D.J.G. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2013 |title=Multicellularity arose several times in the evolution of eukaryotes |journal=BioEssays |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=339–347 |doi=10.1002/bies.201200143 |pmid=23315654 |s2cid=13872783 |url=http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725235332/http://www.producao.usp.br/bitstream/handle/BDPI/45022/339_ftp.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |date=25 July 2014 }}</ref> Eukariota ngawakilan sabagian leutik tina jumlah organismeu, tapi, sabab loba di antarana jauh leuwih badag, ''biomassa global'' koléktif maranéhanana (468 gigatons) jauh leuwih badag batan prokariot (77 gigatons), kalawan tutuwuhan nyalira lobana kana leuwih ti 81% tina total ''biomassa Bumi''.<ref name="Hoek 95"/> <gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=225 caption="Eukariot ukuranana rupa-rupa ti sél tunggal nepi ka organisme anu beuratna ton-tonan"> File:Gram-negative Bacteria and Paramecium forming cyst.jpg|[[Prokaryote]]s (sél cylindrical leutik, [[baktéri]], di kénca) jeung eukariota anu sél tunggal, ''[[Paramecium]]'' File:California Redwood National Park (216450575).jpeg|Tangkal kai pang jangkungna [[Sequoia sempervirens|''Coast redwood'']] File:Anim1754 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library (rotated).jpg|[[Paus Biru]] </gallery> Eukariota mangrupa garis katurunan anu rupa-rupa, utamana diwangun ku organismeu ''mikroskopis''.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55"/> Multisélularitas dina sababaraha bentuk parantos mekar sacara mandiri sahenteuna 25 kali dina eukariota.<ref name="Grosberg2007">{{cite journal |last1=Grosberg |first1=RK |last2=Strathmann |first2=RR |name-list-style=vanc |year=2007 |title=The evolution of multicellularity: A minor major transition? |journal=[[Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst]] |volume=38 |pages=621–654 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.114735 |u b. B: :rl=https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314222721/https://grosberglab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/453/2017/05/2007-Grosberg-R.-K.-and-R.-R.-Strathmann.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Organisme multisélular kompléks, kumpulan amoéba anu teu kaétang pikeun ngabentuk ''molds slime'', ngalaman évolusi ngan dina genep runtuyan katurunan eukariot: [[sasatoan]], [[fungi]] ''symbiomycotan'', [[ganggang coklat]], [[ganggang beureum]], [[ganggang héjo]], jeung tutuwuhan darat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Popper |first1=Zoë A. |last2=Michel |first2=Gurvan |last3=Hervé |first3=Cécile |last4=Domozych |first4=David S. |last5=Willats |first5=William G.T. |last6=Tuohy |first6=Maria G. |last7=Kloareg |first7=Bernard |last8=Stengel |first8=Dagmar B. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2011 |title=Evolution and diversity of plant cell walls: From algae to flowering plants |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-plant-biology_2011_62/page/567 |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |volume=62 |pages=567–590 |pmid=21351878 |hdl=10379/6762 |hdl-access=free |s2cid=11961888 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042110-103809}}</ref> Eukariota dikumpulkeun dumasar kana kamiripan génomik, ku kituna katempo grup mindeng kakurangan ciri anu kanyahoan.<ref name="Burki Roger Brown Simpson 2020 pp. 43–55">{{cite journal |last1=Burki |first1=Fabien |last2=Roger |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Brown |first3=Matthew W. |last4=Simpson |first4=Alastair G.B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=The New Tree of Eukaryotes |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2020 |issn=0169-5347 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.008 |pages=43–55|pmid=31606140 |s2cid=204545629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020TEcoE..35...43B |url=https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1387649/FULLTEXT01 }}</ref> ==Bagéan anu jadi pangbéda== ===Nucleus (Inti)=== Ciri pangdeukeutna eukariot nyaéta sélna boga [[inti]], Ieu masihan aranjeunna namina, tina basa [[Yunani]] εὖ (eu, "well" atawa "alus") jeung κάρυον (karyon, "inti" atawa "puseur"), Sél eukariot boga rupa-rupa struktur kabeungkeut mémbran ''internal'', disebut organél, jeung ''sitoskeleton'' nu nangtukeun [[organisasi]] jeung wangun sél urang.<ref name="OnlineEtDict">{{OEtymD|eukaryotic}}</ref> Nukleus nyimpen DNA sél, nu dibagi kana kebat linier disebut kromosom; ieu dipisahkeun jadi dua sét anj cocog ku ''spindle microtubular'' salila ''division'' [[nuklir]], enggoning prosés ''mitosis eukariot'' anu has.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonev |first1=B |last2=Cavalli |first2=G |name-list-style=vanc |date=14 October 2016 |title=Organization and function of the 3D genome |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=661–678 |doi=10.1038/nrg.2016.112 |pmid=27739532 |hdl=2027.42/151884 |s2cid=31259189 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chromosome Segregation: The Role of Centromeres |last=O'Connor |first=Clare |work=Nature Education |date= 2008|access-date=18 February 2024 |url= https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/chromosome-segregation-in-mitosis-the-role-of-242/ |quote=eukar }}</ref> ===Biokimia=== Eukariot béda jeung ''prokariot'' dina sababaraha cara, kalayan jalur [[biokimi]]awi unik sapertos sintésis ''sterané''. Protéin tanda tangan eukariot teu boga ''[[homologi]]'' jeung ''[[protéin]]'' dina domain kahirupan séjén, tapi sigana [[universal]] diantara eukariota. Éta kalebet protéin ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', mesin ''[[transkripsi]]'' kompléks, sistem sortir-membran, pori nuklir, jeung sababaraha énzim dina jalur biokimiawi.<ref name="pmid11805300">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hartman H, Fedorov A |title=The origin of the eukaryotic cell: a genomic investigation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=1420–5 |date=February 2002 |pmid=11805300 |pmc=122206 |doi=10.1073/pnas.032658599 |bibcode=2002PNAS...99.1420H |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Mémbran internal=== {{multiple image | image1 = Prokaryote cell.svg | width1 = 5<!--to scale! the point is this is the relative size, thanks-->0 | caption1 = <small>[[Prokaryote]], to same scale</small> | image2 = Endomembrane system diagram en (edit).svg | width2 = 300 | caption2 = Sél eukariot dengan [[sistem endomembran]] | footer = Sél eukariot kira-kira 10.000 kali leuwih badag batan sél prokariot dumasar volumna, sarta ngandung [[organél kabeungkeut mémbran]]. }} Sél eukariot ngawengku rupa-rupa ''[[struktur]]'' anu kabeungkeut mémbran, babarengan ngabentuk sistem [[éndomémbran]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Linka M, Weber AP |chapter=Evolutionary Integration of Chloroplast Metabolism with the Metabolic Networks of the Cells |veditors=Burnap RL, Vermaas WF |title=Functional Genomics and Evolution of Photosynthetic Systems |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=978-94-007-1533-2 |page=215 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |access-date=27 October 2015 |archive-date=29 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529130011/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfzEgaLibuwC&pg=PA215 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kompartemén basajan,disebut ''[[vesikel]]'' jeung ''[[vakuola]]'', bisa dibentuk ku ''budding'' kaluar mémbran séjén.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors=Marsh M | title=Endocytosis| url=https://archive.org/details/endocytosis0000unse_i6q0 | publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2001| page=vii| isbn=978-0-19-963851-2}}</ref> Loba sél nyerna dahareun jeung bahan séjén ngaliwatan prosés ''[[endositosis]]'', dimana mémbran luar ''invaginates'' lajeng ''pinches'' kaluar pikeun ngabentuk hiji ''[[vesicle]]''. Sababaraha produk sél bisa ninggalkeun dina vesikel ngaliwatan ''exocytosis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stalder |first1=Danièle |last2=Gershlick |first2=David C. |name-list-style=vanc |date=November 2020|title=Direct trafficking pathways from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane |journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology |volume=107 |pages=112–125 |doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.04.001 |pmc=7152905 |pmid=32317144}}</ref> Inti dikurilingan ku mémbran ganda nu katelah amplop nuklir/''[[nuclear envelope]]'', kalawan ''pori'' nuklir nu ngidinan bahan pikeun mindahkeun asup jeung kaluar. Rupa-rupa ''tabung''- jeung lembaran-kawas éksténsi mémbran nuklir ngabentuk ''retikulum endoplasmic'', nu aub dina angkutan [[protéin]] jeung ''maturation''/kadéwasaan.<ref name=TheNuclearEnvelope-NCBI>{{cite journal | vauthors=Hetzer MW | title=The nuclear envelope | journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology | volume=2 | issue=3 | pages=a000539 | date=March 2010 | pmid=20300205 | pmc=2829960 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a000539 }}</ref> Ieu ngawengku rétikulum ''endoplasma'' kasar, katutupan ku ''ribosom'' nu nyintésis protéin; ieu asup kana rohangan intérior atawa ''lumen''. Salajengna, aranjeunna umumna asup kana ''vesikel'', nu kuncup kaluar lalaunan tina ''[[retikulum endoplasmic]]''. Dina kalolobaan eukariota, vesikel anu mawa protéin ieu dileupaskeun sarta salajengna dirobah dina tumpukan vesikel datar (''cisternae''), puseur pangolahan. Vesikel bisa jadi husus; contona, ''[[lisosom]]'' ngandung énzim ''pencernaan'' anu ngarecah biomolekul dina ''[[sitoplasma]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth) |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055727/https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/endoplasmic-reticulum-rough-and-smooth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Golgi Apparatus |url=http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |publisher=British Society for Cell Biology |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113060218/http://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/golgi-apparatus/ |archive-date=13 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Mitochondria=== [[File:Mitochondrion structure.svg |thumb |upright=1.4 |[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] v. ]] Mitokondria nyaéta ''organél'' pada sél eukariot.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saygin D, Tabib T, Bittar HE, Valenzi E, Sembrat J, Chan SY, Rojas M, Lafyatis R |display-authors=3 |title=Transcriptional profiling of lung cell populations in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension |journal=Pulmonary Circulation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–144 |date=July 1957 |pmid=32166015 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0757-131 |pmc=7052475 |bibcode=1957SciAm.197a.131S }}</ref> Mitokondria biasana disebut "''powerhouse sél''", pikeun fungsina nyadiakeun énérgi ku cara ngoksidasi [[gula]] atawa [[lemak]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[molekul]] ATP nu nyimpen-énergi.<ref name=Voet>{{cite book | vauthors=Voet D, Voet JC, Pratt CW |name-list-style=vanc |title=Fundamentals of Biochemistry |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 547, 556] |isbn=978-0471214953 |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofbi00voet_0/page/547 }}</ref> Mitokondria mibanda dua mémbran sakurilingna, masing-masing lapisan ganda ''fosfolipid''; bagian jero nu narilep kana ''invaginations'' disebut ''cristae'' mana réspirasi aérobik lumangsung.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |title=Re: Are there eukaryotic cells without mitochondria? |date=1 May 2006 |work=madsci.org |vauthors=Mack S |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=24 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424224700/http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2006-05/1146679455.Ev.r.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Mitokondria ngandung DNA sorangan, nu mibanda kamiripan struktural deukeut jeung DNA baktéri, ti mana asalna, jeung nu ngodekeun rRNA jeung tRNA gén nu ngahasilkeun RNA nu strukturna leuwih deukeut jeung RNA baktéri ti RNA eukariota.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zick |first1=M |last2=Rabl |first2=R |last3=Reichert |first3=AS |name-list-style=vanc |title=Cristae formation-linking ultrastructure and function of mitochondria. |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research |date=January 2009 |volume=1793 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |pmid=18620004 |doi=10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.06.013 |doi-access=}}</ref> Sababaraha eukariota, sapertos ''[[metamonads Giardia]]'' sareng ''[[Trichomonas]]'', sareng ''[[amoebozoan Pelomyxa]]'', sigana kurang mitokondria, tapi sadayana ngandung organél turunan mitokondria, seperti ''[[hidrogénosom]]'' atanapi ''mitosom'', kaleungitan mitokondria kadua. Aranjeunna meunang énergi ku aksi énzimatik dina ''sitoplasma''.<ref name="Karn">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karnkowska A, Vacek V, Zubáčová Z, Treitli SC, Petrželková R, Eme L, Novák L, Žárský V, Barlow LD, Herman EK, Soukal P, Hroudová M, Doležal P, Stairs CW, Roger AJ, Eliáš M, Dacks JB, Vlček Č, Hampl V |display-authors=3 |title=A Eukaryote without a Mitochondrial Organelle |journal=Current Biology |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=1274–1284 |date=May 2016 |pmid=27185558 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.053 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016CBio...26.1274K }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria |title=Scientists Shocked To Discover Eukaryote With NO Mitochondria |date=13 May 2016 |vauthors=Davis JL |website=IFL Science |access-date=2016-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217214255/https://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/first-eukaryote-found-lack-mitochondria/ |archive-date=17 February 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Plastida=== [[File:Chloroplast II.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Jinis [[plastid]] anu paling umum nyaéta [[kloroplas]], anu ngandung [[klorofil]] sareng ngahasilkeun sanyawa [[organik]] ku [[fotosintésis]]. ]] Tutuwuhan jeung sagala rupa golongan ganggang boga plastida ogé mitokondria.<ref name="Kleptoplastidy Hypothesis">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bodył A | s2cid=24613863 | title=Did some red alga-derived plastids evolve via kleptoplastidy? A hypothesis | journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | volume=93 | issue=1 | pages=201–222 | date=February 2018 | pmid=28544184 | doi=10.1111/brv.12340 }}</ref> Plastida, sapertos mitokondria, gaduh [[DNA]] sorangan sareng dikembangkeun tina [[éndosimbion]], dina hal ieu [[sianobaktéri]]. Biasana aya dina bentuk kloroplas anu, seperti sianobakteri, ngandung [[klorofil]] sarta ngahasilkeun sanyawa organik (sapertos glukosa) ngaliwatan fotosintésis.Nu séjénna milu nyimpen dahareun.Sanajan plastida sigana boga asal tunggal,teu sakabéh grup plastid-ngandung patalina raket. Gantina, sababaraha eukariotaaranjeunna geus meunang ti batur ngaliwatan endosymbiosis sekundér atawa ingestion.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=Sato N |year=2006 |pages= 75–102 |title=The Structure and Function of Plastids |volume=23 |veditors=Wise RR, Hoober JK |publisher= Springer Netherlands|chapter=Origin and Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids |isbn=978-1-4020-4060-3 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4061-0_4 |series=Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration}}</ref> Panangkepan sareng sequestering sél fotosintétik sareng kloroplas, kleptoplasti, lumangsung dina loba jenis organismeu eukariot modern.<ref name=pmid18518896>{{cite journal |vauthors=Minnhagen S, Carvalho WF, Salomon PS, Janson S |title=Chloroplast DNA content in Dinophysis (Dinophyceae) from different cell cycle stages is consistent with kleptoplasty |journal=Environ. Microbiol. |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=2411–7 |date=September 2008 |pmid=18518896 |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01666.x |bibcode=2008EnvMi..10.2411M }}</ref> ===Struktur sitoskeletal=== Sitoskeleton nyadiakeun ''[[struktur]]'' kaku jeung titik kantétan pikeun struktur motor anu ngamungkinkeun pikeun mindahkeun sél, ngarobah bentuk, atawa angkutan bahan. Struktur ''[[motorik]]'' nyaéta ''[[mikrofilamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'' sareng protéin beungkeut ''[[aktin]]'', kaasup ''α-aktinin'', ''[[fimbrin]]'', sarta ''[[filamin]]'' aya dina beungkeutan lapisan ''[[cortical submembranous]]'' na. Protéin motor ''[[mikrotubulus]]'', ''[[dynein]]'' sareng ''[[kinesin]]'', sarta ''[[miosin]]'' tina ''[[filamén]]'' ''[[aktin]]'', nyadiakeun karakter ''[[dinamis]]'' tina kantétan.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Molecular Motors |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |date=2002-01-01 |first1=Bruce |last1=Alberts |first2=Alexander |last2=Johnson |first3=Julian |last3=Lewis |first4=Martin |last4=Raff |first5=Keith |last5=Roberts |first6=Peter |last6=Walter |name-list-style=vanc |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3 |access-date=6 April 2023 |archive-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308094109/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26888/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sweeney">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sweeney HL, Holzbaur EL |title=Motor Proteins |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages= a021931|date=May 2018 |pmid=29716949 |pmc=5932582 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a021931 |url=}}</ref> Loba eukariota boga proyéksi ''[[sitoplasma motil]]'' ramping panjang,disebut ''[[flagélla]]'', atawa sababaraha ''struktur'' pondok disebut ''[[silia]]''. Organél ieu rupa-rupa aub dina gerakan, dahar, jeung sénsasi. Utamana diwangun ku ''[[tubulin]]'', sarta sagemblengna béda ti ''[[flagella prokariot]]''.<ref name="Bardy Ng Jarrell 2003">{{cite journal | vauthors=Bardy SL, Ng SY, Jarrell KF | title=Prokaryotic motility structures | journal=Microbiology | volume=149 | issue=Pt 2 | pages=295–304 | date=February 2003 | pmid=12624192 | doi=10.1099/mic.0.25948-0 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Silflow Lefebvre 2001">{{cite journal | vauthors=Silflow CD, Lefebvre PA | title=Assembly and motility of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii | journal=Plant Physiology | volume=127 | issue=4 | pages=1500–7 | date=December 2001 | pmid=11743094 | pmc=1540183 | doi=10.1104/pp.010807 }}</ref> Éta dirojong ku kebat/amparan ''[[mikrotubulus]]'' anu timbul tina ''[[séntriol]]'', ciri disusun salaku salapan pasang sabudeureun dua singlets. Flagela tiasa gaduh bulu ''(mastigonemes)'', sakumaha dina loba ''Stramenopiles''. Bagian jerona kontinyu sareng sitoplasma sél. ''[[Centrioles]]'' sering aya, sanajan dina sél jeung grup nu teu boga flagella, tapi ''conifers'' jeung tutuwuhan kembangan boga. Aranjeunna umumna lumangsung dina grup anu ngabalukarkeun rupa-rupa akar ''microtubular''. Ieu ngabentuk komponén primér ''[[sitoskeleton]]'', sarta mindeng dirakit ngaliwatan sababaraha divisi sél, kalawan hiji ''[[flagellum]]'' dipikagaduh ti indungna sarta séjéna diturunkeun tina. ''[[Centrioles]]'' ngahasilkeun benang/''spindle'' salila division [[nuklir]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Vorobjev IA, Nadezhdina ES |title=The centrosome and its role in the organization of microtubules |volume=106 |pages=227–293 |year=1987 |pmid=3294718 |doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)61714-3 |isbn=978-0-12-364506-7 |series=International Review of Cytology }}</ref> ===Témbok sél=== Sél tutuwuhan, [[ganggang]], [[fungi]] sareng seueur ''kromalveolat'', tapi sanés [[sato]], dikurilingan ku [[témbok sél]]. Ieu lapisan luar mémbran sél, nyayogikeun sél kalayan dukungan struktural, panyalindungan, jeung mékanisme nyaring. Témbok sél ogé nyegah ékspansi kaleuleuwihan nalika [[cai]] asup kana sél.<ref name="Howland 2000">{{cite book | vauthors=Howland JL | year=2000 | title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life | url=https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl | pages=[https://archive.org/details/surprisingarchae0000howl/page/69 69]–71 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-511183-5}}</ref> ''[[Polisakarida]]'' utama anu ngawangun dinding sél primér tutuwuhan darat nyaéta ''[[sélulosa]]'', ''[[hémiselulosa]]'', jeung ''[[pektin]]''. ''[[Mikrofibril]]'' sélulosa dihijikeun sareng ''hémiselulosa'', diasupkeun kana matriks pektin. ''[[Hémiselulosa]]'' anu paling umum dina témbok sél primér nyaéta ''[[xyloglucan]]''.<ref name="Fry1989">{{cite journal | vauthors=Fry SC |title=The Structure and Functions of Xyloglucan |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=40 |issue=1 |year=1989 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1093/jxb/40.1.1}}</ref> ===Réproduksi séksual=== [[File:Sexual cycle N-2N.svg|thumb|[[Reproduksi séksual]] merlukeun [[siklus hirup biologis|siklus hirup]] anu silih ganti antara fase [[haploid]], kalayan hiji salinan unggal [[kromosom]] dina sél, jeung hiji [[diploid]] fase, kalayan dua salinan. Dina eukariota, haploid [[gamet]]s dihasilkeun ku [[meiosis]]; dua gamét ngahiji ngabentuk diploid [[zigot]].]] Eukariota memiliki siklus hidup yang ngalibatkeun réproduksi séksual, pilihganti antara bagéan ''[[haploid]]'', dimana ngan hiji salinan unggal ''[[kromosom]]'' aya dina unggal [[sél]], jeung nalika ''[[diploid]]'', kalawan dua salinan unggal kromosom dina unggal sél. Fase diploid dibentuk ku ''[[fusi]]'' dua [[gamét]] haploid, sapertos [[endog]] sareng spérmatozoa, pikeun ngabentuk [[zigot]]; Ieu bisa tumuwuh jadi awak, kalayan sélna ngabagi ku ''[[mitosis]]'', sarta dina sababaraha tahap ngahasilkeun ''gamet haploid'' ngaliwatan ''[[meiosis]]'', ''[[division]]'' anu ngurangan jumlah ''kromosom'' sarta nyieun ''[[variability genetik]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Matthew B. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Population genetics |url=https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami |url-access=limited |year=2009 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-3277-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/populationgeneti00hami/page/n69 55]}}</ref> Aya variasi anu kacida penting dina pola ieu. [[Tutuwuhan]] gaduh fase ''[[multisélular]]'' haploid sareng diploid. Eukariot memiliki laju metabolisme yang lebih rendah dan waktu generasi yang lebih lama dibandingkan prokariot, sabab leuwih badag sarta ku kituna boga aréa mun ''[[rasio]]'' volume ''permukaan'' leutik.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=TN |last2=Kerp |first2=H |last3=Hass |first3=H |name-list-style=vanc |year=2005 |title=Life history biology of early land plants: Deciphering the gametophyte phase |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=102 |issue=16 |pages=5892–5897 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0501985102 |pmid=15809414 |pmc=556298 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Évolusi réproduksi séksual bisa jadi ciri mimiti /''[[primordial]]'' eukariota. Dumasar analisis filogenetik, Dacks sareng Roger parantos ngusulkeun yén séks fakultatif aya dina karuhun umum grup éta.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dacks J, Roger AJ |s2cid=9441768 |title=The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_1999-06_48_6/page/779 |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=779–783 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10229582 |doi=10.1007/PL00013156 |bibcode=1999JMolE..48..779D }}</ref> Sakumpulan inti gén anu fungsina dina ''meiosis'' aya dina ''[[Trichomonas vaginalis]]'' sareng ''[[Giardia intestinalis]]'', dua organismeu saméméhna dianggap aséksual. Kusabab dua spésiés ieu turunan tina silsilah anu ''[[diverged]]'' mimiti tina tangkal évolusionér eukariot, gén meiotik inti, sareng ku kituna séks, kemungkinan gede aya dina karuhun umum eukariota.<ref name=Ramesh>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ramesh MA, Malik SB, Logsdon JM |title=A phylogenomic inventory of meiotic genes; evidence for sex in Giardia and an early eukaryotic origin of meiosis |journal=Current Biology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=185–191 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15668177 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.003 |s2cid=17013247 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2005CBio...15..185R }}</ref><ref name=Malik>{{cite journal |vauthors=Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM |title=An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e2879 |date=August 2007 |pmid=18663385 |pmc=2488364 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002879 |veditors=Hahn MW |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2879M |doi-access=free }}</ref> Spésiés pernah dianggap aséksual, sapertos parasit ''Leishmania'', gaduh siklus séksual. ''[[Amoebae]]'', saméméhna dianggap aséksual, anu baheulana seksual; grup aséksual kiwari bisa waé mecenghul anu anyar.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lahr DJ, Parfrey LW, Mitchell EA, Katz LA, Lara E |title=The chastity of amoebae: re-evaluating evidence for sex in amoeboid organisms |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=278 |issue=1715 |pages=2081–2090 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21429931 |pmc=3107637 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2011.0289 }}</ref> ==Évolusi== [[File:Openly available illustrations as tools to describe eukaryotic microbial diversity - Journal.pbio.3002395.g001.tif|thumb|Tangkal eukariota nunjukkeun ''subgrup'' utama sareng ''diagram'' gambar leutik anggota wawakilan unggal grup. Sintésis diropéa dumasar kana rékonstruksi ''[[filogénomik]]'' panganyarna (nepi ka 2023).<ref>{{Cite Q|Q123558544|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] ===Sajarah klasifikasi=== Dina jaman baheula, dua katurunan [[sasatoan]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] ieu dipikawanoh ku [[Aristoteles]] jeung [[Theophrastus]]. Silsilahna dibéré pangkat [[taksonomi]] Karajaan ku [[Linnaeus]] dina abad ka-18. Padahal anjeunna kaasup [[fungi]] jeung tutuwuhan jeung sababaraha ''[[reservations]]'', éta engkéna baris sadar yén aranjeunna rada béda jeung ngajamin éta karajaan anu misah. Rupa-rupa eukariota sél tunggal asalna disimpen sareng tutuwuhan atanapi sasatoan nalika aranjeunna dipiwanoh.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Goldfuß |title=Ueber die Classification der Zoophyten |journal=Isis, Oder, Encyclopädische Zeitung von Oken |date=1818 |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=1008–1019 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |trans-title=On the classification of zoophytes |language=de |access-date=15 March 2019 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324105702/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/47614#page/530/mode/1up |url-status=live }} From p. 1008: ''"Erste Klasse. Urthiere. Protozoa."'' (First class. Primordial animals. Protozoa.) [Note: each column of each page of this journal is numbered; there are two columns per page.]</ref> Dina taun 1818, ahli [[biologi]] Jerman [[Georg A. Goldfuss]] nyiptakeun kecap ''[[protozoa]]'' pikeun ngarujuk kana organismeu sapertos ''[[ciliates]]'', sarta grup ieu dimekarkeun nepi ka [[Ernst Haeckel]] ngajadikeun éta karajaan ngawengku sakabéh eukariota sél tunggal, nu ''[[Protista]]'', taun 1866. Eukariota jadi katempona opat karajaan:<ref name=Scamardella1999>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scamardella JM |title=Not plants or animals: a brief history of the origin of Kingdoms Protozoa, Protista and Protoctista |year=1999 |journal=[[International Microbiology]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=207–221 |pmid=10943416 |url=http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614000656/http://www.im.microbios.org/08december99/03%20Scamardella.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name=Rothschild1989>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rothschild LJ |title=Protozoa, Protista, Protoctista: what's in a name? |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=277–305 |year=1989 |pmid=11542176 |doi=10.1007/BF00139515 |s2cid=32462158 |authorlink=Lynn J. Rothschild |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |access-date=4 February 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204233203/https://zenodo.org/record/1232387 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Whittaker">{{cite journal |vauthors=Whittaker RH |title=New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1969-01-10_163_3863/page/150 |journal=Science |volume=163 |issue=3863 |pages=150–60 |date=January 1969 |pmid=5762760 |doi=10.1126/science.163.3863.150 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.5430 |bibcode=1969Sci...163..150W }}</ref> #Karajaan ''Protista'' (mikro organismeu unik) #Karajaan ''Plantae'' (Tutuwuhan) #Karajaan ''Fungi'' #Karajaan ''Animalia''(Sasatoan) Protista dina waktos éta dianggap "bentuk primitif", sahingga hiji kelas évolusionér, dihijikeun ku alam unisélular primitif maranéhanana.<ref name="w1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Kandler O, Wheelis ML |author1-link=Carl Woese |author2-link=Otto Kandler |author3-link=Mark Wheelis |title=Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=87 |issue=12 |pages=4576–4579 |date=June 1990 |pmid=2112744 |pmc=54159 |doi=10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 |bibcode=1990PNAS...87.4576W |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Knoll 1992">{{cite journal |last=Knoll |first=Andrew H. |name-list-style=vanc |authorlink=Andrew H. Knoll |title=The Early Evolution of Eukaryotes: A Geological Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1992-05-01_256_5057/page/622 |journal=Science |volume=256 |issue=5057 |year=1992 |doi=10.1126/science.1585174 |pages=622–627 |pmid=1585174 |bibcode=1992Sci...256..622K |quote=Eucarya, or eukaryotes}}</ref> Pamahaman ngeunaan branchings pangkolotna dina tangkal kahirupan ngan dimekarkeun substansi kalawan runtuyan DNA, pangheulana kana sistem domain tinimbang karajaan salaku pangkat tingkat luhur anu diajukeun ku [[Carl Woese]], [[Otto Kandler]], sareng [[Mark Wheelis]] taun 1990, ngahijikeun sakabéh karajaan eukariota dina domain "Eucarya", nyatakeun, kumaha ogé, yén "'eukariota' bakal terus jadi [[sinonim]] umum bisa ditarima".<ref name=Rothschild1989/> Dina taun 1996, ahli biologi évolusionér [[Lynn Margulis]] ngusulkeun pikeun ngagentos Karajaan sareng Domain sareng nami "inklusif" pikeun nyiptakeun "filogéni dumasar simbiosis", masihan katerangan "Eukarya (organismee nukleus turunan simbiosis)".<ref name="Margulis 1996">{{cite journal |last=Margulis |first=Lynn |authorlink=Lynn Margulis |name-list-style=vanc |title=Archaeal-eubacterial mergers in the origin of Eukarya: phylogenetic classification of life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=93 |issue=3 |date=6 February 1996 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.3.1071 |pages=1071–1076 |pmid=8577716 |pmc=40032 |bibcode=1996PNAS...93.1071M |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Filogéni=== Nepi ka 2014, konsensus kasar mimiti muncul tina studi filogénomik dua dasawarsa saméméhna.<ref name="burki2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F |title=The eukaryotic tree of life from a global phylogenomic perspective |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=a016147 |date=May 2014 |pmid=24789819 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a016147 |pmc=3996474 }}</ref><ref name="UntanglingEarlyEukaryotes">{{cite journal |vauthors=Burki F, Kaplan M, Tikhonenkov DV, Zlatogursky V, Minh BQ, Radaykina LV, Smirnov A, Mylnikov AP, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Untangling the early diversification of eukaryotes: a phylogenomic study of the evolutionary origins of Centrohelida, Haptophyta and Cryptista |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |volume=283 |issue=1823 |pages=20152802 |date=January 2016 |pmid=26817772 |pmc=4795036 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2015.2802 }}</ref> Mayoritas eukariota bisa ditempatkeun dina salah sahiji dua ''[[clades]]'' badag disebut ''[[Amorphea]]'' (komposisi sarupa jeung hipotésa unikont) jeung ''[[Diphoda]]'' (baheulana bikonts), nu ngawengku tutuwuhan jeung lolobana turunan ganggang.<ref name="SchönZlatogursky2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schön ME, Zlatogursky VV, Singh RP, Poirier C, Wilken S, Mathur V, Strassert JF, Pinhassi J, Worden AZ, Keeling PJ, Ettema TJ |display-authors=3 |title=Picozoa are archaeplastids without plastid |journal=Nature Communications |year=2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6651 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26918-0 |pmid=34789758 |pmc=8599508 |biorxiv=10.1101/2021.04.14.439778 |s2cid=233328713 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:umu:diva-189959 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202091441/https://umu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1614928&dswid=-3028 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grup utama katilu, ''[[Excavata]]'', parantos ditinggalkeun salaku grup formal sabab ''[[paraphyletic]]''/ampir sampurna. Filogén anu diusulkeun di handap ieu ngan ukur kalebet hiji kumpulan ékskavasi (Discoba), sareng ngalebetkeun usulan 2021 yén ''[[picozoan]]'' mangrupikeun baraya deukeut ''[[rhodophytes]]''. ''[[Provora]]'' mangrupikeun sakumpulan prédator mikroba anu kapanggih dina 2022.<ref name="Provora">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tikhonenkov DV, Mikhailov KV, Gawryluk RM, Belyaev AO, Mathur V, Karpov SA, Zagumyonnyi DG, Borodina AS, Prokina KI, Mylnikov AP, Aleoshin VV, Keeling PJ |display-authors=3 |title=Microbial predators form a new supergroup of eukaryotes |journal=Nature |date=December 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7941 |pages=714–719 |pmid=36477531 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05511-5 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..714T |s2cid=254436650 }}</ref> {{stem group kingdoms}} {{clear}} Sisipkan tabel disini Hiji pintonan karajaan hébat sarta grup bobot maranéhanana. ''Metamonada hésé ditempatkeun, jadi adina meureun ka Discob, jigana ka Malawimonada.''<ref name="Brown 2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Heiss |first2=Aaron A. |last3=Kamikawa |first3=Ryoma |last4=Inagaki |first4=Yuji |last5=Yabuki |first5=Akinori |last6=Tice |first6=Alexander K |last7=Shiratori |first7=Takashi |last8=Ishida |first8=Ken-Ichiro |last9=Hashimoto |first9=Tetsuo |last10=Simpson |first10=Alastair |last11=Roger |first11=Andrew |name-list-style=vanc |date=2018-01-19 |title=Phylogenomics Places Orphan Protistan Lineages in a Novel Eukaryotic Super-Group|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evy014 |pmc=5793813|pmid=29360967}}</ref> ===Asal usul eukariota=== [[File:Symbiogenesis 2 mergers.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dina téori [[simbiogenesis]], ngahiji tina ''[[''archaean'']]'' jeung ''[[baktéri aérobik]]'' nyiptakeun ''[[eukariota]]'', jeung ''[[mitokondria aérobik]]''; ngahiji kadua ditambahkeun ''[[kloroplas]]'', nyieun tutuwuhan héjo.<ref name=latorre/>]] Asal usul sél ''[[eukariot]]'', atawa ''[[eukariogenesis]]'', mangrupakeun milestone (titik hontalan) dina évolusi kahirupan, sabab ''[[eukariota]]'' ngawengku sakabéh sél kompléks jeung ampir sakabéh organismeu [[multisélular]].<ref name="Gabaldón">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gabaldón T |title=Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell |journal=Annual Review of Microbiology |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=631–647 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34343017 |doi=10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213 |s2cid=236916203 }}</ref> Karuhun umum eukariot panungtung (LECA) tayalian asal hipotétis ti sakabéh eukariota hidup, tur éta paling dipikaresep populasi biologis, lain individu tunggal.<ref name="O'Malley Leger Wideman Ruiz-Trillo pp. 338–344">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Malley MA, Leger MM, Wideman JG, Ruiz-Trillo I |title=Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=338–344 |date=March 2019 |pmid=30778187 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..338O |hdl-access=free |s2cid=67790751 |hdl=10261/201794 }}</ref> LECA dipercaya mangrupa [[protista]] nu boga inti, sahenteuna hiji ''[[centriole]]'' sareng ''[[flagellum]]'', mitokondria aérobik fakultatif, kelamin (meiosis jeung syngamy), kista dorman kalawan témbok sél ''[[kitin]]'' atawa ''[[selulosa]]'', sarta ''[[peroksisom]]''. <ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Leander BS |title=Predatory protists |journal=Current Biology |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=R510–R516 |date=May 2020 |pmid=32428491 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.052 |s2cid=218710816 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020CBio...30.R510L }}</ref><ref name="RedAlgalDerivedPlastids">{{cite journal |vauthors=Strassert JF, Irisarri I, Williams TA, Burki F |title=A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1879 |date=March 2021 |pmid=33767194 |pmc=7994803 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.1879S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Koumandou Wickstead Ginger van der Giezen 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Koumandou |first1=V. Lila |last2=Wickstead |first2=Bill |last3=Ginger |first3=Michael L. |last4=van der Giezen |first4=Mark |last5=Dacks |first5=Joel B. |last6=Field |first6=Mark C. |name-list-style=vanc |title=Molecular paleontology and complexity in the last eukaryotic common ancestor |journal=Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology |volume=48 |issue=4 |year=2013 |doi=10.3109/10409238.2013.821444 |pages=373–396|pmid=23895660 |pmc=3791482 }}</ref> Gabungan éndosimbiotik antara ''[[archaea]]'' ''anaérobik motil'' jeung ''[[alphaproteobacterium]] aérobik'' ngalahirkeun LECA jeung sakabéh [[''eukariota'']], kalawan ''[[mitokondria]]''. Sadetik, loba engké ''[[endosymbiosis]]'' jeung ''[[cyanobacterium]]'' ngahudangkeun karuhun [[tutuwuhan]], kalawan ''[[kloroplas]]''.<ref name=latorre>{{cite book |vauthors=Latorre A, Durban A, Moya A, Pereto J |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |chapter=The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution |title=Origins and Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective |veditors=Gargaud M, López-Garcìa P, Martin H |year=2011 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=326–339 |isbn=978-0-521-76131-4 |access-date=27 August 2017 |archive-date=24 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324055723/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3oFebknu1cC&pg=PA326 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ayana ''biomarker eukariot'' dina [[archaea]] nunjuk ka arah asal ''[[archaeal]]''. ''Genom Asgard archaea'' gaduh seueur gén protéin tanda tangan ''[[Eukariot]]'', nu maénkeun peran kacida penting dina ngembangkeun ''[[sitoskeleton]]'' jeung ''struktur'' sélular kompléks ciri ''eukariota''. Dina 2022, tomografi cryo-éléktron nunjukkeun yén ''[[Asgard archaea]]'' boga [[sitoskeleton]] basis aktin kompléks, nyadiakeun bukti ''visual'' langsung munggaran ngeunaan karuhun ''[[archaeal eukariota]]''.<ref name="Rodrigues-Oliveira et al 2023">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rodrigues-Oliveira T, Wollweber F, Ponce-Toledo RI, etal. |title=Actin cytoskeleton and complex cell architecture in an Asgard archaean |journal=Nature |volume=613 |pages=332–339 |date=2023 |issue=7943 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05550-y|pmid=36544020 |pmc=9834061 |bibcode=2023Natur.613..332R |hdl=20.500.11850/589210 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ===Fosil=== Waktu asal usul ''[[eukariota]]'' sesah ditetepkeun tapi kapanggihna ''Qingshania magnificia'', ''eukariota multiseluler'' pangheubeulna ti [[Cina]] Kalér nu hirup salila 1,635 milyar taun ka tukang, nunjukkeun yén grup mahkota eukariota asalna ti [[Paleoproterozoic]] ahir (Statherian); [[Eukariota uniseluler]] pangheubeulna [[unequivocal]] nu hirup salila kurang leuwih 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang ogé kapanggih ti Cina Kalér:''Tappania plana'', ''Shuiyousphaeridium macroreticulatum'', ''Dictyosphaera macroreticulata'', ''Germinosphaera alveolata'', sareng ''Valeria lophostriata''. Sababaraha ''[[acritarchs]]'' dipikanyaho ti sahenteuna 1,65 milyar taun ka tukang, jeung fosil, ''[[Grypania]]'', nu bisa jadi [[alga]], nyaéta saloba 2,1 milyar taun. hiji "masalah" fosil Diskagma geus kapanggih dina ''[[paleosol]]'' heubeul 2,2 miliar taun.<ref name="Retallack 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Retallack GJ, Krull ES, Thackray GD, Parkinson DH |title= Problematic urn-shaped fossils from a Paleoproterozoic (2.2 Ga) paleosol in South Africa. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_precambrian-research_2013-09_235/page/71 |journal=Precambrian Research |year=2013 |volume=235 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2013.05.015 |bibcode=2013PreR..235...71R }}</ref> [[File:Diskagma butonii.jpg|thumb|left|Rekonstruksi tina masalah <ref name="Retallack 2013"/> ''[[Diskagma buttonii]]'', fosil terestrial jangkungna kirang ti 1mm, tina batu heubeul sabudeureun 2,2 milyar taun]] Struktur anu diusulkeun pikeun ngagambarkeun "organisme kolonial badag" geus kapanggih dina shales hideung tina ''[[Palaeoproterozoic]]'' kayaning Formasi Francevillian B, di Gabon, dijuluki "biota Francevillian" anu umurna 2,1 milyar taun. <ref name="El Albani Bengtson Canfield 2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=El Albani A, Bengtson S, Canfield DE, Bekker A, Macchiarelli R, Mazurier A, Hammarlund EU, Boulvais P, Dupuy JJ, Fontaine C, Fürsich FT, Gauthier-Lafaye F, Janvier P, Javaux E, Ossa FO, Pierson-Wickmann AC, Riboulleau A, Sardini P, Vachard D, Whitehouse M, Meunier A |display-authors=3 |s2cid=4331375 |title=Large colonial organisms with coordinated growth in oxygenated environments 2.1 Gyr ago |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-07-01_466_7302/page/100 |journal=Nature |volume=466 |issue=7302 |pages=100–104 |date=July 2010 |pmid=20596019 |doi=10.1038/nature09166 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..100A }}</ref> Tapi, status struktur ieu salaku fosil dilombakeun, kalawan pangarang séjén suggesting yén maranéhna bisa ngagambarkeun pseudofossils. Fosil-fosil pangkolotna anu teu jelas ditugaskeun ka eukariota nyaéta ti Grup Ruyang Cina, kira-kira 1,8-1,6 milyar taun ka tukang.<ref name="El Albani 2023">{{cite journal |title=A search for life in Palaeoproterozoic marine sediments using Zn isotopes and geochemistry |last=El Albani |first=Abderrazak |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2023 |volume=623 |page=118169 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118169|bibcode=2023E&PSL.61218169E |s2cid=258360867 |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-04095643/file/El%20Albani%20et%20al._EPSL_2023.pdf }}</ref> Fosil anu jelas patali jeung grup modern mimiti muncul kira 1,2 miliar taun ka tukang, dina bentuk ganggang beureum, sanajan karya panganyarna nunjukkeun ayana fosil ganggang filamén dina cekungan Vindhya dating deui meureun 1,6 nepi ka 1,7 miliar taun ka tukang.<ref name="Ossa Ossa Pons Bekker Hofmann 2023">{{cite journal | last1=Ossa Ossa | first1=Frantz | last2=Pons | first2=Marie-Laure | last3=Bekker | first3=Andrey | last4=Hofmann | first4=Axel | last5=Poulton | first5=Simon W. | last6=Andersen | first6=Morten B. | last7=Agangi | first7=Andrea | last8=Gregory | first8=Daniel | last9=Reinke | first9=Christian | last10=Steinhilber | first10=Bernd | last11=Marin-Carbonne | first11=Johanna | last12=Schoenberg | first12=Ronny | display-authors=5 | title=Zinc enrichment and isotopic fractionation in a marine habitat of the c. 2.1 Ga Francevillian Group: A signature of zinc utilization by eukaryotes? | journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters | volume=611 | date=2023 | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118147 | page=118147| doi-access=free | bibcode=2023E&PSL.61118147O | url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/197720/8/1-s2.0-S0012821X23001607-main.pdf }}</ref> Ayana steranes, biomarker khusus eukariot, dina shales Australia saméméhna nunjukkeun yén eukariota aya dina batuan ieu tanggal 2,7 milyar taun,tapi biomarker Archaean ieu geus rebutted salaku rereged engké. Catetan biomarker valid pangkolotna umurna ngan sakitar 800 juta taun. Sabalikna, analisis jam molekular nunjukkeun mecenghulna biosintésis stérol ti mimiti 2,3 milyar taun ka tukang. Sifat sterana salaku biomarker eukariot langkung rumit ku produksi stérol ku sababaraha baktéri.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wei JH, Yin X, Welander PV |title=Sterol Synthesis in Diverse Bacteria |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=7 |pages=990 |date=2016-06-24 |pmid=27446030 |pmc=4919349 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.00990 |doi-access=free |authorlink3=Paula V. Welander }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoshino Y, Gaucher EA |title=Evolution of bacterial steroid biosynthesis and its impact on eukaryogenesis |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=118 |issue=25 |pages=e2101276118 |date=June 2021 |pmid=34131078 |pmc=8237579 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2101276118 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11801276H |doi-access=free }}</ref> Iraha waé asal-usulna, eukariot bisa jadi teu jadi dominan sacara ékologis nepi ka engké; kanaékan masif dina komposisi séng sédimén laut 800 juta taun ka tukang geus dikaitkeun kana kabangkitan populasi badag eukariota, nu preferentially meakeun jeung ngasupkeun séng relatif ka prokariot, kira-kira samilyar taun sanggeus asal maranéhanana (paling panganyarna)<ref name="pmid29869832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Isson TT, Love GD, Dupont CL, Reinhard CT, Zumberge AJ, Asael D, Gueguen B, McCrow J, Gill BC, Owens J, Rainbird RH, Rooney AD, Zhao MY, Stueeken EE, Konhauser KO, John SG, Lyons TW, Planavsky NJ |display-authors=3 |title=Tracking the rise of eukaryotes to ecological dominance with zinc isotopes |journal=Geobiology |volume=16|issue=4|pages=341–352|date=June 2018 |pmid=29869832 |doi=10.1111/gbi.12289 |bibcode=2018Gbio...16..341I |doi-access=free }}</ref> ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Élmu alam]] [[Kategori:Élmu]] oet7iefun5oz3o68ojshlspfiiuh9ij Liang hideung badag kacida 0 106074 712388 697678 2026-08-28T22:22:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712388 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Black hole - Messier 87.jpg|thumb|alt=|upright=1.5|Hiji gambar pangmimitina nu bener-bener némbongkeun liang hideung badag kacida, katimu dina puseur galaksi Messier 87.<ref name="NYT-20190410">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=|title=Black Hole Picture Revealed for the First Time – Astronomers at last have captured an image of the darkest entities in the cosmos – Comments |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/science/black-hole-picture.html?comments#permid=31473598 |date=April 10, 2019 |work=The New York Times|access-date=April 10, 2019 }}</ref><ref name="APJL-20190410">{{cite journal |author=The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration |title=First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. I. The Shadow of the Supermassive Black Hole |date=April 10, 2019 |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal Letters]]|volume=875 |pages=L1 |number=1 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab0ec7 |arxiv=1906.11238 |author-link=|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019ApJ...875L...1E }}</ref> Ieu dideuleuna téh ti béh luhur, nu matak kaciri ka beulah handap kana galaksi nu ngabura.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration |last2=Akiyama |first2=Kazunori |last3=Alberdi |first3=Antxon |last4=Alef |first4=Walter |last5=Asada |first5=Keiichi |last6=Azulay |first6=Rebecca |last7=Baczko |first7=Anne-Kathrin |last8=Ball |first8=David |last9=Baloković |first9=Mislav |last10=Barrett |first10=John |last11=Bintley |first11=Dan |last12=Blackburn |first12=Lindy |last13=Boland |first13=Wilfred |last14=Bouman |first14=Katherine L. |last15=Bower |first15=Geoffrey C. |date=2019-04-10 |title=First M87 Event Horizon Telescope Results. V. Physical Origin of the Asymmetric Ring |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=875 |issue=1 |page=See especially Fig. 5 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ab0f43 |arxiv=1906.11242 |bibcode=2019ApJ...875L...5E |issn=2041-8213|hdl=10150/633753 |s2cid=145894922 |hdl-access=free |doi-access=free }}</ref>]] '''Liang hideung badag kacida''' nu dipikawanoh dina [[basa Inggris]] salaku '''''supermassive black hole''''' disingget '''SMBH''' atawa '''SBH''' nyaéta hiji [[liang hideung]], anu miboga [[massa]] aya kana ratusan rébu, jutaan, atawa miliaran kalina massa [[panonpoé]] ('''{{solar mass}}'''). Ari liang hideung sorangan nyaéta objék astronomi nu geus ngarandapan runtagna gravitasi, nyésakeun hiji daérah rohang angkasa nu wangunna buleud, di dinya, euweuh hiji-hiji acan objék nu bakal bisa ngaléos, kaasup [[cahya]]. Tina bukti-bukti nu geus katénjo, ampir unggal galaksi miboga liang hideung badag kacida dina puseurna.<ref name=Kormendy1995>{{citation | title=Inward Bound—The Search For Supermassive Black Holes In Galactic Nuclei | last1=Kormendy | first1=John | last2=Richstone | first2=Douglas | journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=33 | year=1995 | page=581 | doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.33.090195.003053 | bibcode=1995ARA&A..33..581K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kormendy |first1=John |last2=Ho |first2=Luis |title=Coevolution (Or Not) of Supermassive Black Holes and Host Galaxies |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |date=2013 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=511–653 |doi=10.1146/annurev-astro-082708-101811 |bibcode=2013ARA&A..51..511K|arxiv=1304.7762 |s2cid=118172025 }}</ref> Kawas, galaksi [[Catang Bobo|catang bobo]] (''milky way'') boga liang hideung badag kacida nu luyu jeung sumber radio Sagitarius A*.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghez |first1=A. |last2=Klein |first2=B. |last3=Morris |first3=M. |last4=Becklin |first4=E |title=High Proper-Motion Stars in the Vicinity of Sagittarius A*: Evidence for a Supermassive Black Hole at the Center of Our Galaxy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1998-12-20_509_2/page/678 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=1998 |volume=509 |issue=2 |pages=678–686 |doi=10.1086/306528 |bibcode=1998ApJ...509..678G|arxiv=astro-ph/9807210 |s2cid=18243528 }}</ref><ref> {{cite journal |last=Schödel |first=R. |display-authors=etal |date=2002 |title=A star in a 15.2-year orbit around the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-10-17_419_6908/page/694 |journal=Nature |volume=419 |issue=6908 |pages=694–696 |doi=10.1038/nature01121 |pmid=12384690 |arxiv = astro-ph/0210426 |bibcode = 2002Natur.419..694S |s2cid=4302128 }}</ref> Akrési gas unggalbéntang kana liang hideung badag kacida téh prosés anu boga papancén pikeun méré tanaga keur inti galaksi aktif (AGN) jeung quasar.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frank|first1=Juhan|last2=King|first2=Andrew|last3=Raine|first3=Derek J.|date=January 2002|chapter=Accretion Power in Astrophysics: Third Edition|bibcode=2002apa..book.....F|title=Accretion Power in Astrophysics|isbn=0521620538|place= Cambridge, UK|publisher= Cambridge University Press}}</ref> == Béréndélan pabukuan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Liang hideung]] 6ai0r75a3hnn1ewmahozh0eijxrf8j8 Nukléolar leutik SNORD12 / SNORD106 0 106153 712334 675601 2026-08-28T21:02:22Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712334 wikitext text/x-wiki Dina biologi molekular, '''RNA nukleolar leutik SNORD106 sareng SNORD12''' (ogé katelah '''U106''' sareng '''HBII-99''' masing-masing) mangrupikeun dua snoRNA anu aya hubunganana sareng kalebet kelas C/D tina RNA nukleolar leutik (snoRNA). Duanana ngandung motif runtuyan kotak C (UGAUGA) jeung D (CUGA) anu dilestarikan <ref>{{Cite journal|date=November 2003|title=Identification of 13 novel human modification guide RNAs|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=31|issue=22|pages=6543–51|doi=10.1093/nar/gkg849|pmc=275545|pmid=14602913|coauthors=Vitali P, Royo H, Seitz H, Bachellerie JP, Hüttenhofer A, Cavaillé J}}</ref>{{Infobox rfam|Name=Small nucleolar SNORD12/SNORD106|image=RF00581.jpg|width=|caption=Predicted [[secondary structure]] and [[sequence conservation]] of SNORD12|Symbol=SNORD12|AltSymbols=SNORD106; snoHBII-99|Rfam=RF00581|miRBase=|miRBase_family=|RNA_type=[[Gene]]; [[Small nuclear RNA|snRNA]]; [[Small nucleolar RNA|snoRNA]]; C/D-box|Tax_domain=[[Eukaryota]]|GO={{GO|0006396}} {{GO|0005730}}|SO={{SO|0000593}}|CAS_number=|EntrezGene=|HGNCid=|OMIM=|PDB=|RefSeq=|Chromosome=|Arm=|Band=|LocusSupplementaryData=}}Manusa SNORD12 (HBII-99) nyaéta homolog mouse snoRNA MBII-99. Dina manusa, duanana snoRNA HB11-99 sareng U106 ngabagi gén host anu sami. <ref name="pmid16381836">{{Cite journal|date=January 2006|title=snoRNA-LBME-db, a comprehensive database of human H/ACA and C/D box snoRNAs|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=34|issue=Database issue|pages=D158-62|doi=10.1093/nar/gkj002|pmc=1347365|pmid=16381836|coauthors=Lestrade L, Weber MJ}}</ref> <ref name="pmid21460236">{{Cite journal|date=May 2011|title=SNORD-host RNA Zfas1 is a regulator of mammary development and a potential marker for breast cancer|journal=RNA|volume=17|issue=5|pages=878–91|doi=10.1261/rna.2528811|pmc=3078737|pmid=21460236|coauthors=Askarian-Amiri ME, Crawford J, French JD, Smart CE, Smith MA, Clark MB, Ru K, Mercer TR, Thompson ER, Lakhani SR, Vargas AC, Campbell IG, Brown MA, Dinger ME, Mattick JS}}</ref> euseueurna anggota kulawarga kotak C/D berpungsi dina ngarahkeun métilasi 2'-O-spésifik situs RNA substrat. HBII-99 diprediksi bakal nungtun metilasi 2'O-ribosa tina 28S rRNA G3878. <ref>{{Cite journal|date=June 2001|title=RNomics: an experimental approach that identifies 201 candidates for novel, small, non-messenger RNAs in mouse|journal=The EMBO Journal|volume=20|issue=11|pages=2943–53|doi=10.1093/emboj/20.11.2943|pmc=125495|pmid=11387227|coauthors=Hüttenhofer A, Kiefmann M, Meier-Ewert S, O'Brien J, Lehrach H, Bachellerie JP, Brosius J}}</ref> U106 ngandung unsur antisense anu dilestarikan anu bakal ngaramalkeun résidu métilat U106 G1536 sareng U1602 tina 18S rRNA . <ref>{{Cite journal|date=April 2002|title=Small nucleolar RNAs: an abundant group of noncoding RNAs with diverse cellular functions|url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2002-04-19_109_2/page/n32|journal=Cell|volume=109|issue=2|pages=145–8|doi=10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00718-3|pmid=12007400|archiveurl=free|coauthors=Kiss T}}</ref> Nanging, udagan-udagan ieu henteu katingalina dimétilasi sareng U106 tiasa dianggo salaku chaperone RNA salami lipatan rRNA. <ref name="pmid16381836" /> A peran sarupa geus ngusulkeun pikeun H / ACA snoRNAs U17a na U17b <ref name="pmid16381836" /> hyysig5uzabxbjiw9o57u4no2aq7hid Waktos konsentrasi 0 106161 712322 675713 2026-08-28T20:46:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712322 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Waktu konsentrasi''' nyaéta konsép anu digunakeun dina [[hidrologi]] pikeun ngukur réspon hiji DAS kana kajadian hujan. Diartikeun salaku waktos anu diperlukeun pikeun cai ngalir ti titik paling jauh di DAS ka outlet DAS. Ieu fungsi tina topografi, géologi, jeung tata guna lahan dina DAS. Sajumlah métode bisa dipaké pikeun ngitung waktu konsentrasi, kaasup métode Kirpich (1940) <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kirpich|first=Z.P.|date=1940|title=Time of concentration of small agricultural watersheds|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_civil-engineering-1930_civil-engineering_1940-06_10_6/page/362|journal=Civil Engineering|volume=10|issue=6|page=362}}</ref> jeung NRCS (1997) <ref>{{Cite report|date=1997|url=https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/16/stelprdb1246427.pdf}}</ref> . Waktos konsentrasi mangpaat dina ngaramal laju aliran anu bakal hasil tina badai hypothetical, nu dumasar kana statistik diturunkeun perioda balik ngaliwatan kurva IDF . <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Monjo|first=R.|date=2016|title=Measure of rainfall time structure using the dimensionless n-index|journal=Climate Research|volume=67|issue=1|pages=71–86|bibcode=2016ClRes..67...71M|doi=10.3354/cr01359|archiveurl=free}} [https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr_oa/c067p071.pdf (pdf)]</ref> Pikeun seueur alesan (sering ékonomi), penting pikeun insinyur sareng ahli hidrologi pikeun tiasa ngaduga sacara akurat réspon hiji DAS kana kajadian hujan. Ieu bisa jadi penting pikeun pangwangunan infrastruktur (desain [[sasak]], culverts, jsb) jeung manajemén, kitu ogé pikeun assess resiko banjir saperti ARkStorm -skenario. == Conto == [[Gambar:Equaltimeofoutflowlines.gif|kiri|jmpl|400x400px| diagram NOAA ngagambarkeun konsép dasar waktu konsentrasi]] Gambar ieu nunjukkeun prinsip dasar anu ngarah kana tekad waktos konsentrasi. Sapertos peta topografi anu nunjukkeun garis anu jangkungna sami, peta kalayan isoline tiasa didamel pikeun nunjukkeun lokasi kalayan waktos perjalanan anu sami ka outlet DAS. Dina conto saderhana ieu, outlet DAS perenahna di handapeun gambar kalayan aliran ngalir ngaliwatan eta. Mindahkeun peta, urang tiasa nyarios yén curah hujan anu turun ka sadaya tempat sapanjang garis konéng munggaran bakal dugi ka outlet DAS dina waktos anu sami. Ieu bener keur unggal garis konéng, kalawan unggal garis leuwih jauh ti outlet pakait jeung waktu perjalanan gede pikeun runoff iinditan ka outlet di. Salaku tambahan, sakumaha anu ditingalikeun dina gambar ieu, répréséntasi spasial waktos perjalanan tiasa dirobih janten plot distribusi kumulatif anu detil kumaha waktos perjalanan disebarkeun ka sakumna daérah DAS. [[Kategori:Hidrologi]] jyxnngfmq5q9r483y8nuh3mlqpwsz07 Évolusi réproduksi séksual 0 106995 712441 697970 2026-08-28T23:33:58Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712441 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Évolusi réproduksi séksual''' téh mangrupa hiji cara adaptasi anu ilahar kapanggih dina ampir kabéh [[organisme multi-sél]], ogé dina sabagéan [[organisme sél tunggal]]. Loba di antarana anu teu bisa baranak sacara [[aséksual]]. Saméméh aya sistem réproduksi séksual, prosés parobahan [[Génétika|gén]] ti hiji generasi ka generasi salajengna liwat mutasi lumangsungna lalaunan jeung acak. Jinis kalamin mekar jadi hiji mékanisme anu épisién pikeun ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa variasi génétik, anu méré kauntungan supaya organisme bisa nyaluyukeun diri jeung parobahan lingkungan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The masterpiece of nature: the evolution and genetics of sexuality|last=Bell|first=Graham|publisher=University of California Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-520-04583-5|location=Berkeley}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, séks mibanda ongkos sorangan. Dina réproduksi aséksual, organisme teu kudu méakkeun waktu atawa tanaga pikeun milih pasangan. Lamun kaayaan lingkungan tetep sarua, variasi génétik téh bisa jadi teu pati diperlukeun sabab organisme geus cukup adaptif. Najan kitu, séks geus jadi cara utama nu ngajadikeun rupa-rupa [[spésiés]] bisa tumuwuh jeung nyabang dina tangkal kahirupan. Prosés diversifikasi atawa ngabentuk cabang anyar dina [[tangkal filogénétik]] lumangsung leuwih gancang ngaliwatan [[réproduksi séksual]] tibatan [[réproduksi aséksual]]. Évolusi réproduksi séksual ngajelaskeun kumaha [[sato]], [[tutuwuhan]], [[jamur]], jeung [[protista]] anu baranak sacara séksual bisa mekar tina karuhun anu sarua, nyaéta [[spésiés éukariotik sél tunggal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://itol.embl.de/|title=iTOL: Interactive Tree Of Life|last=Letunic|first=Ivica|website=itol.embl.de|language=en|accessdate=2025-10-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Letunic|first=Ivica|last2=Bork|first2=Peer|date=2007-01-01|title=Interactive Tree Of Life (iTOL): an online tool for phylogenetic tree display and annotation|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/article/23/1/127/188940|journal=Bioinformatics|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=127–128|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btl529|issn=1367-4811}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Letunic|first=I.|last2=Bork|first2=P.|date=2011-07-01|title=Interactive Tree Of Life v2: online annotation and display of phylogenetic trees made easy|url=https://academic.oup.com/nar/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/nar/gkr201|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|language=en|volume=39|issue=suppl|pages=W475–W478|doi=10.1093/nar/gkr201|issn=0305-1048|pmc=3125724|pmid=21470960}}</ref> Réproduksi séksual sumebar lega dina kelompok [[Eukaryota|Éukarya]], sanajan sababaraha spésiés aya anu leungit kamampuhan séksualna, saperti [[Bdelloidea]]. Sababaraha tutuwuhan jeung sato ogé bisa baranak sacara aséksual ngaliwatan [[apomiksis]] jeung [[partenogénésis]] tanpa leungit kalamina sakabéhna. Panalungtikan ngeunaan évolusi séks ngawengku dua hal anu patalina, nya éta asal-usulna jeung kumaha éta sistem bisa terus dipertahankeun. == Sumber rujukan == <references /> == Bacaan leuwih réa == * {{Cite book|last=Bell|first=Graham|author-link=Graham Bell (biologist)|title=The masterpiece of nature: the evolution and genetics of sexuality|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1982|isbn=978-0-520-04583-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Bernstein|first=Carol|author2=Harris Bernstein|title=Aging, sex, and DNA repair|url=https://archive.org/details/agingsexdnarepai0000bern|publisher=Academic Press|location=Boston|year=1991|isbn=978-0-12-092860-6}} * {{Cite journal|last=Hurst|first=L.D.|author2=J.R. Peck|year=1996|title=Recent advances in the understanding of the evolution and maintenance of sex|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-ecology-evolution_1996_11_2/page/46|journal=[[Trends in Ecology and Evolution]]|volume=11|issue=2|pages=46–52|doi=10.1016/0169-5347(96)81041-X|pmid=21237760}} * {{Cite book|last=Levin|first=Bruce R.|author2=Richard E. Michod|title=The Evolution of sex: an examination of current ideas|publisher=Sinauer Associates|location=Sunderland, Mass|year=1988|isbn=978-0-87893-459-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofsexex0000unse}} == Tutumbu luar == * [http://www.livescience.com/health/050330_sex_good.html Why Sex is Good] * [http://www.philippwesche.org/old1/es.html An essay summarising the different theories], dating from around 2001 * http://www.evolocus.com/Textbooks/Geodakian2012.pdf 71rp88qtey5z0hqj720h0f5op7lubon Métagénomik 0 107681 712354 703546 2026-08-28T21:38:14Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 8 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Genetics sidebar}}   [[Gambar:Environmental_shotgun_sequencing.png|jmpl|Dina métagénomik, bahan genetik ( [[DNA]], '''C''' ) diekstrak langsung tina sampel nu dicokot ti lingkungan (misalna taneuh, cai laut, usus manusa, '''A''' ) sanggeus nyaring ( '''B''' ), sarta diurutkeun ( '''E''' ) sanggeus multiplikasi ku kloning ( '''D''' ) dina pendekatan nu disebut shotgun sequencing . Runtuyan pondok ieu lajeng bisa dihijikeun deui ngagunakeun métode assembly ( '''F''' ) pikeun deduce génom individu atawa bagéan génom nu mangrupakeun sampel lingkungan aslina. Inpormasi ieu teras tiasa dianggo pikeun ngulik karagaman spésiés sareng poténsi fungsional komunitas mikroba lingkungan. ]] '''Métagénomika''' nyaéta ulikan ngeunaan sakabéh bahan [[Génétika|génétik]] ti sakabéh [[organismeu]] dina hiji lingkungan, anu nyadiakeun wawasan ngeunaan komposisi pangeusina, karageman, sarta poténsi pungsionalna. Métagénomika geus ngamungkinkeun para panalungtik pikeun ngimeutan kandungan mikroba sampel [[Lingkungan hirup|lingkungan]] jeung klinis tanpa perlu ngultur anu méakkeun waktu. Métagénomika geus ngarobah ékologi mikroba jeung biologi évolusionér ku ngungkab kapabilitas biodiversitas jeung métabolik anu saméméhna nyumput. Ku turunna biaya sekuensing DNA, kiwari studi métagénomik geus matuh ngimeutan ratusan dugi ka rébuan conto, ngamungkinkeun éksplorasi komunitas mikroba skala gedé katut peranna dina kaséhatan sareng ékosistem global. <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Pinto|first=Yishay|last2=Bhatt|first2=Ami S.|date=December 2024|title=Sequencing-based analysis of microbiomes|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41576-024-00746-6|journal=Nature Reviews Genetics|language=en|volume=25|issue=12|pages=829–845|doi=10.1038/s41576-024-00746-6|issn=1471-0064|pmid=38918544}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Luke R.|last2=Sanders|first2=Jon G.|last3=McDonald|first3=Daniel|last4=Amir|first4=Amnon|last5=Ladau|first5=Joshua|last6=Locey|first6=Kenneth J.|last7=Prill|first7=Robert J.|last8=Tripathi|first8=Anupriya|last9=Gibbons|first9=Sean M.|date=November 2017|title=A communal catalogue reveals Earth's multiscale microbial diversity|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=551|issue=7681|pages=457–463|bibcode=2017Natur.551..457T|doi=10.1038/nature24621|issn=1476-4687|pmc=6192678|pmid=29088705}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Christopher J.|last2=Ajami|first2=Nadim J.|last3=O’Brien|first3=Jacqueline L.|last4=Hutchinson|first4=Diane S.|last5=Smith|first5=Daniel P.|last6=Wong|first6=Matthew C.|last7=Ross|first7=Matthew C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Richard E.|last9=Doddapaneni|first9=HarshaVardhan|date=October 2018|title=Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=562|issue=7728|pages=583–588|bibcode=2018Natur.562..583S|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0617-x|issn=1476-4687|pmc=6415775|pmid=30356187}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlino|first=Niccolò|last2=Blanco-Míguez|first2=Aitor|last3=Punčochář|first3=Michal|last4=Mengoni|first4=Claudia|last5=Pinto|first5=Federica|last6=Tatti|first6=Alessia|last7=Manghi|first7=Paolo|last8=Armanini|first8=Federica|last9=Avagliano|first9=Michele|date=2024-10-03|title=Unexplored microbial diversity from 2,500 food metagenomes and links with the human microbiome|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009286742400833X|journal=Cell|volume=187|issue=20|pages=5775–5795.e15|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2024.07.039|issn=0092-8674|pmid=39214080}}</ref> Panalungtikan métagénomik biasana maké sékuénsing shotgun atawa sekuensing bacaan panjang (<nowiki><i>long-read</i></nowiki>).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Luke R.|last2=Sanders|first2=Jon G.|last3=McDonald|first3=Daniel|last4=Amir|first4=Amnon|last5=Ladau|first5=Joshua|last6=Locey|first6=Kenneth J.|last7=Prill|first7=Robert J.|last8=Tripathi|first8=Anupriya|last9=Gibbons|first9=Sean M.|date=November 2017|title=A communal catalogue reveals Earth's multiscale microbial diversity|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=551|issue=7681|pages=457–463|bibcode=2017Natur.551..457T|doi=10.1038/nature24621|issn=1476-4687|pmc=6192678|pmid=29088705}}</ref> Widang ieu ogé disebut salaku '''génomika lingkungan''', '''ékogénomika''', '''génomika komunitas''', atanapi '''mikrobiomika''' anu geus muka pangaweruh ngeunaan kahirupan mikroba saluareun anu biasa diungkabkeun ku cara kultur tradisional. Métagénomika béda ti sekuensing amplikon, katelah ogé métabarkoding atawa sekuensing dumasar PCR.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Luke R.|last2=Sanders|first2=Jon G.|last3=McDonald|first3=Daniel|last4=Amir|first4=Amnon|last5=Ladau|first5=Joshua|last6=Locey|first6=Kenneth J.|last7=Prill|first7=Robert J.|last8=Tripathi|first8=Anupriya|last9=Gibbons|first9=Sean M.|date=November 2017|title=A communal catalogue reveals Earth's multiscale microbial diversity|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=551|issue=7681|pages=457–463|bibcode=2017Natur.551..457T|doi=10.1038/nature24621|issn=1476-4687|pmc=6192678|pmid=29088705}}</ref> Béda utamana nyaéta métodologi dasarna, sabab métagénomika nargétkeun sakabéh DNA dina sampel, anapon sekuénsing amplikon mah husus nargétkeun hiji atawa sababaraha gén husus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Christopher J.|last2=Ajami|first2=Nadim J.|last3=O’Brien|first3=Jacqueline L.|last4=Hutchinson|first4=Diane S.|last5=Smith|first5=Daniel P.|last6=Wong|first6=Matthew C.|last7=Ross|first7=Matthew C.|last8=Lloyd|first8=Richard E.|last9=Doddapaneni|first9=HarshaVardhan|date=October 2018|title=Temporal development of the gut microbiome in early childhood from the TEDDY study|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=562|issue=7728|pages=583–588|bibcode=2018Natur.562..583S|doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0617-x|issn=1476-4687|pmc=6415775|pmid=30356187}}</ref> Pamakéan data ogé béda antara dua pendekatan ieu. Sékuénsing amplikon nyadiakeun utamana propil komunitas anu ngawincik taksa nu hadir dina sampel, anapon métagénomika ngawengku ogé énzim jeung jalurna anu disandina.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlino|first=Niccolò|last2=Blanco-Míguez|first2=Aitor|last3=Punčochář|first3=Michal|last4=Mengoni|first4=Claudia|last5=Pinto|first5=Federica|last6=Tatti|first6=Alessia|last7=Manghi|first7=Paolo|last8=Armanini|first8=Federica|last9=Avagliano|first9=Michele|date=2024-10-03|title=Unexplored microbial diversity from 2,500 food metagenomes and links with the human microbiome|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S009286742400833X|journal=Cell|volume=187|issue=20|pages=5775–5795.e15|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2024.07.039|issn=0092-8674|pmid=39214080}}</ref> Ti heula, sékuénsing amplikon remen dipaké sékuénsing sampel lingkungan pikeun mariksa gén spésipik anu kajaga (''conserved''), kayaning gén rRNA 16S, pikeun nempo profil karageman mikroba. Ieu panalungtikan nunjukkeun yén kalolobaan karageman mikroba teu kabaca ku cara kultur. == Tempo ogé == * Binning * Epidemiologi sareng limbah * Métaproteomik * Ékologi mikroba * Patogenomik * Analisis Virome == Réferénsi == {{Reflist|2|refs=<ref name="Hugenholz1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR | title = Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 180 | issue = 18 | pages = 4765–74 | date = September 1998 | doi = 10.1128/JB.180.18.4765-4774.1998 | pmid = 9733676 | pmc = 107498}}</ref> <ref name="Eisen2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eisen JA | title = Environmental shotgun sequencing: its potential and challenges for studying the hidden world of microbes | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | page = e82 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17355177 | pmc = 1821061 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050082 | doi-access = free}}</ref> <ref name="Handelsman1998">{{cite journal | vauthors = Handelsman J, Rondon MR, Brady SF, Clardy J, Goodman RM | title = Molecular biological access to the chemistry of unknown soil microbes: a new frontier for natural products | journal = Chemistry & Biology | volume = 5 | issue = 10 | pages = R245-9 | date = October 1998 | pmid = 9818143 | doi = 10.1016/S1074-5521(98)90108-9 | doi-access = free}}.</ref> <ref name="Chen2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen K, Pachter L | title = Bioinformatics for whole-genome shotgun sequencing of microbial communities | journal = PLOS Computational Biology | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 106–12 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 16110337 | pmc = 1185649 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0010024 | bibcode = 2005PLSCB...1...24C | doi-access = free}}</ref> <ref name="Lane1985">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lane DJ, Pace B, Olsen GJ, Stahl DA, Sogin ML, Pace NR | title = Rapid determination of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences for phylogenetic analyses | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1985-10_82_20/page/6955 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 82 | issue = 20 | pages = 6955–9 | date = October 1985 | pmid = 2413450 | pmc = 391288 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.82.20.6955 | bibcode = 1985PNAS...82.6955L | doi-access = free}}</ref> <ref name="Pace1991">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmidt TM, DeLong EF, Pace NR | title = Analysis of a marine picoplankton community by 16S rRNA gene cloning and sequencing | journal = Journal of Bacteriology | volume = 173 | issue = 14 | pages = 4371–8 | date = July 1991 | pmid = 2066334 | pmc = 208098 | doi = 10.1128/jb.173.14.4371-4378.1991 | author-link = Norman R. 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pikeun meunteun metode dina metagenomik {{Genomics}} hzeoyyzxym291yn48406a2fwtxjn8yx William Henry Harrison 0 107817 712378 712088 2026-08-28T22:14:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = William Henry Harrison | image = William Henry Harrison.jpg | caption = Portrait, 1840 | order = 9th | office = President of the United States | vicepresident = John Tyler | term_start = March 4, 1841 | term_end = April 4, 1841 | predecessor = [[Martin Van Buren]] | successor = [[John Tyler]] | office1 = [[List of ambassadors of the United States to Colombia|United States Minister to Gran&nbsp;Colombia]] | president1 = {{ubl|[[John Quincy Adams]]|[[Andrew Jackson]]}} | term_start1 = February 5, 1829 | term_end1 = September 26, 1829 | predecessor1 = [[Beaufort Taylor Watts]] | successor1 = [[Thomas Patrick Moore]] | jr/sr2 = United States Senator | state2 = [[Ohio]] | term_start2 = March 4, 1825 | term_end2 = May 20, 1828 | predecessor2 = [[Ethan Allen Brown]] | successor2 = [[Jacob Burnet]] | state_senate3 = Ohio | district3 = [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] | term_start3 = December 5, 1819 | term_end3 = December 2, 1821 | predecessor3 = Ephraim Brown | successor3 = Ephraim Brown | state4 = Ohio | district4 = {{ushr|OH|1|1st}} | term_start4 = October 8, 1816 | term_end4 = March 3, 1819 | predecessor4 = [[John McLean]] | successor4 = [[Thomas R. Ross]] | office5 = 1st [[Governor of Indiana|Governor of the Indiana Territory]] | appointer5 = [[John Adams]] | term_start5 = January 10, 1801 | term_end5 = December 28, 1812 | predecessor5 = Office established | successor5 = [[Thomas Posey]] | office6 = {{br entries|Delegate to the|[[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]|from the [[Northwest Territory]]'s|[[Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district|at-large]] district}} | term_start6 = October 3, 1799 | term_end6 = May 14, 1800 | predecessor6 = Constituency established | successor6 = [[William McMillan (congressman)|William McMillan]] | office7 = 2nd Secretary of the [[Northwest Territory]] | governor7 = [[Arthur St. Clair]] | term_start7 = June 28, 1798 | term_end7 = October 1, 1799 | predecessor7 = [[Winthrop Sargent]] | successor7 = [[Charles Willing Byrd]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1773|2|9}} | birth_place = [[Charles City County, Virginia]], British America | death_date = {{death date and age|1841|4|4|1773|2|9}} | death_place = Washington, D.C., U.S. | death_cause = [[Enteric fever]] | restingplace = [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial|Harrison Tomb State Memorial]] | party = {{ubl|[[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1828)|[[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (from 1836)}} | spouse = {{marriage|[[Anna Harrison|Anna Symmes]]|November 22, 1795}} | children = 10 with Anna, including [[John Scott Harrison|John]], 2 alleged with Dilsia, including [[Marie Harrison]] | relatives = [[Harrison family of Virginia]] | father = [[Benjamin Harrison V]] | education = {{ubl|[[Hampden–Sydney College]]|[[University of Pennsylvania]]}} | occupation = {{hlist|Soldier|politician}} | awards = {{ubl|[[Congressional Gold Medal]]|[[Thanks of Congress]]}} | signature = William Henry Harrison Signature-full.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | branch = {{flatlist|*[[United States Army]] **[[Indiana Territory]] militia}} | serviceyears = {{ubl|1791–1798|1811|1812–1814}} | rank = [[Major general (United States)|Major general]] | unit = [[Legion of the United States]] | commands = [[Army of the Northwest (United States)|Army of the Northwest]] | battles = {{tree list}} *[[Northwest Indian War]] **[[Siege of Fort Recovery]] **[[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] *[[Tecumseh's War]] **[[Battle of Tippecanoe]] *[[War of 1812]] **[[Siege of Fort Wayne]] **[[Battle of the Thames]] {{Tree list/end}} }} '''William Henry Harrison''' (9 Pébruari 1773{{spnd}}4 April 1841) nyaéta [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-9, anu ngajabat ti 4 Maret dugi ka 4 April 1841, masa jabatan pangpondokna dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna ogé janten présidén munggaran anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat, anu ngabalukarkeun krisis [[konstitusi]] samentara, jalaran [[suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|suksési présidén]] harita tacan diatur sacara jéntré dina [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Konstitusi AS]]. Harrison mangrupa présidén terakhir anu lahir salaku subjek nagara [[Inggris]] di wilayah [[Tilu Belas Koloni]]. Anjeunna mangrupa anggota ti [[kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]] [[Benjamin Harrison V]], anu mangrupa salah saurang [[Founding Fathers Amérika Sarikat|Founding Father AS]]. Putrana sorangan, [[John Scott Harrison]], nyaéta ramana [[Benjamin Harrison]], présidén AS anu ka-23. Harrison lahir di [[Charles City County, Virginia]]. Dina taun 1794, anjeunna milu ancrub dina [[Perang Fallen Timbers|Battle of Fallen Timbers]], hiji kameunangan militer Amérika anu mungkas [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]]. Dina taun 1811, anjeunna mingpin kakuatan militer ngalawan [[Konpédérasi Tecumseh|Tecumseh's confederacy]] dina [[Perang Tippecanoe|Battle of Tippecanoe]], anu matak anjeunna meunang julukan "'''Old Tippecanoe'''". Anjeunna ditaékkeun pangkatna janten mayor jenderal dina Angkatan Darat salami [[Perang 1812|War of 1812]], sarta mingpin pasukan infanteri jeung kavaleri Amérika kana kameunangan dina [[Perang Thames|Battle of the Thames]] di [[Kanada Luhur|Upper Canada]]. Karier pulitik Harrison dimimitian dina taun 1798, kalayan pangangkatan salaku sekretaris [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]]. Dina taun 1799, anjeunna kapilih salaku delegasi non-voting wilayah éta dina [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|U.S. House of Representatives]]. Anjeunna janten gubernur [[Téritori Indiana|Indiana Territory]] anu nembé dibentuk dina taun 1801 sarta, ngaliwatan sababaraha pajangjian jeung suku-suku pribumi Amérika, anjeunna meunangkeun jutaan héktar lahan pikeun nagara. Saatos Perang 1812, anjeunna pindah ka Ohio di mana, [[Pamilihan DPR Amérika Sarikat 1816 jeung 1817 di Ohio|dina taun 1816]], anjeunna kapilih pikeun ngawakilan distrik ka-1 nagara bagian éta di DPR. [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1824–25|Dina taun 1824]], anjeunna kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat|U.S. Senate]], sanajan mangsa jabatan Sénatna kapeugat ku pangangkatanana salaku [[mentri plenipotentiary]] ka [[Gran Colombia]] dina taun 1828. Harrison mulang deui kana kahirupan pribadi di Ohio dugi ka anjeunna janten salah saurang tina opat calon [[Partéy Whig Amérika Sarikat|Whig Party]] dina [[Pamilihan présidén AS 1836|pamilihan présidén AS 1836]], anu harita anjeunna éléh ku urang Démokrat [[Martin Van Buren]]. Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|pamilihan présidén 1840]], partéy nyalonkeun deui anjeunna, kalayan [[John Tyler]] salaku pasanganana, dina handapeun slogan kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]", sarta Harrison hasil ngéléhkeun Van Buren. Ngan tilu minggu saatos pelantikanana, Harrison kaserang panyakit sarta pupus sababaraha dinten saatosna. Saatos réngséna kateujelasan dina konstitusi ngeunaan suksési, Tyler janten présidén. Harrison émut ku sabab pajangjian-pajangjianana sareng pribumi Amérika, sarta ogé taktik kampanye pamilihanana anu kréatif. Anjeunna sering dileungitkeun dina [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] alatan pondokna mangsa jabatan anjeunna. ==Masa leutik sarta atikan== William Henry Harrison mangrupa anak katujuh sarta pangbungsuna ti [[Benjamin Harrison V]] jeung Elizabeth (Bassett) Harrison. Lahir dina 9 Pébruari 1773, di [[Berkeley Plantation]], bumi [[kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]] di sisi [[Walungan James]] di [[Charles City County, Virginia|Charles City County]],{{sfn|Dowdey|1957|pp=291–315}} anjeunna janten [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] terakhir anu henteu lahir salaku warga nagara Amérika.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://touringohio.com/profiles/harrison.html|title=William Henry Harrison|publisher=Touring Ohio, Heart of America|access-date=November 18, 2021}}</ref> Kulawarga Harrison nyaéta kulawarga pulitik nonjol katurunan Inggris anu karuhunna parantos aya di [[Virginia]] saprak taun 1630-an.<ref name= "Smith">{{cite book|editor-last1=Smith|editor-first1=Howard|editor-last2=Riley|editor-first2=Edward M.|title=Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution|publisher=Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission|series=Virginia in the Revolution|year=1978|location=Williamsburg, VA|pages=59–65|oclc=4781472}}</ref> Ramana mangrupa saurang juragan kebon "planter" di Virginia, anu ngabdi salaku delegasi dina [[Kongrés Kontinental]] sarta nandatanganan [[Déklarasi Kamerdikaan Amérika Sarikat|Déklarasi Kamerdikaan]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Ramana ogé ngabdi dina législatur Virginia sarta janten gubernur Virginia kalima (1781–1784) salami sarta saatos mangsa [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]].<ref name= "Smith"/> Lanceuk Harrison, [[Carter Bassett Harrison]], ngawakilan Virginia dina DPR (1793–1799).<ref>{{cite web|title=Carter Bassett Harrison|work=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|publisher=U.S. Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000266|access-date=September 14, 2016}}</ref> William Henry mindeng nyebut dirina salaku "anak révolusi", jalaran anjeunna memang digedékeun di bumi anu jarakna ngan {{convert|30|mi|abbr=on}} ti tempat Washington meunangkeun perang ngalawan Inggris dina [[Perang Yorktown|Battle of Yorktown]].<ref name="Freehling">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life Before the Presidency| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-before-the-presidency| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison dididik di bumi "tutored" dugi ka yuswa 14 taun nalika anjeunna sakola di [[Hampden–Sydney College]], hiji paguron luhur [[Présbitérianisme|Presbyterian]] di [[Hampden Sydney, Virginia]].<ref name= "Smith"/><ref name=Perrysburg>{{cite web|url=https://www.historicperrysburg.org/wh-harrison|title=W. H. Harrison biography|publisher=Perrysburg, Ohio|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Anjeunna diajar di dinya salami tilu taun, nampi atikan klasik anu ngawengku basa Latin, Yunani, Perancis, logika, sarta debat.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=45}} Ramana anu nganut [[Épiskopalian]] mindahkeun anjeunna ti paguron luhur éta, kamungkinan kusabab alesan kaagamaan, sarta saatos cicing samentara di hiji akademi di [[Southampton County, Virginia]], sarta sareng lanceukna [[Benjamin Harrison VI]] di [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], anjeunna angkat ka [[Philadelphia]] dina taun 1790.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=14}} Ramana pupus dina ''musim semi'' taun 1791, sarta anjeunna diasuh ku [[Robert Morris (bankir)|Robert Morris]], saurang sobat dalit kulawargana di Philadelphia.<ref name= "Rabin">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedp.com/article/2017/01/william-henry-harrison-history|title=A Penn graduate in the Oval Office|last=Rabin|first=Alex|date=January 25, 2017|work=[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]|access-date=April 3, 2019}}</ref> Anjeunna diajar kedokteran di [[Universitas Pennsylvania]]. Nalika di Penn, anjeunna diajar sareng [[Benjamin Rush]], salah saurang "founding father" Amérika Sarikat anu ogé profesor [[kimia]] sareng kedokteran di Penn, sarta [[William Shippen Sr.]]<ref name= "Rabin"/> Lanceukna William Harrison mewariskeun sadaya kabeungharan ramana, sahingga William kakirangan waragad pikeun neraskeun sakola kedokteranana, anu tétéla anjeunna ogé henteu pati mikaresep widang éta.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kaluar ti Penn, sanajan arsip sakola nyatet anjeunna salaku "alumnus non-lulusan ti kelas sakola kedokteran Penn taun 1793".<ref name= "Rabin"/> Ku ayana pangaruh ti sobat ramana, Gubernur [[Henry Lee III]], anjeunna ngamimitian karier militerna.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=16}} ===Karier militer awal=== Dina tanggal 16 Agustus 1791, dina jero waktu 24 jam saatos pendak sareng Lee, William Harrison anu yuswana 18 taun diangkat janten [[Ensign (pangkat)#Amérika Sarikat|ensign]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ditugaskeun ka [[Rézimén Kahiji Amérika|First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Anjeunna mimitina ditugaskeun di [[Bénténg Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] di [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]] di mana angkatan darat harita nuju kalibet dina [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]] anu nuju lumangsung.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Penulis biografi [[William W. Freehling]] nyebutkeun yén Harrison ngora, dina tindakan militer munggaranana, ngumpulkeun sakitar dalapan puluh urang nu sok néangan hiburan sarta nu sok nyieun kaributan ti jalanan Philadelphia, ngolo maranéhna sangkan nandatanganan surat pendaptaran militer, sarta mawa maranéhna ka Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/> ===Karier militer awal=== Dina tanggal 16 Agustus 1791, dina jero waktu 24 jam saatos pendak sareng Lee, William Harrison anu yuswana 18 taun diangkat janten [[Ensign (pangkat)#Amérika Sarikat|ensign]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ditugaskeun ka [[Rézimén Kahiji Amérika|First American Regiment]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Anjeunna mimitina ditugaskeun di [[Bénténg Washington (Ohio)|Fort Washington]], [[Cincinnati]] di [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]] di mana angkatan darat harita nuju kalibet dina [[Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér|Northwest Indian War]] anu nuju lumangsung.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=14, 16, 22}} Penulis biografi [[William W. Freehling]] nyebutkeun yén Harrison ngora, dina tindakan militer munggaranana, ngumpulkeun sakitar dalapan puluh urang nu sok néangan hiburan sarta nu sok nyieun kaributan ti jalanan Philadelphia, ngolo maranéhna sangkan nandatanganan surat pendaptaran militer, sarta mawa maranéhna ka Fort Washington.<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Létnan hiji (Amérika Sarikat)|lieutenant]] saatos Mayor Jenderal [[Anthony Wayne|"Mad Anthony" Wayne]] nyepeng paréntah pasukan bagian kulon dina taun 1792, saatos kéléhan anu kacida parahna di handapeun [[Arthur St. Clair]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Dina taun 1793, anjeunna janten [[aide-de-camp]] Wayne sarta meunangkeun kaparigelan pikeun mingpin hiji pasukan di wilayah wates ("frontier");<ref name=Perrysburg/> anjeunna milu ancrub dina kameunangan Wayne anu nangtukeun dina [[Perang Fallen Timbers|Battle of Fallen Timbers]] tanggal 20 Agustus 1794, anu mungkas Perang Indindia Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=23–26}} Anjeunna nampi pangajén kieu ti Wayne pikeun kalungguhanana dina éta perang: "Kuring kudu nambahkeun ngaran Aide-de-camp kuring anu satia tur gagah... Létnan Harrison, anu... méré palayanan anu pangpentingna ku cara nepikeun paréntah kuring ka unggal madhab... sikep sarta kawani anu ngahudangkeun sumanget pasukan pikeun ngahontal kameunangan."<ref name="Freehling"/> Harrison mangrupa salah saurang anu nandatanganan [[Pajangjian Greenville]] (1795), salaku saksi pikeun Wayne, negosiator utama pikeun AS.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Dina katangtuan éta pajangjian, koalisi urang Indindia nyerahkeun sabagian tina lahan maranéhna ka pamaréntah féderal, anu muka dua per tilu wilayah [[Ohio]] pikeun padumukan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Paul David |year=1985 |title=Anthony Wayne, Soldier of the Early Republic |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, IN |isbn=0253307511 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 |page=[https://archive.org/details/anthonywaynesold00nels/page/282 282] }}</ref>{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=21, 28–30}} Nalika ibuna pupus dina taun 1793, Harrison mewariskeun sabagian ti harta kulawargana di Virginia, kalebet sakitar {{convert|3000|acre|km2}} lahan sarta sababaraha urang budak beulian ("slaves"). Anjeunna nuju ngabdi dina Angkatan Darat harita sarta ngical lahan éta ka lanceukna.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=39}} Harrison ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat O-3)|captain]] dina bulan Méi 1797 sarta ngundurkeun diri tina Angkatan Darat dina ping 1 Juni 1798.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=67–69}} ===Pernikahan sarta kulawarga=== Harrison patepang sareng [[Anna Harrison|Anna Tuthill Symmes]] ti [[North Bend, Ohio]] dina taun 1795 nalika anjeunna yuswa 22 taun. Anna téh putri ti Anna Tuthill sareng Hakim [[John Cleves Symmes]], anu kantos ngabdi salaku kolonél dina Perang Révolusi sarta salaku wawakil dina [[Kongrés Konfédérasi]].{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Harrison nyuhunkeun idin ka hakim kanggo nikah ka Anna nanging ditolak, sahingga ieu pasangan téh ngantosan dugi ka Symmes angkat kanggé urusan bisnis. Maranéhna tuluy kawin lari sarta nikah dina ping 25 Nopémber 1795, di bumi Stephen Wood di North Bend, bendahara Téritori Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=38–39}} Maranéhna bulan madu di [[Bénténg Washington (Cincinnati, Ohio)|Fort Washington]], jalaran Harrison harita masih kénéh ngalaksanakeun tugas militer.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Hakim Symmes nyanghareupan anjeunna dua minggu saatosna dina jamuan perpisahan kanggé Jenderal Wayne, kalayan teugeug nanyakeun kumaha anjeunna bakal nganapkahan kulawarga. Harrison ngajawab, "ku pedang kuring, sarta ku leungeun katuhu kuring sorangan, Juragan".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/greatpresidentia00dole/page/222 222] |title=Great Presidential Wit: – I Wish I was in this Book |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-0392-0 |last1=Dole |first1=Bob |author-link=Bob Dole|year=2001 }}</ref> Ieu pernikahan téh méré kauntungan kanggé Harrison, sabab ahirna anjeunna bisa ngamangpaatkeun hubungan mertuana sareng para spékulan tanah, anu ngagampangkeun anjeunna kanggé kaluar tina angkatan darat. Karagu-raguan Hakim Symmes ka anjeunna tetep aya, sakumaha anu ditulis ku anjeunna ka hiji sobatna, "Anjeunna teu bisa ngubaran (dokter), teu bisa méré pambélaan (pengacara), teu bisa ogé hutbah, sarta upami anjeunna bisa nguluku mah kuring bakal sugema."<ref name="Freehling"/> Hubunganana ahirna janten saé sareng mertuana, anu saatosna ngajual lahan saluareun {{convert|160|acres|ha}} di [[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]] ka kulawarga Harrison, anu ngamungkinkeun Harrison kanggé ngawangun bumi sarta ngamimitian tatanén.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=40}} Anna mindeng gering salami pernikahan maranéhna, utamana alatan mindengna kakandungan, nanging anjeunna hirup 23 taun langkung lami batan William, sarta pupus dina ping 25 Pébruari 1864, dina yuswa 88 taun.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=56}} Kulawarga Harrison gaduh sapuluh putra: *Elizabeth Bassett (1796–1846) *John Cleves Symmes (1798–1830), anu nikah ka hiji-hijina putri [[Zebulon Pike]] anu salamet *Lucy Singleton (1800–1826) *William Henry Jr. (1802–1838) *[[John Scott Harrison|John Scott]] (1804–1878), ramana calon présidén AS [[Benjamin Harrison]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/H000272|title=John Scott Harrison|publisher=U. S. Congress|access-date=January 26, 2022}}</ref> *Benjamin (1806–1840) *Mary Symmes (1809–1842) *Carter Bassett (1811–1839) *Anna Tuthill (1813–1865) *James Findlay (1814–1817)<ref>{{Cite web|title=William Henry Harrison: Fast Facts| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=September 26, 2016}}</ref> Profesor Kenneth R. Janken, dina biografi [[Walter Francis White]], ngaku yén Harrison gaduh genep putra ti saurang awéwé Amérika-Afrika anu diperbudak kasebat [[Dilsia (budak)|Dilsia]] sarta, sateuacan nyalonkeun janten présidén, mikeun opat di antarana ka lanceukna kanggé nyingkahan skandal. Ieu pernyataan téh dumasar kana sajarah lisan kulawarga White.<ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth Robert|last=Janken|title=White: The Biography of Walter White: Mr. NAACP|url=https://archive.org/details/whitebiographyof00jank|location=New York|publisher=The New York Press|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/whitebiographyof00jank/page/3 3]|isbn=978-1-5658-4773-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Phillips |first1=Amber |title=Warren Harding and 5 other presidents who have faced 'love child' questions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/08/13/warren-harding-and-the-5-other-presidents-who-have-faced-love-child-questions/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> Dina biografi Harrison taun 2012, panulis [[Gail Collins]] ngajelaskeun yén ieu téh carita anu sigana moal leres, sanajan White percaya yén éta téh bener.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=103}} ==Karier pulitik== Harrison ngamimitian karier pulitikna nalika anjeunna ngundurkeun diri samentara tina militer dina ping 1 Juni 1798, sarta ngayakeun kampanye di kalangan babaturan katut kulawargana pikeun meunangkeun kalungguhan dina pamaréntahan Téritori Kulon Kalér.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Sobat dalitna, [[Timothy Pickering]], harita nuju ngajabat salaku Sekretaris Nagara, sarta dibarengan ku pangaruh ti Hakim Symmes, anjeunna dirékoméndasikeun pikeun ngagentos [[Winthrop Sargent]], sekretaris téritori anu nuju lungsur jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Présidén [[John Adams]] ngangkat Harrison kana éta jabatan dina bulan Juli 1798.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Pagawéan nyatet sagala kagiatan téritori téh karasana kacida ngabosankeunana, sarta teu lami anjeunna janten bosen, tuluy nyiar kasempetan pikeun nempatan posisi dina Kongrés AS.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=44}} ===Kongrés AS=== [[File:W.H. Harrison ca. 1800.jpg|thumb|left|Hiji citakan potrét ukiran Harrison dina yuswa 27 taun, salaku anggota delegasi [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|U.S. House of Representatives]] ti [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]], ku [[Charles Balthazar Julien Févret de Saint-Mémin]], {{Circa|1800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2007676954/|title=William Henry Harrison, 9th Pres. of United States|last=de Saint-Mémin|first= Charles Balthazar Julien Fevret|date=January 1800 |publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio9.htm|title=Biographical Sketch–William Henry Harrison|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=August 5, 2016}}</ref>]] Harrison gaduh seueur réngréngan sobat di kalangan aristokrat Wétan sarta gancang meunangkeun reputasi di antara maranéhna salaku pamingpin wilayah wates ("frontier"). Anjeunna ngajalankeun usaha tatanén sarta panyatuaan kuda anu suksés, anu matak anjeunna meunangkeun pangaku-ngaku di sakuliah [[Téritori Kulon Kalér|Northwest Territory]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=19}} Kongrés parantos netepkeun kawijakan téritori anu ngabalukarkeun luhurna harga lahan, hiji pasualan utama pikeun para padumuk di Téritori éta; Harrison janten jawara maranéhna pikeun nurunkeun éta harga. Populasi Téritori Kulon Kalér ngahontal jumlah anu cukup pikeun gaduh delegasi kongrés dina Oktober 1799, sarta Harrison maju dina pamilihan.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Anjeunna ngayakeun kampanye pikeun ngarojong migrasi salajengna ka éta téritori, anu ahirna ngabalukarkeun parobahan status janten nagara bagian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/files/interritory.pdf|title=Indiana Territory|publisher=The Indiana Historian|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ngéléhkeun Arthur St. Clair Jr. pikeun janten delegasi kongrés munggaran Téritori Kulon Kalér dina taun 1798 dina yuswa 26 taun, sarta ngabdi dina [[Kongrés ka-genep Amérika Sarikat]] ti 4 Maret 1799 dugi ka 14 Méi 1800.<ref name="wh">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Biography |work=About The White House: Presidents |publisher=The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/williamhenryharrison |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122233458/http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/williamhenryharrison/ |archive-date=January 22, 2009|access-date=November 6, 2021}}</ref><ref name="cb">{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) Biography|publisher=United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=h000279|access-date=February 4, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna teu gaduh wewenang pikeun méré sora (voting) dina rancangan undang-undang, nanging diidinan pikeun ngabdi dina komite, ngajukeun panerapan, sarta aub dina debat.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=45–48}} Anjeunna janten pupuhu Komite Lahan Publik sarta ngamajukeun "Land Act of 1800", anu ngagampangkeun pameseran lahan Téritori Kulon Kalér dina kapling anu langkung alit kalayan harga anu langkung mirah.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Para nu gaduh lahan diidinan meuli kapling leutik kalayan artos panjer (DP) ngan lima persén, sarta ieu janten faktor penting dina kamekaran populasi Téritori anu gancang.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=161}} Harrison ogé boga peran penting dina ngatur babagian Téritori janten dua bagian.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Bagian wétan tetep kawanoh salaku Téritori Kulon Kalér sarta ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten [[Ohio]] sareng bagian wétan [[Michigan]]; bagian kulon dingaranan [[Téritori Indiana|Indiana Territory]] sarta ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Wisconsin]], sabagian kulon [[Michigan]], sarta sabagian wétan [[Minnesota]]. Dua téritori anyar ieu sacara resmi diadegkeun dumasar hukum dina taun 1800.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=47–48}} Dina ping 13 Méi 1800, Présidén [[John Adams]] ngangkat Harrison salaku gubernur Téritori Indiana, dumasar kana hubunganana sareng wilayah kulon sarta sikep pulitikna anu katingalna nétral.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–51}} Anjeunna ngabdi dina jabatan ieu salami dua belas taun.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.in.gov/history/about-indiana-history-and-trivia/governors-portraits/list-of-governors/indiana-territorial-governor-william-henry-harrison-1773-1841|title=Indiana Territorial Governor|date=December 15, 2020|publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|access-date=November 28, 2021}}</ref> Jabatan gubernurna dikonfirmasi ku Sénat sarta anjeunna ngundurkeun diri ti Kongrés pikeun janten gubernur téritori Indiana munggaran dina taun 1801.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}}{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=50–53}} ===Gubernur téritori Indiana=== {{see also|Sajarah perbudakan di Indiana|Téritori Indiana}} Harrison ngamimitian tugasna dina ping 10 Januari 1801, di [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], puseur dayeuh Téritori Indiana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=53}} Présidén [[Thomas Jefferson]] sareng [[James Madison]] mangrupa anggota Partéy Démokratik-Républik, sarta maranéhna ngangkat deui anjeunna janten gubernur dina taun 1803, 1806, sarta 1809.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} Dina taun 1804, Harrison ditugaskeun pikeun ngokolakeun pamaréntahan sipil di [[Distrik Louisiana]]. Anjeunna ngajalankeun urusan distrik éta salami lima minggu dugi ka Téritori Louisiana sacara resmi diadegkeun dina ping 4 Juli 1805, sarta Brigadir Jenderal [[James Wilkinson]] nyepeng tugas salaku gubernur.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} Dina taun 1805, Harrison ngawangun bumi gaya perkebunan caket Vincennes anu dingaranan [[Grouseland]], salaku panghormat kana manuk-manuk anu aya di éta lahan.{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=46}} Bumi anu gaduh 26 kamar éta mangrupa salah sahiji wangunan bata munggaran di téritori kasebat;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000018_text|title=Grouseland|publisher=National Register of Historic Places|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> sarta janten puseur kahirupan sosial katut pulitik di téritori salami anjeunna ngajabat gubernur.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visitvincennes.org/attractions/grouseland-president-william-henry-harrison-mansion/|title=Grouseland|publisher=Historic Vincennes|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ngadegkeun hiji universitas di Vincennes dina taun 1801, anu diresmikeun janten [[Universitas Vincennes]] dina ping 29 Nopémber 1806.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |title=History – Vincennes University |publisher=Vincennes University |access-date=November 8, 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |archive-date=August 16, 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816120836/http://www.vinu.edu/web/guest/about-us |date=August 16, 2016 }}</ref> Puseur dayeuh téritori ahirna dipindahkeun ka [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] dina taun 1813, sarta Harrison ngawangun bumi kadua di deukeut [[Harrison Spring|Harrison Valley]].<ref>{{cite web|url =https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/25b93/N/Corydon_HD_Harrison_CO_Nom.pdf|title =National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Corydon Historic District|access-date=November 30, 2021|last=Griffin|first=Frederick Porter| date=1972}}</ref> Tanggung jawab utama Harrison nyaéta kanggé kéngingkeun hak milik atas lahan Indindia anu bakal ngamungkinkeun padumukan di mangsa hareup sarta ningkatkeun populasi téritori, anu janten sarat kanggé janten nagara bagian. Anjeunna ogé sumanget kanggé ngalegaan téritori kusabab alesan pribadi, jalaran nasib pulitikna kabeungkeut kana robahna status [[Indiana]] janten nagara bagian.<ref name="Freehling"/> Salami anjeunna kéngingkeun kauntungan tina spékulasi tanah kanggé kapentingan pribadina, sarta miboga dua usaha panggilingan, anjeunna diaku salaku administrator anu saé, kalayan ayana perbaikan anu signifikan dina jalan sarta infrastruktur sanésna.<ref name="Freehling"/> Nalika Harrison diangkat deui janten gubernur téritori Indiana dina ping 8 Pébruari 1803, anjeunna dipasihan wewenang anu langkung lega kanggé ngayakeun rundayan sarta mutuskeun pajangjian sareng urang Indindia.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=20}} [[Pajangjian St. Louis (1804)]] sareng [[Quashquame]] meryogikeun suku [[Suku Sauk|Sauk]] sareng [[Meskwaki]] kanggé nyerahkeun sabagian ageung wilayah kulon Illinois sarta sabagian [[Missouri]]. Seueur urang Sauk anu teu rido kana leungitna éta lahan, utamana pamingpin maranéhna, [[Black Hawk (pamingpin Sauk)|Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=87–89}} Harrison mikir yén [[Pajangjian Grouseland]] (1805) parantos ngademkeun sabagian urang Indindia, nanging kaayaan tetep panas di wilayah wates. [[Pajangjian Fort Wayne (1809)]] nimbulkeun katéngtréman anyar nalika Harrison mésér langkung ti {{convert|2.5|e6acre|km2|abbr=unit}} ti suku Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, sareng Eel River. Sababaraha urang Indindia mangmang kana wewenang suku-suku anu milu dina éta pajangjian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-indian/2017/09/29/treaty-fort-wayne-1809/|title=Treaty of Fort Wayne, 1809|publisher=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref> Harrison ogé tiasa ngajalankeun rupa-rupa urusan tanpa ditaros deui ku pamaréntah, jalaran administrasi pindah tangan ti Jefferson ka Madison.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna ngalaksanakeun prosés pajangjian sacara agrésif, nawarkeun subsidi ageung ka suku-suku sarta pamingpin maranéhna, supados kéngingkeun dukungan pulitik ti Jefferson sateuacan anjeunna lungsur jabatan.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/william-henry-harrison-shady-treaty-maker-and-indian-land-taker|title=William Henry Harrison: Shady Treaty Maker (quoting Owens)|publisher=Indian Country Today|last=Landry|first=Alysa|date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=November 14, 2021}}</ref> Panulis biografi Freehling negeskeun yén urang Indindia nganggap kapamilikan tanah téh milik babarengan, sapertos hawa anu diseuseup. Dina taun 1805, Harrison hasil kéngingkeun dugi ka 51.000.000 héktar lahan kanggé nagara ti urang Indindia, saatos nyuguhan lima kapala sukuna ku inuman keras, kalayan harga teu langkung ti sadolar per 20.000 héktar {{USDCY|1|1805}}, anu ngawengku dua per tilu wilayah [[Illinois]] sarta sabagian ageung Wisconsin jeung Missouri.<ref name="Freehling"/> Salian ti nimbulkeun katéngtréman sareng urang Indindia, sikep Harrison anu ngarojong perbudakan ngajantenkeun anjeunna teu dipikaresep ku para [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|abolisionis]] di Téritori Indiana, jalaran anjeunna nyobian pisan ngamajukeun perbudakan di éta téritori. Dina taun 1803, anjeunna ngalobi Kongrés kanggé nunda samentara salami sapuluh taun Pasal VI tina [[Ordonansi Kulon Kalér]] anu ngalarang perbudakan di Téritori Indiana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=68–69}} Sanajan Harrison negeskeun yén panundaan éta diperyogikeun kanggé ngadorong padumukan sarta ngajantenkeun téritori mandiri sacara ékonomi sarta siap janten nagara bagian, usul éta gagal.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=69–72}} Alatan gagalna panundaan Pasal VI, dina taun 1807 législatur téritori, kalayan dukungan Harrison, ngesahkeun undang-undang anu ngawenangkeun "indentured servitude" (pagawé beulian kontrak) sarta masihan wewenang ka dunungan kanggé nangtukeun lami waktos damelna.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|title=Freedom's Early Ring|publisher=Illinois Periodicals Online|access-date=December 1, 2021|archive-date=November 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108185052/https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108185052/https://www.lib.niu.edu/1998/iht519802.html |date=November 8, 2021 }}</ref> Présidén Jefferson, nu nulis utama Ordonansi Kulon Kalér, ngayakeun pajangjian rasiah sareng [[James Lemen]] kanggé ngéléhkeun gerakan pro-perbudakan anu dirojong ku Harrison.<ref name="Peck">{{cite book|last=Peck|first=J. M.|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1915|title=The Jefferson-Lemen Compact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNASAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 28, 2010}}</ref> Anjeunna nyumbang $100 kanggé ngadorong Lemen dina gerakan abolisi sareng padamelan saé sanésna, sarta saatosna (dina taun 1808) nyumbang deui $20 {{USDCY|20|1808}} kanggé ngabantosan waragad garéja anu kawanoh salaku Bethel Baptist Church.<ref name="Peck"/> Di [[Indiana]], diadegkeunana garéja anti-perbudakan ngadorong warga kanggé nandatanganan pétisi sarta ngayakeun gerakan pulitik kanggé ngéléhkeun usaha Harrison dina ngalégalkeun perbudakan di téritori.<ref name="Peck"/> [[Téritori Indiana]] ngayakeun pamilihan kanggé majelis luhur sareng handap législatur kanggé munggaranana dina taun 1809. Harrison mendakan dirina teu sapamadegan sareng législatur saatos golongan abolisionis nyepeng kakawasaan, sarta bagian wétan Téritori Indiana tumuwuh janten wilayah anu seueur populasi anti-perbudakanana.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=21}} Majelis umum Téritori ngayakeun sidang dina taun 1810, sarta faksi anti-perbudakan langsung ngabatalkeun undang-undang "indentured servitude" anu sateuacanana disahkeun.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.capitolandwashington.com/blog/2021/02/25/a-brief-history-of-race-and-politics-in-indiana|title=A Brief History of Race and Politics in Indiana|date=February 25, 2021|publisher=Capitol & Washington|access-date=December 1, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260208092048/https://www.capitolandwashington.com/blog/2021/02/25/a-brief-history-of-race-and-politics-in-indiana/ |date=February 8, 2026 }}</ref> Saatos taun 1809, législatur Indiana nyepeng wewenang anu langkung ageung sarta téritori éta maju nuju status nagara bagian.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} ==Jenderal Angkatan Darat== ===Tecumseh sareng Tippecanoe=== {{main|Perang Tecumseh|Perang Tippecanoe}} Lalawanan urang Indindia kana ékspansi Amérika ngahontal puncatna di handapeun lulugu dua sadulur suku Shawnee, [[Tecumseh]] sareng [[Tenskwatawa]] ("Sang Nabi"), dina konflik anu kawanoh salaku [[Perang Tecumseh]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Tenskwatawa ngayakinkeun suku-suku yén maranéhna bakal dijaga ku [[Roh Agung]] sarta moal aya bahaya anu ninggang upami maranéhna ngalawan para padumuk. Anjeunna ngadorong lalawanan ku cara nitah suku-suku sangkan mayar padagang bule ngan satengah tina hutangna sarta miceun sagala cara hirup jalma bule, kalebet pakéan, sanjata musket, sarta utamana inuman keras (whiskey).{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=158–160}} Harrison nampi béja ngeunaan ieu lalawanan ti mata-mata anu diteundeun di jero suku-suku éta, sarta ménta Madison kanggé ngawaragadan persiapan militer. Madison lila mutuskeunana, sarta Harrison nyobian ngayakeun rundayan ku cara ngintunkeun serat ka Tecumseh anu unina, "Blue Coats (prajurit AD AS) kami leuwih loba ti batan nu bisa kairit ku anjeun, sarta baju moro kami (milisi sukaréla) loba lir ibarat dangdaunan di leuweung atawa keusik di sisi walungan Wabash."<ref name="Freehling"/> [[File:Tecumseh02.jpg|thumb|upright|Gambaran [[Tecumseh]] taun 1915, anu dipercaya mangrupa turunan tina sketsa taun 1808]] Dina Agustus 1810, Tecumseh mingpin 400 prajurit nyorang [[Walungan Wabash]] kanggé papendak sareng Harrison di Vincennes. Maranéhna dangdos make cet perang, sarta jolna anu ujug-ujug téh mimitina mah nyieun miris para prajurit di Vincennes.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=164}} Para pamingpin éta kelompok dianteur ka [[Grouseland]], tempat maranéhna panggih jeung Harrison. Tecumseh nyarékan Harrison anu dianggapna sok nganggap réntéh, sarta keukeuh yén Pajangjian Fort Wayne téh teu sah, kalayan alesan yén hiji suku teu bisa ngajual tanah tanpa aya kasatujuan ti suku-suku séjénna. Anjeunna ménta Harrison kanggé ngabatalkeunana sarta ngingetkeun yén urang Amérika ulah nyoba nempatan lahan anu dijual dina éta pajangjian.<ref name="Freehling"/> Tecumseh ogé ngabéjaan Harrison yén anjeunna parantos ngancam bakal maéhan kapala-kapala suku anu nandatanganan pajangjian upami maranéhna ngajalankeun eusina, sarta nyebutkeun yén konpédérasi sukuna nuju tumuwuh gancang.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Harrison ngajawab yén unggal suku téh nu boga lahan masing-masing sarta bébas ngajualna sakahayangna. Anjeunna nolak klaim Tecumseh yén sakabéh urang Indindia téh hiji bangsa sarta nyebutkeun yén unggal suku bisa boga hubungan misah jeung Amérika Sarikat. Harrison boga pamadegan yén lamun enya Indindia téh hiji bangsa, tangtu Roh Agung bakal nyieun sakabéh suku nyarita dina hiji basa anu sarua.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh ngaluarkeun "bantahan anu kacida sumangetna", dumasar kana basa saurang sejarawan, nanging Harrison teu ngalarti kana basana.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Tecumseh tuluy ngagorowok ka Harrison sarta nyebutna tukang bohong.<ref name="Freehling"/> Saurang urang Shawnee anu mihak ka Harrison nyiapkeun pistulna ti sisi kanggé méré tanda ka Harrison yén pidato Tecumseh bakal mawa kaributan, sarta sababaraha saksi ngalaporkeun yén Tecumseh nuju ngahudangkeun sumanget para prajuritna kanggé maéhan Harrison. Seueur di antarana mimiti ngaluarkeun sanjata, anu janten ancaman nyata kanggé Harrison sarta éta kota anu pangeusina ngan 1.000 urang. Harrison nyabut pedangna, sarta para prajurit Tecumseh mundur nalika para perwira militer ogé nyiapkeun sanjata kanggé ngabéla Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=165}} Kapala Suku [[Winamac]] anu bageur ka Harrison males argumén Tecumseh, mépéndé para prajurit sangkan baralik kalayan tengtrem sakumaha maranéhna datang kalayan tengtrem. Sateuacan angkat, Tecumseh ngabéjaan Harrison yén anjeunna bakal nyiar aliansi jeung Inggris upami Pajangjian Fort Wayne teu dibatalkeun.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=166}} Saatos éta pasamoan, Tecumseh indit nepungan loba suku di wilayah éta kalayan harepan bisa nyieun hiji [[Konpédérasi Tecumseh|konpédérasi]] kanggé merangan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh|title=Tecumseh|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=November 21, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227182121/https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Tecumseh |date=December 27, 2023 }}</ref> Harrison hariwang yén peta Tecumseh bakal ngancam status nagara bagian Indiana, sarta ogé masa depan pulitikna, ku cara ngantepkeun éta wilayah janten "pancicingan sababaraha urang biadab anu sangsara".<ref name="Freehling"/> Nalika Tecumseh nuju iinditan dina taun 1811, anjeunna masrahkeun kakuatan Indindia ka Tenskwatawa. Harrison ningali ieu salaku kasempetan, sarta méré saran ka Sekretaris Perang [[William Eustis]] kanggé mintonkeun kakuatan ka konpédérasi Indindia.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=167}} Sanajan parantos 13 taun teu turun ka médan perang, Harrison hasil ngayakinkeun Madison jeung Eustis kanggé méré wewenang paréntah ka anjeunna.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna mingpin pasukan ka kalér kalayan 950 urang prajurit kanggé nyingsieunan suku Shawnee sangkan daék damai, nanging suku-suku éta kalah ngalakukeun serangan dadakan dina wanci subuh ping 7 Nopémber dina [[Perang Tippecanoe|Battle of Tippecanoe]].{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=168}} Harrison bales narajang sarta hasil ngéléhkeun kakuatan suku-suku éta di [[Prophetstown State Park|Prophetstown]] di sisi walungan Wabash jeung [[Walungan Tippecanoe]]; ieu perang janten kasohor sarta anjeunna dipuji salaku pahlawan nasional. Sanajan pasukanna kaleungitan 62 urang anu palastra sarta 126 tatu, sarta urang Shawnee ngan 150 urang anu jadi korban, nanging visi "sang nabi" ngeunaan panangtayungan gaib téh geus runtag. Tenskwatawa sarta pasukanna kabur ka Kanada, sarta gerakan maranéhna kanggé ngahijikeun suku-suku di wilayah éta dina nolak asimilasi téh gagal.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|p=169}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirtle|first=Alfred|publisher=John P. Morton & Co.|year=1900|location=Louisville|title=The Battle of Tippecanoe| page=158 |isbn=978-0-7222-6509-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvA7AAAAMAAJ&q=Pirtle,+Alfred.+(1900).+The+Battle+of+Tippecanoe&pg=PR1}}</ref> Nalika ngalaporkeun ka Sekretaris Eustis, Harrison ngabéjaan yén aya perang deukeut Walungan Tippecanoe sarta anjeunna memang parantos ngantisipasi serangan éta. Laporan munggaran tacan écés pihak mana anu meunang, sahingga sekretaris nyangka éta téh hiji kéléhan, dugi ka aya laporan susulan anu ngajéntrékeun kaayaanana.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=219–220}} Nalika taya serangan kadua, kéléhan [[Suku Shawnee|Shawnee]] téh janten beuki pasti. Eustis nanyakeun naha Harrison teu ngayakeun persiapan anu cukup kanggé ngabénténgan kémahna tina serangan awal, sarta Harrison ngajawab yén anjeunna nganggap posisi harita geus cukup kuat. Ieu pacogrégan téh janten bibit masalah antara Harrison sareng Departemén Perang anu nuluy dugi ka mangsa Perang 1812.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryindiana00dillgoog|last=Dillon|first=John Brown|publisher=Bingham & Doughty|year=1859|isbn=978-0-253-20305-2|pages=466–471}}</ref> Freehling nyebutkeun yén kaparigelan Harrison anu tos "karahaan" ngabalukarkeun pasukanna nyieun hawu (api unggun) dina peuting sateuacan perang, anu matak posisi maranéhna katingali ku musuh sarta ngabalukarkeun serangan dadakan katut lobana korban.<ref name="Freehling"/> Mimitina mah média massa teu pati ngaliput ieu perang, dugi ka aya hiji koran di Ohio anu salah nafsirkeun laporan munggaran Harrison anu dikira éléh.{{sfn|Owens|2007|p=220}} Nanging dina bulan Désémber, lolobana koran utama di Amérika parantos midangkeun carita ngeunaan kameunangan éta, sarta amarah publik ka urang Shawnee beuki ningkat.{{sfn|Owens|2007|pp=220–222}} Urang Amérika nyalahkeun Inggris anu dianggap ngangsonan suku-suku Indindia kanggé ngalakukeun kekerasan sarta nyadiakeun sanjata api, sarta Kongrés ngaluarkeun résolusi anu nyawad Inggris alatan pipilueun kana urusan jero nagara Amérika. Kongrés [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya|nyatakeun perang dina ping 18 Juni 1812]], sarta Harrison ninggalkeun Vincennes kanggé nyiar kalungguhan militer deui.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} ===Perang 1812=== [[File:Rembrandt Peale - William Henry Harrison - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Ieu potrét Harrison mimitina némbongkeun anjeunna nganggo papakéan sipil salaku delegasi kongrés dina taun 1800; seragamna nembé ditambahkeun saatos anjeunna ngabdi dina Perang 1812.|329x329px]] Pecahna perang sareng Inggris dina taun 1812 ngabalukarkeun konflik anu nuluy sareng urang Indindia di wilayah Kulon Kalér. Harrison kungsi ngabdi sakeudeung salaku mayor jenderal dina milisi [[Kentucky]] dugi ka pamaréntah ngangkat anjeunna dina ping 17 Séptémber pikeun mingpin [[Angkatan Darat Kulon Kalér (Amérika Sarikat)|Army of the Northwest]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Anjeunna nampi bayaran militer féderal pikeun jasana, sarta anjeunna ogé tetep nampi gaji gubernur téritori ti Séptémber dugi ka 28 Désémber, nalika anjeunna sacara resmi ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan gubernur sarta neraskeun pangabdian militerna. Panulis Gugin sarta St. Clair nyebutkeun yén éta pangunduran diri téh dipaksakeun ka anjeunna.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Harrison digantikeun ku John Gibson salaku palaksana tugas gubernur téritori.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Urang Amérika nandang kéléhan dina [[pangepungan Detroit]]. Jenderal [[James Winchester (jenderal)|James Winchester]] nawarkeun pangkat brigadir jenderal ka Harrison, nanging Harrison hoyong nyepeng kakawasaan pinuh atas angkatan darat éta. Présidén [[James Madison]] ngalungsurkeun Winchester tina jabatanana dina bulan Séptémber, sarta Harrison janten komandan pikeun para prajurit anu nembé ditarima.{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=23}} Anjeunna nampi paréntah pikeun ngarebut deui Detroit sarta ngahudangkeun sumanget pasukan, nanging mimitina anjeunna nahan diri, jalaran teu kersa rurusuhan mawa perang ka arah kalér.<ref name="Freehling"/> Pasukan Inggris sareng sekutu Indindiana jauh langkung seueur jumlahna dibandingkeun pasukan Harrison, sahingga Harrison ngawangun posisi pertahanan salami usum tiris di sapanjang [[Walungan Maumee]] di kalér-kulon Ohio. Anjeunna dingaranan [[Bénténg Meigs|Fort Meigs]] kanggé ngahormat gubernur Ohio [[Return J. Meigs Jr.]] Anjeunna tuluy nampi pasukan bantuan dina taun 1813, mimiti narajang, sarta mingpin angkatan darat ka kalér pikeun perang. Anjeunna kéngingkeun kameunangan di Téritori Indiana sarta Ohio, sarta hasil ngarebut deui Detroit sateuacan nyerang ka [[Kanada]] Luhur ([[Ontario]]). Pasukanna ngéléhkeun Inggris, sarta Tecumseh palastra, dina ping 5 Oktober 1813, dina [[Perang Thames|Battle of the Thames]]. Ieu dianggap salaku salah sahiji kameunangan gedé Amérika dina perang éta, kadua saatos [[Perang New Orleans|Battle of New Orleans]], sarta ngukuhkeun reputasi nasional pikeun Harrison.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=257–70}}<ref name="Freehling"/> Dina taun 1814, Sekretaris Perang [[John Armstrong Jr.]] ngabagi komando angkatan darat, nempatkeun Harrison di hiji pos anu jauh sarta mikeun kadali garis hareup ka salah saurang bawahan Harrison.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=232–244}} Armstrong sareng Harrison teu sapamadegan ngeunaan kurangna koordinasi sarta éféktivitas dina invasi ka Kanada, sahingga Harrison ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat dina bulan Méi.{{sfn|Langguth|2007|pp=290–291}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=24}} Saatos perang réngsé, Kongrés ngayakeun pamariksaan kana pangunduran diri Harrison sarta nangtukeun yén Armstrong parantos nindak sacara sawenang-wenang ka Harrison salami kampanye militerna sarta pangunduran dirina téh mémang boga alesan anu kuat. Kongrés nganugrahkeun medali emas ka Harrison pikeun jasa-jasana salami perang.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Presidential Series – William H. Harrison|url=https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/|access-date=June 18, 2020|publisher=National Guard}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918175742/https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Image-Gallery/Historical-Paintings/Presidential-Series/William-H-Harrison/ |date=September 18, 2020 }}</ref> Harrison sareng Gubernur [[Téritori Michigan]] [[Lewis Cass]] tanggung jawab pikeun ngayakeun rundayan [[Pajangjian Greenville (1814)|pajangjian damai]] sareng urang Indindia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814)|title=Treaty with the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Senecas, and Miamis (1814)|publisher=Ohio History Central|access-date=December 1, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227183649/https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_with_the_Wyandots,_Delawares,_Shawnees,_Senecas,_and_Miamis_(1814) |date=December 27, 2023 }}</ref> Présidén Madison ngangkat Harrison dina bulan Juni 1815 pikeun mantuan rundayan pajangjian kadua sareng urang Indindia anu kawanoh salaku [[Pajangjian Springwells]], di mana suku-suku éta nyerahkeun lahan anu lega di wilayah kulon, nyadiakeun lahan tambahan pikeun pameseran sarta padumukan Amérika.<ref name="cb"/> ==Kahirupan saatos perang== ===Politikus Ohio sarta diplomat=== [[File:WmHHarrison-poster.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.95|Postér anu muji kana sagala prestasi Harrison]] Harrison ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat dina taun 1814, teu lami sateuacan réngséna Perang 1812, sarta mulang deui ka kulawarga katut tegalanana di [[North Bend, Ohio]].<ref name="Freehling"/> Freehling nyebatkeun yén pengeluaranana harita jauh langkung ageung batan panghasilanana sahingga anjeunna kabeulit hutang, yén Harrison langkung milih "popularitas batan kawajiban" ku cara milarian pujian dina pésta-pésta di New York, Washington, sarta Philadelphia, sarta janten jalma anu moro jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kapilih dina taun 1816 pikeun ngaréngsékeun masa jabatan [[John McLean]] di DPR AS, ngawakilan [[distrik kongrés ka-1 Ohio]] dugi ka taun 1819. Anjeunna nyobian kéngingkeun jabatan Sekretaris Perang di handapeun Présidén Monroe dina taun 1817 nanging éléh ku [[John C. Calhoun]]. Anjeunna ogé teu kabagéan jabatan diplomatik ka Rusia.<ref name="Freehling"/> Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Ohio]] dina taun 1819 sarta ngabdi dugi ka taun 1821, saatos éléh dina pamilihan gubernur Ohio taun 1820.<ref name="cb" /> Anjeunna maju dina [[Pamilihan DPR Amérika Sarikat di Ohio 1822|pamilihan 1822]] pikeun DPR Amérika Sarikat, nanging éléh ku [[James W. Gazlay]].<ref name="Freehling"/><ref>{{cite web |title=A New Nation Votes |url=https://elections.lib.tufts.edu/catalog/pg15bf880 |website=Tufts Digital Collections and Archives |access-date=March 5, 2022 |date=January 11, 2012}}</ref> Anjeunna kapilih janten anggota Sénat AS dina taun 1824, sarta janten pamilih présidén (elector) Ohio dina taun 1820 pikeun [[James Monroe]]{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=102}} sarta pikeun [[Henry Clay]] dina taun 1824.{{sfn|Taylor|Taylor|1899|p=145}} Harrison diangkat dina taun 1828 salaku [[menteri plenipotentiary]] (utusan pinuh) ka [[Gran Kolombia]], sahingga anjeunna ngundurkeun diri ti Kongrés sarta ngabdi dina jabatan anyarna dugi ka ping 8 Maret 1829.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Anjeunna dugi ka [[Bogotá]] dina ping 22 Désémber 1828, sarta mendakan kaayaan Kolombia anu matak sedih. Anjeunna ngalaporkeun ka Sekretaris Nagara yén éta nagara nuju aya dina bangbaluh anarki, sarta [[Simón Bolívar]] badé janten diktator militer.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Anjeunna nyerat serat teguran anu sopan ka Bolívar, nyatakeun yén "pamaréntahan anu pangkuatna nyaéta anu paling bébas" sarta ngajurung Bolívar pikeun ngarojong kamekaran démokrasi. Salaku jawabanana, Bolívar nyerat yén Amérika Sarikat "sigana parantos ditakdirkeun ku Gusti pikeun nyusahkeun Amérika (Latin) kalayan sagala kasangsaraan dina nami kabébasan", hiji ungkapan anu janten kacida kasohorna di Amérika Latin.{{sfn|Bolívar|1951|p=732}} Freehling nunjukkeun yén léngkah Harrison di Kolombia téh "goréng sarta mindeng salah", yén anjeunna gagal ngajaga posisi nétral dina urusan Kolombia ku cara sacara kabuka nentang Bolivar, sahingga Kolombia ménta sangkan anjeunna diganti. [[Andrew Jackson]] mimiti ngajabat dina Maret 1829, sarta narik deui Harrison supados tiasa nempatkeun jalma pilihanana sorangan dina éta jabatan.<ref name="Freehling"/> Penulis biografi James Hall ngaklaim yén Harrison mendakan ayana despotisme militer di Kolombia sarta yén "pamandangan liberalna, integritas républikna anu teguh, sarta saderhanana papakéan katut paripolahna, kacida kontrasna sareng pamandangan sawenang-wenang sarta paripolah méwah para pajabat publik, sahingga moal mungkin anjeunna janten paporit pikeun maranéhna anu tos ngarebut kakawasaan éta pamaréntahan. Maranéhna sieun yén rahayat bakal ningali bédana antara patriot sajati sareng patriot anu ngan saukur pura-pura, sarta ngamimitian runtuyan intimidasi ka menteri urang, anu ngajantenkeun situasina kacida teu genahna."{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}} Pamadegan anu sarupa ngeunaan kaayaan ieu ogé ditepikeun ku panulis biografi Samuel Burr. Harrison, saatos ninggalkeun jabatanana nanging masih kénéh aya di [[Gran Kolombia|nagara éta]], nyerat serat sakitar sapuluh kaca ka Bolivar, anu dimuat sacara lengkep dina biografi Hall sarta Burr. Éta serat matak ngahéman Hall alatan "prinsip kabébasan anu jero" ti Harrison. Burr ngajelaskeun éta serat salaku "pinuh ku kawijaksanaan, kahadéan, sarta patriotisme... sarta prinsip anu pangmurnina".{{sfn|Hall|1836|p=301}}{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=256}} ===Rahayat biasa=== Harrison mulang ka Amérika Sarikat sarta ka tegalanana di North Bend, hirup dina katenangan saatos ampir opat dasawarsa ngabdi ka pamaréntah. Anjeunna henteu ngumpulkeun kabeungharan anu loba salami hirupna, sarta hirup tina tabungan, mancén anu teu sabaraha, sarta panghasilan tina tegalanana. Burr nyutat M. Chavalier, anu pendak sareng Harrison di [[Cincinnati]] harita, sarta ngagambarkeun Harrison salaku jalma anu "miskin, gaduh kulawarga anu seueur jumlahna, ditingalkeun ku pamaréntah féderal, nanging jagjag kalayan pamikiran anu merdéka".{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} Dina bulan Méi 1817, Harrison janten salah saurang anggota pangadeg [[vestry]] jemaah [[Garéja Épiskopal (Amérika Sarikat)|Episcopal]], [[Katedral Christ Church (Cincinnati)|Christ Church]] di puseur kota [[Cincinnati]] (ayeuna [[Katedral Christ Church (Cincinnati)|Christ Church Cathedral]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=J. W. |title=Christ Church Cincinnati, 1817–1967 |publisher=Cincinnati Lithographing Ohio Press |year=1969}}</ref> Anjeunna terus ngabdi salaku anggota vestry dugi ka taun 1819, sarta deui dina taun 1824.<ref name=":0" /> Para pangrojong lokal datang mantuan Harrison ku cara ngangkat anjeunna janten [[Panitera Pangadilan]] pikeun [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], di mana anjeunna damel ti taun 1836 dugi ka 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Clerk of Courts Office|publisher=Hamilton County Clerk of Courts|url=http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|access-date=December 6, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp|archive-date=June 14, 2007}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052246/http://www.courtclerk.org/history_clerk_of_courts.asp |date=June 14, 2007 }}</ref> Chevalier nyarios, "Rencanganana di bagian wétan nyarioskeun badé ngajantenkeun anjeunna Présidén, sedengkeun di dieu urang ngajantenkeun anjeunna panitera di pangadilan handap."{{sfn|Burr|1840|p=Appendix}} Anjeunna ogé melak jagong sarta ngadegkeun panyatuaan (distillery) pikeun ngahasilkeun wiski, nanging anjeunna nutup éta usaha saatos anjeunna ngaraos kaganggu ku pangaruh buruk alkohol ka para palangganna. Dina biantara payuneun Déwan Pertanian [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] dina taun 1831, anjeunna nyebatkeun yén anjeunna parantos dosa margi ngadamel wiski sarta miharep batur tiasa diajar tina kasalahanana sarta ngeureunkeun produksi inuman keras.{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=257–258}} Sakitar waktos ieu, anjeunna pendak sareng tokoh abolisionis sarta konduktor [[Underground Railroad]] [[George DeBaptiste]] anu linggih di deukeut [[Madison, Indiana|Madison]], sarta duanana janten sobat. Harrison nyerat harita, "urang tiasa ngarep-ngarep datangna hiji poé nalika panonpoé Amérika Kalér moal ningali deui ayana budak beulian."<ref>{{cite book|title=A Patriot's History of the United States|first1=Larry|last1=Schweikart|first2=Michael|last2=Allen|publisher=Easton Press|location=Norwalk, Conn.|year=2004|page=233|isbn=1-59523-001-7}}</ref> DeBaptiste janten palayan pribadina, sarta saatosna janten pangurus (steward) di Gedong Bodas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tobin|first=Jacqueline L.|title=From Midnight to Dawn: The Last Tracks of the Underground Railroad|url=https://archive.org/details/frommidnighttoda0000tobi|publisher=Anchor|location=Detroit|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/frommidnighttoda0000tobi/page/200 200]–209|isbn=978-1-4001-0354-6}}</ref> Sanajan dibantah ku sababaraha réngréngan Harrison, Burr nutup catetanana ngeunaan Harrison ku cara ngagambarkeun hiji kajadian, nyaéta resepsi kanggé jenderal éta di Philadelphia dina taun 1836, anu nunjukkeun kumaha populérna Harrison harita. Numutkeun Burr, "Rébuan jalma minuhan darmaga jalan Chesnut nalika anjeunna sumping, sarta ngabagéakeun anjeunna ku surak anu terus-terusan nalika anjeunna mendarat. Anjeunna naék kana [[barouche]] (keréta kuda) nanging jalma-jalma maresek ka hareup kalayan kacida sumangetna, sahingga kuda-kudana janten sarieuneun. Aya gerakan pikeun ngaleupaskeun tali kuda nalika Jenderal nyarios ka sababaraha urang sarta nyobian nyegahna; nanging kuda-kuda éta gancang pisan teu kaurus, sahingga kedah dileupaskeun. Aya tali anu dibawa, sarta ditalikeun kana karéta, anu tuluy ditarik ku jalma-jalma ka Marshall House. Ieu tindakan mangrupikeun cetusan spontan ti sapuluh rébu haté anu nganuhunkeun. Urang Pennsylvania kantos perang di handapeun éta pahlawan, sarta maranéhna micinta anjeunna. Urang nyarioskeun hal ieu sacara husus, margi urang janten saksi mata kana sagala anu lumangsung."{{sfn|Burr|1840|pp=264–265}} ===Kampanye présidén 1836=== {{main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836}} Harrison mangrupa calon présidén Whig ti bagian kulon dina taun 1836, salah sahiji ti opat calon régional partéy Whig. Calon sanésna nyaéta [[Daniel Webster]], [[Hugh Lawson White]], sareng [[Willie P. Mangum]]. Munculna leuwih ti hiji calon Whig téh mangrupikeun upaya pikeun ngéléhkeun Wakil Présidén petahana, [[Martin Van Buren]], anu mangrupa calon Démokrat populér pilihan Jackson.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections">{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Campaigns and Elections|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/campaigns-and-elections| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=January 20, 2022| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Urang Démokrat nuduh yén ku cara majukeun sababaraha calon, Whig sabenerna hayang nyegah kameunangan Van Buren dina "electoral college", sarta maksa pamilihan sangkan diputuskeun ku DPR.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1836|title=U.S. Presidential Election of 1836|publisher=Britannica|access-date=January 20, 2022}}</ref> Upami enya aya rencana kitu, nanging éta rencana téh gagal. Harrison nempatan urutan kadua, sarta unggul di salapan ti dua puluh genep nagara bagian dina Uni.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp">{{cite web|title=How Close Were The Presidential Elections?|last=Shepperd|first=Michael|publisher=Michigan State University|url=https://www.msu.edu/~sheppa28/elections.html#1836|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref> Harrison maju di sakabéh nagara bagian non-perbudakan iwal ti Massachusetts, sarta di nagara bagian perbudakan sapertos Delaware, Maryland, sarta Kentucky. White maju di sésa nagara bagian perbudakan lianna iwal ti South Carolina. [[Daniel Webster]] maju di Massachusetts, sarta Mangum di South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ershkowitz|first=Herbert B.|title=American Presidential Campaigns and Elections|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2020|isbn=978-1-3154-9713-6}}</ref> Van Buren meunangkeun pamilihan kalayan 170 sora éléktoral.<ref name="Britannica"/> Parobahan ngan sakitar 4.000 sora di Pennsylvania sabenerna bisa mikeun 30 sora éléktoral nagara bagian éta ka Harrison, sarta pamilihan téh bakal diputuskeun ku DPR.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |title=USA Election Polls-Pennsylvania 1836 |publisher=Pennsylvania Election Results Home |access-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117062058/http://www.uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/state.php?fips=42&year=1836&f=0&off=0&elect=0 |archive-date=November 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="shp"/> ===Kampanye présidén 1840=== {{main|Kampanye présidén William Henry Harrison 1840}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|upright=0.85|right|Peta Sora Éléktoral 1840]] Harrison nyanghareupan petahana Van Buren salaku calon tunggal ti Whig dina pamilihan taun 1840. Partéy Whig ningali Harrison salaku urang kidul pituin sarta pahlawan perang, anu bakal kontras pisan sareng Van Buren anu katingalna angkuh, teu paduli, sarta aristokratik.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> Anjeunna dipilih ngéléhkeun anggota partéy séjén anu langkung kontroversial, sapertos Clay sareng Webster; kampanyéna nonjolkeun catetan militérna sarta museur kana lemahna ékonomi AS anu diakibatkeun ku [[Panik 1837]].{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} Urang Whig nyalahkeun Van Buren atas masalah ékonomi sarta néléhkeunana "Van Ruin" (Van Tukang Ruksak).{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=39}} Sabalikna, urang Démokrat ngaléléwé Harrison anu tos sepuh ku sebutan "Granny Harrison, the petticoat general" (Nini Harrison, jenderal samping), jalaran anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina angkatan darat sateuacan Perang 1812 réngsé. Maranéhna ogé nunjukkeun ka para pamilih yén upami nami Harrison diéjah tibalik bakal janten: "No Sirrah" (Moal, Dunungan). Maranéhna ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku lalaki sepuh ti kampung anu tinggaleun jaman, anu langkung milih "[[Kampanye gubug kai|calik di gubug kaina bari nginum sari apel (hard cider)]]" batan ngurus pamaréntahan nagara. Ieu strategi téh kalah malik janten pakarang makan tuan nalika Harrison sareng pasanganana, [[John Tyler]], ngajantenkeun gubug kai (log cabin) sarta sari apel (hard cider) salaku simbol kampanye. Kampanyéna ngagunakeun éta simbol dina spanduk sarta postér, malah nyieun botol sari apel anu bentukna sapertos gubug kai, sadayana kanggé ngaitkeun éta calon sareng "rahayat biasa".{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Freehling nyerat yén, "Hiji koran pro-Van Buren anu kuciwa nyerat saatos kéléhanana, 'Urang parantos ditalukkeun ku nyanyian, ditalukkeun ku kabohongan, sarta ditalukkeun ku inuman.' Dina hiji kalimah, ieu ngagambarkeun prosés pulitik Amérika anu anyar."<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/the-american-franchise|first=William|last=Freehling|title=William Harrison: The American Franchise|publisher=University of Virginia Miller Center|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=January 22, 2022}}</ref> Harrison sabenerna asalna ti kulawarga jegud di Virginia anu miboga budak beulian, nanging kampanyéna mintonkeun anjeunna salaku urang wates leuweung anu saderhana dumasar kana gaya anu dipopulérkeun ku [[Andrew Jackson]], bari ngagambarkeun Van Buren salaku elitist jegud.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|pp=39–40}} Conto anu paling diinget nyaéta [[Biantara Séndok Emas]] (Gold Spoon Oration) anu ditepikeun ku wawakil Whig ti Pennsylvania, [[Charles Ogle (politikus)|Charles Ogle]], di DPR, anu ngaléléwé gaya hirup méwah Van Buren di Gedong Bodas sarta pengeluaranana anu hambur.<ref name=Bradley-70-71>{{cite book|author=Bradley, Elizabeth L.|title=Knickerbocker: The Myth behind New York|url=https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad |url-access=registration|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=Rivergate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/knickerbockermyt0000brad/page/70 70]–71|isbn=978-0-8135-4516-5|year=2009|access-date=November 9, 2021}}</ref> Urang Whig ogé nyiptakeun hiji yel-yel di mana jalma-jalma bakal nyiduhkeun ciduh bako bari ngagorowok "wirt-wirt", sarta hal ieu ogé nunjukkeun bédana antara para calon dina mangsa pamilihan harita:<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> {{poemquote| Si Tip maké baju tinun saderhana, teu maké kaméja rumbai: wirt-wirt, Tapi si Matt boga piring emas, manéhna mah budak leutik bau kénéh jéngkol: wirt-wirt!}} Urang Whig ngagulkeun catetan militer Harrison sarta reputasina salaku pahlawan dina Perang Tippecanoe. Slogan kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler too|Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too]]" janten salah sahiji anu pangterahna dina sajarah pulitik Amérika.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}} Nalika Van Buren kampanye ti jero Gedong Bodas, Harrison mah turun langsung ka lapangan, ngahibur rahayat ku cara nirukeun gorowok perang Indindia, sarta hasil ngalihkeun perhatian masarakat tina kasisitan ékonomi nagara. Dina Juni 1840, rapat akbar Harrison di lokasi urut perang Tippecanoe dihadiran ku 60.000 urang.<ref name= "WHH Campaigns and Elections"/> Désa North Bend, Ohio, sarta para alumni [[Universitas Negeri Ohio]] (OSU) ngaklaim yén landihan nagara bagian "Buckeyes" asalna tina pesen kampanye Harrison.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html|title=Buckeyes?|publisher=Village of North Bend}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102175457/https://www.northbendohio.org/Buckeyes.html |date=2025-11-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/|archive-date=May 28, 2022|url-status=dead|title=Tippecanoe and Buckeyes Too|date=August 29, 2016|publisher=Ohio State University|access-date=January 21, 2022}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528074916/https://www.osu.edu/alumni/news/ohio-state-alumni-magazine/issues/september-october-2016/tippecanoe-and-buckeyes-too/ |date=May 28, 2022 }}</ref> Kampanye Harrison ogé janten korban tina naon anu disebut salaku "[[Kejutan Oktober]]" munggaran di éta nagara. Sababaraha poé sateuacan pamilihan, Departemén Kaadilan Van Buren nuduh yén pajabat Partéy Whig parantos ngalakukeun "penipuan anu kacida gedéna sarta jahat," nyaéta ku cara mayar urang Pennsylvania sangkan indit ka New York pikeun milih calon ti Whig dua taun sateuacanana.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://jonathanturley.org/2024/10/07/jack-smiths-october-surprise-was-not-that-surprising-and-that-is-the-problem/#more-224035|title=Jack Smith's October Surprise|last=Turley|first=Jonathan|date=October 7, 2024|website=Res Ipsa Loquitur|publisher=Jonathan Turley|access-date=October 7, 2024}}</ref> [[Tingkat partisipasi pamilih]] naék drastis ka angka 80%, 20 poin langkung luhur batan pamilihan sateuacanana.<ref name= "WHH - American Franchise"/> Harrison meunang mutlak dina Electoral College, 234 sora éléktoral ngalawan 60 sora pikeun Van Buren. Selisih sora rahayat (popular vote) mah langkung heureut, nyaéta kirang ti 150.000 sora, sanajan anjeunna unggul di salapan belas ti dua puluh genep nagara bagian.{{sfn|Carnes|Mieczkowski|2001|p=41}}{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=25}} ==Jabatan Présidén (1841)== ===Pelantikan=== {{Infobox administration | name = Mangsa Jabatan Présidén William Henry Harrison | term_start = 4 Maret 1841 | term_end = 4 April 1841 | vicepresident = [[John Tyler]] | cabinet = ''[[#Tekanan_patronase|Tingali daptar]]'' | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | seat = [[Gedong Bodas]] | predecessor = [[Mangsa Jabatan Présidén Martin Van Buren|Martin Van Buren]] | successor = [[Mangsa Jabatan Présidén John Tyler|John Tyler]] | seal = 1840s US presidential seal.png | seal_caption = Segel présidén<br />(1840–1850) }} [[File:Harrison inauguration.jpg|thumb|Pelantikan taun 1841]] Nalika Harrison sumping ka Washington, anjeunna hoyong némbongkeun yén anjeunna masih kénéh pahlawan Tippecanoe anu tangguh sarta mangrupa lalaki anu langkung terdidik sarta wijaksana batan karikatur urang kampung anu digambarkeun salami kampanye. Anjeunna [[Pelantikan William Henry Harrison|ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan]] dina ping 4 Maret 1841, hiji poé anu tiris sarta baseuh.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration">{{cite web |title= American Treasures–Harrison's Inauguration|date=August 2007|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr22a.html#obj14|publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna nahan hawa tiris sarta milih kanggé henteu nganggo japo (overcoat) atanapi topi, naék kuda nuju ka upacara agung, sarta tuluy nepikeun biantara pelantikan pangpanjangna dina sajarah Amérika<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> kalayan jumlah 8.445 kecap. Anjeunna meryogikeun waktos ampir dua jam kanggé macakeunana, sanajan sobatna anu sasama urang Whig, [[Daniel Webster]], parantos ngédit éta téks sangkan henteu panjang teuing.<ref name = iap/> Freehling boga pamadegan yén biantara sapertos kieu téh sabenerna mah lumrah harita, sarta ironina téh kacida jero, margi Harrison, "saurang nu saumur hirup moro jabatan, kapilih ku pulitik anu kacida partisan, nanging malah nyawad kadua prakték éta sacara pedes".<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> Éta biantara pelantikan mangrupa pernyataan lengkep ngeunaan agénda Partéy [[Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]], panolakan kana kawijakan Jackson sarta Van Buren, sarta hiji-hijina artikulasi formal ti Harrison ngeunaan pendekatanna kana jabatan présidén.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs">{{cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/domestic-affairs|last=Freehling|first=William|title=William Harrison: Domestic Affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|access-date=January 22, 2022|date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Éta biantara dimimitian ku rasa hormat Harrison kana kapercayaan anu dipasrahkeun ka anjeunna: {{blockquote|Sakiyeu kuatna maksad sim kuring ayeuna kanggé ngawujudkeun harepan rahayat anu luhur budina sarta pinuh kapercayaan, sim kuring terang pisan kana gogoda anu picilakaeun tina ageungna kakuasaan anu parantos dipasrahkeun ku rahayat ka panangan sim kuring... nanging sim kuring masrahkeun kapercayaan utama sim kuring kana pitulung Pangawasa Nu Maha Kawasa anu salami ieu parantos ngajaga sim kuring.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Harrison jangji bakal ngadegkeun deui [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] sarta ngalegaan kapasitas kiréditna ku cara ngaluarkeun mata uang kertas dina [[Sistem Amérika (rencana ékonomi)|Sistem Amérika]] tatanan [[Henry Clay]].<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Anjeunna boga maksud kanggé gumantung kana tinimbangan Kongrés dina urusan législatif, sarta ngan bakal ngagunakeun hak véto upami hiji undang-undang dianggap inkonstitusional, sarta bakal ngarobah [[sistem spoils]] (pembagian jabatan) gaya Jackson.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/> Anjeunna jangji bakal ngagunakeun kakawasaan kanggé milih staf anu mumpuni, sanés kanggé nguatkeun posisina di pamaréntahan, sarta dina kaayaan naon waé ogé anjeunna moal maju kanggé masa jabatan kadua. Anjeunna nyawad pemborosan kauangan ti pamaréntahan sateuacanana sarta jangji moal pipilueun kana kawijakan kauangan Kongrés. Sacara umum, Harrison jangji kanggé janten présidén anu "lemah", masrahkeun kaputusan ka Kongrés salaku "Cabang Utama", saluyu sareng prinsip Whig.<ref name= "WHH - Domestic Affairs"/><ref name = iap>{{cite web|title=William Henry Harrison Inaugural Address|work=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States|publisher=Bartleby|url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres26.html|access-date=February 11, 2009}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé nyabit ngeunaan masalah [[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]] anu nuju panas. Salaku jalma anu miboga budak beulian, Harrison satuju yén nagara bagian gaduh hak kanggé ngatur éta urusan sorangan: {{blockquote|Garis anu misahkeun kakawasaan warga nagara hiji nagara bagian sareng nagara bagian sanésna katingalina parantos ditarik sacara écés... Upaya warga hiji nagara bagian kanggé ngatur lembaga domestik nagara bagian sanésna ngan bakal ngakibatkeun rasa teu percaya sarta timburu, anu janten tanda bakal ayana perpecahan, kekerasan, sarta perang sadulur.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Nalika badé mungkas biantarana, anjeunna nyelapkeun kapercayaanana kana [[kabébasan beragama]] bari nyobian mintonkeun dirina salaku bagian tina aliran kaagamaan utama sanés panyimpang atanapi anggota minoritas: {{blockquote|Sim kuring nganggap kasempetan ieu cukup penting sarta suci kanggé nganyatakeun ka sasama warga nagara ngeunaan rasa hormat anu jero kana agama Kristen sarta kapercayaan anu kuat yén moral anu saé, kabébasan beragama, sarta rasa tanggung jawab kaagamaan anu adil téh kacida raketna sareng kabagjaan anu sajati.<ref name="WHH - Inaugural"/>}} Biantara Harrison anu panjang éta méré gambaran anu rada samar ngeunaan naon anu bakal ditawarkeun ku pamaréntahanana ka rahayat Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna nyatakeun ngan bakal ngajabat hiji périodeu sarta moal nyalahgunakeun hak véto. Harrison nolak nyiptakeun skéma kauangan sorangan kanggé nagara; sabalikna, anjeunna masrahkeun éta sapinuhna ka Kongrés. Anjeunna nolak ngaganggu wilayah [[Amérika Sarikat Bagian Kidul]] dina urusan perbudakan. Anjeunna henteu ngabahas ngeunaan tarif sarta distribusi. Anjeunna sakedik pisan nyabit ngeunaan bank nasional, iwal ti nyatakeun yén anjeunna kabuka kana mata uang kertas batan koin logam. Konsép Harrison ngeunaan jabatan présidén téh kacida kawatesna, saluyu sareng idéologi pulitik Whig.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} Saatos biantara, anjeunna milu dina parade pelantikan nyorang jalanan,<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> nangtung salami tilu jam kanggé sasalaman di Gedong Bodas, sarta ngahadiran tilu pésta dansa (ball) pelantikan dina peuting éta,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |title=Inaugural Ball |publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies |date=June 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |archive-date=February 25, 2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225184825/http://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/days-event/inaugural-ball |date=February 25, 2016 }}</ref> kalebet pésta di [[Carusi's Saloon]] anu dingaranan pésta "Tippecanoe" kalayan 1.000 tamu anu mayar $10 per urang (sarua sareng $371 dina taun 2025).<ref>{{cite web |title=Current Value of $10 from 1841 |url=https://www.officialdata.org/us/inflation/1841?amount=10 |access-date=September 16, 2025 |publisher=CPI Inflation Calculator}}</ref> ===Tekanan patronase=== Clay mangrupa pamingpin urang Whig sarta législator anu kawasa, ogé saurang calon présidén anu gagal, sahingga anjeunna miharep boga pangaruh anu ageung dina pamaréntahan Harrison. Anjeunna poho kana jangji partéyna sorangan kanggé ngaleungitkeun sistem "spoils" sarta nyobian mangaruhan tindakan Harrison sateuacan sarta salami jabatanana anu sakedap, utamana dina nyorong jalma-jalma pilihanna kanggé nempatan posisi Kabinét sarta jabatan présidén lianna. Harrison nolak éta tekanan bari nyarios, "Pa Clay, anjeun poho yén ''sim kuring'' anu janten Présidén."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HXFIAAAAYAAJ&q=%22%20%22Mr.%20Clay,%20you%20forget%20%22|page=379|journal=Magazine of American History|volume=VIII|issue=6|date=June 1882|title=The annexation of Texas}}</ref> Ieu pacogrégan beuki panas nalika Harrison milih [[Daniel Webster]] salaku Sekretaris Nagara, saingan utama Clay dina ngawasa Partéy Whig. Harrison ogé katingalina masihan sababaraha posisi penting ka para pangrojong Webster. Hiji-hijina konsési kanggé Clay nyaéta milih anak didiuna, [[John J. Crittenden]], kanggé posisi Jaksa Agung. Sanajan kitu, ieu guntreng téh terus nuluy dugi ka pupusna sang présidén.{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=511–515}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | align = right | Name = Harrison | President = William Henry Harrison | President date = 1841 | Vice President = [[John Tyler]] | Vice President date = 1841 | State = [[Daniel Webster]] | State date = 1841 | War = [[John Bell (politikus Tennessee)|John Bell]] | War date = 1841 | Treasury = [[Thomas Ewing]] | Treasury date = 1841 | Justice = [[John J. Crittenden]] | Justice date = 1841 | Post = [[Francis Granger]] | Post date = 1841 | Navy = [[George Edmund Badger]] | Navy date = 1841 }} Clay sanés hiji-hijina jalma anu miharep kauntungan tina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|kapilihna Harrison]]. Réwu jalma anu moro jabatan daratang ka Gedong Bodas, anu harita kabuka kanggé saha waé anu hoyong pendak sareng présidén. Sabagéan ageung padamelan Harrison salami sabulan janten présidén téh nyaéta kawajiban sosial sarta nampi tamu di Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna parantos dibilayan kanggé nyusun administrasi sateuacan pelantikan, nanging anjeunna nolak margi hoyong fokus kana acara perayaan. Hasilna, para panyiar damel ngantosan anjeunna unggal waktos sarta minuhan Gedong Eksekutif, bari teu aya prosés kanggé ngatur sarta milih maranéhna.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Dina serat anu kaping 10 Maret, Harrison nyerat, "Sim kuring kacida diganggu ku lobana jalma anu sumping ka sim kuring sahingga sim kuring teu tiasa masihan perhatian anu merenah kana urusan sim kuring sorangan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|title=Letter from Harrison to R. Buchanan, Esq., March 10, 1841|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=November 9, 2021|archive-date=June 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618235507/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?175070|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Layanan Marshal Amérika Sarikat|Marshal AS]] pikeun [[Washington, D.C.|Distrik Columbia]], Alexander Hunter, nginget hiji kajadian nalika Harrison dikepung ku para pamuru jabatan anu ngahalangan anjeunna nuju ka rapat kabinét; nalika pamentana sangkan maranéhna méré jalan teu dipaliré, Harrison ahirna "nampi petisi maranéhna, anu minuhan leungeun sarta saku bajuna".<ref name="Whitcomb">{{cite book |last=Whitcomb |first=John & Claire|title=Real Life at the White House: 200 Years of Daily Life at America's Most Famous Residence|publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2002|page=81|isbn=978-0-415-93951-5}}</ref> Carita séjénna nyebutkeun yén lorong-lorong harita kacida pinuhna sahingga kanggé pindah ti hiji rohangan ka rohangan sanésna, Harrison kedah dibantuan kaluar tina jandéla, leumpang di luar gedong, tuluy diasupkeun deui tina jandéla sanésna.<ref name="Whitcomb"/> Harrison daria pisan kana jangjina kanggé ngoméan sistem pangangkatan éksekutif, nganjang ka unggal genep departemén kabinét kanggé ningali operasina sarta ngaluarkeun paréntah ngaliwatan Webster yén [[kampanye]] ku pagawé bakal dianggap salaku alesan kanggé pamecatanna.<ref name="Harrison's Inauguration"/> Anjeunna nahan tekanan ti sasama urang Whig ngeunaan patronase partisan. Sakelompok jalma sumping ka kantorna dina 16 Maret kanggé nungtut pamecatan sakabéh urang Démokrat tina jabatan anu diangkat, sarta Harrison nyatakeun, "Demi Allah, sim kuring langkung milih ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan batan kedah ngalakukeun kajahatan sapertos kitu!"<ref>{{cite book |last=Woollen |first=William Wesley|title=Biographical and historical sketches of early Indiana|publisher=Ayer Publishing |year=1975|location=New York|page=51|isbn=978-0-405-06896-6}}</ref> Kabinétna sorangan nyobian ngabolaykeun pangangkatan [[John Chambers (politikus)|John Chambers]] salaku Gubernur Téritori Iowa demi sobat Webster, [[James Wilson II (politikus New Hampshire)|James Wilson]]. Webster nyobian nahan éta kaputusan dina rapat kabinét 25 Maret, sarta Harrison ménta anjeunna macakeun tarik hiji catetan tulis leungeun anu unina saukur "William Henry Harrison, Présidén Amérika Sarikat". Harrison tuluy nangtung sarta nyatakeun: "William Henry Harrison, Présidén Amérika Sarikat, ngawartosan ka aranjeun, para jandral, yén demi Allah, John Chambers bakal janten gubernur Iowa!"{{sfn|Remini|1997|pp=520–521}} Hiji-hijina kaputusan resmi Harrison sanésna anu penting nyaéta naha kedah ngayakeun sidang istiméwa Kongrés. Anjeunna sareng Clay teu sapamadegan ngeunaan perluna éta sidang, sarta kabinét Harrison kabagi dua, sahingga mimitina présidén nolak éta ide. Clay neken deui dina 13 Maret, nanging Harrison nolak sarta ngawartosan anjeunna sangkan ulah nganjang ka Gedong Bodas deui, sarta kedah ngahubungi anjeunna ngan ngaliwatan tulisan.<ref>{{cite web|title=American History Series: The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison|publisher=Voice of America News|url=http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131082639/http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2009-01-28-voa3.cfm|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2009|access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref> Nanging, sababaraha poé saatosna, Sekretaris Perbendaharaan [[Thomas Ewing]] ngalaporkeun yén dana féderal nuju dina kaayaan sesah sahingga pamaréntah moal tiasa beroperasi dugi ka sidang rutin Kongrés dina bulan Désémber; Harrison ahirna satuju, sarta ngumumkeun sidang istiméwa dina 17 Maret. Éta sidang sabenerna dijadwalkeun dimimitian ping 31 Méi upami Harrison masih kénéh hirup.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brinkley|first1=Alan|last2=Dyer|first2=Davis|year=2004|title=The American Presidency|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-618-38273-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3djEYV3R7oIC&pg=PA120 |access-date=June 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress|title=Pres. W.H. Harrison, Proclamation 45B–Convening an Extra Session of the Congress|publisher=American Presidency Project|access-date=November 9, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103100710/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-45b-convening-extra-session-the-congress |date=January 3, 2021 }}</ref> ==Pupusna sarta panguburan== [[File:Death of Harrison, April 4 A.D. 1841 LCCN91794698.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Ilustrasi anu ngagambarkeun pupusna Harrison, 4 April 1841]] Harrison ngarasa lungse sacara fisik alatan lobana pamuru jabatan sarta jadwal sosial anu padet.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=140}} Anjeunna ogé sering teu maliré kana hawa tiris tungtung usum tiris, mindeng kaluar tanpa nganggo papakéan anu merenah. Saatos nepikeun biantara pelantikan dua jam dina hujan ping 4 Maret tanpa topi atanapi japo, Harrison terus negrakeun dirina kana hawa tiris. Tilu minggu saatosna, dina 24 Maret 1841, Harrison jalan-jalan isuk-isuk ka pasar lokal, deui-deui tanpa japo atanapi topi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Henry Harrison |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/william-henry-harrison#:~:text=The%20president-elect,%20however,,just%2031%20days%20in%20office. |access-date=March 8, 2025 |publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Sanajan katarajang hujan dadakan, anjeunna henteu ganti baju nalika mulang ka Gedong Bodas.<ref name = Shafer>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/10/06/william-henry-harrison-pneumonia-death-trump-coronavirus|title=In 1841 pneumonia killed the president|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=October 6, 2020|access-date=December 13, 2021|last=Shafer|first=Ronald G.}}</ref> Dina 26 Maret, Harrison mimiti gering muriang sarta manggil dokterna, Thomas Miller, sanajan anjeunna nyarios ka dokter yén anjeunna ngaraos langkung saé saatos nginum ubar kanggé "kacapéan sarta kahariwang méntal".<ref name = Shafer/> Isukna, dinten Saptu, dokter dipanggil deui sarta mendakan Harrison di ranjang kalayan "muriang parna", saatos jalan-jalan isuk-isuk deui. Miller nerapkeun [[param mustar]] kana beuteungna sarta masihan ubar [[pancahar]] hampang, sarta anjeunna ngaraos langkung saé soréna.<ref name = Shafer/> Jam 4:00 isuk-isuk ping 28 Maret, Harrison ngarasa nyeri parna dina lambungna sarta dokter ngalakukeun [[bekam]] (bloodletting); prosésna dieureunkeun nalika denyut nadina turun. Miller ogé nerapkeun gelas panas (cop) kana kulit présidén kanggé ningkatkeun aliran getih.<ref name = Shafer/> Dokter tuluy masihan [[minyak jarak]] sarta ubar kanggé utah, sarta ngadiagnosis anjeunna katarajang pneumonia dina paru-paru katuhu.<ref name = Shafer/> Tim dokter dipanggil dinten Senén, 29 Maret, sarta mastikeun ayana [[pneumonia]] lobus handap katuhu.<ref name=WHHDOTP>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Death of the President| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/death-of-the-president| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison tuluy dipasihan [[laudanum]], [[opium]], sarta [[kamper]], bareng jeung anggur sarta brendi.{{sfn|Collins|2012|p=123}} Teu aya béwara resmi ngeunaan panyakit Harrison, anu nyababkeun spekulasi masarakat. Masarakat Washington mimiti sadar nalika anjeunna henteu katingal angkat ka garéja dinten Minggu.<ref name=Whitcomb /> Laporan koran anu tumpang tindih dumasar kana bocoran ti jalma-jalma di Gedong Bodas.<ref name = Shafer/> Hiji koran Washington ngalaporkeun dina 1 April yén kaséhatan Harrison parantos saé. Padahal sabenerna, kaayaan Harrison beuki parna, sarta anggota Kabinét katut kulawarga dipanggil ka Gedong Bodas—pamajidanna, Anna, masih kénéh aya di Ohio alatan gering.<ref name = Shafer/> Numutkeun koran di Washington dinten Jumaah, Harrison parantos rada jagjag, sanajan laporan ti ''Baltimore Sun'' nyebutkeun kaayaanana "langkung bahaya".<ref name = Shafer/> Saurang wartawan ''New York Commercial'' nyebutkeun yén "rahayat nagara kacida sedihna sarta loba anu ceurik."<ref name = Shafer/> Dina wengi 3 April, Harrison katarajang diaré parna sarta mimiti igir-igiran, sarta jam 8:30 peuting anjeunna ngucapkeun kekecapan terakhirna ka dokterna, anu dianggap ditujukeun kanggé Wakil Présidén John Tyler:<ref name = Shafer/> "Pa, sim kuring hoyong anjeun ngartos kana prinsip sajati pamaréntahan ieu. Sim kuring hoyong éta dilaksanakeun. Sim kuring teu ménta nanaon deui."<ref>{{Cite web| title=William Henry Harrison: Key Events| url=https://millercenter.org/president/william-harrison/key-events| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 7, 2016}}</ref> Harrison pupus dina jam 12:30 isuk-isuk ping 4 April 1841, salapan poé saatos gering sarta pas sabulan saatos sumpah jabatan;<ref name = Shafer/> anjeunna janten présidén munggaran anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref name=WHHDOTP/> Pamajidanna, Anna, masih di Ohio nuju mereskeun barang kanggé indit ka Washington nalika nampi béwara salakina pupus.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/first-families/anna-tuthill-symmes-harrison/|title=Anna T. S. Harrison|publisher=The White House|access-date=December 13, 2021}}</ref> Anjeunna henteu kantos pindah ka Gedong Bodas. Minantuna, Jane Irwin Harrison, janten inang (hostess) Gedong Bodas ngagentos Anna salami Harrison janten présidén.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Téori anu kuat harita nyaéta panyakitna disababkeun ku hawa tiris nalika pelantikan tilu minggu sateuacanana.{{sfn|Cleaves|1939|p=152}} Nanging, Jane McHugh sarta Philip A. Mackowiak ngalakukeun analisis dina ''Clinical Infectious Diseases'' (2014), marios catetan Miller anu nunjukkeun yén pasokan cai Gedong Bodas aya di hilireun pembuangan limbah umum, sarta maranéhna nyimpulkeun yén anjeunna kamungkinan ageung pupus alatan [[syok séptik]] lantaran "demam enterik" ([[tipus]] atanapi [[paratipus]]).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/01/science/what-really-killed-william-henry-harrison.html|title=What Really Killed William Henry Harrison?|newspaper=The New York Times|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=August 27, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Death in the White House: President William Henry Harrison's Atypical Pneumonia|first1=Jane|last1=McHugh|first2=Philip A.|last2=Mackowiak|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|pmid=24962997|date=June 23, 2014|doi=10.1093/cid/ciu470|volume=59|issue=7|pages=990–995|doi-access=free |issn=1058-4838 }}</ref> Mangsa sungkawa salami 30 poé dimimitian saatos pupusna présidén. Gedong Bodas ngayakeun rupa-rupa upacara publik. Upacara panguburan husus undangan ogé dilaksanakeun dina 7 April di [[East Room]] Gedong Bodas, saatosna peti Harrison dibawa ka [[Makam Kongrés]] di Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Funeral: April 7, 1841| url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/william-henry-harrison-funeral| publisher=White House Historical Association| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> [[Solomon Northup]] nyaritakeun éta prosési dina buku ''[[Twelve Years a Slave]]'': {{blockquote|Isukna aya parade ageung di Washington. Sora mariem sarta dentang loncéng minuhan hawa, sedengkeun imah-imah ditutup ku lawon hideung, sarta jalanan hideung ku jalma-jalma. Prosési katingal lalaunan ngalangkungan jalan Avenue, karéta demi karéta, bari rébuan jalma nuturkeun ku suku—sadayana gerak dibarengan ku musik anu sedih. Maranéhna mawa jasad Harrison ka kuburan.... Sim kuring inget pisan kumaha kaca jandéla oyag sarta peupeus ka taneuh saatos unggal sora mariem anu ditémbakkeun di tempat pamakaman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/northup/northup.html|title=Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup|publisher=Library, UNC-Chapel Hill|year=1997|access-date=November 10, 2021}}</ref>}} Dina bulan Juni éta, jasad Harrison dibawa ku karéta api sarta tongkang walungan ka [[North Bend, Ohio]], sarta dikurebkeun dina 7 Juli di puncak Gunung Nebo, anu ayeuna janten [[William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial]].<ref>{{cite web| title=William Henry Harrison Memorial| url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/visit/museum-and-site-locator/william-henry-harrison-tomb| publisher= Ohio History Connection| location=Columbus Ohio| access-date=March 9, 2019}}</ref> ===Tyler naék jabatan=== Dina ping 5 April, [[Fletcher Webster]], putra ti Sekretaris Nagara [[Daniel Webster]], méré nyaho ka Tyler yén Harrison parantos pupus nalika nuju ngajabat. Tyler nuju nganjang ka kulawargana di [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] sarta mulang ka Washington dina isuk-isuk ping 6 April.<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> Dina dinten anu sami, Tyler [[Sumpah jabatan présidén Amérika Sarikat|disumpah kanggé ngajabat]] di payuneun kabinét Harrison, anu sacara resmi ngamimitian [[Mangsa jabatan présidén John Tyler|masa jabatan présidénna]]. Dina ping 9 April, Tyler nepikeun biantara pelantikan anu singget. Dina biantara kanggé éta nagara, Tyler henteu masihan ucapan béla sungkawa sacara pribadi ka randa Harrison, Anna, atanapi ka anggota kulawargana. Tyler kalah muji Harrison ku cara nyebatkeun yén Harrison parantos kapilih kanggé "tugas anu agung" nyaéta meresihan pamaréntah féderal tina korupsi.<ref name="John Tyler 1841">[[#John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States|John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States]]</ref> Tyler sareng kulawargana pindah ka Gedong Bodas saminggu saatos pamakaman Harrison, sateuacan mangsa sungkawa 30 poé kanggé Harrison réngsé. Rohangan utama Gedong Bodas harita masih kénéh dipinuhan ku lawon [[Crêpe (tekstil)|hideung]] tanda sungkawa.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141–142}}<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison|The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]</ref> ===Dampak tina pupusna Harrison=== [[File:William Henry Harrison Memorial.jpg|thumb|Monumén William Henry Harrison di [[North Bend, Ohio]]]] Pupusna Harrison narik perhatian kana ayana kerancuan (ambiguitas) dina [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat#Bagian 1, Ayat 6|Pasal II, Bagian 1, Ayat 6]] tina [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] ngeunaan [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|suksési jabatan présidén]]. Konstitusi sacara spésifik nangtukeun yén wakil présidén bakal nyokot alih "Wewenang sarta Tugas ti éta Jabatan" upami présidén ditéwak, pupus, ngundurkeun diri, atanapi teu sanggup ngajabat, nanging henteu écés naha wakil présidén sacara resmi janten présidén Amérika Sarikat, atanapi saukur samentara ngajalankeun wewenang sarta tugas éta jabatan dina kasus suksési.<ref>{{cite web| last=Feerick| first=John| title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession| work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession| url-status=unfit| archive-date=April 21, 2012| publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]| access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> Kabinét Harrison negeskeun yén Tyler téh "Wakil Présidén anu ngalakukeun tugas salaku Présidén". Tyler tetep pengkuh dina klaimna kana gelar Présidén sarta tekadna kanggé ngagunakeun kakawasaan pinuh tina jabatan présidén.<ref name=ConstitutionDailyNCC>{{cite web|author=|title=A controversial President who established presidential succession|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/john-tyler-americas-most-unusual-president|date=March 29, 2017|work=Constitution Daily|publisher=National Constitution Center|access-date=March 11, 2019}}</ref> Kabinét ngayakeun konsultasi sareng Ketua Mahkamah Agung [[Roger Taney]] sarta mutuskeun yén, upami Tyler ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan présidén, anjeunna bakal janten présidén. Tyler nurut sarta disumpah dina ping 6 April 1841. Kongrés ngayakeun sidang, sarta dina ping 31 Méi 1841, saatos debat singget di kadua kamar (DPR sarta Sénat), ngaluarkeun résolusi gabungan anu mastikeun Tyler salaku présidén kanggé sésa masa jabatan Harrison.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-politics_1946-02_8_1/page/44 |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> Ieu suksési janten [[Preséden Tyler]], anu diturutan dina tujuh kajadian nalika présidén petahana pupus sateuacan ahirna diasupkeun kana Konstitusi dina taun 1967 ngaliwatan Bagian Hiji tina [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x |last=Abbott |first=Philip |title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_2005-12_35_4/page/627 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=Dec 2005 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=627–645 |jstor=27552721}}</ref> ==Warisan== ===Reputasi sajarah=== [[File:Tecumseh in Lafayette IN.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Harrison (kénca) di [[Gedong Pangadilan Tippecanoe County]], Lafayette, Indiana]] Salah sahiji warisan Harrison anu paling langgeng nyaéta rangkuyan perjangjian anu dirundingkeun sarta ditarandatangan ku anjeunna sareng para pamingpin Indindia salami janten [[Gubernur Indiana|gubernur téritorial Indiana]].{{sfn|Gugin|St. Clair|2006|p=18}} Salaku bagian tina rundingan éta, suku-suku asli masrahkeun lahan anu lega di bagian kulon anu nyadiakeun lahan tambahan kanggé dipésér sarta dicicingan ku warga nagara.<ref name="cb"/>{{sfn|Madison|Sandweiss|2014|p=47}} Dampak jangka panjang Harrison dina [[Pulitik Amérika Sarikat|pulitik Amérika]] kalebet metode kampanyéna, anu neundeun pondasi kanggé taktik kampanye présidén modéren.{{sfn|Greene|2007|p=100}} Harrison pupus dina kaayaan ampir teu boga harta, sahingga Kongrés méré sora kanggé masihan mancén randa présidén ka pamajidanna, Anna, gedéna $25.000,<ref name="Damon 1974-06">{{cite journal |last=Damon |first=Allan L. |title=Presidential Expenses |journal=American Heritage |date=June 1974 |volume=25 |issue=4 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |access-date=February 10, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |archive-date=January 7, 2009 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107145645/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1974/4/1974_4_64.shtml |date=January 7, 2009 }}</ref> nyaéta sagedé gajih sataun Harrison (sarua sareng sakitar $936.000 dina taun 2025). Anjeunna ogé nampi hak kanggé ngintunkeun serat sacara haratis.<ref>{{cite web|title=First Lady Biography: Anna Harrison|year=2009|publisher=National First Ladies Library|url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|access-date=February 11, 2009|archive-date=October 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009221313/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=9 |date=October 9, 2018 }}</ref> Freehling nyebut Harrison salaku "tokoh anu paling dominan dina évolusi téritori Northwest janten wilayah Upper Midwest ayeuna".<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Impact and Legacy| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/impact-and-legacy| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 9, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Harrison, anu yuswana 68 taun nalika [[Pelantikan William Henry Harrison|dilantik]], mangrupa jalma pangsepuhna anu ngajabat présidén AS harita, hiji catetan anu dicepeng ku anjeunna dugi ka taun 1981, nalika [[Pelantikan munggaran Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] dilantik dina yuswa 69 taun.<ref>{{Cite web| last=Freehling| first=William| title=William Henry Harrison: Life In Brief| url=https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-in-brief| publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=March 8, 2019| date=October 4, 2016}}</ref> Putra Harrison, [[John Scott Harrison]], ngawakilan Ohio di DPR AS antara taun 1853 sarta 1857.<ref name="bioguide.congress">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harrison, John Scott, (1804–1878)|dictionary=Biographical Directory of the United States Congress|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000272|access-date=June 18, 2008}}</ref> Putu Harrison, Benjamin Harrison ti Indiana, ngajabat salaku présidén ka-23 ti taun 1889 dugi ka 1893, anu ngajantenkeun William sareng Benjamin Harrison hiji-hijina pasangan aki sareng putu anu janten présidén.{{sfn|Calhoun|2005|pp=43–49}} ===Pangajén sarta pangéling-ngéling=== {{main|Daptar pangéling-ngéling kanggé William Henry Harrison}} Rupa-rupa monumén sarta patung pangéling-ngéling parantos diadegkeun salaku pangajén kanggé Harrison. Aya patung publik anjeunna di puseur kota [[Indianapolis]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|pp=12, 164}} [[Taman Piatt]] di [[Cincinnati]],<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 1896|title=The Harrison Monument, Cincinnati|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Mc7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA422|journal=The Monumental News|volume=8|issue=7}}</ref> [[Gedong Pangadilan Tippecanoe County]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=243}} [[Harrison County, Indiana]],{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=131}} sarta [[Owen County, Indiana]].{{sfn|Greiff|2005|p=206}} Seueur ogé distrik (county) sarta kota anu nganggo namina. Désa [[North Bend, Ohio]], masihan pangajén ka Harrison unggal taun ku ngayakeun [[parade]] kanggé ngarayakeun dinten ambal warsihna.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html|title=William Henry Harrison Birthday Tribute|publisher=Village of North Bend, Ohio|access-date=November 10, 2021}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250624071523/https://www.northbendohio.org/HarrisonBirthday08.html |date=June 24, 2025 }}</ref> Markas Besar Jenderal William Henry Harrison di [[Franklinton (Columbus, Ohio)|Franklinton, Ohio]], ogé diadegkeun kanggé nginget anjeunna. Éta imah téh mangrupa markas militer anjeunna ti taun 1813 dugi ka 1814.<ref name="nrhpdoc">{{cite book|url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|title=National Register of Historic Places Registration Form|series=File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Ohio, 1964 – 2013|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=May 17, 2020|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225030545/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/71988611|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dina ping 19 Pébruari 2009, [[United States Mint]] ngaluarkeun koin kasalapan dina [[Program Koin $1 Présidén]], anu mintonkeun gambar Harrison.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|title=The United States Mint Coins and Medals Program|publisher=United States Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016|archive-date=August 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808050850/http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/$1coin/index.cfm?action=WHHarrison |date=August 8, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usmint.gov/about_the_mint/index.cfm?action=productionFigures&presYear=2009&reportSelected#starthere&CFID=122577291&CFTOKEN=56436795|title=Circulating Coins Production Figures|publisher=U.S. Mint|access-date=July 28, 2016}}</ref> {| style="margin:auto" | [[File:Cincinnati-harrison-statue, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Patung kuda William Henry Harrison|Patung kuda Harrison di Cincinnati, karya [[Louis Rebisso]] ]] | [[File:William Henry Harrison Presidential $1 Coin obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Koin [[dollar présidén]] taun 2009]] | [[File:William Henry Harrison. Indiana statehood stamp, 1950 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Perangko taun 1950 kanggé pangéling-ngéling ngadegna nagara bagian Indiana]] |} ==Tingali ogé== * [[Supata Tippecanoe]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanana]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat anu pupus nalika ngajabat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat anu miboga budak beulian]] ==Rujukan== ===Sitiran=== {{reflist}} ===Bibliografi=== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book|last=Calhoun|first=Charles William|title=Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President 1889–1893|series=The American Presidents|volume=23|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8050-6952-5}} *{{cite book|last1=Carnes|first1=Mark C.|last2=Mieczkowski|first2=Yanek|title=The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehistori0000miec|series=Routledge Atlases of American History|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-92139-8}} *{{cite book|last=Cleaves|first=Freeman|title=Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time|url=https://archive.org/details/oldtippecanoewil00clea|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York|year=1939|isbn= 978-0-9457-0701-1}} *{{cite book|first=Gail|last=Collins|title=William Henry Harrison: The 9th President, 1841|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhenryharr0000coll|publisher=Henry Holt and Co.|year=2012|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8050-9118-2}} *{{cite book|last=Greene|first=Meg|title=William H. Harrison|url=https://archive.org/details/williamhharrison0000gree|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|location=Breckenridge, CO|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8225-1511-1}} *{{cite book|last=Greiff|first=Glory-June|title=Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/remembrancefaith0000unse|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press|year=2005|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-180-9}} *{{cite book|editor-last1=Gugin|editor-first1=Linda C.|editor-last2=St. Clair|editor-first2=James E.|title=The Governors of Indiana|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780871951960|publisher=Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau|year=2006|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0-87195-196-0}} *{{cite book |last=McCormick |first=Richard P. |chapter=William Henry Harrison and John Tyler |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentsrefere0000unse_d5m4 |edition=7th |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/presidentsrefere0000unse_d5m4/page/139 139]–151 |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference USA |isbn=978-0-684-80551-1}} *{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1997 |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time |url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-04552-8}} {{refend}} [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat|Harrison, William Henry]] [[Kategori:Inohong dunya]] [[Kategori:Inohong militer Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Indiana]] l5ctslklqyuoh6vy99wl1rggzniiiro John Tyler 0 107819 712438 711517 2026-08-28T23:28:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 6 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1845}} {{Use American English|date=November 2025}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = John Tyler | image = Tyler, John, by Healy (1842, NPG 2019 13).jpg | caption = Potrét, 1842 | order = 10 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | term_start = 4 April 1841 | term_end = 4 Maret 1845 | vicepresident = Kosong{{efn|Tyler mangrupa wakil présidén di handapeun Présidén William Henry Harrison sarta janten présidén saatos Harrison pupus dina 4 April 1841. Kajadian ieu lumangsung sateuacan diadopsina [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1967, sarta kakosongan dina jabatan wakil présidén teu tiasa dieusi dugi ka pamilihan sarta pelantikan salajengna.}} | predecessor = [[William Henry Harrison]] | successor = [[James K. Polk]] | order2 = ka-10 | office2 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat | president2 = William Henry Harrison | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1841 | term_end2 = 4 April 1841 | predecessor2 = [[Richard Mentor Johnson]] | successor2 = [[George M. Dallas]] | jr/sr3 = Sénator Amérika Sarikat | state3 = [[Virginia]] | term_start3 = 4 Maret 1827 | term_end3 = 29 Pébruari 1836 | predecessor3 = [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]] | successor3 = [[William Cabell Rives]] | order5 = ka-23 | office5 = Gubernur Virginia | term_start5 = 10 Désémber 1825 | term_end5 = 4 Maret 1827 | predecessor5 = [[James Pleasants]] | successor5 = [[William Branch Giles]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1790|3|29}} | birth_place = [[Greenway Plantation]], Charles City County, Virginia, AS. | death_date = {{death date and age|1862|1|18|1790|3|29}} | death_place = [[Exchange Hotel (Richmond, Virginia)|Ballard House]], Richmond, Virginia | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] (1834–1841) | otherparty = {{plainlist| * [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik|Démokratik-Républik]] (1811–1828) * [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] (1828–1834) * [[Partéy Tyler]] (1844) * [[Politikus indepénden|Indepénden]] (1841–1844, 1844–1862) }} | alma_mater = [[College of William & Mary]] | profession = {{flatlist| * Politikus * ahli hukum }} | signature = John Tyler Signature 2.svg | allegiance = Amérika Sarikat | branch = [[Milisi Virginia]] | unit = [[Charles City Rifles]] | serviceyears = 1813 | rank = [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|Kaptén]] | battles = [[Perang 1812]] }} '''John Tyler''' (29 [[Maret]] 1790 – 18 [[Januari]] 1862) nyaéta [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-10, ngajabat ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1845, saatos sateuacanana ngajabat sakedap salaku [[wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-10 dina taun 1841. Anjeunna kapilih janten wakil présidén tina tikét [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|pamilihan 1840]] bareng sareng [[William Henry Harrison]], sarta naék jabatan janten présidén saatos Harrison pupus 31 dinten saatos dilantik. Tyler mangrupa pangrojong kuat [[hak-hak nagara bagian]], kalebet ngeunaan ''[[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]]'', sarta anjeunna ngan ukur nerapkeun kawijakan [[nasionalistik]] nalika hal éta henteu ngalanggar kakawasaan nagara bagian. Naékna Tyler anu teu disangka-sangka janten présidén dianggap ancaman kanggé ambisi présidén Sénator [[Henry Clay]] sarta politikus Whig sanésna, anu antukna ngajantenkeun Tyler papisah ti dua partéy pulitik utama harita: Whig sarta [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]]. Tyler dilahirkeun dina kulawarga nu miboga budak beulian (sababaraha budak belian) anu kawentar di [[Virginia]]. Anjeunna janten [[inohong]] nasional dina mangsa nggolakna pulitik. Dina taun 1820-an, [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik]], anu harita mangrupa hiji-hijina partéy pulitik di nagara éta, beulah janten sababaraha faksi. Mimitina Tyler mangrupa saurang [[Démokrat Jacksonian]], nanging anjeunna nentang Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] nalika [[krisis nullifikasi]] margi anjeunna nganggap tindakan Jackson ngalanggar hak-hak nagara bagian. Hal ieu nyababkeun Tyler ngagabung sareng faksi kidul Partéy Whig. Anjeunna kantos ngajabat salaku anggota législatif nagara bagian Virginia, gubernur, anggota [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]], sarta [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Sénator AS]]. Tyler mangrupa calon wakil présidén regional Whig dina pamilihan 1836, anu dimeunangkeun ku [[Martin Van Buren]]. Dina pamilihan 1840, anjeunna janten hiji-hijina calon wakil présidén Whig sarta hasil ngéléhkeun Van Buren kalayan ''slogan'' kampanye "[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]". Saatos Harrison pupus, Tyler janten wakil présidén munggaran anu [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngagantikeun présidén]]. Di tengah teuayana kacindekan naha wakil présidén leres-leres janten présidén atanapi saukur ngajalankeun tugasna, Tyler langsung ngucapkeun [[Sumpah jabatan présidén Amérika Sarikat|sumpah jabatan présidén]], anu antukna nyiptakeun [[Preséden Tyler]]. Sanajan anjeunna nandatanganan sababaraha RUU ti Kongrés anu dikawasa ku Whig, Tyler salaku saurang [[konstruksionis ketat]] ngavéto RUU partéyna sorangan kanggé ngadegkeun bank nasional sarta naékeun tarif. Hal ieu nyababkeun ampir sakabéh kabinétna malundur, sarta anjeunna dipecat tina Partéy Whig kalayan jujuluk "His Accidency" (Présidén Kabeneran). Sanajan kawijakan domestikna macét, anjeunna hasil dina urusan luar nagri, kalebet [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] sareng Inggris sarta [[Perjangjian Wanghia]] sareng Cina. Tyler ogé ngarojong [[Texas annexation|aneksasi Texas]] sarta nandatanganan RUU kanggé ngajantenkeun Texas nagara bagian sateuacan anjeunna lungsur jabatan. Nalika [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dimimitian dina taun 1861, Tyler mimitina ngarojong [[Konférénsi Perdamaian 1861]]. Saatos éta gagal, anjeunna mihak ka [[Konféderasi Amérika Sarikat|Konféderasi]]. Anjeunna ngajabat salaku anggota [[Kongrés Provisori Konféderasi]] sarta kapilih janten anggota [[DPR Konféderasi]], nanging pupus sateuacan sidang dimimitian. Sanajan sababaraha sarjana muji pangaruh pulitikna, seueur sajarahwan nempatkeun anjeunna dina réngking handap dina [[Réngking sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|réngking présidén AS]]. ==Kahirupan awal sarta atikan== John Tyler dilahirkeun dina 29 [[Maret]] 1790, dina kulawarga miboga budak beulian anu punjul di Virginia. Tyler asalna ti [[Charles City County, Virginia]], sarta mangrupa turunan ti [[Kulawarga Munggaran Virginia]]. Bapana, [[John Tyler Sr.]], anu katelah Hakim Tyler, mangrupa réntén sarta réngréngan pulitik [[Thomas Jefferson]]. Tyler digedékeun di [[Greenway Plantation]], hiji perkebunan anu legana sakitar 1.200 héktar (5 km²). ==Tuan tanah sarta ahli hukum== Tyler diaku janten anggota bar (ahli hukum) Virginia dina yuswa 19 taun. Harita, bapana ngajabat salaku gubernur Virginia, sarta Tyler ngamimitian prakték hukumna di Richmond. Dumasar sénsus taun 1820, Tyler miboga 24 jalma budak beulian di Woodburn, saatos nampi warisan 13 urang ti bapana. ==Naékna karir pulitik== ===Awal di pulitik Virginia=== [[File:Greenway, State Route 5 vicinity, Charles City vicinity (Charles City County, Virginia).jpg|thumb|Tempat lahir Tyler, [[Greenway Plantation]]]] Dina taun 1811, dina yuswa 21 taun, Tyler kapilih ngawakilan Charles City County di House of Delegates (DPR nagara bagian). Posisi-posisina parantos katingal ti mimiti: rojongan kuat kana [[hak-hak nagara bagian]] sarta nentang bank nasional. ===Perang 1812=== Saperti kalolobaan urang Amérika di bagian Kidul harita, Tyler miboga sikep [[anti-Inggris]]. Dina awal [[Perang 1812]], anjeunna ngadesek dukungan pikeun tindakan militer ngaliwatan biantara di payuneun House of Delegates. Saatos Inggris hasil ngarebut [[Hampton, Virginia]], dina usum panas taun 1813, Tyler kalayan sumanget ngawangun hiji kompi milisi, [[Charles City Rifles]], pikeun ngabéla Richmond. Anjeunna mingpin éta pasukan kalayan pangkat [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]]. Sanajan kitu, taya serangan anu lumangsung, sarta anjeunna ngabubarkeun éta kompi dua bulan ti harita. Pikeun jasa militerna, Tyler nampi hibah tanah di deukeut wilayah anu engkéna janten [[Sioux City, Iowa]]. Nalika ramana pupus dina taun 1813, Tyler ngawaris 13 urang budak beulian sarta perkebunan milik ramana. Dina taun 1816, anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina korsi législatif pikeun ngabdi di [[Déwan Nagara]] Gubernur, nyaéta hiji kelompok anu diwangun ku dalapan panaséhat anu dipilih ku Majelis Umum. ===DPR Amérika Sarikat=== [[File:Woodburn Plantation in Charles City County, VA.jpg|thumb|Perkebunan Woodburn, tempat cicing Tyler taun 1813–1821]] Pupusna Perwakilan AS [[John Clopton]] dina Séptémber 1816 nyababkeun kakosongan korsi di [[distrik kongrés ka-23 Virginia]]. Tyler narékahan pikeun nempatan éta korsi, kitu ogé baturna sarta batur sapulitikna, [[Andrew Stevenson]]. Kusabab duanana miboga pamikiran pulitik anu sarupa, éta pamilihan téh saenyana mah saukur kontés popularitas. Ku pangaruh pulitik sarta kamampuh kampanyéna, Tyler meunang tipis dina éta pamilihan. Anjeunna dilantik janten anggota [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-14]] dina 17 Désémber 1816, salaku anggota faksi [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik]], partéy utama dina mangsa [[Era of Good Feelings]]. Sanajan Partéy Démokratik-Républik ngarojong hak-hak nagara bagian, seueur anggotana anu ngadesek pamaréntah puseur anu leuwih kuat saatos Perang 1812. Mayoritas di Kongrés hoyong ningali pamaréntah féderal mantuan ngabiayaan [[pangwangunan internal]] saperti palabuhan sarta jalan raya. Tyler tetep pengkuh kana kapercayaan [[konstruksionis ketat]]-na, sarta nolak usulan-usulan kasebut dumasar kana alesan konstitusional sarta pribadi. Anjeunna yakin yén unggal nagara bagian kedah ngawangun proyék-proyék anu diperyogikeun di jero wilayahna sorangan ngagunakeun dana lokal. Virginia henteu "dina kaayaan miskin pisan nepi ka kudu ménta sumbangan 'amal' ti Kongrés", ceuk anjeunna negeskeun. Anjeunna dipilih pikeun ilubiung dina audit [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] dina taun 1818 salaku bagian tina komite lima urang, sarta anjeunna ngarasa reuwas ku korupsi anu katingal ku anjeunna di jero éta bank. Anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan piagam bank kasebut dicabut, sanajan Kongrés nolak usulan éta. Bentrokan munggaranna sareng Jenderal [[Andrew Jackson]] lumangsung saatos [[Invasi Jackson ka Florida]] dina taun 1818 salila [[Perang Seminole Kahiji]]. Sanajan muji karakter Jackson, Tyler ngutuk tindakanana anu dianggap kaleuleuwihi lantaran [[Insidén Arbuthnot sarta Ambrister|ngaéksekusi dua warga nagara Inggris]]. Tyler kapilih deui pikeun hiji mangsa jabatan pinuh tanpa lawan dina awal taun 1819. Isu utama dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-16]] (1819–1821) nyaéta naha [[Missouri]] kedah ditarima janten bagian ti Uni sarta naha perbudakan bakal diidinan di éta nagara bagian anyar.<ref name="missouricomp" /> Bari ngaku yén perbudakan téh miboga dampak buruk, anjeunna miharep yén ku cara ngantepkeunana ngalegaan (ka kulon), jumlah budak di bagian Wétan bakal ngurangan nalika para budak sarta dununganana lunta ka kulon, sahingga méré kasempetan pikeun mimbangkeun panyabutan éta lembaga (perbudakan) di Virginia. Ku kituna, perbudakan bakal dihapus ngaliwatan tindakan masing-masing nagara bagian nalika prakték kasebut beuki langka, sakumaha anu parantos lumangsung di sababaraha nagara bagian di Kalér.<ref name="missouricomp" /> Tyler yakin yén Kongrés henteu miboga kakuasaan pikeun ngatur perbudakan sarta nampa nagara bagian dumasar kana naha maranéhna "bébas" atawa "miboga budak" téh mangrupa bibit konflik régional.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 69.</ref> Lantaran éta, [[Kompromi Missouri]] disahkeun tanpa dukungan ti anjeunna. Éta kompromi nampa Missouri salaku [[nagara bagian perbudakan]] sarta Maine salaku nagara bagian bébas, sarta ogé ngalarang perbudakan di nagara bagian anu dibentuk tina bagian kalér [[Téritori Amérika Sarikat]]. Salami janten anggota Kongrés, anjeunna sok méré sora nolak RUU anu bakal ngawatesan perbudakan di téritori-téritori.<ref name="missouricomp">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 47–50; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 37–38.</ref> Tyler mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui dina ahir taun 1820 kusabab kaséhatanana anu sering kaganggu. Anjeunna sacara pribadi ngaku teu sugema ku éta jabatan, lantaran sora "tolak"-na salila ieu lolobana saukur simbolis sarta saeutik pisan pangaruhna kana parobahan budaya pulitik di Washington. Tyler ogé ningali yén ngabiayaan pendidikan barudakna bakal hésé upami ngan ngandelkeun gajih anggota Kongrés anu harita mah leutik pisan. Anjeunna lungsur jabatan dina 3 Maret 1821, ngarojong urut lawanana, Stevenson, pikeun éta korsi, sarta balik deui janten praktisi hukum swasta sacara pinuh.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 58–59; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 39.</ref> ===Mulang deui ka pulitik nagara bagian=== Ngarasa teu tenang sarta bosen saatos dua taun di bumi janten praktisi hukum, Tyler nyalonkeun diri janten anggota House of Delegates dina taun 1823. Kabeneran taya anggota ti Charles City County anu nyalonkeun deui, sahingga Tyler kapilih kalayan gampang dina April éta, janten juara kahiji di antara tilu kandidat anu ngarebutkeun dua korsi.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], pp. 339–40.</ref> Nalika législatur ngayakeun sidang dina Désémber, Tyler mendakan yén majelis nuju debat ngeunaan [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1824|pamilihan présidén 1824]] anu bakal datang. Sistim ''[[Kaukus nominasi kongrés|caucus]]'', hiji sistim awal pikeun milih calon présidén, masih kénéh dianggo sanajan beuki teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Tyler nyobian ngayakinkeun majelis handap pikeun ngarojong sistim kaukus sarta milih [[William H. Crawford]] salaku calon ti Démokratik-Républik. Crawford memang nampi rojongan législatur, nanging usulan Tyler sorangan mah ditélikung (diéléhkeun). Usahana anu paling langgeng dina mangsa jabatan kaduana ieu nyaéta nyalametkeun College of William and Mary, anu ampir ditutup alatan kakirangan murid. Tinimbang mindahkeun éta sakola ti Williamsburg anu désa ka Richmond anu langkung ramé sakumaha usulan batur, Tyler ngusulkeun réformasi administrasi sarta kauangan. Ieu usulan disahkeun janten undang-undang sarta hasil; dina taun 1840, éta sakola ngahontal jumlah murid panglobana dina sajarahna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 60–62.</ref> [[File:John Tyler - Governor of Virginia (c. 1826).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Ukiran Tyler.|Ukiran Tyler ({{circa|1826}}) salaku gubernur Virginia]] Nasib pulitik Tyler beuki nanjak; anjeunna dianggap salaku kandidat anu kuat dina tinimbangan législatif pikeun pamilihan Sénat AS taun 1824.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 76.</ref> Anjeunna dicalonkeun dina Désémber 1825 pikeun janten gubernur Virginia, hiji jabatan anu harita mah ditunjuk ku législatur. Tyler kapilih kalayan sora 131–81 ngéléhkeun [[John Floyd (politikus Virginia)|John Floyd]]. Jabatan gubernur harita mah teu miboga kakuasaan dina handapeun [[Konstitusi Virginia]] asli (1776–1830), malah teu miboga hak véto-véto acan. Tyler ngagunakeun panggung éta pikeun biantara, nanging sakedik pisan anu tiasa dilakukeun pikeun mangaruhan législatur. Tindakanana anu paling katingal salaku gubernur nyaéta nalika masihan biantara panglayad pikeun urut présidén Jefferson, urang Virginia sarta urut gubernur, anu pupus dina 4 Juli 1826. Tyler kacida hormatna ka Jefferson, sarta biantara eulogi (puji-pujian) anu ditepikeun ku anjeunna nampi sambutan anu saé pisan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 64–67; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 39–40.</ref> Mangsa jabatan gubernur Tyler saterusna mah biasa-biasa waé. Anjeunna ngamajukeun hak-hak nagara bagian sarta sacara tegas nentang sagala bentuk konséntrasi kakuasaan féderal. Pikeun ngahalangan usulan infrastruktur féderal, anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan Virginia sacara aktip ngalegaan sistim jalanna sorangan. Aya usulan pikeun ngalegaan sistim sakola umum anu kirang dana, nanging taya tindakan nyata anu dilakukeun.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 67–69.</ref> Tyler kapilih deui sacara sora buled (unanimous) pikeun mangsa jabatan kadua sataun dina Désémber 1826.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 72.</ref> Dina taun 1829, Tyler kapilih janten utusan dina [[Konvénsi Konstitusi Virginia 1829–1830]] ti distrik anu ngawengku kota Richmond sarta Williamsburg. Di dinya, anjeunna ngabdi bareng sareng Hakim Agung [[John Marshall]], Philip N. Nicholas, sarta John B. Clopton. Pamingpin konvénsi nempatkeun anjeunna dina Komite Législatur. Pangabdian Tyler dina rupa-rupa kapasitas di tingkat nagara bagian kalebet janten présidén Virginia [[Colonization Society]] sarta sababaraha lami saatosna janten réktor sarta kansélir di [[College of William and Mary]].<ref>[[#pulliam|Pulliam 1901]], pp. 67, 72.</ref> ===Sénat Amérika Sarikat=== Dina Januari 1827, Majelis Umum mimbangkeun naha bakal milih deui Sénator AS [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]] pikeun mangsa jabatan pinuh genep taun. Randolph mangrupa inohong anu kontroversial; sanajan anjeunna miboga pandangan anu sarua ngeunaan hak-hak nagara bagian sakumaha kalolobaan anggota législatur Virginia, anjeunna kawentar ku rétorika anu seukeut sarta paripolah anu teu diteda (erratic) di sidang Sénat, anu matak ngajantenkeun sekutu-sekutuna dina posisi anu serba salah. Salajengna, anjeunna parantos nyiptakeun seueur musuh lantaran nentang pisan ka Présidén [[John Quincy Adams]] sarta Sénator Kentucky, Henry Clay. Kaum nasionalis ti Partéy Démokratik-Républik, anu ngarojong Adams sarta Clay, mangrupa minoritas anu cukup badag di législatur Virginia. Maranéhna miharep tiasa ngaléngsérkeun Randolph ku cara narik sora ti para pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian anu ngarasa teu merenah ku reputasi éta sénator. Maranéhna ngadeukeutan Tyler sarta jangji bakal masihan dukungan upami anjeunna kersa nyalonkeun diri. Tyler sababaraha kali nolak éta tawaran sarta tetep ngarojong Randolph salaku kandidat anu pangsaéna, nanging tekenan pulitik beuki lami beuki kuat. Antukna, anjeunna sapuk pikeun nampi éta korsi upami kapilih. Dina dinten pamilihan, saurang anggota majelis nyatakeun yén saenyana taya bédana pandangan pulitik antara kadua kandidat—ngan Tyler mah langkung tiasa ditarima (agreeable) tinimbang Randolph. Pangrojong Randolph negeskeun yén milih Tyler téh sacara teu langsung mangrupa dukungan ka administrasi Adams. législatur antukna milih Tyler kalayan sora 115–110, sarta anjeunna ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan gubernur dina 4 Maret 1827, nalika mangsa jabatanna di Sénat dimimitian.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 73–81.</ref> ====Maverick Démokratik==== Nalika Tyler kapilih janten sénator, kampanye [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828|pamilihan présidén 1828]] nuju lumangsung. Adams, présidén petahana, ditangtang ku Andrew Jackson. Faksi Démokratik-Républik parantos peupeus janten [[Partéy Républik Nasional]] di pihak Adams sarta [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] di pihak Jackson. Tyler sabenerna teu resep ka duanana kandidat lantaran maranéhna dianggap miboga kersa pikeun ningkatkeun kakuasaan pamaréntah féderal. Nanging, anjeunna beuki katarik ka Jackson, bari miharep yén Jackson moal méspentaskeun seueur dana féderal pikeun pangwangunan internal sakumaha Adams. Ngeunaan Jackson, anjeunna nyerat, "Mihak ka anjeunna sahenteuna kuring tiasa ngagaduhan harepan; ningali Adams kuring kedah putus asa."<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 83–84; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-20]] dimimitian dina Désémber 1827, Tyler ngabdi bareng sareng batur sarta rénjang sapulitikna ti Virginia, [[Littleton Waller Tazewell]], anu miboga pandangan [[konstruksionis ketat]] sarta dukungan anu satengah haté ka Jackson. Salami mangsa jabatanna, Tyler sacara sakuat tanaga nentang RUU infrastruktur nasional, margi anjeunna ngarasa yén urusan éta téh hak masing-masing nagara bagian. Anjeunna sarta rénjang-rénjangna ti Kidul nentang [[Tarif 1828]] anu sipatna protéksionis, anu ku para pangritikna disebut "Tarif Kanista" (Tariff of Abominations). Tyler ngusulkeun yén hiji-hijina hasil positip tina éta tarif téh nyaéta bakal ayana réaksi pulitik nasional anu malik, sahingga mulangkeun deui rasa hormat kana hak-hak nagara bagian.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 86–88.</ref> Anjeunna tetep janten pangrojong kuat hak-hak nagara bagian, bari nyarios yén maranéhna "tiasa ngancurkeun Pamaréntah Féderal ngan ku sakecap; ngabubarkeun Konstitusi sarta nyebarkeun fragmén-fragménna kana angin".<ref name = "kleber698">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 698.</ref> Teu lami ti harita, Tyler mimiti teu akur sareng Présidén Jackson. Anjeunna ngarasa kuciwa ku [[sistim rampasan]] (spoils system) anu nembé muncul dina jaman Jackson, sarta nyebutna salaku "pakarang kanggé kampanye". Anjeunna masihan sora nolak seueur nominasi pilihan Jackson nalika éta dianggap teu konstitusional atanapi dumasar kana kapentingan paronase. Nentang nominasi ti présidén anu sapartéy dianggap salaku "tindakan pemberontakan" ka partéyna sorangan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 86–87, 99–106.</ref> Tyler ogé ngarasa kacida kasinggung ku cara Jackson ngagunakeun kakuasaan [[penunjukan resés]] pikeun nunjuk tilu komisaris perjangjian pikeun pendak sareng utusan ti [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]], sarta Tyler ngajukeun RUU kanggé negur Jackson ngeunaan hal ieu.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Sanajan kitu, dina sababaraha urusan, Tyler miboga hubungan anu saé sareng Jackson. Anjeunna ngabéla Jackson nalika [[Veto Jalan Maysville|ngavéto proyék pendanaan Jalan Maysville]], anu dianggap ku Jackson salaku hal anu teu konstitusional.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 99–100; [[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 41.</ref> Anjeunna ogé méré sora pikeun negaskeun sababaraha penunjukan Jackson, kalebet calon wakil présidén Jackson ka payunna, [[Martin Van Buren]], salaku [[Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Inggris]]. Isu utama dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan présidén 1832]] nyaéta perpanjangan piagam Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat, anu duanana (Tyler sarta Jackson) sami-sami nentang. Kongrés méré sora pikeun memperpanjang piagam bank dina Juli 1832, sarta Jackson ngavéto éta RUU dumasar kana alesan konstitusional sarta praktis. Tyler méré sora kanggé ngarojong éta véto sarta ngadukung Jackson dina usahana pikeun kapilih deui.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 124–25.</ref> ====Peupeus sareng Partéy Démokrat==== Hubungan Tyler anu teu merenah sareng partéyna muncak nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-22]], nalika [[krisis nullifikasi]] taun 1832–1833 dimimitian. South Carolina, anu ngancam bakal [[Separatisme di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri]], ngesahkeun [[Ordinansi Nullifikasi]] dina Nopémber 1832, anu nyatakeun yén "Tarif Kanista" téh batal sarta teu lumaku di wilayahna. Hal ieu ngahudangkeun patarosan konstitusional naha nagara bagian tiasa ngabatalkeun hukum féderal. Jackson, anu nolak hak kasebut, nyiapkeun kanggé nandatanganan [[RUU Kakuatan Militer]] (Force Bill) anu ngamungkinkeun pamaréntah féderal ngagunakeun tindakan militer kanggé nerapkeun éta tarif. Tyler, anu simpati kana alesan South Carolina, nolak pamakéan kakuatan militer Jackson ka nagara bagian sarta masihan biantara dina Pébruari 1833 anu ngajelaskeun pandanganana. Anjeunna ngarojong [[Tarif Kompromi 1833]] anu diajukeun ku Clay, anu disahkeun dina taun éta, kanggé ngirangan tarif sacara bertahap salami sapuluh taun, sahingga ngurangan tegangan antara nagara bagian sarta pamaréntah féderal.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 112–20.</ref> Ku méré sora nolak Force Bill, Tyler terang yén anjeunna bakal salamina dipisahkeun tina faksi pro-Jackson di législatur Virginia, kalebet maranéhna anu salami ieu masih toléran kana sikepna anu "maverick". Hal ieu ngabahayakeun [[Pamilihan Sénat Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan deui anjeunna dina Pébruari 1833]], nalika anjeunna nyanghareupan Démokrat pro-administrasi [[James McDowell]]. Nanging, kalayan dukungan Clay, Tyler kapilih deui kalayan selisih 12 sora.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 120–23.</ref> Jackson beuki nyieun Tyler kasinggung ku cara ngabubarkeun Bank ngaliwatan paréntah éksekutif. Dina Séptémber 1833, Jackson ngaluarkeun paréntah éksekutif ka Sekretaris Hazanah [[Roger B. Taney]] kanggé mindahkeun dana féderal ti Bank ka bank-bank nagara bagian sacara langsung. Tyler ningali ieu salaku "tindakan ngerabut kakuasaan anu nyata", palanggaran kontrak, sarta ancaman kanggé ékonomi. Saatos sababaraha bulan mikir jero, anjeunna mutuskeun kanggé ngagabung sareng lawan-lawan Jackson. Salaku anggota [[Komite Kauangan Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Komite Kauangan Sénat]], anjeunna méré sora kanggé dua résolusi kacindekan (censure) ngalawan présidén dina Maret 1834.<ref name = "Chitwood125plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 125–28.</ref> Harita, Tyler parantos gabung sareng [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] anu nembé dibentuk ku Clay, anu ngawasa Sénat. Dina 3 Maret 1835, ngan sababaraha jam sateuacan [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-23]] lekasan, kaum Whig milih Tyler janten [[Présidén pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Présidén ''pro tempore'' Sénat]] salaku simbol pangakuatna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 132.</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén AS anu kantos nyepeng jabatan ieu.<ref>{{cite web|title=President pro tempore|author=U.S. Senate|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/President_Pro_Tempore.htm|access-date=April 27, 2014}}</ref> Teu lami ti harita, kaum Démokrat ngawasa DPR Virginia. Tyler ditawaran jabatan hakim salaku imbalan upami anjeunna mundur tina Sénat, nanging anjeunna nolak. Anjeunna ngartos naon anu bakal lumangsung: législatur bakal maksa anjeunna méré sora anu nentang kapercayaan konstitusionalna. Sénator [[Thomas Hart Benton (politikus)|Thomas Hart Benton]] ti Missouri parantos ngajukeun RUU kanggé mupus kacindekan (censure) Jackson. Ngaliwatan résolusi législatur anu dikawasa ku Démokrat, Tyler tiasa diparéntahkeun kanggé milih éta RUU. Upami anjeunna ngabaékeun paréntah éta, anjeunna bakal ngalanggar prinsipna sorangan: "tindakan munggaran dina kahirupan pulitik kuring nyaéta negur Giles sarta Brent lantaran nentang paréntah législatur," ceuk anjeunna nyatet.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 138.</ref> Salami sababaraha bulan ka payun, anjeunna ménta nasehat ti babaturanana, anu masihan saran anu silih berlawanan. Dina pertengahan Pébruari, anjeunna ngrasa yén karirna di Sénat sigana bakal lekasan. Anjeunna ngirimkeun surat pangunduran diri ka Wakil Présidén Van Buren dina 29 Pébruari 1836, anu saurang ungelna kieu:<ref name = "chitwood134">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 134.</ref> {{blockquote|Kuring bakal mawa prinsip-prinsip anu kuring bawa nalika lebet ka dunya publik kana mangsa pangsiun kuring, sarta ku cara nyerahkeun jabatan luhur anu dipercayakeun ku sora rahayat Virginia, kuring bakal masihan conto ka barudak kuring anu bakal ngajarkeun maranéhna kanggé henteu nganggap jabatan sarta korsi téh aya hartosna, nalika salah sahijina kedah dihontal atanapi dipertahankeun ku cara ngorbankeun kahormatan.}} ===Pamilihan présidén 1836=== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836}} [[File:John Tyler, 1835.jpg|thumb|Lukisan Tyler nalika ngajabat salaku Présidén pro-tempore Sénat, 1835]] Sanajan Tyler hoyong museurkeun perhatian kana kahirupan pribadi sarta kulawargana, anjeunna énggal-énggal kalibet deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|pamilihan présidén 1836]]. Anjeunna parantos diusulkeun salaku calon wakil présidén ti mimiti taun 1835, sarta dina dinten anu sami nalika Démokrat Virginia ngaluarkeun paréntah pamupusan (expunging), kaum Whig Virginia nyalonkeun anjeunna salaku kandidat maranéhna. Partéy Whig anu nembé kabentuk harita tacan cukup kaorganisir kanggé ngayakeun konvénsi nasional sarta nangtukeun hiji tikét tunggal kanggé ngalawan Van Buren, panerus pilihan Jackson. Sabalikna, kaum Whig di rupa-rupa daérah ngajukeun tikét pilihan maranéhna sorangan, anu ngagambarkeun koalisi partéy anu masih kénéh rapuh: Whig Massachusetts nyalonkeun [[Daniel Webster]] sarta [[Francis Granger]], [[Partéy Anti-Masonik]] di nagara bagian Kalér sarta wates ngarojong William Henry Harrison sarta Granger, sarta para pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian di bagian tengah sarta kidul nyalonkeun [[Hugh Lawson White]] sarta John Tyler.<ref name = "chitwood147plus" /> Di Maryland, tikét Whig nyaéta Harrison sarta Tyler, sedengkeun di South Carolina nyaéta [[Willie P. Mangum]] sarta Tyler. Kaum Whig hoyong ngahalangan Van Buren supados teu nampi mayoritas di Kolegeu Éléktoral, sahingga pamilihan bakal dialihkeun ka DPR, dimana perjangjian pulitik tiasa dilakukeun. Tyler miharep para éléktor moal tiasa milih wakil présidén, sahingga anjeunna janten salah sahiji tina dua anu nampi sora panglobana, anu satuluyna Sénat, dumasar kana [[Amandemen ka-12 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], kedah milih salah sahijina.<ref name = "seager119plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 119–21.</ref> Nurutkeun kabiasaan jaman harita—yén calon teu kedah katingal milarian jabatan—Tyler tetep di bumi salami kampanye sarta henteu masihan biantara nanaon.<ref name = "seager119plus" /> Anjeunna ngan nampi 47 sora éléktoral ti Georgia, South Carolina, sarta Tennessee dina pamilihan Nopémber 1836, aya di handapeun Granger sarta kandidat Démokrat, [[Richard Mentor Johnson]] ti Kentucky. Harrison mangrupa kandidat présidén Whig anu pangunggulna, nanging anjeunna éléh ku Van Buren.<ref name = "chitwood147plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 147–51.</ref> Pamilihan présidén diputuskeun ku Kolegeu Éléktoral, nanging kanggé hiji-hijina waktos dina sajarah Amérika, pamilihan wakil présidén diputuskeun ku Sénat, anu milih Johnson tinimbang Granger dina sora munggaran.<ref>[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 189.</ref> ===Inohong pulitik nasional=== Tyler parantos ditarik kana pulitik Virginia nalika janten Sénator AS. Ti Oktober 1829 dugi ka Januari 1830, anjeunna ngabdi salaku anggota [[Konvénsi Konstitusi Virginia|konvénsi konstitusi nagara bagian]], hiji peran anu sabenerna mah anjeunna rada wegah nampina. [[Konstitusi Virginia]] anu asli masihan pangaruh anu kaleuleuwihi ka wilayah-wilayah wétan anu langkung konsérpatip, margi nangtukeun jumlah anggota législatif anu sami pikeun unggal county tanpa ningali jumlah pangeusina, sarta ngan masihan hak pilih ka nu gaduh lahan (property owners). Ieu konvénsi masihan kasempetan ka wilayah-wilayah kulon Virginia anu langkung padet pangeusina sarta libéral pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh maranéhna. Salaku saurang nu gaduh budak beulian ti Virginia wétan, Tyler ngarojong sistim anu parantos aya, nanging anjeunna milih kénéh cicing di sisi salila debat, margi teu hoyong ngajauhkeun faksi pulitik mana waé di éta nagara bagian. Anjeunna langkung fokus kana karirna di Sénat anu peryogi dukungan anu lega, sarta masihan biantara salila konvénsi anu ngajurung kana kompromi sarta persatuan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 88–98.</ref> Saatos pamilihan 1836, Tyler ngira yén karir pulitikna parantos lekasan, sarta ngarencanakeun pikeun balik deui janten praktisi hukum swasta. Dina usum gugur taun 1837, saurang réntén ngajual lahan anu cukup lega ka anjeunna di Williamsburg. Kusabab teu tiasa lami tebih ti dunya pulitik, Tyler hasil kapilih janten anggota House of Delegates sarta nempatan korsina dina taun 1838. Harita anjeunna parantos janten inohong pulitik nasional, sarta pangabdian katiluna di législatur nagara bagian ieu parantos ngambah kana isu-isu nasional sapertos penjualan lahan publik.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 152–53.</ref> Panggentos Tyler di Sénat nyaéta [[William Cabell Rives]], saurang Démokrat konsérpatip. Dina Pébruari 1839, Majelis Umum mimbangkeun saha anu bakal nempatan éta korsi, anu mangsa jabatanna bakal lekasan dina sasih payun. Rives parantos mimiti ngajauhan partéyna, méré sinyal kamungkinan aliansi sareng kaum Whig. Kusabab Tyler parantos sacara pinuh nolak Démokrat, anjeunna miharep kaum Whig bakal ngarojong anjeunna. Nanging, seueur kaum Whig anu nganggap Rives salaku pilihan anu langkung nguntungkeun sacara pulitik, margi maranéhna miharep tiasa berkoalisi sareng sayap konsérpatip Partéy Démokrat dina pamilihan présidén 1840. Strategi ieu dirojong ku pamimpin Whig, Henry Clay, anu harita mah masih kénéh mikahormat ka Tyler. Kusabab sora kabagi di antara tilu kandidat, kalebet Rives sarta Tyler, korsi Sénat éta kosong salami ampir dua taun, dugi ka Januari 1841.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 157–63.</ref> ==Pamilihan présidén 1840== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|Kampanye présidén William Henry Harrison 1840|Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1839}} ===Nambahkeun Tyler kana tikét=== [[File:Tiptoo crop.jpg|thumb|alt=Sheet music|"[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]"]] Nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1839]] lumangsung di [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]], kanggé milih pasangan calon ti partéy éta, Amérika nuju aya dina taun katilu résési anu parah saatos [[Panik 1837]]. Usaha Van Buren anu teu éféktif kanggé nanganan éta kaayaan ngajantenkeun anjeunna kaleungitan dukungan publik. Kusabab Partéy Démokrat parantos peupeus janten sababaraha faksi, pamingpin tikét Whig kamungkinan ageung bakal janten présidén salajengna. Harrison, Clay, sarta Jenderal [[Winfield Scott]] sadayana narékahan kanggé nampi nominasi. Tyler sumping ka konvénsi sarta ngagabung sareng délégasi Virginia, sanajan anjeunna teu miboga status resmi. Kusabab ayana rasa pait alatan pamilihan Sénat anu tacan réngsé, délégasi Virginia nolak kanggé ngajantenkeun Tyler salaku kandidat [[favorite son]] pikeun wakil présidén. Tyler sorangan henteu ngalakukeun nanaon kanggé ngaronjatkeun kasempetanna. Upami kandidat présidén karesepna, nyaéta Clay, hasil meunang, Tyler kamungkinan ageung moal dipilih kanggé nempatan posisi kadua dina tikét, margi éta posisi biasana bakal dipasihan ka urang Kalér kanggé mastikeun kasaimbangan géografis.<ref name = "seager132plus" /> Éta konvénsi ngalaman jalan buntu (deadlock) di antara tilu kandidat utama, dimana sora Virginia mimitina dipasihan ka Clay. Seueur kaum Whig di Kalér anu nentang Clay, sarta sababaraha urang, kalebet [[Thaddeus Stevens]] ti Pennsylvania, némbongkeun surat ti Scott ka delegasi Virginia anu eusina saolah-olah Scott miboga sikep abolisionis (anti-perbudakan). Délégasi Virginia anu boga pangaruh kuat harita ngumumkeun yén Harrison mangrupa pilihan kaduana, anu nyababkeun kalolobaan pangrojong Scott pindah ka Harrison, sahingga Harrison nampi nominasi présidén.<ref name = "seager132plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 132–33.</ref> Nominasi wakil présidén harita dianggap salaku hal anu [[wikt:immaterial|teu pati penting]]; tacan aya présidén anu gagal ngaréngsékeun mangsa jabatanna. Teu seueur perhatian anu dipasihan kana ieu pilihan, sarta rinci ngeunaan kumaha Tyler tiasa nampi posisi éta masih kénéh tacan jelas. Chitwood nyebutkeun yén Tyler mangrupa kandidat anu logis: salaku saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul, anjeunna nyaimbangkeun tikét sarta ogé nenangkeun kasieun urang Kidul anu nganggap Harrison miboga kacenderungan abolisionis. Tyler parantos janten kandidat wakil présidén dina taun 1836, sarta ku ayana anjeunna dina tikét, Whig tiasa meunang di Virginia, nagara bagian anu panglobana pangeusina di Kidul. Salah saurang pangurus konvénsi, penerbit ti New York [[Thurlow Weed]], nyatakeun yén "Tyler antukna dipilih lantaran urang teu mendakan deui jalma sanés anu kersa nampi"—sanajan anjeunna nembé nyarios kieu saatos ayana papaséaan antara Présidén Tyler sarta Partéy Whig ka payunna.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 26–27.</ref> Musuh-musuh Tyler sanésna ngaklaim yén anjeunna "ceurik" nepi ka tiasa asup ka Gedong Bodas saatos ceurik ningali kaéléhan Clay; hal ieu sigana mah teu leres, margi Clay sorangan kantos ngarojong lawan Tyler, Rives, dina pamilihan Sénat.<ref>[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 192.</ref> Ngaran Tyler diajukeun dina sora, sarta sanajan Virginia milih ''abstain'' (teu méré sora), anjeunna nampi mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Nalika janten présidén, Tyler dituduh kanggé nampi nominasi ku cara nyumputkeun pandanganana, sarta anjeunna ngajawab yén taya saurang ogé anu naroskeun ngeunaan hal éta. Biografina, Robert Seager II, miboga pamandangan yén Tyler dipilih kusabab kurangna kandidat alternatif sanésna. Seager nyimpulkeun, "Anjeunna diasupkeun kana tikét kanggé narik sora Kidul ka Harrison. Teu kirang, teu langkung."<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 134–35.</ref> ===Pamilihan Umum=== Taya [[platform partéy]] Whig—para pamingpin partéy mutuskeun yén nyobian nyusun platform malah bakal ngabubarkeun partéy. Janten, kaum Whig kampanye dumasar kana perlawanan maranéhna ka Van Buren, nyalahkeun anjeunna sarta kaum Démokrat pikeun résési anu lumangsung.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 27.</ref> Dina matéri kampanye, Tyler dipuji lantaran integritasna nalika mundur tina Sénat alatan paréntah législatur nagara bagian.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], p. 350.</ref> Kaum Whig mimitina miharep kanggé "ngajempékeun" Harrison sarta Tyler, supados maranéhna teu ngaluarkeun pernyataan kawijakan anu tiasa ngajauhkeun sabagian faksi partéy. Nanging, saatos saingan Démokrat Tyler, Wakil Présidén Johnson, suksés ngayakeun tur biantara, Tyler dipénta kanggé indit ti Williamsburg ka [[Columbus, Ohio]], sarta di dinya biantara dina konvénsi lokal kanggé ngayakinkeun urang Kalér yén anjeunna miboga pandangan anu sami sareng Harrison. Dina lalampahan ampir dua bulan, Tyler masihan biantara dina rupa-rupa rapat umum. Anjeunna teu tiasa nyingkahan patarosan, sarta saatos diteken nepi ka ngaku yén anjeunna ngarojong Tarif Kompromi (anu sabenerna teu dipikaresep ku seueur kaum Whig), Tyler milih ngadugikeun deui cutatan tina biantara Harrison anu sipatna samar. Dina biantara dua jam di Columbus, Tyler leres-leres nyingkahan isu Bank Amérika Sarikat, anu mangrupa salah sahiji patarosan utama harita.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 137–39.</ref> {{quote box | align = left | width = 17em | salign = right | quote =  <poem> Naon anu nyababkeun ribut-ribut ieu, Di sakuliah nagara urang? Ieu téh bal anu nuju ngagulitik, Kanggé Tippecanoe sarta Tyler ogé, Tippecanoe sarta Tyler ogé. Sareng maranéhna, urang bakal ngéléhkeun Van anu leutik, Van, Van Van téh lalaki anu parantos béak. </poem> | source = — Lagu kampanye tina pamilihan 1840<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 140.</ref> }} Pikeun meunangkeun pamilihan, pamingpin Whig mutuskeun maranéhna kedah ngagerakkeun jalma-jalma di sakuliah nagara, kalebet kaum awéwé, anu harita mah tacan tiasa méré sora. Ieu mangrupa munggaranana partéy pulitik Amérika ngalibetkeun kaum awéwé dina kagiatan kampanye sacara lega, sarta kaum awéwé di Virginia (tempat asal Tyler) aktip bajoang kanggé anjeunna.<ref>[[#Varon|Varon]]</ref><ref>[[#Gunderson|Gunderson]], pp. 134–139.</ref> Partéy miharep kanggé nyingkahan isu-isu beurat sarta meunang ngaliwatan antusiasme publik, kalayan ngayakeun ara-arakan obor sarta rapat umum pulitik anu pinuh ku inuman keras.<ref name="Seager, p. 135">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 135.</ref> Minat kana kampanye ieu taya tandingna sateuacanna. Nalika pers Démokrat ngagambarkeun Harrison salaku prajurit sepuh anu bakal eureun kampanye upami dipasihan sato mémang (barrel) [[hard cider]] (saripati apel beralkohol) kanggé diinum di jero [[gubug kai]]-na (log cabin), kaum Whig malah nyandak éta gambar kalayan sumanget, sahingga lahirna "kampanye gubug kai". Kanyataan yén Harrison sabenerna cicing di perkebunan méwah sarta Tyler téh jalma jegud mah dipaliré waé, sedengkeun gambar gubug kai muncul di mana-mana, ti mimiti spanduk dugi ka botol wiski. ''Cider'' mangrupa inuman karesep seueur patani sarta padagang, sarta kaum Whig ngaklaim yén Harrison langkung resep kana inuman rahayat leutik éta.<ref name = "crapol17plus" /> [[File:ElectoralCollege1840.svg|thumb|alt=Péta AS taun 1840, némbongkeun sora éléktoral|Péta sora éléktoral 1840]] Jasa militer sang calon présidén kacida ditekenna, sahingga muncul slogan kampanye anu kawentar, "**[[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too]]**", anu ngarujuk kana kameunangan Harrison dina [[Pertempuran Tippecanoe]]. [[Glee club]] (kelompok nembang) muncul di sakuliah nagara, nembangkeun lagu-lagu patriotik: saurang éditor Démokrat nyatakeun yén anjeunna ngarasa festival lagu kanggé ngarojong Partéy Whig téh moal tiasa dipohokeun. Di antara lirik anu ditepikeun nyaéta "Urang bakal milih Tyler ku kituna/Tanpa nanya naha atawa ku sabab naon".<ref name = "crapol17plus">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 17–19.</ref> Louis Hatch, dina sajarah wakil présidénna, nyatet, "kaum Whig ngagorowok, nembang, sarta ngagunakeun 'hard-cider' kanggé mawa 'pahlawan Tippecanoe' ka Gedong Bodas".<ref name = "Hatch193">[[#Hatch|Hatch]], p. 193.</ref> Clay, sanajan ngarasa pait ku kaéléhanana anu sakian kalina, bisa ditenangkeun ku munduruna Tyler tina pamilihan Sénat anu masih tacan réngsé (supados Rives tiasa kapilih), sarta Clay antukna kampanye di Virginia kanggé tikét Harrison/Tyler.<ref name="Seager, p. 135"/> Tyler ngaramalkeun yén kaum Whig bakal meunang gampang di Virginia; anjeunna ngarasa éra nalika ramalanana salah,<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 141.</ref> nanging kahibur ku kameunangan sacara umum—Harrison sarta Tyler meunang sora éléktoral 234–60 kalayan 53% sora rahayat (popular vote). Van Buren ngan meunang di tujuh nagara bagian tina 26. Kaum Whig hasil ngawasa kadua majelis di Kongrés.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 29–30.</ref> ==Wakil présidén (1841)== Salaku [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat kapilih]], Tyler tetep cicing kalayan tenang di bumina di Williamsburg. Anjeunna sacara pribadi ngungkabkeun harepan yén Harrison bakal miboga sikep anu tegas sarta moal ngantepkeun ayana intrik dina Kabinét, utamana dina dinten-dinten awal pamaréntahan.<ref name = "peterson34">[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 34.</ref> Tyler henteu aub dina milih anggota Kabinét, sarta henteu ngusulkeun sasaha kanggé nempatan jabatan féderal dina pamaréntahan Whig anu énggal. Kusabab ditarajang ku jalma-jalma anu milari jabatan sarta tungtutan ti Sénator Clay, Harrison dua kali ngirim surat ka Tyler kanggé ménta nasehat naha pejabat anu ditunjuk ku Van Buren kedah diberhentikeun atanapi henteu. Dina kadua kasus éta, Tyler nyarankeun supados ulah diberhentikeun, sarta Harrison nyerat, "Pa Tyler nyarios yén maranéhna teu kedah dicopot, janten kuring moal nyopot maranéhna."<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 143.</ref> Kadua inohong ieu pendak sakedap di Richmond dina bulan Pébruari, sarta marios parade bareng,<ref name = "peterson34" /> sanajan maranéhna henteu ngabahas ngeunaan pulitik.<ref name = "seager144" /> [[File:Tyler receives news.jpg|thumb|alt=Ilustrasi: Tyler nangtung di tepas imahna di Virginia, didatangan ku saurang lalaki anu mawa amplop. Tulisanana: "Tyler nampi béja pupusna Harrison."|Ilustrasi taun 1888 ngeunaan Présidén Tyler nampi béja pupusna Présidén [[William Henry Harrison]] ti [[Kapala Kerani (Departemén Luar Negeri AS)|Kapala Kerani Departemén Luar Negeri]], [[Fletcher Webster]]]] Tyler dilantik dina 4 Maret 1841, di [[Old Senate Chamber|rohangan Sénat lami]], sarta masihan biantara tilu menit ngeunaan [[hak-hak nagara bagian]] sateuacan ngalantik para sénator énggal, anu satuluyna ngahadiran [[Palantikan William Henry Harrison]]. Saatos biantara dua jam présidén énggal di payuneun balaréa dina cuaca anu tiris pisan, Tyler balik deui ka Sénat kanggé nampi nominasi Kabinét présidén, sarta mingpin konfirmasi dina dinten salajengna—totalna ngan dua jam anjeunna janten présidén Sénat. Kusabab nganggap moal seueur tanggung jawab, anjeunna teras mios ti Washington sarta balik deui kalayan tenang ka bumina di [[Williamsburg, Virginia]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 200–02; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 144–45.</ref> Seager engkéna nyerat, "Upami William Henry Harrison terus hirup, John Tyler pastina bakal janten wakil présidén anu teu dipikawanoh sakumaha wakil présidén sanésna dina sajarah Amérika."<ref name = "seager144">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 144.</ref> Samentawis éta, Harrison bajoang kanggé nangkis sagala rupa paménta ti Clay sarta pihak sanésna anu milari jabatan sarta pangaruh dina pamaréntahanana. Umur Harrison anu parantos sepuh sarta kaséhatanana anu mimiti nyirorot sanés mangrupa rusiah salila kampanye, sarta patarosan ngeunaan suksési présidén aya dina pikiran unggal politikus. Sababaraha minggu munggaran janten présidén leres-leres méspentaskeun tanaga Harrison, sarta saatos kabaseuhan ku hujan dina ahir Maret, anjeunna katarajang [[pneumonia]] (paru-paru baseuh) sarta [[pleurisy]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 201–02; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 142–47.</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Daniel Webster ngirim béja ka Tyler ngeunaan panyakit Harrison dina 1 April; dua dinten saatosna, pengacara ti Richmond James Lyons nyerat béja yén kaayaan présidén beuki parah, bari nyarios, "Kuring moal reuwas upami ngadangu tina surat énjing yén Jéndral Harrison parantos taya dikieuna."<ref name="Crapol 8">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 8.</ref> Tyler mutuskeun kanggé henteu angkat ka Washington, margi teu hoyong katingal teu pantes saolah-olah nuju ngantosan pupusna Harrison. Dina subuh kaping 5 April, putra Webster, [[Fletcher Webster]], kapala kerani Departemén Luar Negeri, sumping ka bumi Tyler di Williamsburg kanggé sacara resmi nginpokeun pupusna Harrison dina énjing sateuacanna.<ref name = "Crapol 8" /><ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession]]</ref> Tyler geuwat mios ti Williamsburg sarta dugi ka Washington dina subuh dinten salajengna.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ==Jabatan Présidén (1841–1845)== {{Main|Jabatan Présidén John Tyler}} [[File:John Tyler I.png|thumb|{{center|Présidén John Tyler, 1841}}]] Pupusna Harrison nalika nuju ngajabat mangrupa kajadian anu tacan kantos lumangsung sateuacanna, anu nyababkeun kateupastian ngeunaan suksési présidén. [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Pasal II, Bagian 1, Ayat 6]] tina Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat, anu ngatur suksési présidén dina mangsa jabatan harita (ayeuna parantos digentos ku [[Amandemen ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]]), nyatakeun: {{Blockquote|Dina hal Présidén ditéwak tina Jabatanana, atanapi Pupus, Ngundurkeun Diri, atanapi Teu Sanggup ngajalankeun Wewenang sarta Tugas ti éta Jabatan, hal anu Sami bakal dipasrahkeun ka Wakil Présidén ....<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii|title=U.S. Constitution: Article II|publisher=Cornell University Law School|access-date=January 29, 2017}}</ref>}} Napsirkeun katangtuan Konstitusi ieu nimbulkeun patarosan naha jabatan présidén sacara nyata pindah ka Tyler, atanapi saukur wewenang sarta tugasna wungkul.<ref name = "chitwood202plus" /> Kabinét ngayakeun rapat sajam saatos pupusna Harrison sarta, numutkeun laporan engkéna, mutuskeun yén Tyler bakal janten "wakil présidén anu [[Pelaksana tugas présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngajalankeun tugas présidén]]".<ref>[[#Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein]], p. 447.</ref> Nanging, Tyler sacara tegas sarta mutus negeskeun yén Konstitusi masihan anjeunna wewenang pinuh sarta tanpa sarat tina éta jabatan. Ku kituna, anjeunna langsung nyandak sumpah jabatan salaku présidén, pindah ka Gedong Bodas sarta ngajalankeun kakuasaan présidén sapinuhna. Hal ieu nyiptakeun **[[Preséden Tyler]]** kanggé mindahkeun kakuasaan sacara teratur saatos présidén pupus, sanajan hal ieu nembé dibukukeun (kodifikasi) saatos disahkeunana Amandemen ka-25 dina taun 1967.<ref name="MillerCenterTyler">{{cite web|url=http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief|title=John Tyler: Life in Brief|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|access-date=January 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131195651/http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief|archive-date=January 31, 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131195651/http://millercenter.org/president/biography/tyler-life-in-brief |date=January 31, 2017 }}</ref> Hakim [[William Cranch]] mingpin [[Sumpah jabatan Présidén Amérika Sarikat|sumpah présidén]] di kamar hotél Tyler. Tyler nganggap éta sumpah sabenerna mah teu perlu (redundant) margi anjeunna parantos sumpah salaku wakil présidén, nanging anjeunna hoyong ngaleungitkeun sagala karagu-raguan ngeunaan jabatanana.<ref name = "chitwood202plus">[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 202–03.</ref> Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Tyler, dina yuswa 51 taun, janten présidén [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar yuswa|pangngorana]] dugi ka mangsa harita.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/john_tyler_sherwood_forest.html |title=John Tyler Home |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=December 14, 2017}}</ref> Rékorna satuluyna ditélikung ku panerusna, [[James K. Polk]], anu mimiti ngajabat dina yuswa 49 taun. "Kusabab sieun bakal ngajauhan para pangrojong Harrison, Tyler mutuskeun kanggé mertahankeun sakabéh kabinét Harrison sanajan sababaraha anggotana sacara terang-terangan némbongkeun rasa teu resep ka anjeunna sarta nolak jabatanana."<ref name="MillerCenterTyler"/> Dina rapat kabinét kahijina, Webster nginpokeun ka anjeunna ngeunaan kabiasaan Harrison anu nangtukeun kawijakan dumasar sora mayoritas. (Ieu mangrupa klaim anu rada diragukeun, margi Harrison ngan sakedik ngayakeun rapat kabinét sarta kantos sacara tegas némbongkeun otoritasna ka kabinét sahenteuna sakali.<ref>{{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert |title=Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time|url=https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi |url-access=registration |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co.|year=1997|pages=[https://archive.org/details/danielwebsterman00remi/page/520 520–521]|isbn=978-0-393-04552-9 }}</ref>) Kabinét pinuh harepan yén présidén énggal bakal neraskeun éta kabiasaan. Tyler kacida kagetna sarta langsung ngoréksi maranéhna: {{Blockquote|Hampura, para jandral; sim kuring kacida bingahna gaduh negarawan anu mumpuni sapertos aranjeun dina Kabinét sim kuring. Sarta sim kuring bakal bingah nampi nasehat sarta saran ti aranjeun. Nanging, sim kuring moal tiasa satuju upami dikatidikkeun (didikté) ngeunaan naon anu kedah atanapi teu kedah sim kuring lakukeun. Sim kuring, salaku présidén, bakal tanggung jawab kana administrasi sim kuring. Sim kuring miharep gawé bareng anu tulus ti aranjeun dina ngajalankeun léngkah-léngkahna. Salami aranjeun kersa ngalakukeun hal ieu, sim kuring bakal bingah aranjeun aya sareng sim kuring. Nalika aranjeun miboga pamandangan sanés, surat pangunduran diri aranjeun bakal ditampi.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 270, [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 149.</ref>}} Tyler nepikeun biantara pelantikan tinulis anu informal ka [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] dina 9 April, dimana anjeunna negeskeun deui kapercayaanana kana prinsip dasar [[Démokrasi Jeffersonian]] sarta kakuasaan féderal anu kawates. Klaim Tyler salaku présidén teu langsung ditampi ku anggota [[Oposisi (parlemén)|oposisi]] di Kongrés sapertos [[John Quincy Adams]], anu ngarasa yén Tyler kedahna janten [[Pamaréntah saheulaanan|pangurus samentara]] kalayan jujuluk "pelaksana tugas présidén", atanapi tetep janten wakil présidén sacara ngaran.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 203–07.</ref> Di antara maranéhna anu mamang kana otoritas Tyler nyaéta Clay, anu parantos ngarencanakeun janten "kakuasaan nyata di balik tahta anu ringkih" nalika Harrison masih hirup, sarta miboga maksud anu sami ka Tyler.<ref name = "seager142plus" /> Clay ningali Tyler saukur salaku "wakil présidén" sarta jabatan présidénna ngan ukur "[[wali raja]]" (regency).<ref name = "seager142plus">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 142, 151.</ref> Ratifikasi kaputusan éta ku Kongrés sumping ngaliwatan béwara biasa yén Kongrés parantos ngayakeun sidang sarta siap nampi pesen-pesen. Di kadua majelis (DPR sarta Sénat), aya usulan amandemen anu gagal kanggé mupus kecap "présidén" sarta diganti ku basa anu ngawengku istilah "wakil présidén" kanggé nyebut Tyler. Sénator Mississippi [[Robert J. Walker]], dina panyatana, nyebatkeun yén ide yén Tyler masih kénéh wakil présidén sarta tiasa mingpin Sénat téh mangrupa hal anu absurd.<ref name="ReferenceB">[[#Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein]], pp. 451–53.</ref> Dina 31 Méi 1841, DPR ngaluarkeun résolusi gabungan anu mastikeun Tyler salaku "Présidén Amérika Sarikat" kanggé sésa mangsa jabatanna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rankin |first=Robert S. |title=Presidential Succession in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-politics_1946-02_8_1/page/44 |journal=The Journal of Politics |date=Feb 1946 |volume=8 |issue=1 |jstor=2125607 |pages=44–56 |doi=10.2307/2125607|s2cid=153441210 }}</ref> Dina 1 Juni 1841, Sénat méré sora ngarojong résolusi éta. Anu pangpentingna, Sénator Clay sarta [[John C. Calhoun]] milih bareng sareng mayoritas kanggé nolak amandemen Walker.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Para lawan Tyler henteu kantos sapinuhna nampi anjeunna salaku présidén. Anjeunna sacara éksékan dijulukan "**His Accidency**" (Présidén Kabeneran/Kacilakaan) di antara hinaan-hinaan sanésna.<ref>{{cite web|title='His Accidency', John Tyler, Jokes of 'Being an Accident Himself'|url=http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?john-tyler-president-jokes|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130717082602/http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?john-tyler-president-jokes|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2013|work=Shapell Manuscript Collection|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation|access-date=April 28, 2014}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Tyler teu kantos goyah tina kapercayaanana yén anjeunna mangrupa présidén anu sah. Nalika lawan-lawan pulitikna ngirim surat ka Gedong Bodas anu ditujukeun ka "wakil présidén" atanapi "pelaksana tugas présidén", anjeunna milih kanggé mulangkeun éta surat tanpa dibuka.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 10.</ref> Tyler dianggap salaku pamingpin anu kuat alatan tindakanana anu mutus nalika naék jabatan janten présidén. Nanging, sacara umum anjeunna miboga pandangan anu kawates ngeunaan kakuasaan présidén, yén undang-undang kedah dimimitian ku Kongrés, sarta véto présidén ngan kedah dianggo nalika hiji hukum dianggap inkonstitusional atanapi nentang kapentingan nasional.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=141-142}} ===Kawijakan ékonomi sarta konflik partéy=== Sapertos Harrison, Tyler parantos diarep-arep kanggé patuh kana kawijakan publik Kongrés Partéy Whig sarta nurut ka pamingpin partéy, Henry Clay. Kaum Whig utamana nungtut supados Tyler ngawatesan kakuasaan véto, salaku réspon kana kapimpinan Jackson anu dianggap mawakarep soranga.{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=142}} Clay parantos ngabayangkeun Kongrés anu dimodélkeun dumasar kana sistim tipe [[parleménter]] dimana anjeunna janten pamingpina.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=142}} Mimitina, Tyler satuju sareng Kongrés Whig anu énggal ku cara nandatanganan undang-undang sapertos RUU ''preemption'' (hak miboga lahan ti heula) anu masihan "kedaulatan pangeusi liar" ka para padumuk di lahan publik, Undang-Undang Distribusi, undang-undang kabangkrutan anu énggal, sarta panyabutan Sistim [[Perbendaharaan Independen]]. Nanging, nalika dugi kana patarosan ageung ngeunaan perbankan, Tyler énggal-énggal béda pamandangan sareng kaum Whig di Kongrés, sarta dua kali ngavéto undang-undang Clay ngeunaan pendirian bank nasional. Sanajan RUU anu kadua mimitina parantos dirancang kanggé nyumponan kabutuhan Tyler tina véto munggaran, vérsi finalna mah tétéla henteu luyu. Ieu prakték, anu sabenerna dirancang kanggé nyegah Tyler janten saingan Clay dina nominasi Whig taun 1844, janten kawentar ku istilah "**heading Captain Tyler**" (ngahalangan Kaptén Tyler), hiji istilah anu diciptakeun ku Perwakilan Whig [[John Minor Botts]] ti Virginia. Tyler ngusulkeun rencana fiskal alternatif anu katelah "Exchequer", nanging réntén-réntén Clay anu ngawasa Kongrés nolak pisan kana éta usulan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 217–51 sarta lampiran anu ngabandingkeun struktur rupa-rupa RUU bank anu disusun ku Kongrés.</ref> Dina 11 Séptémber 1841, saatos véto bank anu kadua, anggota kabinét asup ka kantor Tyler hiji-hiji sarta ngundurkeun diri—hiji skénario anu disusun ku Clay kanggé maksa Tyler mundur supados tiasa nempatkeun leungeun katuhuna, Présidén ''pro tempore'' Sénat [[Samuel L. Southard]], di Gedong Bodas. Hiji-hijina iwal (pengecualian) nyaéta Webster, anu milih tetep ngajabat kanggé ngaréngsékeun naon anu engkéna janten [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] 1842, sarta kanggé némbongkeun kamerdékaanana tina pangaruh Clay.<ref>[[#Roseboom|Roseboom]], p. 124.</ref> Nalika dibéjaan ku Webster yén anjeunna kersa tetep ngajabat, Tyler dilaporkeun nyarios, "Pasihan panangan anjeun kanggé hal éta, sarta ayeuna sim kuring bakal nyarios ka anjeun yén Henry Clay téh lalaki anu parantos tumpur nasibna."<ref name = "kleber699" /> Dina 13 [[Séptémber]], nalika présidén henteu mundur atanapi nyerah, kaum Whig di Kongrés miceun Tyler tina partéy. Tyler dihina ku surat kabar Whig sarta nampi ratusan surat anu ngancam bakal nelasan/maéhan anjeunna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 249–51.</ref> Kaum Whig di Kongrés kacida ambekna ka Tyler sahingga maranéhna nolak kanggé nyadiakeun dana kanggé ngoméan Gedong Bodas, anu harita kaayaanana parantos ruksak.<ref name = "kleber699">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 699.</ref> ====Debat tarif sarta distribusi==== Dina pertengahan taun 1841, pamaréntah féderal nyanghareupan proyéksi defisit anggaran sagedé $11 juta. Tyler sadar yén diperyogikeun tarif anu langkung luhur, nanging anjeunna hoyong tetep aya dina wates 20% sakumaha anu parantos ditetepkeun dina [[Tarif Kompromi 1833]]. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong rencana kanggé ngadistribusikeun pendapatan tina penjualan lahan publik ka nagara-nagara bagian salaku léngkah darurat kanggé nanganan hutang nagara bagian anu beuki numpuk, sanajan hal ieu bakal ngirangan pendapatan féderal. Kaum Whig ngarojong tarif protéksionis anu luhur sarta pendanaan nasional kanggé infrastruktur nagara bagian, sahingga aya titik temu kanggé nyiptakeun kompromi. Undang-Undang Distribusi 1841 nyiptakeun program distribusi kalayan wates tarif 20%; RUU kadua ningkatkeun tarif kana angka éta kanggé barang-barang anu sateuacanna pajegna rendah. Sanajan kitu, dina Maret 1842 janten jelas yén pamaréntah féderal masih kénéh aya dina kaayaan kauangan anu sakarat.<ref name="Dire Straits">Solman, Paul – {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/lessons-from-the-political-gri/ |title=''Lessons from the Political Gridlock of 1842'' |publisher=PBS Newshour, February 28, 2013 |access-date= March 30, 2015|date=February 28, 2013 }}</ref> [[File:panic1837 crop.jpg|thumb|Kartun [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] anu ngagambarkeun dampak pangangguran ka hiji kulawarga anu masang potrét Jackson sarta Van Buren dina témbokna]] Akar masalahna nyaéta krisis ékonomi—anu dimimitian ku [[Panik 1837]]—anu nuju nincak taun kagenepna dina 1842. Hiji [[gelembung spékulatif]] parantos bitu dina taun 1836–39, nyababkeun runtuhna séktor kauangan sarta depresi satuluyna. Nagara janten papasah pisan ngeunaan cara anu pangsaéna kanggé nanganan éta krisis. Kaayaan beuki parah dina awal 1842 margi aya wates waktu (deadline) anu beuki deukeut. Sapuluh taun sateuacanna, nalika ékonomi masih kuat, Kongrés parantos jangji ka nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul yén bakal aya pangirangan tarif féderal anu kacida dipikageuleuhna. Nagara bagian di Kalér mah narima pisan kana tarif, anu ngajagi industri maranéhna anu nembé tumuwuh, nanging nagara bagian di Kidul teu miboga dasar industri sarta gumantung pisan kana aksés kabuka ka pasar Inggris kanggé kapas maranéhna.<ref name="Dire Straits"/> Dina rekomendasi ka Kongrés, Tyler nyatakeun yén diperyogikeun kanggé ngalangkungan Tarif Kompromi 1833 sarta ningkatkeun tarif saluhureun wates 20 persén. Dina kasapukan sateuacanna, hal ieu bakal ngeureunkeun program distribusi, dimana sakabéh pendapatan bakal asup ka pamaréntah féderal.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 293–97; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 166–67.</ref> Kongrés Whig anu nentang embung ningkatkeun tarif upami éta hal mangaruhan distribusi dana ka nagara-nagara bagian. Dina Juni 1842, maranéhna ngesahkeun dua RUU anu bakal ningkatkeun tarif sarta memperpanjang program distribusi tanpa sarat. Kusabab yakin yén teu pantes neraskeun distribusi nalika kakirangan pendapatan féderal merlukeun paningkatan tarif, Tyler ngavéto kadua RUU kasebut, sahingga mutuskeun sakabéh sasak hubungan anu masih aya antara anjeunna sareng kaum Whig.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 297–300; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 167.</ref> Kongrés nyobian deui ku cara ngahijikeun duanana janten hiji RUU; Tyler ngavétona deui, anu matak kuciwa seueur anggota Kongrés, nanging maranéhna gagal ngabatalkeun (override) éta véto. Kusabab diperyogikeun hiji tindakan nyata, kaum Whig di Kongrés, anu dipingpin ku pupuhu [[Komite Urusan Keuangan DPR]] [[Millard Fillmore]], ngesahkeun hiji RUU di masing-masing majelis (ngan béda hiji sora) anu mulangkeun tarif ka tingkat taun 1832 sarta ngeureunkeun program distribusi. Tyler nandatanganan [[Tarif 1842]] dina 30 Agustus, bari ngalakukeun [[véto saku]] (pocket veto) kana RUU anu misah kanggé mulangkeun program distribusi.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 103–08.</ref> ====Réformasi Kantor Béa Cukai New York==== Dina Méi 1841, Présidén Tyler nunjuk tilu warga sipil kanggé nalungtik dugaan ayana kacurangan ''(fraud)'' di Kantor Béa Cukai New York anu cenah lumangsung dina mangsa Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]]. Komisi ieu dipingpin ku [[George Poindexter]], urut gubernur sarta Sénator AS ti Mississippi. Ieu komisi hasil ngabongkar rupa-rupa kagiatan curang anu dilakukeun ku Jesse D. Hoyt, Kolektor New York dina mangsa Van Buren. Pamariksaan komisi ieu nimbulkeun kontrovérsi sareng Kongrés anu dikawasa ku Whig, anu nungtut hoyong ningali laporan panalungtikan sarta ngarasa ambek margi Tyler mayar éta komisi tanpa persetujuan Kongrés. Tyler ngaréspon sarta nyatakeun yén éta téh mangrupa kawajiban konstitusionalna kanggé nerapkeun hukum. Nalika laporan éta réngsé dina 29 April 1842, DPR ménta éta laporan, sarta Tyler nyumponan paménta kasebut. Laporan Poindexter tétéla matak éra pikeun Kolektor New York ti kaum Whig sarta ogé pikeun Hoyt. Pikeun ngawatesan kakuasaan Tyler, Kongrés ngesahkeun undang-undang anggaran anu nyatakeun yén présidén dilarang ngagunakeun dana kanggé para panalungtik (investigator) tanpa aya persetujuan ti Kongrés.{{sfn|Holt|1974|pages=62-63}} ====Petisi pamakzulan di DPR==== Teu lami saatos véto-véto tarif kasebut, kaum Whig di DPR (House of Representatives) ngamimitian prosés [[Pamakzulan féderal di Amérika Sarikat|pamakzulan]] (impeachment) munggaran ngalawan saurang présidén. Rasa teu resep Kongrés ka Tyler dumasar kana alesan véto-vétona; dugi ka mangsa jabatan musuh buyutan kaum Whig, Andrew Jackson, para présidén jarang pisan ngavéto RUU, sarta upami ngalakukeun ogé ngan dumasar kana alesan konstitusionalitas. Tindakan Tyler dianggap nentang otoritas Kongrés dina nangtukeun kawijakan.<ref>''The Presidents: A Reference History'', éditan Henry F. Graff, édisi ka-2 (1996), g. 115 (ésai ku Richard B. Latner).</ref>{{efn|Tyler parantos ngavéto total sapuluh RUU Kongrés, genep véto biasa sarta dua véto saku. Salaku babandingan, [[Andrew Jackson]], anu kacida dipikageuleuhna ku kaum Whig, ngavéto total dua belas RUU Kongrés, lima véto biasa sarta tujuh véto saku. [[Martin Van Buren]] ngan ukur sakali ngalakukeun véto saku ka hiji RUU.<ref>[[#Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate|Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate]]</ref>}} Anggota Kongrés [[John Botts]], anu nentang Tyler, ngajukeun résolusi pamakzulan dina 10 Juli 1842. Botts nepikeun salapan pasal pamakzulan resmi kanggé "kejahatan sarta palanggaran beurat" (high crimes and misdemeanors) ngalawan Tyler.<ref name="Holt 2021">[[#Holt (February/March 2021)|Holt (February/March 2021)]]</ref> Genep tina dakwaan kasebut patali sareng panyalahgunaan kakuasaan pulitik, sedengkeun tilu sanésna ngeunaan dugaan kalakuan nu teu pantes salami ngajabat.<ref name="Holt 2021"/> Salajengna, Botts ménta dibentukna komite salapan anggota kanggé nalungtik paripolah Tyler, kalayan harepan bakal aya rekomendasi pamakzulan resmi. Clay nganggap léngkah ieu teuing agrésif sarta langkung milih prosés anu langkung moderat nuju pamakzulan Tyler anu dianggapna "moal tiasa nyingkah". Résolusi Botts ditunda dugi ka Januari 1843 nalika éta usulan antukna ditolak ku sora 127 ngalawan 83.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 303; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 169.</ref> Hiji [[Komite husus (Kongrés Amérika Sarikat)|komite husus]] DPR anu dipingpin ku John Quincy Adams, saurang abolisionis fanatik anu teu resep ka juragan budak sapertos Tyler, ngutuk pamakéan véto ku Tyler sarta nyerang kapribadianana. Sanajan laporan komite éta henteu sacara resmi nyarankeun pamakzulan, laporan éta sacara jelas netepkeun ayana kamungkinan kasebut, sarta dina Agustus 1842 DPR ngarojong laporan komite éta. Adams ngusulkeun amandemen konstitusi kanggé ngarobah sarat dua per tilu sora di kadua majelis kanggé ngabatalkeun (override) véto janten saukur mayoritas basajan, nanging taya hiji ogé majelis anu nyatujuan éta usulan.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 300–01; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 167–68.</ref> Kaum Whig teu tiasa neraskeun deui prosés pamakzulan dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-28]] salajengna—dina pamilihan taun 1842, maranéhna mertahankeun mayoritas di Sénat nanging kaleungitan kontrol di DPR. Dina dinten pinuh terakhir mangsa jabatan Tyler, 3 Maret 1845, Kongrés hasil ngabatalkeun vétona kana [[Undang-undang ngeunaan kapal béa cukai sarta kapal uap|hiji RUU leutik]] patali sareng [[Layanan Kapal Béa Cukai Amérika Sarikat]]—ieu mangrupa munggaranana dina sajarah Amérika hiji véto présidén hasil dibatalkeun ku Kongrés.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 283.</ref> Tyler sanés hartosna teu gaduh dukungan di Kongrés, kalebet ti rénjang sasama anggota Kongrés ti Virginia, [[Henry A. Wise]]. Sajumlah leutik anggota DPR, anu katelah "**Corporal's Guard**" (Penjaga Kopral), dipingpin ku Wise, terus ngarojong Tyler salami anjeunna pasea sareng kaum Whig. Salaku bales budi, Tyler nunjuk Wise janten Menteri AS ka Brasil dina taun 1844.{{sfn|Richards|2007|pages=35-36}} ===Urusan luar nagri=== Kasusah Tyler dina kawijakan jero nagri kontras pisan sareng pencapaianana dina kawijakan luar nagri. Anjeunna parantos lami janten pangrojong **[[ékspansionisme]]** nuju ka Pasifik sarta **[[perdagangan bébas]]**, sarta resep ngangkat téma ngeunaan takdir nasional sarta sumebarna kabébasan kanggé ngarojong kawijakan-kawijakan ieu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Berkin|first1=Carol| last2=Miller|first2=Christopher|last3=Cherny|first3=Robert|last4=Gormly|first4=James|title=Making America: A History of the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/makingamericahis0000unse_s0b0|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2011|isbn=978-0-495-90979-8}}</ref> Posisi-posisi anjeunna sabagian ageung luyu sareng usaha-usaha Jackson sateuacanna kanggé ngamajukeun perdagangan Amérika di sakuliah Pasifik.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 41–43.</ref> Kusabab hayang pisan bersaing sareng Britania Raya di pasar internasional, anjeunna ngutus pengacara [[Caleb Cushing]] ka Tiongkok, dimana Cushing hasil negosiasi sarat-sarat dina **[[Perjangjian Wanghia]]** (1844).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 330–32; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 210–11.</ref> Dina taun anu sami, anjeunna ngutus [[Henry Wheaton]] salaku menteri ka [[Bérlin]], dimana Wheaton negosiasi sarta nandatanganan perjangjian dagang sareng ''[[Zollverein]]'', hiji koalisi nagara-nagara Jérman anu ngatur tarif. Ieu perjangjian ditolak ku kaum Whig, utamana salaku bentuk mumusuhan ka pamaréntahan Tyler. Tyler ogé ngajurung kana paningkatan kakuatan militer sarta hal ieu nampi pujian ti para pamingpin angkatan laut, anu ningali ayana paningkatan nyata dina jumlah kapal perang.<ref name=UoVTwo>"[http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/5 John Tyler: Foreign Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207180531/http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/5|date=December 7, 2008}} dina [[#Freehling|Freehling]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> Dina pesen husus ka Kongrés taun 1842, Tyler ogé nerapkeun [[Doktrin Monroe]] ka Hawaii (anu dijulukan "**Doktrin Tyler**"),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4GVKXN8SWYC&pg=PA112|title=The Monroe Doctrine|isbn=978-1-4299-2928-8|last=Sexton|first=Jay|date=March 15, 2011|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}</ref> bari ngingetkeun Britania supados ulah pipilueun di dinya, sarta ngamimitian prosés anu antukna ngarah kana anéksasi Hawaii ku Amérika Sarikat ka payunna.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 332–34; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 211.</ref> ====Florida==== Dina dinten pinuh terakhir Tyler ngajabat, nyaéta 3 Maret 1845, Florida resmi ditarima kana Uni salaku nagara bagian ka-27.<ref>"[http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/tyler Key Events in the Presidency of John Tyler] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811193533/http://millercenter.org/president/keyevents/tyler|date=August 11, 2011}}" dina [[#Miller Center|Miller Center]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> ===Pemberontakan Dorr=== [[File:Thomas Wilson Dorr engraving.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Thomas Dorr]]]] Dina Méi 1842, nalika **[[Pemberontakan Dorr]]** di Rhode Island nuju muncak, Tyler mimbangkeun paménta gubernur sarta législatur kanggé ngirimkeun pasukan féderal guna mantuan numpes éta pemberontakan. Para pemberontak di handapeun pimpinan [[Thomas Wilson Dorr|Thomas Dorr]] parantos nyepeng sanjata sarta boga maksud kanggé nerapkeun konstitusi nagara bagian anu énggal. Sateuacan kajadian ieu, Rhode Island masih kénéh nuturkeun struktur konstitusional anu parantos ditetepkeun ti taun 1663. Tyler ngajurung sangkan kadua pihak tenang sarta nyarankeun ka gubernur supados ngalegaan hak pilih (franchise) sangkan kalolobaan lalaki tiasa méré sora. Tyler jangji yén upami bener-bener bitu pemberontakan di Rhode Island, anjeunna bakal ngagunakeun kakuatan kanggé mantuan pamaréntahan anu sah (Charter government). Anjeunna negeskeun yén bantuan féderal ngan bakal dipasihan kanggé numpes pemberontakan anu parantos lumangsung, sarta moal sayagi dugi ka ayana tindakan kekerasan. Saatos ngadangukeun laporan ti agén rusiahna, Tyler mutuskeun yén "kumpulan jalma anu ngalanggar hukum" éta parantos bubar, sarta anjeunna yakin kana "sumangat perdamaian sarta kaputusan anu tegas" tanpa kedah ngagunakeun kakuatan féderal. Para pemberontak kabur ti éta nagara bagian nalika milisi nagara bagian maju ka arah maranéhna, nanging éta kajadian ngabalukarkeun hak pilih anu langkung lega di Rhode Island.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 326–30.</ref> ===Urusan Indian=== Suku Seminole mangrupa urang Indian terakhir di Kidul anu kantos dipaksa nandatanganan perjangjian palsu dina taun 1833, anu ngarampas lahan-lahan maranéhna anu sésa. Di handapeun Kapala Suku [[Osceola]], suku Seminole salami dasawarsa nolak pamindahan sarta terus diganggu ku pasukan AS.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=146}} Tyler ngaréngsékeun **[[Perang Seminole Kadua]]** anu lami, getih, sarta teu manusiawi dina Méi 1842, ngaliwatan hiji pesen ka Kongrés. Tyler ogé ngungkabkeun minatna kana [[asimilasi budaya]] paksa ka [[Padumuk asli Amérika|urang Indian]].<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 330.</ref>{{sfn|McCormick|p=146|2002}} Dina Méi 1842, DPR nungtut ka Sekretaris Perang Présidén Tyler, [[John Canfield Spencer|John Spencer]], supados masrahkeun inpormasi ngeunaan panalungtikan Angkatan Darat AS kana pasalia dugaan kacurangan ka suku Cherokee. Dina sasih Juni, Tyler maréntahkeun Spencer supados ulah nyumponan éta paménta. Tyler, anu hak istiméwa éksékutifna (executive privilege) nuju diuji, negeskeun yén éta masalah téh sipatna ''[[ex parte]]'' sarta nentang kapentingan umum. DPR ngaréspon ku tilu résolusi, anu sabagian nyatakeun yén DPR miboga hak kanggé nungtut inpormasi ti kabinét Tyler. DPR ogé maréntahkeun perwira Angkatan Darat anu tanggung jawab kana éta panalungtikan supados masrahkeun inpormasina. Tyler henteu nyobian ngaréspon dugi ka Kongrés balik deui tina mangsa résés dina sasih Januari.{{sfn|Holt|1974|pages=63-64}} ===Administrasi sarta kabinét=== [[File:WHOportTyler.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén Tyler karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], {{circa|1864}}]] {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet |align=right |Name=Tyler |source=<ref>[[#Miller Center|Miller Center]].</ref> |President=John Tyler |President start=1841 |President end=1845 |Vice President=''Teu aya'' |Vice President start=1841 |Vice President end=1845 |State=[[Daniel Webster]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |State start=1841 |State end=1843 |State 2=[[Abel P. Upshur]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |State start 2=1843 |State end 2=1844 |State 3=[[John C. Calhoun]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |State start 3=1844 |State end 3=1845 |Treasury=[[Thomas Ewing]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury date=1841 |Treasury 2=[[Walter Forward]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury start 2=1841 |Treasury end 2=1843 |Treasury 3=[[John Canfield Spencer]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Treasury start 3=1843 |Treasury end 3=1844 |Treasury 4=[[George M. Bibb]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Treasury start 4=1844 |Treasury end 4=1845 |War=[[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War date=1841 |War 2=[[John Canfield Spencer]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War start 2=1841 |War end 2=1843 |War 3=[[James Madison Porter]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |War start 3=1843 |War end 3=1844 |War 4=[[William Wilkins (American politician)|William Wilkins]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |War start 4=1844 |War end 4=1845 |Justice=[[John J. Crittenden]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Justice date=1841 |Justice 2=[[Hugh S. Legaré]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Justice start 2=1841 |Justice end 2=1843 |Justice 3=[[John Nelson (lawyer)|John Nelson]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Justice start 3=1843 |Justice end 3=1845 |Post=[[Francis Granger]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Post date=1841 |Post 2=[[Charles A. Wickliffe]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Post start 2=1841 |Post end 2=1845 |Navy=[[George Edmund Badger]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Navy date=1841 |Navy 2=[[Abel P. Upshur]] [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|(W)]] |Navy start 2=1841 |Navy end 2=1843 |Navy 3=[[David Henshaw (American politician)|David Henshaw]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy start 3=1843 |Navy end 3=1844 |Navy 4=[[Thomas Walker Gilmer]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy date 4=1844 |Navy 5=[[John Y. Mason]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|(D)]] |Navy start 5=1844 |Navy end 5=1845 }} Papaséaan antara Tyler sarta kaum Whig di Kongrés ngabalukarkeun sajumlah calon kabinétna ditolak. Anjeunna nampi sakedik pisan dukungan ti kaum Démokrat, sarta tanpa dukungan kuat ti salah sahiji partéy utama di Kongrés, sajumlah nominasina ditolak tanpa maut deuleu kana kualifikasi si calon. Harita, mangrupa hal anu tacan kantos lumangsung ayana panolakan ka calon-calon kabinét présidén (sanajan dina taun 1809, [[James Madison]] kantos nahan nominasi [[Albert Gallatin]] salaku Sekretaris Nagara alatan ayana oposisi di Sénat). Opat tina calon kabinét Tyler ditolak ku Sénat, jumlah panglobana dibandingkeun présidén sanésna. Maranéhna nyaéta [[Caleb Cushing]] (Keuangan), [[David Henshaw (American politician)|David Henshaw]] (Angkatan Laut), [[James Madison Porter|James Porter]] (Perang), sarta [[James S. Green (attorney)|James S. Green]] (Keuangan). Henshaw sarta Porter kantos ngajabat salaku pajabat samentara (recess appointees) sateuacan maranéhna ditolak. Tyler sababaraha kali nyalonkeun deui Cushing, anu antukna ditolak nepi ka tilu kali dina sapoé, nyaéta 3 Maret 1843, dinten pamungkas [[Kongrés ka-27]].<ref name="senate.gov"/> Teu aya deui nominasi kabinét anu gagal saatos mangsa jabatan Tyler dugi ka nominasi [[Henry Stanbery]] salaku Jaksa Agung ditolak ku Sénat dina taun 1868.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Advice and Consent of the Senate: A Study of the Confirmation of Appointments by the United States Senate|first=Joseph Pratt|last=Harris|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|year=1953|pages=48, 66|oclc= 499448}}</ref> {{clear}} ===Pangangkatan yudisial=== {{main|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku John Tyler}} {| class="floatright" style="font-size:90%; width:auto; text-align:left; white-space:nowrap; margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; border-spacing: 3px; background-color: #f8f9fa;" |+ Pangangkatan Yudisial<ref name="SCOTUSnom" /><ref name="FedJudges" /> |- ! scope="col" | Pangadilan ! scope="col" | Nami ! scope="col" | Mangsa Jabatan |- ! style="background:#000;" colspan="3" | |- | [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat|U.S.S.C.]] ! [[Samuel Nelson]] | {{abbr|1845–1872|14 Pébruari 1845 – 28 Nopémber 1872}} |- ! style="background:#D1D1D1;" colspan="3" | |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Virginia|E.D. Va.]] ! [[James Dandridge Halyburton]] | {{abbr|1844–1861|15 Juni 1844 – 24 April 1861}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Indiana|D. Ind.]] ! [[Elisha Mills Huntington]] | {{abbr|1842–1862|2 Méi 1842 – 10 Oktober 1862}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Louisiana|E.D. La.]]<br />[[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Kulon Louisiana|W.D. La.]]<ref group="lower-alpha">McCaleb ditugaskeun salaku hakim kanggé Distrik Wétan sarta Kulon Louisiana, hiji prakték umum dina mangsa harita.</ref> ! [[Theodore Howard McCaleb]] | {{abbr|1841–1861|3 Séptémber 1841 – 28 Januari 1861}}<ref group="lower-alpha">Dina 13 Pébruari 1845, dua distrik di Louisiana dihijikeun; McCaleb janten hakim di éta pangadilan dumasar [[aturan hukum]]; dina 3 Maret 1849, distrikna dipisah deui, sarta McCaleb ditugaskeun di Distrik Wétan wungkul.</ref> |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Vermont|D. Vt.]] ! [[Samuel Prentiss]] | {{abbr|1842–1857|8 April 1842 – 15 Januari 1857}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Wétan Pennsylvania|E.D. Pa.]] ! [[Archibald Randall]] | {{abbr|1842–1846|8 Maret 1842 – 8 Juni 1846}} |- | [[Pangadilan Distrik AS pikeun Distrik Massachusetts|D. Mass.]] ! [[Peleg Sprague (politisi Maine)|Peleg Sprague]] | {{abbr|1841–1865|16 Juli 1841 – 13 Maret 1865}} |} Aya dua kakosongan dina Mahkamah Agung salami mangsa jabatan Tyler, nalika Hakim [[Smith Thompson]] sarta [[Henry Baldwin (judge)|Henry Baldwin]] pupus, masing-masing dina taun 1843 sarta 1844. Tyler, anu terus-terusan papaséaan sareng Kongrés—kalebet Sénat anu dikawasa ku Whig—nyalonkeun sababaraha urang ka Mahkamah Agung kanggé ngeusian éta korsi. Nanging, Sénat sacara berturut-turut milih kanggé nolak konfirmasi [[John C. Spencer]], [[Reuben Walworth]], [[Edward King (jurist)|Edward King]] sarta [[John M. Read]] (Walworth ditolak nepi ka tilu kali, King ditolak dua kali). Salah sahiji alesan anu disebutkeun nyaéta harepan Sénat yén Clay bakal ngeusian éta kakosongan saatos meunang dina pamilihan présidén 1844.<ref name="senate.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm |title=Powers and Procedures: Nominations |work=Origins & Development of the United States Senate |publisher=[[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] |access-date=1 Juni 2014}}</ref> Opat calon Tyler anu gagal mangrupa jumlah panglobana anu kantos dialaman ku saurang présidén.<ref name="SCOTUSnom" /> Antukna, dina Pébruari 1845, kurang ti sabulan sateuacan mangsa jabatanna béak, nominasi Tyler pikeun [[Samuel Nelson]] dina korsi Thompson hasil dikonfirmasi ku Sénat—Nelson, saurang Démokrat, miboga reputasi salaku ahli hukum anu taliti sarta henteu kontrovérsial. Sanajan kitu, konfirmasina dianggap mangrupa hiji kejutan. Korsi Baldwin tetep kosong dugi ka calon ti [[James K. Polk]], nyaéta [[Robert Cooper Grier]], dikonfirmasi dina taun 1846.<ref name="SCOTUSnom">{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=Supreme Court Nominations, present–1789 |work=United States Senate Reference |access-date=27 April 2014|publisher=[[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]]}}</ref> Tyler ngan ukur tiasa nunjuk genep hakim féderal sanésna, sakabéhna kanggé [[Pangadilan distrik Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="FedJudges">{{cite web |url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges.html |work=History of the Federal Judiciary |access-date=27 April 2014|title=Biographical Directory of Federal Judges |publisher=[[Federal Judicial Center]]}}</ref> ===Anéksasi Téxas=== {{See also|Anéksasi Téxas}} Tyler ngajadikeun anéksasi **[[Républik Téxas]]** salaku bagian tina agénda utamana teu lami saatos janten présidén. Tyler terang yén anjeunna téh présidén tanpa partéy, sarta anjeunna miboga kawani kanggé nangtang para pamingpin partéy sapertos Clay sarta Van Buren, tanpa paduli kumaha pangaruh anéksasi Téxas ka kaum Whig atanapi Démokrat.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=147}} Téxas parantos nyatakeun kamerdékaanana ti [[Méksiko]] dina [[Révolusi Téxas]] taun 1836, sanajan Méksiko masih kénéh nolak ngaku kana kedaulatanana. Rahayat Téxas sacara aktip nyobian gabung ka Uni (AS), nanging Jackson sarta Van Buren mimitina horéam margi sieun nyulut tegangan ngeunaan masalah perbudakan ku cara nambihan nagara bagian Kidul sanésna. Sanajan Tyler boga maksud ngajadikeun anéksasi salaku titik fokus pamaréntahanana, Sekretaris Webster nentang hal éta, sarta ngayakinkeun Tyler kanggé konséntrasi kana inisiatif Pasifik dugi ka ahir mangsa jabatanna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 176–78.</ref> Kahoyong Tyler kanggé ékspansionisme ka kulon diaku ku para sajarawan, nanging pandangan maranéhna béda-béda ngeunaan motivasi di balikna. Biografer Edward C. Crapol nyatet yén salila mangsa présidén [[James Monroe]], Tyler (harita di DPR) kantos nyebatkeun yén perbudakan téh mangrupa "mega poék" anu ngagantung di luhur Uni, sarta bakal "saé upami éta mega téh dibuyarkeun" sangkan ku sakedikna urang hideung di nagara bagian lami, prosés émansipasi bertahap tiasa dimimitian di Virginia sarta nagara bagian Kidul luhur sanésna.<ref>Crapol, 2006, p. 5: "Solusi Tyler nyaéta ékspansi perbudakan anu langkung lega sarta pangakuan Missouri salaku nagara bagian perbudakan. Anjeunna ningali ékspansi wilayah salaku cara kanggé ngipiskeun sarta nyebarkeun populasi budak."</ref> Nanging, sajarawan [[William W. Freehling]] nyerat yén motivasi resmi Tyler dina nganéksasi Téxas nyaéta kanggé ngéléhkeun usaha-usaha [[Britania Raya]] anu dicurigai nuju ngamajukeun émansipasi budak di Téxas, anu tiasa ngalemahkeun institusi perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Freehling, 1991, p. 398: "Tyler sarta [Sekretaris Nagara] Upshur milih anéksasi ngan saatos aya parobahan parleménter anu mastikeun... yén Inggris parantos 'sacara sungguh-sungguh' neken Méksiko supados neken Téxas nuju ka abolisi [penghapusan perbudakan]."</ref> ====Usaha-usaha awal==== [[File:United States 1842-1845-03.png|thumb|alt=Peta sajarah AS, 1843. Kalolobaan nagara bagian wétan parantos kabentuk, samentawis bagian kulon masih dibagi-bagi janten wilayah téritori. Méksiko sarta Républik Téxas miboga wates anu masih sengketa.|Wates-wates Amérika Sarikat sarta nagara-nagara tatangga sakumaha anu katingal dina taun 1843. [[Perjangjian Webster–Ashburton]] parantos ngaresmikeun wates [[Maine]] di timur laut, samentawis [[Républik Téxas]] di barat daya miboga wates anu masih dipaséakeun sareng [[Méksiko]].]] Dina awal taun 1843, saatos ngaréngsékeun perjangjian Webster–Ashburton sarta usaha diplomatik sanésna, Tyler ngarasa siap kanggé ngudag Téxas. Kusabab ayeuna teu gaduh basis partéy, anjeunna ningali anéksasi Téxas salaku hiji-hijina jalan nuju pamilihan mandiri dina taun 1844. Pikeun munggaranana dina karirna, anjeunna kersa maén "**political hardball**" (pulitik kasar/tegas) kanggé ngawujudkeunana. Salaku [[balon percobaan]] (trial balloon), anjeunna ngutus sekutuna [[Thomas Walker Gilmer]], harita anggota DPR AS ti Virginia, kanggé nyebarkeun surat anu ngabéla anéksasi, anu tétéla ditarima kalayan saé. Sanajan hubunganana sareng Webster suksés, Tyler terang yén anjeunna peryogi Sekretaris Nagara anu ngarojong inisiatif Téxas. Saatos padamelan perjangjian Britania réngsé, anjeunna maksa Webster mundur sarta masang [[Hugh S. Legaré]] ti South Carolina salaku gaganti samentara.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 180–83, 186.</ref> Kalayan bantosan Sekretaris Keuangan anu nembé diangkat, [[John C. Spencer]], Tyler "ngaberesihan" sajumlah pajabat sarta ngagentos maranéhna ku para pangrojong anéksasi, hiji parobahan sikep tina pandangan sateuacanna anu nentang sistim patronase. Anjeunna ménta bantosan pangatur pulitik [[Michael Walsh (politisi New York)|Michael Walsh]] kanggé ngawangun [[mesin pulitik]] di New York. Salaku imbalan kanggé jabatan [[Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Hawaii|konsul ka Hawaii]], wartawan [[Alexander G. Abell]] nyerat biografi anu muji-muji, ''Life of John Tyler'', anu dicitak dina jumlah ageung sarta dipasrahkeun ka para kapala pos kanggé disebarkeun.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 183–85.</ref> Dina usaha ngoméan citra publikna, Tyler ngayakeun tur ka sakuliah nagara dina musim semi taun 1843. Pangbagéa anu positip ti masarakat dina acara-acara ieu kontras pisan sareng dikucilkeunana anjeunna di Washington. Éta tur museur kana peresmian **[[Monumén Bunker Hill]]** di Boston, Massachusetts. Teu lami saatos peresmian, Tyler nampi béja yén Legaré pupus ngadadak, anu matak ngaganggu suasana hajatan sarta nyababkeun anjeunna ngabolatkeun sésa turna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 185–94.</ref> Tyler nunjuk [[Abel P. Upshur]], saurang [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] anu populér sarta panaséhat caketna, salaku Sekretaris Nagara énggal, sarta nyalonkeun Gilmer kanggé ngeusian jabatan lami Upshur. Tyler sarta Upshur mimiti ngayakeun negosiasi rusiah sareng pamaréntahan Téxas, bari jangji bakal masihan perlindungan militer ti Méksiko salaku imbalan kanggé komitmen anéksasi. Karusiah ieu diperyogikeun margi Konstitusi merlukeun persetujuan Kongrés kanggé komitmen militer sapertos kitu. Upshur nyebarkeun gosip ngeunaan kamungkinan rencana Britania ka Téxas kanggé milarian dukungan ti para pamilih di Kalér, anu harita masih waspada kanggé nampi nagara bagian perbudakan anu anyar.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 194–97.</ref> Dina Januari 1844, Upshur nyarios ka pamaréntahan Téxas yén anjeunna parantos mendakan mayoritas ageung sénator anu satuju kana perjangjian anéksasi. Républik Téxas tetep mamang, sarta finalisasi perjangjian nembé réngsé dina ahir bulan Pébruari.<ref name="Crapolpp">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 202–10.</ref> ====Musibah USS ''Princeton''==== {{See also|Musibah USS Princeton 1844}} [[File:Explosion aboard USS Princeton.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Ilustrasi sajarah bituna mariem Princeton, kalayan puluhan tamu di luhur kapal. Tulisanana unina "Bituna Peace-Maker anu matak ngeri di luhur kapal uap frégat AS Princeton".|Litograf musibah ''Princeton'' (1844)]] Hiji pelayaran seremonial nyusur Walungan Potomac dilaksanakeun di luhur kapal {{USS|Princeton|1843|6}} anu nembé réngsé diwangun dina 28 Pébruari 1844, sapoé saatos perjangjian anéksasi réngsé disusun. Di luhur kapal aya 400 tamu, kalebet Tyler sarta kabinétna, ogé mariem laut pangbadagna di dunya harita, "Peacemaker". Éta mariem ditembakkeun sababaraha kali dina waktu soré kalayan dipirig ku rasa bungah para tamu, anu saterusna lungsur ka handap kanggé ngayakeun ''toast'' (nginum babarengan). Sababaraha jam ti harita, Kaptén [[Robert F. Stockton]] dibujuk ku balaréa kanggé némbakkeun sakali deui. Nalika para tamu maraju ka dék luhur, Tyler eureun sakedap kanggé ningali minantuna, William Waller, nuju ngawih.<ref name="Princeton">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 207–09; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 204–06.</ref> Sakedapan, sora bitu ngageleger ti luhur: mariemna ruksak parah (malfunction). Tyler salamet margi masih kénéh aya di dék handap, nanging sajumlah jalma sanésna tiwas saketika, kalebet anggota kabinét anu krusial kanggé anjeunna, nyaéta Gilmer sarta Upshur. Nu sanésna anu tiwas atanapi tatu parah nyaéta [[Virgil Maxcy]] ti Maryland, anggota DPR [[David Gardiner (politisi)|David Gardiner]] ti New York, Komodor [[Beverley Kennon]], Kapala Konstruksi [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]], sarta Armistead, saurang budak hideung sarta palayan pribadi Tyler. Pupusna David Gardiner matak nyéréséh haté putrana, [[Julia Gardiner Tyler|Julia]], anu kapiuhan sarta dipangku ka tempat aman ku présidén nyalira.<ref name="Princeton" /> Julia engkéna pulih tina rasa duka sarta nikah sareng Tyler dina 26 Juni.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 208.</ref> Kanggé Tyler, harepan kanggé ngaréngsékeun rencana Téxas sateuacan Nopémber (sarta harepan kanggé kapilih deui) langsung sirna. Sajarawan Edward P. Crapol engkéna nyerat yén "Sateuacan Perang Sipil sarta pembunuhan Abraham Lincoln", musibah ''Princeton'' téh "tanpa ragu mangrupa tragédi pangparahna sarta paling ngalemahkeun anu kantos disanghareupan ku saurang Présidén Amérika Sarikat".<ref name="Crapolpp" /> ====Masalah ratifikasi==== [[File:Uncle Sam and his servants.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Kartun pulitik sajarah. Tulisanana unina "Mamang Sam sarta para palayanna."|Hiji sindiran anti-Tyler anu ngalunikeun usahana kanggé ménta mangsa jabatan kadua. Tyler nyurung panto kanggé nutup jalan lawanna sapertos Clay, Polk, Calhoun, sarta Jackson, samentawis [[Mamang Sam]] nungtut supados anjeunna ngantepkeun Clay lebet.]] Dina naon anu dianggap ku **[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]** salaku "kasalahan taktis serius anu ngancurkeun skéma [kanggé ngawangun citra pulitikna]",<ref name=UoVThree>"[http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/4 John Tyler: Domestic Affairs] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127000903/http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/tyler/essays/biography/4 |date=27 Nopémber 2010 }}" dina [[#Miller Center|Miller Center]], ''American President''. Diaksés 1 Juni 2014.</ref> Tyler nunjuk urut Wakil Présidén [[John C. Calhoun]] dina awal Maret 1844 salaku Sekretaris Nagara énggalna. Rénjang caket Tyler, Perwakilan Virginia [[Henry A. Wise]], nyerat yén saatos musibah ''Princeton'', Wise ku karep sorangan nawarkeun éta jabatan ka Calhoun salaku utusan présidén, sarta Calhoun nampi. Nalika Wise ngawartosan Tyler ngeunaan naon anu parantos dilakukeunana, présidén ambek nanging ngarasa yén éta tindakan parantos kasep kanggé dibolaykeun. Calhoun mangrupa tokoh utama anu ngarojong perbudakan, sarta usaha-usahana kanggé ngaluluskeun perjangjian anéksasi antukna ditentang ku kaum abolisionis. Nalika téks perjangjian bocor ka publik, hal ieu nampi oposisi pulitik ti kaum Whig, anu nolak naon waé anu tiasa ningkatkeun status Tyler, ogé ti musuh-musuh perbudakan sarta jalma-jalma anu sieun ku konfrontasi sareng Méksiko. Méksiko parantos ngumumkeun yén maranéhna bakal nganggap anéksasi salaku tindakan mumusuhan ti Amérika Sarikat. Boh Clay sarta Van Buren, calon kuat ti Whig sarta Démokrat, mutuskeun dina hiji rapat pribadi di bumi Van Buren kanggé nolak anéksasi.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 212–17.</ref> Kusabab terang hal ieu, Tyler ngarasa pesimis nalika anjeunna ngirimkeun éta perjangjian ka Sénat kanggé diratifikasi dina April 1844.<ref>[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 218.</ref> Sekretaris Nagara Calhoun ngirimkeun hiji surat kontrovérsial anu ngawartosan menteri Britania kanggé AS yén motivasi anéksasi Téxas téh nyaéta kanggé ngajaga perbudakan Amérika tina campur tangan Britania. Éta surat ogé ngaklaim yén budak di Kidul hirupna langkung saé dibandingkeun urang hideung bébas di Kalér sarta pagawé bodas di Inggris.{{sfn|White|2016|p=53}} ===Pamilihan 1844=== {{main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844}} {{further|Partéy Tyler}} Saatos Tyler papisah sareng kaum Whig dina taun 1841, anjeunna nyobian uih deui ka partéy lami na, Démokrat, nanging para anggotana, utamana para pangikut Van Buren, henteu siap nampi anjeunna. Nalika pamilihan taun 1844 beuki caket, Van Buren katingalina parantos ngonci nominasi Démokrat, samentawis Clay parantos pasti janten calon ti Whig.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} Kalayan sakedik pisan lolongkrang kanggé kapilih, hiji-hijina cara kanggé nyalametkeun warisan présidénna nyaéta ku cara ngancam bakal maju janten présidén sarta maksa publik kanggé nampi anéksasi Téxas.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} Tyler ngagunakeun kakuatan patronase présidénna anu kacida lega,{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=148}} sarta ngabentuk partéy katilu, nyaéta **[[Partéy Tyler]]**, kalayan ngagunakeun para pajabat sarta jaringan pulitik anu parantos diwangun ku anjeunna salami sataun sateuacanna. Sababaraha surat kabar anu ngarojong di sakuliah nagara ngaluarkeun tajuk rencana anu ngamajukeun pencalonanana salami bulan-bulan awal taun 1844. Laporan tina rapat-rapat anu diayakeun di sakuliah nagara nembongkeun yén dukungan kanggé présidén henteu ngan kawates ka para pajabat wungkul, sakumaha anu sering dianggap ku jalma réa. Pas pisan nalika Partéy Démokrat ngayakeun konvénsi nominasi présidén di Baltimore, Maryland, para pangrojong Tyler ogé ngayakeun acara di kota anu sami kalayan mawa poster bertuliskeun "**Tyler and Texas!**" (Tyler sarta Téxas!). Kalayan sumangat sarta énergi anu luhur, maranéhna masihan nominasi ka Tyler. Partéyna sacara resmi nyalonkeun Tyler kanggé korsi présidén dina 27 Méi 1844.<ref name="auto">[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 218; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 228–29.</ref> Nanging, partéy Tyler ieu organisasina rada logor, gagal nyalonkeun wakil présidén, sarta teu gaduh platform anu jelas.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|pp=148-149}} Kaum Démokrat biasa antukna kapaksa ngasupkeun anéksasi Téxas kana platform maranéhna, nanging aya pertempuran sengit kanggé nominasi présidén. Dina sababaraha kali sora (ballot), Van Buren gagal kéngingkeun mayoritas mutlak sora Démokrat, sarta lalaunan posisina turun dina réngking. Kakara dina sora kasalapan, kaum Démokrat ngalihkeun perhatian ka **[[James K. Polk]]**, saurang calon anu kurang kawentar nanging ngarojong anéksasi. Maranéhna nganggap Polk kacida cocogna sareng platform partéy, sarta anjeunna dicalonkeun kalayan dua per tilu sora. Tyler ngarasa usahana parantos kabuktian bener (vindicated), sarta dina surat panampianana anjeunna nyatakeun yén anéksasi mangrupa prioritas utamana tinimbang kapilih deui janten présidén.<ref name="auto"/> Dina musim semi taun 1844, Tyler maréntahkeun Sekretaris Nagara [[John C. Calhoun]] kanggé ngamimitian negosiasi sareng présidén Téxas, [[Sam Houston]], kanggé anéksasi Téxas. Pikeun nguatkeun posisi anéksasi sarta ngajaga Méksiko supados teu campur tangan, Tyler kalayan wanian maréntahkeun Angkatan Darat AS nuju ka wates Téxas di Louisiana kulon. Anjeunna kacida ngarojongna kana anéksasi Téxas.{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=35}}{{sfn|Brands|2012|p=17}} ====Pencapaian anéksasi==== Tyler teu galéong nalika Sénat anu dikawasa ku Whig nolak perjangjianana ku sora 16–35 dina Juni 1844; anjeunna ngarasa yén anéksasi ayeuna bisa kahontal ngaliwatan résolusi gabungan tinimbang perjangjian, sarta ngajukeun paménta éta ka Kongrés. Mantan Présidén Andrew Jackson, pangrojong kuat anéksasi, ngayakinkeun Polk kanggé nampi deui Tyler ka Partéy Démokrat sarta maréntahkeun para éditor Démokrat kanggé ngeureunkeun serangan ka anjeunna. Sugema ku kamekaran ieu, Tyler mundur tina saimbara dina sasih Agustus sarta ngarojong Polk kanggé korsi présidén. Kameunangan tipis Polk ngalawan Clay dina pamilihan Nopémber dianggap ku administrasi Tyler salaku hiji [[mandat (pulitik)|mandat]] kanggé ngaréngsékeun résolusi kasebut. Tyler ngumumkeun dina pesen taunan ka Kongrés yén "mayoritas rahayat sarta sabagéan ageung nagara bagian parantos nyatakeun satuju kana anéksasi saénggalna".<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 218–220; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 236–241, 246.</ref> Dina 26 Pébruari 1845, résolusi gabungan anu diperjuangkeun pisan ku Tyler, salaku présidén **[[lame-duck]]** (anu téréh béak mangsa jabatanana), lulus di Kongrés.{{sfn|Chernow|2017|p=39}} DPR nyatujuan résolusi gabungan anu nawarkeun anéksasi ka Téxas kalayan selisih sora anu cukup ageung, sarta Sénat nyatujuanana ku mayoritas tipis 27–25. Dina dinten terakhirna ngajabat, 3 Maret 1845, Tyler nandatanganan éta RUU janten undang-undang.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 220; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 282–283.</ref>{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=38}} Teu lami saatosna, Méksiko mutuskeun hubungan diplomatik sareng AS, nyiapkeun kakuatan perang, sarta ngan bakal ngaku Téxas upami Téxas tetep merdéka.{{sfn|Smith|2001|p=38}}{{sfn|Chernow|2017|p=39}} Nanging, saatos sababaraha debat, Téxas nampi sarat-sarat kasebut sarta asup ka Uni dina 29 Désémber 1845 salaku nagara bagian ka-28.<ref>{{cite web|title=Joint Resolution of the Congress of the United States, December 29, 1845|access-date=May 14, 2014|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/texan04.asp|publisher=[[Yale Law School]]}}</ref> ==Pasca-kapersidénan (1845–1862)== [[File:John Tyler (cropped 3x4) (cropped)(2).png|thumb|Tyler dina mangsa sepuhna; {{circa}} 1860–1862]] [[File:Tyler Daguerreotype (restoration).jpg|thumb|Tyler dina mangsa sepuhna; {{circa}} 1861]] Tyler ninggalkan Washington kalayan kapercayaan yén Présidén Polk anu nembé dilantik miboga kapentingan anu pangsaéna kanggé nagara.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Tyler pangsiun ka hiji **[[perkebunan]]** di Virginia, anu asalna namina Walnut Grove (atanapi "the Grove"), anu aya dina sisi [[Walungan James]] di Charles City County. Anjeunna ngagentos namina janten **[[Perkebunan Sherwood Forest]]**, dumasar kana legenda rahayat [[Robin Hood]], kanggé nandakeun yén anjeunna parantos dianggap "di luar hukum" (outlawed) ku Partéy Whig.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 408–410; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 179–180.</ref> Anjeunna henteu sagawayah dina urusan tatanén sarta digawé capé kanggé ngajaga hasil panén anu luhur.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 414–415.</ref> Tatanggana, anu kalolobaanana urang Whig, nunjuk anjeunna ka jabatan leutik salaku pangawas jalan dina taun 1847 kalayan maksud kanggé ngalunikeun anjeunna. Nanging, anu matak kuciwa maranéhna, Tyler migawé éta jabatan sacara serius, sering manggil tatanggana supados ngirimkeun budak-budak maranéhna kanggé damel jalan, sarta tetep keukeuh ngalaksanakeun tugasna sanajan tatanggana parantos ménta supados anjeunna ngeureunkeunana.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 413; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 390–391.</ref> Mantan présidén ieu ngagunakeun waktuna sakumaha biasa kabiasaan **[[kulawarga terpandang di Virginia]]**, ngayakeun pésta, nganjang atanapi didatangan ku bangsawan sanésna, sarta ngalangkungkeun usum panas di bumi sisi laut kulawarga, "Villa Margaret".<ref name="kleber703">[[#Kleber|Kleber]], p. 703.</ref> Dina taun 1852, Tyler kalayan bungah ngagabung deui kana jajaran Partéy Démokrat Virginia sarta saprak harita terus merhatoskeun urusan pulitik.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Nanging, Tyler jarang didatangan ku mantan sakutuna sarta henteu ditéang salaku panaséhat. Sakali-kali dipénta kanggé masihan biantara publik, Tyler nyarios nalika peresmian monumén kanggé Henry Clay. Anjeunna ngaku kana pertempuran pulitik maranéhna nanging muji pisan ka mantan batur sapawonanna éta, anu parantos dikagum ku anjeunna margi hasil nyiptakeun Tarif Kompromi 1833.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 423–425.</ref> Dina ambang **[[Perang Sipil Amérika]]**, Tyler uih deui ka dunya publik salaku sponsor sarta pupuhu **[[Konvénsi Perdamaian Virginia 1861]]**, anu diayakeun di Washington, D.C., dina Pébruari 1861 salaku usaha kanggé nyegah perang. Éta konvénsi nyobian milarian kompromi kanggé nyingkahan perang sipil sanajan harita [[Konstitusi Nagara Konfédérasi]] nuju disusun di [[Konvénsi Montgomery]]. Nalika usulan konvénsi éta ditolak ku Kongrés, Tyler kaleungitan harepan kana kompromi sarta ningali sésési (misahkeun diri) salaku hiji-hijina pilihan, bari ngaramalkeun yén papisahan bersih sakabéh nagara bagian Kidul moal ngabalukarkeun perang.<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 435–447; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 449–461.</ref> Nalika perang antukna bitu, Tyler tanpa mamang milih mihak ka Virginia, anu antukna ngagabung ka Konfédérasi; mantan présidén Amérika ieu dikirim salaku utusan ka **[[Kongrés Konfédérasi Samentara]]**. Julia Tyler janten pangrojong kuat gerakan Kidul sanajan anjeunna lahir di Kalér. Salakina kapilih janten anggota **[[DPR Konfédérasi]]**. Dina 5 Januari 1862, anjeunna angkat ka ibukota Konfédérasi, Richmond, kanggé ngamimitian tugasna di kongrés, nanging anjeunna henteu kabujeng ningali sidang pambuka.<ref name = "kleber703" /><ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], pp. 460–464; [[#Seager|Seager]], p. 469.</ref> ===Pupusna=== [[File:John Tyler's grave.JPG|upright|thumb|right|alt=Hiji obelisk ageung di pamakaman, kalayan patung dada Tyler, sarta kandang beusi hideung katingal sawaréh di tukangeunana.|Hiji obelisk nandaan makam Tyler di [[Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)|Pamakaman Hollywood]].]] Salami hirupna, Tyler sering ngalaman kaséhatan anu kurang saé. Nalika anjeunna beuki sepuh, anjeunna beuki sering katarajang salesma salami usum tiris. Dina 12 Januari 1862, saatos ngaluhunkeun muriang sarta lieur, anjeunna utah sarta kapiuhan. Sanajan parantos dimumulé, kaséhatanana teu nembongkeun kamajuan, sarta anjeunna ngarencanakeun kanggé mulang ka Sherwood Forest dina tanggal 18. Nalika anjeunna ngedeng di ranjang dina wengi sateuacan mulang, anjeunna mimiti ngarasa eungap, sarta Julia gagancangan manggil dokter. Teu lami saatos tengah wengi, Tyler ngaleueut sakedik [[brandy]], sarta nyarios ka dokterna, "Dokter, sim kuring badé angkat," anu diwaler ku dokterna, "Mugi ulah kitu, Juragan."<ref name=":0" /> Tyler saterusna nyarios, "Mungkin ieu anu pangsaéna."<ref name=":0">[[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 469–71.</ref> Tyler pupus di kamarna di Hotél Exchange di Richmond teu lami ti harita, kamungkinan ageung alatan stroke. Anjeunna yuswa 71 taun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnsspectrums.com/aspx/articledetail.aspx?articleid=605|title=Presidential Stroke: United States Presidents and Cerebrovascular Disease (John Tyler)|last1=Jones|first1=Jeffrey M.|last2=Jones|first2=Joni L.|work=Journal CMEs|publisher=CNS Spectrums (The International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine)|access-date=July 20, 2011}}</ref>{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Tyler, 10th United States President, dies in his hotel room in Richmond, Virginia, aged 71 {{!}} House Divided |url=https://hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu/node/38575 |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu}}</ref> Pupusna Tyler mangrupa hiji-hijina dina sajarah kapersidénan anu henteu diaku sacara resmi di Washington, alatan kasatiaanana ka **[[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]**. Anjeunna sabenerna ménta pamakaman anu basajan, nanging Présidén Konfédérasi **[[Jefferson Davis]]** ngarancang hiji upacara pamakaman anu megah sarta boga muatan pulitik, kalayan nembongkeun Tyler salaku pahlawan kanggé éta nagara anyar. Luyu jeung hal éta, dina upacara pamakamanana, peti mati présidén ka-10 Amérika Sarikat éta ditutupan ku **[[Bandéra Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|bandéra Konfédérasi]]**; anjeunna tetep janten hiji-hijina présidén AS anu kantos dimakamkeun di handapeun bandéra anu sanés bandéra Amérika Sarikat.<ref name="Seager" /> Tyler katingal langkung satia ka Virginia sarta prinsip-prinsip pribadina tinimbang ka Uni dimana anjeunna kantos janten présidénna.{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=150}} Tyler dimakamkeun di **[[Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)|Pamakaman Hollywood]]** di Richmond, Virginia, deukeut jeung **[[Makam James Monroe|makam]]** Présidén [[James Monroe]].<ref name="Seager">[[#Seager|Seager]], p. 472.</ref> Saprak harita, namina diabadikeun janten nami sababaraha lokasi di AS, kalebet kota **[[Tyler, Texas]]**, anu dingaranan dumasar nami anjeunna alatan peranna dina anéksasi Téxas.<ref name="cityoftyler">{{cite web |url=http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |title=Tyler Texas – History |access-date=27 April 2014 |publisher=[[Tyler, Texas|Kota Tyler, Téxas]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427233545/http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |archive-date=27 April 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331071700/http://www.cityoftyler.org/Mobile/AboutTyler/TylerTexasHistory.aspx |date=March 31, 2019 }}</ref> ==Reputasi sajarah sarta warisan== {{Main|Daptar mémorial kanggé John Tyler}} Jabatan présidén Tyler parantos ngabalukarkeun réspon anu kacida pipaséaanana di kalangan koméntator pulitik. Tyler umumna dianggap kurang saé ku para sajarawan; Edward P. Crapol ngamimitian biografi anjeunna, ''John Tyler, the Accidental President'' (2006) ku nyatet: "Biografer sarta sajarawan sanésna parantos ngabantah yén John Tyler mangrupa saurang pupuhu éksékutif anu apes sarta teu mampuh, anu kapersidénanana cacad parah."<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 2–3.</ref> Dina ''The Republican Vision of John Tyler'' (2003), Dan Monroe niténan yén mangsa kapersidénan Tyler "umumna diréngkingkeun salaku salah sahiji anu pangkurangna suksés".<ref>[[#Monroe|Monroe]], p. 3.</ref> Seager nyerat yén Tyler "lain présidén anu hébat ogé lain intelektual anu hébat", bari nambahan yén sanajan aya sababaraha pencapaian, "pamaréntahanana parantos sarta kedah dianggap salaku anu gagal dumasar kana ukuran modern naon waé".<ref name="legacy" /> Hiji survéy sajarawan anu dilaksanakeun ku [[C-SPAN]] dina taun 2021 nempatkeun Tyler dina réngking ka-39 tina 44 lalaki anu kantos nyepeng éta jabatan.<ref>[https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall Presidential Historians Survey 2021: Total Scores/Overall Rankings], C-SPAN.</ref> Dina taun 2002, nolak tren évaluasi sajarah anu goréng ngeunaan kapersidénan Tyler, sajarawan [[Richard P. McCormick]] nyebutkeun yén "[sabalikna] tina kamandang anu ditarima umum, John Tyler mangrupa Présidén anu kuat. Anjeunna netepkeun précedén yén wakil présidén, nalika ngagantikeun korsi présidén, kedah janten présidén (anu sah). Anjeunna miboga gagasan anu pengkuh ngeunaan kawijakan publik, sarta anjeunna leuwih ngagunakeun ''otoritas'' pinuh tina jabatanna." McCormick nyebatkeun yén Tyler "ngajalankeun pamaréntahanana kalayan martabat sarta éféktivitas anu cukup hadé."{{sfn|McCormick|2002|p=149}} [[File:John Tyler 1938 Issue-10c.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Prangko sapuluh sén sajarah kalayan profil Tyler|Tyler dina prangko AS, [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina prangko AS|Édisi 1938]]]] Tindakan Tyler anu nyepeng kakawasaan présidén sacara lengkep "netepkeun précedén anu kacida pentingna", dumasar kana skétsa biografi ku **[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]]** Universitas Virginia.<ref name="legacy"/> Sikepna anu suksés negeskeun yén anjeunna téh présidén, sanés ngan saukur pangurus samentara atanapi pelaksana tugas présidén, janten modél kanggé suksési tujuh wakil présidén sanésna ([[Millard Fillmore]], [[Andrew Johnson]], [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Harry S. Truman]], sarta [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]) nuju ka korsi présidén salami abad ka-19 sarta ka-20 nalika présidénna pupus. Kaabsahan tindakan Tyler dina nyandak gelar kapersidénan sarta kakawasaan pinuhna dikuatkeun sacara hukum dina taun 1967, nalika hal éta dikodifikasi dina **[[Amandemén ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]]**.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 13.</ref> Sababaraha sarjana parantos muji kawijakan luar nagri Tyler. Monroe masihan kiridit ka anjeunna pikeun "pencapaian sapertos perjangjian Webster–Ashburton anu nandakeun harepan hubungan anu langkung saé sareng Britania Raya, sarta anéksasi Téxas, anu nambihan jutaan héktar lahan ka wilayah nasional". Crapol ngabantah yén Tyler "mangrupa présidén anu langkung kuat sarta langkung éféktif tinimbang anu diinget umumna", samentawis Seager nyerat, "Sim kuring mendakan anjeunna salaku lalaki anu wanian, boga prinsip, sarta petarung anu adil sarta jujur kanggé kapercayaanana. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén tanpa partéy."<ref name="legacy" /> Panulis **[[Ivan Eland]]**, dina pembaruan buku taun 2008 na ''[[Recarving Rushmore]]'', méré peunteun ka sakabéh 44 présidén AS dumasar kriteria perdamaian, kamakmuran, sarta kabébasan; kalayan hasilna, John Tyler diréngkingkeun salaku présidén pangsaéna sapanjang mangsa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eland|first=Ivan|year=2009|title=Recarving Rushmore|url=https://archive.org/details/recarvingrushmor0000elan|publisher=The Independent Institute|location=Oakland, CA|isbn=978-1-59813-022-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/recarvingrushmor0000elan/page/14 14], 77–82}}</ref> Dina hiji artikel ''[[History Today]]'', Louis Kleber nyerat yén Tyler mawa integritas ka Gedong Bodas dina mangsa nalika seueur jalma dina dunya pulitik kakirangan hal éta, sarta nolak kanggé ngakompromikeun prinsipna demi nyingkahan amarah lawan-lawanna.<ref name="kleber703"/> Crapol ngabantah yén kasatiaan Tyler ka Konfédérasi nutupan seueur hal saé anu dilakukeunana salaku présidén: "Reputasi sajarah Tyler tacan sapinuhna pulih tina kaputusan tragis kanggé ngahianatan kasatiaan sarta komitmenna kana naon anu kantos ku anjeunna dihartikeun salaku 'kapentingan utama Amérika'—nyaéta pangjaga Uni (Persatuan)."<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 283.</ref> Dina bukuna ngeunaan kapersidénan Tyler, Norma Lois Peterson nyarankeun yén kurangna kasuksésan Tyler sacara umum salaku présidén téh disababkeun ku faktor éksternal anu bakal mangaruhan saha waé anu aya di Gedong Bodas harita. Anu utama di antarana nyaéta Henry Clay, anu teu kersa nampi oposisi kana [[Sistim Amérika (rencana ékonomi)|visi ékonomi ageungna kanggé Amérika]]. Salaku balukar tina pamakéan kakawasaan éksékutif anu kuat ku Jackson sateuacanna, kaum Whig hoyong présidén didominasi ku Kongrés, sarta Clay nganggap Tyler salaku bawahan. Tyler teu narima kana hal ieu, anu antukna nimbulkeun konflik antar cabang kakawasaan anu ngadominasi mangsa jabatanna.<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], pp. 263–64.</ref> Bari nunjuk kana kamajuan dina kawijakan luar nagri, anjeunna nganggap kapersidénan Tyler "cacad ... nanging ... sanés mangrupa kagagalan".<ref>[[#Peterson|Peterson]], p. 265.</ref> Samentawis para akademisi parantos muji sarta ngritik Tyler, masarakat umum Amérika miboga sakedik pisan kasadaran ngeunaan anjeunna. Sababaraha panulis parantos ngagambarkeun Tyler salaku salah sahiji présidén anu pangasingna (obscure). Sakumaha anu dinyatakeun ku Seager: "Baturna sanagara umumna nginget anjeunna, upami maranéhna kantos nguping namina, ngan saukur salaku [[Tippecanoe and Tyler Too|tungtung sajak tina slogan kampanye anu matak napel dina ingetan]]."<ref name="legacy" /> ==Kulawarga, kahirupan pribadi, sarta perbudakan== [[File:Letitia Tyler2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|alt=Potrét Letitia Christian Tyler|Potrét cet minyak pamajikan munggaran Tyler, [[Letitia Christian Tyler]], ku seniman anu teu dipikawanoh]] Tyler boga anak panglobana dibandingkeun présidén Amérika lianna.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], p. 4.</ref> Pamajikan munggaranna nyaéta [[Letitia Christian Tyler|Letitia Christian]] (12 Nopémber 1790 – 10 Séptémber 1842), sarta gaduh dalapan anak: Mary (1815–1847), [[Robert Tyler (Confederate Register of the Treasury)|Robert]] (1816–1877), [[John Tyler Jr.|John]] (1819–1896), [[Letitia Semple|Letitia]] (1821–1907), Elizabeth (1823–1850), Anne (1825–1825), Alice (1827–1854), sarta Tazewell (1830–1874).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 478.</ref> [[File:Julia Tyler.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Potrét Julia Gardiner Tyler|Potrét cet minyak pamajikan kadua Tyler, [[Julia Gardiner Tyler]], karya [[Francesco Anelli]]]] Letitia pupus alatan stroke di Gedong Bodas dina Séptémber 1842. Dina 26 Juni 1844, Tyler nikah ka [[Julia Gardiner Tyler|Julia Gardiner]] (23 Juli 1820 – 10 Juli 1889), sarta gaduh tujuh anak: [[David Gardiner Tyler|David]] (1846–1927), [[John Alexander Tyler|John Alexander]] (1848–1883), Julia (1849–1871), Lachlan (1851–1902), [[Lyon Gardiner Tyler|Lyon]] (1853–1935), Robert Fitzwalter (1856–1927), sarta Margaret Pearl (1860–1947).<ref>[[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 479.</ref> Sanajan kulawargana kacida dipikaasihna, salami karir pulitikna Tyler mindeng pajauh jeung imah dina jangka waktu anu lila. Nalika anjeunna milih teu nyalonkeun deui ka DPR dina taun 1821 alatan gering, anjeunna nyerat yén anjeunna bakal énggal-énggal dipanggil kanggé ngadidik kulawargana anu nuju tumuwuh. Hésé pisan pikeun praktek hukum bari kudu aya di Washington sababaraha bulan dina sataun, sarta perkebunanana langkung nguntungkeun nalika Tyler tiasa ngokolakeunana nyalira.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], pp. 323–24.</ref> Nalika anjeunna asup ka Sénat dina taun 1827, anjeunna parantos pasrah kanggé méspentakeun sabagian waktos sataun jauh ti kulawargana. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep nyobian deukeut sareng anak-anakna ngaliwatan surat.<ref>[[#Leahy|Leahy]], p. 340.</ref> Tyler mangrupa saurang **[[perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|nu boga budak]]**, dina hiji mangsa anjeunna gaduh 40 budak di Greenway.<ref name="may22seager300" /> Sanajan anjeunna nganggap perbudakan salaku hiji kajahatan sarta henteu nyobian menerkeunana, anjeunna henteu kantos ngabébaskeun sahiji-hiji acan budakna. Tyler nganggap perbudakan salaku bagian tina **[[hak-hak nagara bagian]]**, ku kituna pamaréntah féderal teu gaduh wewenang kanggé ngahapusna. Kaayaan hirup budak-budakna henteu kadokumentasikeun kalayan jéntré, nanging para sajarawan nyimpulkeun yén anjeunna merhatoskeun kasajahtraan maranéhna sarta henteu ngagunakeun kekerasan fisik ka maranéhna.<ref name="may22seager300">[[#May|May]], pp. 22–24; [[#Seager|Seager]], pp. 300–01; [[#Chitwood|Chitwood]], p. 143.</ref> Dina Désémber 1841, Tyler ditarajang ku penerbit abolisionis [[Joshua Leavitt]], kalayan dugaan anu teu kabuktian yén Tyler gaduh sababaraha anak lalaki ti budakna, sarta engkéna dijual. Sajumlah kulawarga hideung ayeuna masih percaya yén maranéhna téh katurunan Tyler, nanging teu aya bukti sacara silsilah (genealogy) ngeunaan hal éta.<ref>[[#Crapol|Crapol]], pp. 62–67.</ref> Sahenteuna opat anak lalaki Tyler ngabakti di pamaréntahan atanapi pasukan militer Konfédérasi; Robert Tyler Jones, incuna ti anakna Mary, ngagabung ka Kompi K tina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-53 Virginia]] dina 25 Juni 1861, sarta tatu dina 3 Juli 1863 nalika milu dina [[Serangan Pickett]] salaku pangasuh bandéra di [[Angkatan Darat Virginia Kalér]] salami [[Patempuran Gettysburg]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wert |first=Jeffry D. |author-link=Jeffry D. Wert |date=2002 |title=Gettysburg, Day Three |url=https://archive.org/details/gettysburgdaythr0000jeff |location=New York |publisher=Touchstone |page=[https://archive.org/details/gettysburgdaythr0000jeff/page/226 226] |isbn=0-684-85915-7}}</ref> **[[Kabeungharan bersih]]** pribadi Tyler diperkirakeun langkung ti $50 juta upami disaluyukeun sareng inflasi dumasar standar modern (nurutkeun valuasi puncak kira-kira taun 2020), nanging anjeunna kabeulit hutang salami Perang Sipil, sarta pupus kalayan harta anu parantos nyirorot pisan.<ref>[[#The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump]]</ref> Tyler sarta anakna, Lyon, nikah deui ka awéwé anu langkung anom sarta gaduh anak dina yuswa anu parantos sepuh, nepi ka anak awéwé Tyler anu namina Pearl nembé pupus dina taun 1947. Ngaliwatan Lyon, Tyler gaduh incu, **[[Harrison Ruffin Tyler]]**, anu nembé pupus dina taun 2025. Anjeunna parantos ngajaga imah kulawarga, **[[Perkebunan Sherwood Forest]]**, di [[Charles City County, Virginia]].<ref name="Genealogy of John Tyler">{{cite web | title=Genealogy of John Tyler at Sherwood Forest Plantation | website=Home of President John Tyler | date=January 27, 2009 | url=http://www.sherwoodforest.org/Genealogy.html | access-date=May 9, 2019 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001001457/http://www.sherwoodforest.org/Genealogy.html |date=October 1, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.stategazette.com/story/2022587.html| title=A living history: Grandson of 10th US President John Tyler speaks to DAR | work=Dyersburg State Gazette | date=November 9, 2013 | access-date=June 17, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1= Amira|first1= Dan|title= President John Tyler's Grandson, Harrison Tyler, on Still Being Alive|url=https://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2012/01/president-tyler-grandson-alive.html |website=New York Magazine|date= January 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.richmonder.org/harrison-ruffin-tyler-grandson-of-10th-u-s-president-and-longtime-richmonder-dies-at-96/ | title=Harrison Ruffin Tyler, grandson of 10th U.S. President and longtime Richmonder, dies at 96 | date=May 28, 2025 }}</ref> {{clear}} |ref=Seager |url=https://archive.org/details/andtylertooabiog013722mbp}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |author-link=Jean Edward Smith |title=Grant |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-84927-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00smit |url-access=registration }} * {{cite book |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |last=White |first=Ronald C. |author-link=Ronald C. White |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-58836-992-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPNRCwAAQBAJ }} ===Artikel=== * {{cite journal|last=Bybee|first=Jay S.|author-link=Jay Bybee|date =Usum Tiris 1997|title=Ulysses at the Mast: Democracy, Federalism, and the Sirens' Song of the Seventeenth Amendment|journal=Northwestern University Law Review|volume=91|issue=2|pages=500–572|url=http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/facpub/350|access-date=1 Juni 2014|ref=Bybee}} * Cash, Jordan T. "The isolated presidency: John Tyler and unilateral presidential power." ''American Political Thought'' 7.1 (2018): 26–56. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jordan-Cash/publication/322606308_The_Isolated_Presidency_John_Tyler_and_Unilateral_Presidential_Power/links/5a85bafd0f7e9b1a95485d5c/The-Isolated-Presidency-John-Tyler-and-Unilateral-Presidential-Power.pdf online] * Crapol, Edward P. "President John Tyler, Henry Clay, and the Whig Party." dina ''A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861'' (2014): 173–194. * {{cite journal |last=Crapol |first=Edward P. |title=John Tyler and the Pursuit of National Destiny |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-early-republic_fall-1997_17_3/page/467 |journal=[[Journal of the Early Republic]] |year=1997 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=467–491 |issn=0275-1275 |doi=10.2307/3123944|jstor=3123944 }} * {{cite journal|author-link1=Leonard Dinnerstein|last=Dinnerstein|first=Leonard|title=The Accession of John Tyler to the Presidency|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_virginia-magazine-of-history-and-biography_1962-10_70_4/page/447|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|volume=70|number=4|date=Oktober 1962|pages=447–458|jstor=4246893|ref=Dinnerstein}} * {{cite web |editor-last=Freehling |editor-first=William W. |editor-link=William W. Freehling |title=American President: John Tyler |url=http://millercenter.org/president/tyler |publisher=[[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] (Universitas Virginia) |access-date=16 Nopémber 2008 |ref=Miller Center}} * {{cite journal|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|title=Attempts to Impeach John Tyler|url=https://www.americanheritage.com/attempts-impeach-john-tyler|publisher=American Heritage (Pébruari/Maret 2021)|website=americanheritage.com|volume=66|issue=2|access-date=3 Oktober 2022|ref=Holt (Pébruari/Maret 2021)}} * {{cite web|last=Hopkins|first=Callie|title=John Tyler and the Presidential Succession|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/john-tyler-and-presidential-succession|website=whitehousehistory.org|access-date=16 Agustus 2022|ref=Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession}} * Kesilman, Sylvan H. "John Tyler as President: An Old School Republican in Search of Vindication", dina ''The Moment of Decision: Biographical Essays on American Character and Regional Identity'', R. M. Miller and J. R. McGivigan, eds. Westport. CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. {{ISSN|0084-9219}} * {{cite journal|last=Kleber|first=Louis C.| date = Oktober 1975| title = John Tyler|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_1975-10_25_10/page/697| journal = History Today|pages=697–703|ref = Kleber| volume = 25| issue = 10}} * {{cite journal|last=Leahy|first=Christopher|title=Torn Between Family and Politics: John Tyler's Struggle for Balance|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_virginia-magazine-of-history-and-biography_2006_114_3/page/323|journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography|volume=114|number=3|year=2006|pages=323–355|ref=Leahy}} * McCormick, Richard P. "William Henry Harrison and John Tyler" dina [http://www.presidentprofiles.com/Washington-Johnson/Harrison-William-Henry-and-Tyler-John.html Henry Graff, ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' 2d ed. (1996) pp 143–154. ] * {{cite web|title=Presidents of the United States from Virginia|url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/presidents-of-the-united-states-from-virginia/|website=encyclopediavirginia.org|publisher=Encyclopedia Virginia|ref=Encyclopedia Virginia|access-date=5 Oktober 2022}} * {{cite web|last1=Sauter|first1=Michael B.|last2=Suneson|first2=Grant|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/3/|publisher=24/7 Wall St|website=247wallst.com|ref=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=20 Maret 2020|access-date=11 Nopémber 2022}} * Tyler, Lyon G. "President John Tyler and the Ashburton Treaty." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 25.1 (1916): 1–8. [https://archive.org/details/jstor-1915096 online] * {{cite journal|last=Varon|first=Elizabeth R.|title=Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_1995-09_82_2/page/494|journal=The Journal of American History|volume=82|issue=2|date= Séptémber 1995|pages=494–521|ref=Varon|doi=10.2307/2082184|jstor=2082184}} ===Sumber primér=== * {{cite book|last1=Frémont|first1=John C.|last2=Torrey|first2=John|title=Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iGJ5AAAAMAAJ&q=Report+of+the+exploring+expedition+to+the+rocky+mountains|publisher=Ann Arbor University of Microfilms|year=1966|isbn=978-0-598-18981-3 |ref=Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1845)}} * Lyon Gardiner Tyler, ed. ''The Letters and Times of the Tylers'' (3 jilid. 1884–1896). [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27The%20Letters%20and%20Times%20of%20the%20Tylers%27%27%20%29 online] * Dokumén pribadi kulawarga Tyler, kalebet John Tyler, tiasa dipendakan di [[Special Collections Research Center (Earl Gregg Swem Library)|Puseur Panalungtikan Koléksi Husus]] di [[College of William and Mary]]: {{cite web|title=Tyler Family Papers, Group A|url=http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=6999|publisher=Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary|access-date=22 Januari 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728052645/http://scrc.swem.wm.edu/index.php?p=collections%2Fcontrolcard&id=6999|archive-date=28 Juli 2011}} * Dokumén éksékutif John Tyler nalika anjeunna janten [[Gubernur Virginia]] tiasa dipendakan di [[Library of Virginia]]: {{cite web|title=A Guide to the Governor John Tyler Executive Papers, 1825–1827|url=http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=lva/vi00885.xml|publisher=Virginia Heritage|access-date=8 Méi 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713053954/http://ead.lib.virginia.edu/vivaxtf/view?docId=lva/vi00885.xml |date=July 13, 2014 }} * {{cite web|title=Vetoes, 1789 to Present|url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/vetoes/vetoCounts.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=Sénat Amérika Sarikat|ref=Vetoes, 1789 to Present United States Senate|access-date=10 Nopémber 2022}} {{Refend}} {{Div col end}} ==Tautan luar== {{sister project links|d=Q11881|n=no|s=Author:John Tyler|wikt=Tylerism|v=no|voy=no|species=no|m=no|mw=no}} * [https://millercenter.org/president/tyler John Tyler di Miller Center, U Virginia] * {{CongBio|T000450}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/tyler/index.html John Tyler: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/john_tyler.pdf Kantor Sajarawan Sénat AS: Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat – John Tyler] * [http://www.virginiamemory.com/online_classroom/union_or_secession/people/john_tyler John Tyler dina "Union or Secession: Virginians Decide"] di [[Library of Virginia]] * [http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Tyler_John_1790-1862 Biografi] di [[Encyclopedia Virginia]] * {{Gutenberg author |id=1643| name=John Tyler}} * {{Librivox author |id=11284}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Tyler}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?123380-1/life-portrait-john-tyler "Life Portrait of John Tyler"], ti [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'' * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?306305-1/john-tyler-accidental-president "John Tyler: The Accidental President"], presentasi ku [[Edward Crapol]] * {{cite web|last=Chip|first=Reid|title=Kumaha dua incu Présidén John Tyler masih kénéh hirup, 174 taun saatosna|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/how-two-of-president-john-tylers-grandsons-are-still-alive/|website=cbsnew.com|publisher=CBS News|type=video|date=6 Maret 2018|access-date=1 Nopémber 2022}} {{John Tyler|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Clopton]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Virginia|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-23 Virginia]]|years=1816–1821}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Stevenson]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Richard Henry Wilde|Richard Wilde]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar anggota pangora Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Baby of the House]]|years=1816–1817}} {{s-aft|after=[[George Robertson (politisi)|George Robertson]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Pleasants]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Gubernur Virginia]]|years=1825–1827}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Branch Giles]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[George Poindexter]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1835}} {{s-aft|after=[[William R. King]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Richard Mentor Johnson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1841}} {{s-aft|after=[[George M. Dallas]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Henry Harrison]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1841–1845}} {{s-aft|after=[[James K. Polk]]}} {{s-par|us-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Virginia|Sénator AS (Kelas 1) ti Virginia]]|years=1827–1836 |alongside=[[Littleton Waller Tazewell]], [[William Cabell Rives]], [[Benjamin W. Leigh]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Cabell Rives]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]],¹ [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840|1840]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Theodore Frelinghuysen]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Lee (ékonom)|Henry Lee]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Nullifier]] kanggé [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]<br />{{small|Didukung}}|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]]}} {{s-non|reason=Partéy bubar}} {{s-aca}} {{s-bef|before=[[George Washington]] (1799)}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Rektor College of William & Mary]]|years=1859–1862}} {{s-aft|after=[[Hugh Blair Grigsby]] (1871)}} {{s-ref|Partéy Whig ngajalankeun calon régional dina taun 1836. Tyler maju di nagara bagian Kidul, sarta [[Francis Granger]] maju di nagara bagian Kalér.}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Tyler, John}} [[Kategori:John Tyler| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1790]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1862]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840]] [[Kategori:Episkopalian Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Perwira milisi Amérika]] [[Kategori:Anggota milisi Amérika dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Aktivis pro-perbudakan Amérika]] [[Kategori:Makam di Pamakaman Hollywood (Richmond, Virginia)]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844]] [[Kategori:Rektor College of William & Mary]] [[Kategori:Alumni College of William & Mary]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur nagara bagian ti Partéy Démokrat-Républik]] [[Kategori:Delegasi Kongrés Konfédérasi Samentara]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Virginia]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga John Tyler| ]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Konfédérasi ti Virginia]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Delegasi Virginia]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Charles City County, Virginia]] [[Kategori:Urang Virginia dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Politisi anu dipecat tina partéy]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:President pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:Démokrat Virginia]] [[Kategori:Whig Virginia]] [[Kategori:Ahli hukum Virginia]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéy Whig]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat anu gaduh budak]] [[Kategori:Gubernur nagara bagian anu gaduh budak]] g4hp0aisbmxo241kkleovq0jflio744 Zachary Taylor 0 107822 712344 711583 2026-08-28T21:21:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712344 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Zachary Taylor | image = Zachary Taylor restored and cropped (3.5x4.5 cropped).jpg | caption = Taylor {{Circa|1843–45}} | alt = Poto sirah Taylor hideung-bodas | order = 12 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = [[Millard Fillmore]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1849<ref name="Tolson"/> Mangsa jabatan Taylor dijadwalkeun dimimitian dina jam 12 beurang EST tanggal 4 Maret 1849, nanging ku margi dinten ieu ragrag dina dinten Minggu, Taylor nolak sumpah dugi ka dinten salajengna. Wakil Présidén Millard Fillmore ogé henteu disumpah dina dinten éta. Kalolobaan ahli hukum sapuk yén, nurutkeun [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], mangsa jabatan Taylor dimimitian dina tanggal 4 Maret, henteu paduli naha anjeunna parantos sumpah atanapi henteu.</ref> | term_end = 9 Juli 1850 | predecessor = [[James K. Polk]] | successor = [[Millard Fillmore]] | order1 = 1 | office1 = Panglima Tentara Pangandikan (Méksiko) | appointer1 = James K. Polk | term_start1 = 23 April 1845 | term_end1 = 23 Juli 1848 | predecessor1 = ''Jabatan anyar'' | successor1 = William Davenport | birth_date = {{birth date|1784|11|24}} | birth_place = [[Barboursville, Virginia]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1850|7|9|1784|11|24}} | death_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], AS | resting_place = [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Margaret Taylor|Margaret Smith]]|21 Juni 1810}} | children = 6, kalebet [[Sarah Knox Taylor|Sarah]], [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary]], sarta [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard]] | father = [[Richard Taylor (kolonél)|Richard Taylor]] | mother = [[Sarah Dabney Strother]] | awards = {{plainlist| * [[Medali Emas Kongrés]] (3) * [[Nuhun ti Kongrés]] }} | profession = Perwira militer | signature = Zachary Taylor Signature-2.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif nganggo mangsi | allegiance = Amérika Sarikat | branch = [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]] | serviceyears = 1808–1849 | rank = [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] | commands = [[Tentara Pangandikan (Méksiko)|Tentara Pangandikan]] | battles = {{tree list}} * [[Perang 1812]] ** [[Pengepungan Bénténg Harrison]] ** [[Patempuran Pulo Credit]] * [[Perang Black Hawk]] * [[Perang Seminole Kadua]] ** [[Patempuran Tasik Okeechobee]] * [[Perang Méksiko–Amérika]] ** [[Patempuran Palo Alto]] ** [[Patempuran Resaca de la Palma]] ** [[Patempuran Monterrey]] ** [[Patempuran Buena Vista]]{{tree list/end}} }} '''Zachary Taylor''' (24 Nopémber 1784 – 9 Juli 1850) nyaéta saurang [[perwira]] [[militér]] sarta politisi Amérika anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-12, ti taun 1849 dugi ka pupusna dina taun 1850. Taylor mangrupa perwira karir di [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]], naék pangkat dugi ka [[Mayor jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|mayor jenderal]] sarta janten pahlawan nasional alatan kameunanganana dina [[Perang Méksiko–Amérika]]. Hasilna, anjeunna meunangkeun pamilihan ka [[Gedong Bodas]] sanajan pamadegan pulitikna kurang écés. ''Prioritas'' utamana salaku présidén nyaéta kanggé ngajaga Persatuan ''(Union)''. Anjeunna pupus 16 sasih saatos ngajabat alatan panyakit beuteung. Taylor miboga mangsa jabatan présidén pangpondokna katilu dina sajarah AS. Taylor mangrupa katurunan ti [[kulawarga Lee|Kulawarga Lee ti Virginia]], sarta dilahirkeun dina kulawarga nu gaduh perkebunan anu pinujul anu pindah ka beulah kulon ti [[Virginia]] ka [[Louisville, Kentucky]], dina mangsa ngora. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén panungtung anu dilahirkeun sateuacan [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] disahkeun. Anjeunna diangkat janten perwira di Tentara AS dina taun 1808 sarta mimiti kasohor salaku [[kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]] dina [[Perang 1812]]. Anjeunna naék pangkat dina militer, ngadegkeun bénténg-bénténg militer sapanjang [[Walungan Mississippi]] sarta aub dina [[Perang Black Hawk]] salaku [[kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] dina taun 1832. Kasuksésanana dina [[Perang Seminole Kadua]] narik perhatian nasional sarta ngajantenkeun anjeunna meunang jujuluk "Old Rough and Ready". Dina taun 1845, salami [[anéksasi Téxas]], Présidén [[James K. Polk]] ngirim Taylor ka [[Rio Grande]] kanggé antisipasi patempuran sareng [[Républik Séntralis Méksiko|Méksiko]] ngeunaan pacéngkadan wates [[Wates Méksiko–Amérika Sarikat|wates Téxas–Méksiko]]. Perang Méksiko–Amérika peupeus dina April 1846, sarta Taylor ngéléhkeun pasukan Méksiko anu dipingpin ku Jenderal [[Mariano Arista]] dina patempuran [[Patempuran Palo Alto|Palo Alto]] sarta [[Resaca de la Palma]], ngusir pasukan Arista ti [[Téxas]]. Taylor saterusna mingpin pasukanna ka Méksiko, dimana maranéhna ngéléhkeun pasukan Méksiko anu dipingpin ku [[Pedro de Ampudia]] dina [[Patempuran Monterrey]]. Nentang paréntah, Taylor mingpin pasukanna langkung jauh ka kidul sarta, sanajan jumlah pasukanna éléh jauh, anjeunna hasil nahan pasukan Méksiko di handapeun Jenderal [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] dina [[Patempuran Buena Vista]], maksa maranéhna mundur sanajan tanpa kameunangan anu mutlak. Pasukan Taylor saterusna dipindahkeun ka handapeun komando Mayor Jenderal [[Winfield Scott]], nanging Taylor tetep populer di masarakat. [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] ngayakinkeun Taylor anu mimitina horéam kanggé mingpin tikét partéy dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pamilihan présidén 1848]], sanajan prinsip pulitikna teu écés sarta kurangna minat kana pulitik. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1848]], Taylor ngéléhkeun Winfield Scott sarta mantan sénator [[Henry Clay]] kanggé pencalonan partéy. Anjeunna meunang dina pamilihan umum bareng jeung politisi New York [[Millard Fillmore]], ngéléhkeun calon Partéy Démokrat [[Lewis Cass]] sarta [[William Orlando Butler]], sarta usaha pihak katilu anu dipingpin ku mantan présidén [[Martin Van Buren]] sarta [[Charles Francis Adams Sr.]] ti [[Partéy Free Soil]]. Taylor janten présidén munggaran anu dipilih tanpa sateuacanna kungsi nyepeng jabatan pulitik. Salaku présidén, anjeunna ngajaga jarak ti [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] sarta [[Kabinét Amérika Sarikat|Kabinétna]], sanajan tegangan partisan ngancam bakal ngabagi Persatuan. Perdebatan ngeunaan status perbudakan di [[Cessi Méksiko]] ngadominasi agenda pulitik nasional sarta nyababkeun ancaman [[Sésési di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri]] (secession) ti urang Kidul. Sanajan anjeunna téh urang Kidul sarta nu gaduh budak sorangan, Taylor henteu ngadorong ékspansi perbudakan, sarta narékahan kanggé nyiptakeun kaharmonisan antar-wilayah di luhur sagala kapentingan sanésna. Kanggé nyingkahan masalah perbudakan, anjeunna ngadesek para pamukim di [[New Mexico]] sarta California kanggé ngaliwatan tahap téritorial sarta nyusun konstitusi kanggé janten [[Nagara bagian AS|nagara bagian]], anu saterusna nyiapkeun jalan kanggé [[Kompromi 1850]]. Taylor pupus ngadadak alatan panyakit beuteung dina 9 Juli 1850, kalayan pamaréntahanana ngan sakedik ngahontal hasil salian ti ratifikasi [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] sarta henteu miboga kamajuan dina masalah anu paling matak pecat-nyéred di Kongrés sarta nagara: [[perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|perbudakan]]. Wakil Présidén Fillmore [[Garis suksési présidén Amérika Sarikat|ngagantikeun jabatan présidén]] sarta ngaréngsékeun sésa mangsa jabatanna. Para sajarawan sarta sarjana parantos [[Réngking sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Taylor dina kuartil handap présidén AS, sabagian alatan mangsa jabatanna anu pondok (16 sasih), sanajan anjeunna parantos digambarkeun salaku "présidén anu leuwih gampang poho batan présidén anu gagal".<ref name="Tolson">{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/special-reports/the-worst-presidents/articles/2014/12/17/worst-presidents-zachary-taylor-1849-1850|title=Worst Presidents: Zachary Taylor (1849–1850)|last=Tolson|first=Jay|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=February 16, 2007}}</ref> == Mangsa ngora == [[File:Zachary Taylor House 1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Imah mangsa leutik Taylor di [[Louisville, Kentucky]]]] Zachary Taylor dilahirkeun dina 24 Nopémber 1784,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/grant-taylor/ |title=Zachary Taylor |website=[[PBS]]}}</ref> di hiji [[perkebunan di Amérika Kidul|perkebunan]] di [[Orange County, Virginia]], ti kulawarga [[Kelas pekebun|pekebun]] anu nonjol katurunan [[Urang Inggris|Inggris]]. Tempat lahirna mungkin di [[Hare Forest Farm]], imah aki ti pihak ibuna, William Strother, nanging ieu can pasti.<ref name="vaNRHPnom">{{cite web |url=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Counties/Orange/068-0124_HareForest_Final_Nomination.pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Hare Forest Farm |publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources}}</ref> Kamungkinan sanésna, anu diakuan ku tetengger sajarah, nyaéta Montebello, perkebunan sanésna di Orange County.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=John |title=A Guide to Virginia's Presidential Estates and Plantation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/goingoutguide/virginias-presidential-estates-a-planning-guide/2015/05/14/9d9bbf80-f7ee-11e4-9ef4-1bb7ce3b3fb7_story.html |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa anak katilu ti lima putra anu salamet dina kulawargana (anak kagenep pupus nalika orok) sarta miboga tilu adi awéwé. Ibuna nyaéta Sarah Dabney (née Strother) Taylor. Ramana, [[Richard Taylor (kolonél)|Richard Taylor]], ngabakti salaku létnan kolonél dina [[Révolusi Amérika]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=1–2}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=21–24, 261–262}} Buyutna, [[James Taylor (politisi Virginia)|James Taylor]], mangrupa anggota [[Déwan Burgesses]] Virginia.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Biographical Cyclopedia of the Commonwealth of Kentucky |year=1896 |pages=392–394 |via=[[Archive.org]]}}</ref> Taylor mangrupa katurunan ka-4 ti Sepuh [[William Brewster (Pilgrim)|William Brewster]], saurang pamimpin [[Pilgrim (Koloni Plymouth)|Pilgrim]] ti [[Koloni Plymouth]], imigran kapal ''[[Mayflower]]'', sarta anu nandatanganan [[Mayflower Compact]]. Anjeunna ogé katurunan ka-2 ti [[Isaac Allerton Jr.]], saurang sudagar [[Amérika Kolonial|kolonial]] sarta putra ti Pilgrim ''Mayflower'' [[Isaac Allerton]] sareng [[Fear Brewster]], anu mangrupa putri William Brewster.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Family relationship of William Brewster and Zachary Taylor|url=https://famouskin.com/famous-kin-chart.php?name=7872+zachary+taylor&kin=6335+william+brewster|website=famouskin.com}}</ref> Dulur misan kadua Taylor tina garis katurunan éta nyaéta [[James Madison]], présidén kaopat.{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=22, 259}} Anjeunna ogé anggota [[kulawarga Lee]] Virginia anu kawentar, sarta dulur misan katiga ti Jenderal [[Amérika Konfédérasi|Konfédérasi]] [[Robert E. Lee]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Family relationship of General Robert E. Lee and Zachary Taylor via Richard Lee|url=https://famouskin.com/famous-kin-chart.php?name=4640+robert+e+lee&kin=7872+zachary+taylor&via=4758+richard+lee|website=famouskin.com}}</ref> Kulawargana ninggalkeun lahan [[Virginia]] anu parantos teu subur, ngiringan migrasi kalebah kulon, sarta netep caket tempat anu bakal janten [[Louisville, Kentucky]], dina sisi [[Walungan Ohio]]. Taylor ageung di hiji saung kai leutik dugi ka kulawargana pindah ka imah bata nalika janten langkung makmur. Salami mangsa budak, anjeunna cicing di daérah perang [[Perang India Northwest]], malah engkéna anjeunna ngaku kantos ningali [[Urang Amérika Asli|Urang Indian]] nyulik sarta [[scalping|''nguliti'' sirah]] babaturan sakolana nalika nuju leumpang babarengan di jalan.<ref name="Cohen-2019-51">{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Jared |title=Accidental Presidents: Eight Men Who Changed America |url=https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0 |year=2019 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0/page/51 51]}}</ref>Ku gancang mekarna kota Louisville janten berkah kanggé ramana Taylor, anu dina awal abad ka-19 parantos miboga 10.000 héktar (40 km²) di sakuliah [[Kentucky]], sarta 26 budak belian kanggé ngokolakeun bagian pangmajuna tina lahanana. Atikan formal Taylor henteu teratur margi sistem atikan Kentucky nuju nembé kabentuk dina mangsa anjeunna tumuwuh.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=4}} Ibu Taylor ngajar anjeunna maca sarta nulis,<ref>{{cite book |last=Nowlan |first=Robert A. |date=2016 |title=The American Presidents From Polk to Hayes |page=79}}</ref> sarta anjeunna saterusna sakola di sakola anu dikokolakeun ku Elisha Ayer, saurang guru asal Connecticut.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=4}} Anjeunna ogé sakola di akademi [[Middletown, Kentucky]] anu dipingpin ku Kean O'Hara, saurang sarjana didikan klasik ti [[Irlandia]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnston |first=J. Stoddard |date=1913 |title=Sketch of Theodore O'Hara |magazine=The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society |page=67}}</ref> Ayer nginget Taylor salaku murid anu sabar sarta gancang diajar, nanging serat-serat awalna némbongkeun kamampuan éjahan sarta tata basa anu lemah,{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=2–4}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=25–29}} pon kitu deui tulisan leungeunna anu goréng. Sakabéhna ningkat sairing jalanna waktos, nanging tulisan leungeunna tetep hésé dibaca.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=2–4}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=25–29}} == Kahirupan kulawarga sarta harta kakayaan == === Pernikahan sarta putra-putra === Nalika anjeunna nuju ditempatkeun caket [[New Orleans]] dina usum panas taun 1809, Taylor katarajang panyakit [[diséntri]] sarta mulang ka [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]] kanggé pamulihan. Di Louisville, kasehatanana gancang pulih sarta anjeunna mimiti ngiringan deui rupa-rupa kagiatan umum. Dina hiji acara pésta (ball) dina usum gugur, anjeunna pendak sareng [[Margaret Taylor|Margaret Mackall Smith]], adi awéwé salah saurang rérénjanganna. "Peggy" Smith asalna ti kulawarga pekebun [[Maryland]] anu nonjol—ramana nyaéta Mayor Walter Smith, anu kantos ngabakti dina [[Perang Révolusi Amérika|Perang Révolusi]] sarta pupus dina taun 1804.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=8–9}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|p=37}} Teu lami ti dinya, duanana mimiti bobogohan, sarta saterusna nikah dina 21 Juni 1810. Ramana Taylor masihan hadiah pernikahan mangrupa lahan legana 324 ékar di muara [[Beargrass Creek (Kentucky)|Beargrass Creek]]. Pasangan ieu miboga genep putra: * Ann Mackall Taylor (1811–1875),<ref name="miller-facts">{{cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/president/taylor |title=Zachary Taylor: Facts at a Glance |publisher=Miller Center ([[Universitas Virginia]])}}</ref> nikah sareng Robert C. Wood, saurang dokter bedah Tentara AS di Fort Snelling, dina taun 1829.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=48–49}} Putra maranéhna, [[John Taylor Wood]], ngabakti di [[Angkatan Laut AS]] sarta [[Angkatan Laut Konfédérasi]]. Wood mangrupa bapa ti: ** [[Zachary Taylor Wood]], pajabat Komisaris [[Pulisi North-West Mounted]] sarta Komisaris [[Téritori Yukon]]. ** [[Charles Carroll Wood]], Létnan di [[Tentara Britania]]. * [[Sarah Knox Taylor|Sarah Knox "Knoxie" Taylor]] (1814–1835),<ref name="miller-facts" /> nikah sareng [[Jefferson Davis]] dina taun 1835, saurang perwira bawahan anu dipendakan ku anjeunna ngaliwatan ramana dina tungtung Perang Black Hawk; anjeunna pupus dina yuswa 21 taun alatan [[malaria]] di [[St. Francisville, Louisiana]], tilu sasih saatos pernikahanna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=69–70}} * Octavia Pannell Taylor (1816–1820),<ref name="miller-facts" /> pupus nalika nuju budak leutik.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=38}} * Margaret Smith Taylor (1819–1820),<ref name="miller-facts" /> pupus nalika masih orok bareng sareng Octavia nalika kulawarga Taylor katarajang "demam bilious" (muriang parna).{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=38}} * [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary Elizabeth "Betty" Taylor]] (1824–1909),<ref name="miller-facts" /> nikah sareng [[William Wallace Smith Bliss]] dina taun 1848 (Bliss pupus dina taun 1853);{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=243}} saterusna nikah sareng Philip Pendleton Dandridge dina taun 1858.<ref>Underwood (2002), p. 47.</ref> * [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard Taylor]] (1826–1879),<ref name="miller-facts" /> saurang jenderal [[Tentara Konfédérasi]];{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=138–139}} nikah sareng Louise Marie Myrthe Bringier dina taun 1851.<ref>Wead (2003), p. 165.</ref> === Harta sarta kapamilikan budak === [[File:General Taylors Plantation, by Henry Lewis.jpg|thumb|right|Ilustrasi [[Perkebunan Cypress Grove]] milik Taylor dina sisi Walungan Mississippi]] Saatos pernikahanana, Taylor sarta istrina mésér hiji saung kai anu parantos bobo di [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], anu réngsé dirénovasi sakedap sateuacan Perang 1812 peupeus.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=153}} Kira-kira dina waktos anu sami, anjeunna mimiti mésér sajumlah ageung saham bank di Louisville.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=5–10}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=35–37}} Anjeunna ogé mimiti mésér lahan di sisi [[Walungan Mississippi]], kalebet lahan di [[West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana]], sarta [[Wilkinson County, Mississippi]], anu kabuktian janten investasi anu nguntungkeun.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=145}} Ti pertengahan taun 1820-an, anjeunna ngajantenkeun Baton Rouge salaku padumukan utama sarta bumi kulawargana, sanajan anjeunna sering angkat kanggé tugas militer. Ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1844, anjeunna mindahkeun kulawargana ka [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]], supados langkung caket kana pos militer tempat anjeunna ditugaskeun.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=149}} Dina April 1842, Taylor mésér [[Perkebunan Cypress Grove]] di [[Jefferson County, Mississippi]], kéngingkeun lahan legana {{convert|1823|acre|ha|adj=on}} sarta 81 budak belian kalayan harga $95.000. Nalika anjeunna pupus dina taun 1850, aya 127 budak belian di perkebunan kasebut,{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=145}} sanajan majalah ''[[Anti-Slavery Reporter]]'' ngalaporkeun harita yén Taylor sahenteuna gaduh 200 budak belian.<ref name="ANTI-SLAVERY REPORTER VOL III 1848, p 194-5">ANTI-SLAVERY REPORTER VOL III, NO XXXVI, December 1, 1848, p 194-5</ref> Sanajan aya di salah sahiji wilayah panghasil kapas panghadéna di nagara bagian éta, Cypress Grove gagal masihan kauntungan kanggé Taylor alatan harga kapas anu handap, [[Daptar caah Walungan Mississippi|caah anu sering kajantenan]], cuaca anu goréng, sarta masalah hama. Taylor sarta manajerna, Thomas Ringgold, narékahan supados perkebunan éta tiasa mandiri ku cara ngical kai kanggé nutupan biaya sarta ngawangun sistem tanggul sarta panto cai anu lega.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=146}} Anjeunna tetep janten nu gaduh anu jarang aya di tempat sanajan dina mangsa damai, sarta istrina katingalna henteu kantos nganjang ka perkebunan éta. Anjeunna nunjuk putrana, [[Richard Taylor (jenderal Konfédérasi)|Richard]], salaku asistén manajer.{{sfn|Currie|1984|p=153}} == Karir militer == === Pangangkatan awal === Saatos ngabakti sakedap dina [[Milisi (Amérika Sarikat)|milisi Kentucky]] dina taun 1806, Taylor lebet ka Tentara AS dina 3 Méi 1808, nampi [[Perwira|pangangkatan]] ti Présidén [[Thomas Jefferson]] salaku [[létnan hiji]] dina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-7 (Amérika Sarikat)|Réjimén Infanteri Katujuh Kentucky]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/zachary-taylor-papers/articles-and-essays/timeline/1784-to-1815/ |title=Timeline, 1784–1815 |work=Zachary Taylor Papers |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa salah sahiji perwira anyar anu diangkat ku Kongrés kanggé nanggapi kajadian ''[[Insidén Chesapeake–Leopard|Chesapeake–Leopard]]'', dimana awak kapal perang [[Angkatan Laut Karajaan]] Britania parantos naék ka kapal frigat [[Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat]], anu nyababkeun ayana sauran kanggé perang.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=5}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|p=33}} Taylor nyéépkeun sabagéan ageung taun 1809 di camp anu parantos bobo di [[New Orleans]] sarta caket [[St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana|Terre aux Boeufs]], di [[Téritori Orleans]]. Di handapeun komando [[James Wilkinson]], para prajurit di Terre aux Boeufs sangsara pisan alatan panyakit sarta kurangna pasokan, sahingga Taylor dibéré cuti panjang sarta mulang ka [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]] kanggé pamulihan.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=4–6}} Saatos pulih, Taylor indit ka kidul kanggé ngagabung deui sareng [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-7 (Amérika Sarikat)|réjiménna]], nanging anjeunna terang yén teu aya penugasan kanggé anjeunna, sahingga anjeunna ngantosan di Louisville. Taylor naék pangkat janten [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|kaptén]] dina Nopémber 1810. Dina Juli 1811, anjeunna dicalukan ka [[Téritori Indiana]], dimana anjeunna ngagabung sareng Jenderal [[William Henry Harrison]], gubernur Téritori Indiana, sarta dina 10 Juli, anjeunna nyepeng kadali [[Fort Knox (Vincennes)|Fort Knox]] saatos komandanna kabur. Taylor gancang nyerat surat ka Sekretaris Perang [[William Eustis]], ngajelaskeun kurangna papakéan sarta pasokan di éta bénténg. Dina sababaraha minggu, anjeunna parantos hasil mulangkeun katertiban di garnisun éta, anu matak anjeunna dipuji ku Gubernur Harrison.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=10}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=37–38}} Taylor sakedap dicalukan ka [[Washington, D.C.]], kanggé janten saksi kanggé Wilkinson dina hiji [[pangadilan militer]], sahingga anjeunna henteu ngiringan dina [[Patempuran Tippecanoe]] Nopémber 1811 ngalawan pasukan [[Tecumseh]], saurang [[Pamingpin suku|kapala suku]] [[Shawnee]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=7–8}} === Perang 1812 === Salami [[Perang 1812]], dimana pasukan AS perang ngalawan Kakaisaran Britania sarta babaturan satia [[Urang Amérika Asli|India]]-na, Taylor hasil nahan [[Patempuran Bénténg Harrison|Fort Harrison]] di Téritori Indiana tina serangan urang India anu dipingpin ku Tecumseh. Patempuran dina Séptémber 1812 ieu mangrupa kameunangan darat munggaran kanggé pasukan Amérika dina éta perang, anu nyababkeun Taylor nampi pujian anu lega, sarta promosi [[brevet (militer)|brevet]] (samentara) janten pangkat mayor. Numutkeun sajarawan [[John Eisenhower]], ieu mangrupa pangkat brevet munggaran anu dibikeun dina sajarah AS.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=10–11}} Saterusna dina taun éta, Taylor ngagabung sareng Jenderal [[Samuel Hopkins (anggota kongrés)|Samuel Hopkins]] salaku ajudan dina dua ékspédisi—hiji ka [[Téritori Illinois]] sarta hiji deui ka lokasi patempuran Tippecanoe, dimana maranéhna kapaksa mundur dina [[Patempuran Wild Cat Creek]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=13–19}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=39–46}} Taylor mindahkeun kulawargana ka Fort Knox saatos kakacauan mimiti reda.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=20–24}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pages=47–53}} Dina usum semi taun 1814, Taylor dicalukan deui kanggé tugas aktif di handapeun Brigadir Jenderal [[Benjamin Howard (politisi Missouri)|Benjamin Howard]]. Saatos Howard gering, Taylor mingpin ékspédisi 430 urang ti [[St. Louis]], nyusuri Walungan Mississippi. Dina [[Patempuran Pulo Credit]], Taylor ngéléhkeun pasukan India, nanging saterusna mundur saatos urang India dibantuan ku babaturan satia Britania-na.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=13–15}} Dina sasih Oktober, anjeunna ngawasan pangwangunan [[Fort Johnson]] caket [[Warsaw, Illinois]], titik pertahanan terakhir Tentara AS di Lebak Walungan Mississippi luhur. Nalika Howard pupus sababaraha minggu ti harita, Taylor diparéntahkeun kanggé ninggalkan bénténg éta sarta mundur ka St. Louis. Nalika perang réngsé dina taun 1815, pangkatna diturunkeun deui janten kaptén, sahingga anjeunna milih mundur ti tentara. Anjeunna asup deui sataun saatosna saatos nampi pangangkatan salaku mayor.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=20–30}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=47–59}} === Komando Fort Howard === Komando réjiménna pusatna di [[Fort Mackinac]]; nanging, kolonél anu mingpinna dibéré cuti sakedap saatos Taylor sumping, sarta diganti ku saurang kaptén, anu matak Taylor kacida kasinggungna. Anjeunna saterusna ménta supados komando dipindahkeun ka [[Fort Howard (Wisconsin)|Fort Howard]] sarta ditempatkeun di handapeun otoritasna. Taylor mingpin Fort Howard di padumukan [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], [[Téritori Michigan]], salami dua taun, saterusna mulang ka Louisville sareng kulawargana. Dina April 1819, anjeunna naék pangkat janten létnan kolonél sarta kungsi tuang sareng Présidén [[James Monroe]] sarta Jenderal [[Andrew Jackson]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=17–19}} Dina tungtung taun 1820, Taylor mawa Infanteri ka-7 ka [[Natchitoches, Louisiana|Natchitoches]], [[Louisiana]], dina sisi [[Walungan Red (Kidul)|Walungan Red]]. Anjeunna saterusna ngadegkeun [[Fort Selden (Louisiana)|Fort Selden]] di muara [[Walungan Sulphur]] sarta Walungan Red. Atas paréntah Jenderal [[Edmund P. Gaines]], anjeunna saterusna milari pos énggal anu langkung merenah kanggé wates Walungan Sabine. Dina Maret 1822, Taylor parantos ngadegkeun [[Fort Jesup]] di lokasi Shield's Spring, kidul-kulon Natchitoches.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–41}} Dina Nopémber 1822, Taylor dipindahkeun ka Réjimén Infanteri Kahiji, sarta dikirim ka [[Barak Pentagon|Baton Rouge]] dina sisi [[Walungan Mississippi]] di [[Louisiana]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–47}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=70–77}} Nalika di Baton Rouge, Taylor mésér perkebunan anu legana 40 mil ka kalér dina taun 1823. Saatos ningali kauntunganana henteu cekap, Taylor mésér 22 budak belian kanggé usaha milarian artos langkung seueur; nanging, anjeunna dikirim deui ka Louisville dina Pébruari 1824. Di Louisville, Taylor janten pangawas jasa rékrutmen kanggé tentara anu pusatna di Amérika Sarikat bagian kulon. Dina tungtung taun 1826, anjeunna dicalukan ka Washington, D.C., kanggé digawé dina komite Angkatan Darat guna ngahijikeun sarta ningkatkeun organisasi militer. Samentara éta, anjeunna kéngingkeun perkebunan kahijina di Louisiana sarta mutuskeun kanggé pindah sareng kulawargana ka perkebunanana di [[Baton Rouge]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=40–47}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=70–77}} === Perang Black Hawk === Dina Méi 1828, Taylor dicalukan deui kanggé tugas aktif, mingpin [[Fort Snelling]] di [[Téritori Michigan]] (ayeuna [[Minnesota]]) dina sisi [[Walungan Mississippi Luhur]] salami sataun, saterusna mindah ka [[Fort Crawford]] caket dinya, ogé di Téritori Michigan (ayeuna [[Wisconsin]]), kanggé ngawangun deui bénténg sateuacanna anu ruksak parna alatan caah. Saatos cuti sakedap kanggé ngalegaan lahanana, Taylor naék pangkat janten kolonél tina [[Réjimén Infanteri ka-1 (Amérika Sarikat)|Réjimén Infanteri ka-1]] dina April 1832, nalika [[Perang Black Hawk]] dimimitian di bagian Kulon.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=47–49}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=77–82}} Taylor kampanye di handapeun Jenderal [[Henry Atkinson (prajurit)|Henry Atkinson]] kanggé ngudag sarta saterusna nahan serangan pasukan Kapala [[Black Hawk (pamingpin Sauk)|Black Hawk]] salami usum panas éta. Réngséna perang dina Agustus 1832 nandaan perlawanan terakhir urang India ka ékspansi AS di daérah éta.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=59–65}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=83–99}} Salami période ieu, Taylor nolak hubungan asmara putrina anu yuswa 17 taun, Sarah Knox Taylor, sareng Létnan Jefferson Davis, anu engkéna janten [[Présidén Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]. Anjeunna ngahormatan Davis, nanging henteu hoyong putrina janten pamajikan prajurit, margi anjeunna terang yén éta téh kahirupan anu beurat kanggé kulawarga. Davis sarta Sarah Taylor tungtungna nikah dina Juni 1835 (nalika Sarah yuswa 21 taun), nanging Sarah pupus tilu sasih saatosna alatan [[malaria]] anu katarajang nalika nganjang ka bumi adi awéwé Davis di [[St. Francisville, Louisiana]].{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=59–74}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=83–109}} [[File:ZacharyTaylorMonmouthBalize.jpg|thumb|Kapal uap AS ''Monmouth'' mawa mulang Jenderal AS Zachary Taylor saatos kameunangan dina perang sareng Méksiko di [[La Balize, Louisiana|Balize, Louisiana]], Nopémber 1847]] Taylor tetep cicing di [[Monterrey]] dugi ka akhir Nopémber 1847, nalika anjeunna balayar mulang ka bumina. Sanajan anjeunna nyéépkeun taun salajengna salaku panglima sakabéh divisi barat Angkatan Darat, karir militer aktifna sabenerna parantos réngsé. Dina sasih Désémber, anjeunna nampi pangbagéa pahlawan di New Orleans sarta Baton Rouge, anu nyiapkeun jalan kanggé pamilihan présidén 1848.{{sfn|Hamilton|1941|pp=248–255}} [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngabakti di handapeun Taylor dina ieu perang sarta nyarioskeun ngeunaan gaya kapamingpinanana: "Saurang prajurit demi prajurit, panginten moal aya tentara anu langkung saé anu kantos nyanghareupan musuh batan anu dipingpin ku Jenderal Taylor dina dua patempuran awal Perang Méksiko."{{sfn|Smith|2011|p=83}} {{blockquote|Jenderal Taylor sanés perwira anu sok ngariron hulu pameunteu administrasi (pamaréntah) ku rupa-rupa pamundutna, nanging anjeunna condong ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna kalayan sarana anu dipaparinkeun ka anjeunna. Anjeunna ngarasa tanggung jawabna henteu langkung ti éta. Upami anjeunna ngaraos yén anjeunna dikintun kanggé ngalaksanakeun hal anu mustahil ku sarana anu aya, anjeunna panginten bakal masihan terang ka pihak berwenang ngeunaan pamadeganana sarta ngantepkeun maranéhna mutuskeun naon anu kedah dilakukeun. Upami putusanana nentang anjeunna, anjeunna bakal teras maju sarta ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna kalayan sarana anu aya tanpa mintonkeun keluhanana ka publik. Teu aya prajurit anu tiasa nyanghareupan bahaya atanapi tanggung jawab kalayan langkung tenang batan anjeunna. Ieu mangrupa sipat anu langkung jarang kapendak batan genius atanapi kawani fisik. Jenderal Taylor henteu kantos mintonkeun kaméhakan atanapi parade, boh tina saragam atanapi pangiringna. Dina dangdanan, anjeunna panginten teuing polos, jarang nganggo nanaon di medan perang anu némbongkeun pangkatna, atanapi malah yén anjeunna téh saurang perwira; nanging anjeunna dipikawanoh ku unggal prajurit dina tentarana, sarta dipihormat ku sararéa.<ref>Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant Vol 1. pg 36 Kindle Android Version, 2012</ref>}} == Titimangsa pangkat == {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Insignia !! Pangkat !! Komponén !! Titimangsa |- |[[File:Union army 1st lt rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Létnan Hiji (Amérika Sarikat)|Létnan 1]] || [[Tentara Régulér (Amérika Sarikat)|Tentara Régulér]] || 3 Méi 1808 |- |[[File:Union army cpt rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Kaptén (Amérika Sarikat)|Kaptén]] || Tentara Régulér || 30 Nopémber 1810 |- |[[File:Union army maj rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor]] || Tentara Régulér || 5 Séptémber 1812 |- |[[File:Union army maj rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor]] || Tentara Régulér || 15 Méi 1814 |- |[[File:Union Army LTC rank insignia.png|75px]] || [[Létnan Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|Létnan Kolonél]] || Tentara Régulér || 20 April 1819 |- |[[File:Union Army colonel rank insignia.png|75px]] || [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|Kolonél]] || Tentara Régulér || 4 April 1832 |- |[[File:Union army brig gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Brigadir Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Brigadir Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 25 Désémber 1837 |- |[[File:Union army maj gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Brevet (militer)|Brevet]] [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 28 Méi 1846 |- |[[File:Union army maj gen rank insignia.jpg|75px]] || [[Mayor Jenderal (Amérika Sarikat)|Mayor Jenderal]] || Tentara Régulér || 29 Juni 1846 |} Catetan - Mayor Jenderal Taylor ngundurkeun diri tina jabatanna di [[Tentara Amérika Sarikat]] dina 31 Januari 1849, sakedap sateuacan anjeunna janten présidén. == Pamilihan 1848 == {{Utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848}} [[File:TaylorFillmore.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Poster kampanye Taylor/Fillmore 1848]] Salaku perwira karir, Taylor henteu kantos mintonkeun kapercayaan pulitikna ka publik sateuacan taun 1848, malah henteu kantos milih (nyoblos) sateuacan waktos éta. Anjeunna saurang anu [[apolitik]] sarta miboga sawangan négatif ka kalolobaan politisi. Anjeunna nganggap dirina salaku [[Indepénden (pamilih)|indepénden]], percaya kana sistem perbankan anu kuat kanggé nagara, sarta nganggap yén Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] sakuduna henteu ngantepkeun [[Bank Kadua Amérika Sarikat]] rugrug dina taun 1836. Anjeunna percaya yén ékspansi perbudakan ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kulon]] téh henteu praktis, margi boh kapas atanapi gula (duanana dihasilkeun sacara masif tina perbudakan) moal tiasa gampang dipelak di ditu ngalalui [[ékonomi perkebunan]]. Anjeunna ogé saurang [[Nasionalis Amérika]] anu teguh, sarta dumasar pangalamanana ningali seueur jalma pupus alatan perang, anjeunna percaya yén [[sésési]] (misahkeun diri) mangrupa cara anu goréng kanggé ngaréngsékeun masalah nasional. Sateuacan kameunangan Amérika di Buena Vista, parantos kabentuk klub-klub pulitik anu ngarojong Taylor janten présidén. Pangrojongna asalna ti rupa-rupa golongan pulitik, kalebet [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] sarta Démokrat, urang Kalér sarta urang Kidul, babaturan sarta lawan pamingpin nasional sapertos Polk sarta Henry Clay. Dina tungtung taun 1846, panolakan Taylor kanggé nyalonkeun diri janten présidén mimiti ngendoran, sarta janten écés yén prinsip-prinsipna sarua sareng paham ortodoks Whig.{{sfn|Hamilton|1951|pp=38–44}} Taylor ijid ka Polk sarta kawijakanana, samentara urang Whig nuju nimbang-nimbang kanggé nyalonkeun pahlawan perang sanésna saatos kasuksésan calon sateuacanna, [[William Henry Harrison]], dina taun 1840. Nalika pangrojong kanggé pencalonanana ningkat, Taylor tetep ngajaga jarak ti kadua partéy, nanging anjeunna nétélakeun yén anjeunna bakal milih tokoh Whig [[Henry Clay]] dina taun 1844 upami harita anjeunna milih. Dina hiji serat Séptémber 1847 anu dikaluarkeun sacara lega, Taylor nétélakeun posisi pribadina. Anjeunna henteu satuju kana pangadegan deui bank nasional, milih [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif]] anu rendah, sarta percaya yén présidén sakuduna henteu milu campur dina nyusun undang-undang. Taylor percaya yén présidén tiasa ngavéto undang-undang, nanging ngan upami undang-undang éta écés-écés nentang konstitusi.{{sfn|Smith|1988|pp=40–42}} Seueur urang Kidul percaya yén Taylor ngarojong perbudakan sarta ékspansina ka wilayah anyar anu dicandak ti Méksiko. Sababaraha urang Kidul ambek nalika Taylor nyarankeun yén upami kapilih jadi présidén, anjeunna moal ngavéto [[Proviso Wilmot]], anu ngusulkeun larangan ékspansi perbudakan. Posisi ieu henteu ningkatkeun pangrojong ti golongan anti-perbudakan di [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér]], margi maranéhna hoyong Taylor nyarios sacara teges ngarojong Proviso éta, sanés ngan ukur "moal ngavéto". Kalolobaan tokoh [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|abolisionis]] henteu ngarojong Taylor margi anjeunna sorangan saurang nu gaduh budak belian. [[File:ElectoralCollege1848.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Hasil sora éléktoral 1848]] Dina Pébruari 1848, Taylor nétélakeun deui yén anjeunna moal nampi pencalonan présidén ti partéy mana waé. Sikepna anu horéam ngaku dirina salaku urang Whig ampir ngajantenkeun anjeunna kaleungitan kasempetan dicalonkeun, nanging Sénator [[John J. Crittenden]] ti Kentucky sarta nu ngarojong sanésna tungtungna hasil ngayakinkeun Taylor kanggé nyatakeun dirina salaku urang Whig.{{sfn|Smith|1988|pp=40–42}} Sanajan Clay masih miboga seueur pangiring di Whig, pamingpin partéy sapertos [[William H. Seward]] sarta [[Abraham Lincoln]] sumanget pisan ngarojong saurang pahlawan perang anu tiasa ngulang kasuksésan William Henry Harrison. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Whig 1848]], Taylor ngéléhkeun Clay sarta Winfield Scott. Kanggé calon wakil présidén, konvénsi milih [[Millard Fillmore]], saurang inohong Whig ti [[New York (nagara bagian)|New York]] anu kantos janten ketua [[Komite Cara sarta Sarana DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Ways and Means DPR]]. Dipilihna Fillmore mangrupa usaha kanggé ngadaméykeun urang Whig Kalér anu ambek alatan dicalonkeunana saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul. Mimitina mah can écés naha Taylor bakal nampi pencalonan éta atanapi henteu, margi anjeunna henteu ngabales serat bewara hasil konvénsi. Hal ieu lumangsung margi anjeunna maréntahkeun kantor pos satempat kanggé henteu nganteurkeun suratna sangkan henteu kedah mayar biaya kirim. Taylor tetep ngawatesan peranna dina kampanye, milih henteu pendak langsung sareng pamilih atanapi surat-suratan ngeunaan pandangan pulitikna. Di tingkat nasional, Taylor ngéléhkeun Cass sarta Van Buren, kéngingkeun 163 tina 290 [[Kolege Eléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|sora éléktoral]]. Dina sora populér, anjeunna kéngingkeun 47,3%, samentara Cass 42,5% sarta Van Buren 10,1%. Taylor nyatana teu paduli kana platform Partéy Whig, sakumaha anu dijelaskeun ku sajarawan Michael F. Holt: {{blockquote|Taylor ogé teu paduli kana program-program anu parantos lami dianggap vital ku urang Whig. Sacara publik, anjeunna pinter nyumputkeun maksudna, nolak ngajawab patarosan ngeunaan pandanganana ngeunaan perbankan, tarif, sarta pangwangunan internal. Sacara pribadi, anjeunna langkung teges. Ide ngeunaan bank nasional "parantos maot, sarta moal dihirupkeun deui dina jaman kuring." Ka payunna, tarif "bakal ditaékeun ngan kanggé pendapatan nagara"; dina kecap sanésna, harepan Whig kanggé mulangkeun [[tarif 1842]] anu boga sipat nangtayungan téh percumah. Moal aya deui kaleuwihan dana fédéral tina penjualan lahan publik kanggé dibagikeun ka nagara bagian, sarta pangwangunan internal "bakal teras jalan sanajan aya véto présidén." Dina sababaraha kecap waé, Taylor parantos nyusun prasasti pati kanggé sakabéh program ékonomi Whig. }} == Mangsa jabatan présidén (1849–1850) == {{Infobox administration | image = Zachary Taylor by Joseph Henry Bush, c1848.jpg | caption = Taylor ku [[Joseph Henry Bush]], {{circa|1848}} | name = Mangsa Jabatan Présidén Zachary Taylor | term_start = 4 Maret 1849 | term_end = 9 Juli 1850 | vicepresident = [[Millard Fillmore]] | party = [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] | election = [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]] | seat = [[Gedong Bodas]] | predecessor = [[James K. Polk]] | successor = [[Millard Fillmore]] | seal = US presidential seal 1850.png | seal_caption = Segel présidén<br />(1850–1894) }} === Transisi === Salaku présidén terpilih, Taylor ngajaga jarak ti Washington, sarta nembé ngundurkeun diri tina komando Divisi Kulonna dina akhir Januari 1849. Anjeunna nyéépkeun sasih-sasih saatos pamilihan kanggé nyusun pilihan kabinétna. Anjeunna milih kalayan taliti sarta cicingeun, anu matak ngahudang rasa hanjelu ti rénjang-rénjangna di Partéy Whig. Sanajan anjeunna ijid kana [[patronage]] (bagi-bagi jabatan) sarta kaulinan pulitik, anjeunna tetep kudu nyanghareupan rupa-rupa pamundut ti jalma-jalma anu milari jabatan dina administrasi anyarna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=248–251}} Sanajan anjeunna moal nunjuk urang Démokrat, Taylor hoyong kabinétna ngagambarkeun rupa-rupa kapentingan nasional, sahingga anjeunna ngabagi korsi kabinét dumasar wilayah géografis. Anjeunna ogé nyingkahan milih inohong Whig anu kawentar teuing, sapertos Clay. Anjeunna nganggap Crittenden salaku pondasi administrasina, sarta nawarkeun posisi penting [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Nagara]], nanging Crittenden milih kanggé ngaréngsékeun jabatanana salaku gubernur Kentucky. Taylor tungtungna milih Sénator [[John M. Clayton]] ti Delaware, rérénjangan caket Crittenden.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=248–251}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | align=right | Name=Taylor | President=Zachary Taylor | President start=1849 | President end=1850 | Vice President=[[Millard Fillmore]] | Vice President start=1849 | Vice President end=1850 | State=[[John M. Clayton]] | State start=1849 | State end=1850 | Treasury=[[William M. Meredith]] | Treasury start=1849 | Treasury end=1850 | War=[[George W. Crawford]] | War start=1849 | War end=1850 | Justice=[[Reverdy Johnson]] | Justice start=1849 | Justice end=1850 | Post=[[Jacob Collamer]] | Post start=1849 | Post end=1850 | Navy=[[William Ballard Preston]] | Navy start=1849 | Navy end=1850 | Interior=[[Thomas Ewing]] | Interior start=1849 | Interior end=1850 }} Kalayan bantuan Clayton, Taylor milih genep anggota kabinét sésana. Salah sahiji tindakan munggaran Kongrés anu bakal sumping nyaéta ngadegkeun [[Departemén Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Dalam Negeri]], sahingga Taylor bakal nunjuk sekretaris munggaran kanggé éta departemén. [[Thomas Ewing]], anu sateuacanna ngabakti salaku sénator ti Ohio sarta [[Sekretaris Perbendaharaan]] di handapeun William Henry Harrison, nampi jabatan [[Sekretaris Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Dalam Negeri]] anu beunghar ku posisi patronage. Kanggé posisi [[Diréktur Jenderal Pos Amérika Sarikat|Diréktur Jenderal Pos]], anu ogé janten pusat patronage, Taylor milih anggota Kongrés [[Jacob Collamer]] ti Vermont.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=90–94, 128}} Saatos [[Horace Binney]] nolak diangkat janten Sekretaris Perbendaharaan, Taylor milih tokoh séjén ti Philadelphia, [[William M. Meredith]]. [[George W. Crawford]], mantan gubernur Georgia, nampi posisi [[Sekretaris Perang Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perang]], samentara anggota Kongrés [[William B. Preston]] ti Virginia janten [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]]. Sénator [[Reverdy Johnson]] ti Maryland nampi pangangkatan salaku [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat|Jaksa Agung]], sarta janten salah sahiji anggota kabinét Taylor anu paling boga pangaruh. Fillmore sorangan henteu pati dipikareset ku Taylor, sarta sabagéan ageung disisihkeun salami mangsa jabatan Taylor.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=90–94, 128}} Taylor ngamimitian lalampahanana ka Washington dina akhir Januari, hiji lalampahan anu pinuh ku cuaca goréng, reureuh, cidera, panyakit—malah kungsi aya kajadian [[Ashland, Jefferson County, Mississippi#Deception of President Taylor|disasabkeun]] ku rérénjangan kulawargana. Taylor tungtungna dugi ka ibukota nagara dina 24 Pébruari sarta langsung pendak sareng Présidén Polk anu badé lungsur jabatan. Polk miboga sawangan rendah ka Taylor, sacara pribadi anjeunna nganggap Taylor "teu gaduh inpormasi pulitik" sarta "sama sakali henteu mumpuni" kanggé janten présidén. Taylor nyéépkeun minggu salajengna pendak sareng para elit pulitik, anu sababaraha di antarana henteu pati katarik ku penampilan sarta sikepna. Kalayan waktos kirang ti dua minggu sateuacan pelantikan, anjeunna pendak sareng Clayton sarta gagancangan ngaréngsékeun susunan kabinétna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=253–255, 260–262}} === Pelantikan === {{Utama|Pelantikan Zachary Taylor}} Mangsa jabatan Taylor salaku présidén dimimitian dina dinten Minggu, 4 Maret, nanging pelantikanana nembé dilaksanakeun dinten énjingna alatan urusan kapercayaan agamana.{{efn|Aya carita rakyat yén [[David Rice Atchison]], salaku ''president pro tempore'' Sénat, sacara teu sadar janten présidén dina dinten éta, nanging teu aya sumber utama anu nampi sawangan ieu.}} Dina biantara pelantikanana, anjeunna ngabahas rupa-rupa tugas anu disanghareupan ku nagara, nanging anjeunna némbongkeun gaya kapamingpinan anu leuwih masrahkeun kaputusan ka Kongrés sarta ngutamakeun kompromi wilayah batan tindakan éksékutif anu agrésif.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=256–258}} Biantarana ogé nekenkeun pentingna nuturkeun [[Doktrin Washington ngeunaan Aliansi Teu Stabil|tuladan Présidén Washington kanggé nyingkahan aliansi anu ngabeungkeut]].{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=94–95}} Salami période saatos pelantikanana, Taylor nyayogikeun waktos kanggé pendak sareng seueur jalma anu milari jabatan sarta warga biasa sanésna anu hoyong nampi perhatianana. Anjeunna ogé ngiringan sajumlah upacara pamakaman anu teu biasa seueurna, kalebet kanggé Polk sarta [[Dolley Madison]]. Numutkeun Eisenhower, Taylor nyiptakeun istilah "[[Ibu Nagara Amérika Sarikat|First Lady]]" dina biantara pangéling-ngélingna kanggé Madison.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=96–97}} Dina usum panas 1849, Taylor ngayakeun lalampahan ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér-Wétan]] kanggé mikawanoh wilayah anu sateuacanna jarang ditingali ku anjeunna. Sabagéan ageung lalampahanana kaganggu ku panyakit pencernaan sarta anjeunna nembé mulang ka Washington dina sasih Séptémber.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=268–270}} === Krisis wilayah === [[File:Zachary Taylor 12th US President.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Daguerreotype]] Taylor ku [[Mathew Brady]], 1849]] Nalika Taylor ngamimitian jabatanna, Kongrés nyanghareupan rupa-rupa patarosan patali [[Cessi Méksiko]], wilayah anu dicandak ku AS saatos Perang Méksiko sarta dibagi janten distrik-distrik militer. Harita can écés distrik mana anu bakal dijantenkeun nagara bagian sarta mana anu bakal janten téritori fédéral, samentara patarosan ngeunaan status perbudakan di ditu ngancam bakal ngabagi Kongrés kalayan parna. Urang Kidul nolak pangakuana [[Sajarah California|Téritori California]], [[Téritori New Mexico]], sarta [[Téritori Utah]] ka jero Uni salaku [[Nagara bagian bébas sarta nagara bagian budak|nagara bagian bébas]] sanajan kamekaran démografi sarta ékonomi California kacida gancangna. Salian ti éta, urang Kidul beuki ambek alatan bantuan anu dibikeun ku urang Kalér ka [[budak belian anu kabur]] saatos kaputusan ''[[Prigg v. Pennsylvania]]'' ngidinan [[pangudag budak]] kanggé néwak jalma anu dituduh budak kabur di nagara bagian bébas, sarta otoritas Kalér sering nolak ngalaksanakeun [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1793]]. Dina waktos anu sami, urang Kalér nungtut panyabutan [[perdagangan budak doméstik]] di Washington, D.C. Akhirna, Téxas ngaku sabagéan wilayah New Mexico wétan sarta ngancam bakal ngirim [[Milisi Téxas|milisi nagara bagianna]] kanggé maksakeun klaim téritorialna sacara militer.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=101–102}} Sanajan anjeunna sorangan saurang nu gaduh budak ti Kidul, Taylor percaya yén perbudakan sacara ékonomi henteu meujeuhna dilaksanakeun di Cessi Méksiko, sahingga anjeunna nentang perbudakan di téritori éta salaku sumber kontrovérsi anu teu perlu.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=101–102}} Tujuan utamana nyaéta katengtreman antar-wilayah sarta ngajaga Uni ngalalui kompromi législatif.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=289–290}} Nalika ancaman sésési (misahkeun diri) ti Kidul ningkat, anjeunna beuki milih pihak ka urang Kalér anu anti-perbudakan sapertos Sénator [[William H. Seward]] ti New York, malah nyarankeun yén anjeunna bakal nandatanganan [[Proviso Wilmot]] kanggé nyaram perbudakan di téritori fédéral upami RUU éta dugi ka méjana.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=295–298}} Dina pandangan Taylor, cara pangsaéna kanggé maju nyaéta ngaku California salaku nagara bagian batan téritori fédéral, margi hal éta bakal ngaleupaskeun masalah perbudakan tina panangan Kongrés. Waktos kanggé janten nagara bagian keur nguntungkeun Taylor, margi [[Demam Emas California]] nuju lumangsung nalika pelantikanana, sarta populasi California nuju ngabeledug.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=290–291}} Administrasina ngintun Perwakilan [[Thomas Butler King]] ka California kanggé mariksa kaayaan sarta ngarojong pangadegan nagara bagian, terang yén urang California pasti bakal ngadopsi konstitusi anti-perbudakan. King mendakan yén [[Konvénsi Konstitusional California]] parantos lumangsung, sarta dina Oktober 1849, konvénsi éta sapuk sacara buleud kanggé ngagabung ka Uni—sarta nyaram perbudakan di jero watesna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=291–292}} [[File:United States 1849-1850.png|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Nagara bagian (wates Téxas can anggeus, California ditarima taun 1850) sarta téritori Amérika Sarikat salami mangsa jabatan Taylor]] Masalah wates New Mexico–Téxas tacan réngsé nalika pelantikan Taylor. Téritori anu nembé dimeunangkeun ti Méksiko aya di handapeun yurisdiksi fédéral, nanging urang Téxas ngaku lahan lega di kalér [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] sarta teguh hayang ngasupkeunana ka jero watesna, sanajan teu gaduh ayana anu signifikan di ditu. Taylor milih mihak ka klaim New Mexico, mimitina ngadorong kanggé tetep janten téritori fédéral, nanging tungtungna ngarojong pangadegan nagara bagian supados tiasa ngirangan perdebatan perbudakan di Kongrés. Pamaréntah Téxas, di handapeun gubernur anyar [[P. Hansborough Bell]], narékahan kanggé ningkatkeun tindakan militer kanggé mertahankeun téritori éta ngalawan pamaréntah fédéral, nanging henteu hasil.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=292–294}} Para pamukim [[Latter Day Saint]] (Mormon) di Utah ayeuna parantos ngadegkeun hiji [[Nagara bagian Deseret]] samentara, hiji wilayah anu kacida legana anu sakedik harepanana kanggé diakuan ku Kongrés. Administrasi Taylor nimbang-nimbang kanggé ngahijikeun téritori California sarta Utah, nanging tungtungna milih kanggé ngatur [[Téritori Utah]]. Kanggé ngurangan kahariwang urang Mormon ngeunaan kabébasan ageman, Taylor jangji yén maranéhna bakal miboga kamerdékaan relatif ti Kongrés sanajan janten téritori fédéral.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=294}} Taylor ngirim hiji-hijina [[Biantara Nagara Amérika Sarikat|laporan State of the Union]] ka Kongrés dina sasih Désémber 1849. Anjeunna ngarangkum kajadian internasional sarta ngusulkeun sababaraha panyaluyuan kana kawijakan tarif sarta organisasi éksékutif, nanging krisis wilayah anu disanghareupan ku Kongrés ngaleuwihan masalah-masalah éta. Anjeunna ngalaporkeun ngeunaan pamundut California sarta New Mexico kanggé janten nagara bagian, sarta nyarankeun supados Kongrés nyatujuanana sakumaha anu parantos disusun sarta "sakuduna nyingkahan bubuka topik-topik anu ngahudang amarah anu miboga sipat kawilayahan".{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=298–299}} Laporan kawijakanana miboga sipat lugas sarta henteu émosional, nanging ditutup ku kacindekan anu teges anu ngutuk para sésésionis (anu hoyong misahkeun diri). Hal ieu teu miboga pangaruh ka anggota législatif Kidul, anu nganggap pangadegan dua nagara bagian bébas salaku ancaman éksisténsial, sarta Kongrés tetep macét.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=299–300}} === Uransan luar nagara === {{Lajengkeun|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagara AS, 1829–1861}} [[File:President Taylor and his cabinet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Présidén Zachary Taylor nangtung di payuneun Kabinétna. Calik ti kénca: [[Reverdy Johnson]] (Jaksa Agung), [[William M. Meredith]] (Sekretaris Perbendaharaan), [[William B. Preston]] (Sekretaris Angkatan Laut), [[George W. Crawford]] (Sekretaris Perang), [[Jacob Collamer]] (Diréktur Jenderal Pos), [[Thomas Ewing]] (Sekretaris Dalam Negeri), sarta [[John M. Clayton]] (Sekretaris Nagara).]] Taylor sarta Sekretaris Nagarana, [[John M. Clayton]], duanana kurang miboga pangalaman diplomatik sarta mimiti ngajabat dina mangsa anu relatif tenang dina pulitik internasional Amérika. Sumangat nasionalisme anu sarua ngabalukarkeun Taylor masrahkeun urusan kawijakan luar nagara ka Clayton kalayan pangawasan anu minimal, sanajan taya kawijakan luar nagara anu kacida nangtukeunana anu dihasilkeun dina mangsa administrasi maranéhna.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=273–274, 288}} Salaku lawan ti tatanan Éropa anu otokratis, maranéhna sacara vokal ngarojong [[Révolusi Jérman 1848–1849|kaum liberal Jérman]] sarta [[Révolusi Hungaria 1848|Hungaria]] dina [[révolusi 1848]], sanajan teu méré bantuan naon-naon.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=274–275}} Aya anggapan panghinaan ti menteri Perancis [[Guillaume Tell Poussin]] ampir ngabalukarkeun pegatna hubungan diplomatik nepi ka Poussin diganti. Aya ogé sengkéta [[réparasi (hukum)|réparasi]] sareng Portugal anu ngabalukarkeun kaluar ucapan-ucapan teugas ti administrasi Taylor. Dina usaha anu leuwih positif, administrasina nyadiakeun dua kapal kanggé ngabantu Britania Raya milarian tim penjelajah Inggris anu dipingpin ku [[John Franklin]], anu leungit di Arktik.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=275–278}} Sanajan administrasi Whig sateuacanna nekenkeun perdagangan Pasifik salaku hal anu penting pisan sacara ékonomi, administrasi Taylor henteu nyandak inisiatif utama di Wétan Jauh.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=287–288}} Salami taun 1849 sarta 1850, maranéhna nyanghareupan [[Narciso López]], radikal [[Vénézuéla]] anu mingpin ékspédisi [[Filibuster (militer)|filibuster]] anu sababaraha kali dilakukeun kanggé nalukkeun [[Kapténsi Jenderal Kuba]] milik Spanyol. Anéksasi Kuba janten hal anu matak panasaran kanggé seueur urang Kidul, anu ningali Kuba salaku calon nagara bagian budak anu anyar, sarta López miboga sababaraha pangrojong penting ti urang Kidul.{{sfn|Eisenhower|2008|pp=113–114}} López nawarkeun imbalan anu gedé ka para pamingpin [[Angkatan Pakarang Amérika Sarikat]] kanggé ngarojong anjeunna, nanging Taylor sarta Clayton nganggap usaha éta téh haram. Maranéhna ngayakeun blokade, sarta saterusna, maréntahkeun penangkapan massal ka López sarta baladna, sanajan tungtungna grup éta dibébaskeun ku pangadilan.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=278–280}} Maranéhna ogé nyanghareupan Spanyol anu parantos néwak sababaraha urang Amérika kalayan tuduhan bajak laut, nanging urang Spanyol tungtungna masrahkeun maranéhna kanggé ngajaga hubungan hadé sareng AS.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=280–281}} Bisa dibilang préstasi utama administrasi Taylor dina kawijakan luar nagara nyaéta [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] taun 1850, ngeunaan rencana terusan antar-samudra ngalalui [[Amérika Tengah]]. Nalika AS sarta Britania nuju dina hubungan anu hadé, sarta pangwangunan terusan kitu téh masih mangpuluh-puluh taun deui kanggé janten kanyataan, kamungkinan éta waé parantos ngajantenkeun dua nagara ieu dina posisi anu teu genah.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=281}} Salami sababaraha taun, Britania parantos ngarebut titik-titik stratégis, utamana [[Basisir Mosquito]] dina basisir wétan [[Nikaragua]] ayeuna. Perundingan dilaksanakeun sareng Britania anu ngahasilkeun Traktat Clayton–Bulwer anu bersejarah. Kadua nagara sapuk kanggé henteu ngaku kadali kana terusan mana waé anu mungkin diwangun di Nikaragua. Traktat ieu ngadorong kamekaran aliansi Anglo-Amérika; réngséna traktat ieu mangrupa tindakan terakhir Taylor salaku présidén.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=281–287}} === Usaha kompromi sarta poé-poé pamungkas === [[File:Zachary Taylor at the White House daguerreotype by Mathew Brady 1849 (edited).jpg|thumb|upright|Daguerrotype Taylor ku [[Mathew Brady]], {{circa|1849}}]] Clay nyandak peran sentral nalika Kongrés debat ngeunaan perbudakan. Sanajan posisina rada sarua sareng Taylor, présidén tetep ngajaga jarak ti Clay. Para sajarawan béda pamadegan ngeunaan alesanana.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=301, 307–308}} Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun Taylor janten kasingkur sacara pulitik margi urang Kidul teu satuju kana pilihanana kanggé ngaku téritori Cessi Méksiko salaku nagara bagian bébas, samentara urang Kalér teu satuju kana panolakanana kana agenda législatif Clay. Akibatna, Kongrés beuki teu maliré ka Taylor nalika nyusun hiji kompromi. Sarta kalayan bantuan Daniel Webster, Clay nyusun usulan bersejarahna, nyaéta [[Kompromi 1850]]. Usulan éta ngidinan California janten nagara bagian, méré kamerdékaan dina masalah perbudakan, samentara téritori sanésna bakal tetep di handapeun yurisdiksi fédéral. Ieu kalebet bagian New Mexico anu dipaséakeun, sanajan Téxas bakal dibéré ganti rugi kanggé téritori éta.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=301}} Perbudakan bakal tetep diayakeun di Distrik Columbia, nanging perdagangan budak bakal dilarang. Samentara éta, [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur]] anu ketat bakal diberlakukeun, nyingkahan panerapan urang Kalér anu parantos ngawatesan urang Kidul kanggé nyandak deui budak anu kabur.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|page=301}} Tegangan ningkat nalika Kongrés ngayakeun rundingan sarta obrolan sésési (misahkeun diri) beuki tarik, anu puncanna ku ancaman ti Taylor kanggé ngirim pasukan ka New Mexico guna ngajaga watesna ti Téxas, kalayan anjeunna sorangan anu bakal mingpin tentarana. Krisis ieu beuki parna saatos para utusan di New Mexico ngusulkeun konstitusi nagara bagian anyar anu bakal nyaram perbudakan, sarta [[Peter Hansborough Bell]] meunang dina [[Pamilihan gubernur Téxas 1849]] kalayan jangji bakal maréntahkeun invasi milisi ka New Mexico. Para sénator Kidul nuduh Taylor sacara silih-simpen ngirim Tentara AS ka New Mexico; Taylor nolak tuduhan éta nanging nekenkeun yén anjeunna hayang pisan ngalakukeunana. Anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén saha waé anu "kacandak barontak ngalawan Uni, anjeunna bakal ngagantung ... kalayan sakedik rasa horéam batan nalika anjeunna ngagantung para desertir sarta mata-mata di Méksiko." RUU omnibus éta mangrupa léngkah maju anu gedé dina masalah-masalah ieu, nanging tungtungna teu tiasa disahkeun, alatan aya kelompok [[Pulitik radikal|radikal]] di kadua pihak sarta panolakan ti Taylor.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=301–312}} Dina titik ieu, Taylor mimiti nampi panolakan malah ti babaturan pulitikna sorangan. Sekretaris Perang Crawford ngingetkeun Taylor yén anjeunna moal nyatujuan panyebaran militer ka New Mexico, sanajan Taylor nyatakeun yén anjeunna bakal méré paréntah éta sorangan. Penaséhat caket Taylor, [[Robert Toombs]] sarta [[Alexander Stephens]], duanana urang [[Partéy Whig Kidul (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig Kidul]] anu engkéna janten pajabat dina pamaréntahan Konfédérasi, ngingetkeun anjeunna yén rétorika ngeunaan New Mexico bakal ngabalukarkeun urang Kidul kaluar ti partéy. Teu aya kompromi gedé anu dugi ka méja Taylor salami mangsa jabatanana; sabalikna, poé-poé terakhirna kageugeuy ku [[Skandal Galphin]]. Sateuacan gabung ka kabinét Taylor, Crawford kantos janten pengacara. Anjeunna kalibet dina kasus salami 15 taun, ngawakilan turunan saurang padagang kolonial anu jasana ka karajaan Britania tacan dibayar nalika Perang Révolusi Amérika. Hutang Britania ka George Galphin kedahna ditanggung ku pamaréntah fédéral, nanging ahli waris Galphin nembé nampi pamayaran poko hutang saatos mangtaun-taun litigasi, sarta henteu hasil kéngingkeun pamayaran bunga tina administrasi Polk.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=312–313}} [[William M. Meredith|Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Meredith]], kalayan rojongan ti Jaksa Agung Johnson, tungtungna nandatanganan pamayaran éta dina April 1850. Anu matak Taylor éra, pamayaran éta kalebet kompénsasi hukum ampir $100.000 kanggé Crawford; dua anggota kabinét parantos sacara éféktif masihan sajumlah ageung artos nagara ka anggota kabinét sanésna. Panalungtikan DPR nyatakeun Crawford henteu salah sacara hukum, nanging tetep nyatakeun teu satuju kana tindakanana nampi pamayaran éta. Taylor, anu parantos ngarencanakeun rombakan kabinétna, ayeuna miboga skandal anu beuki ngahesekeun kaayaan.{{sfn|Bauer|1985|pages=312–313}} Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat milih kanggé méré sénsur (tegoran keras) ka Taylor, sarta koran-koran ti kadua partéy mimiti nyuarakeun kanggé ngayakeun ''impeachment'' (pamécatan) ka anjeunna. Sésa-sésa jasadna diékshumasi (dikali deui) sarta dibawa ka Kantor Kapala Pamariksa Médis [[Kentucky]] dina 17 Juni 1991. Sampel buuk, kuku, sarta jaringan sanésna dicandak, sarta studi radiologi dilaksanakeun. Jasadna saterusna dipulangkeun deui ka makam sarta dimakamkeun deui kalayan penghormatan anu pantes di jero mausoleum.<ref name="Marriott"/> [[Analisis aktivasina neutron]] anu dilaksanakeun di [[Laboratorium Nasional Oak Ridge]] némbongkeun yén teu aya bukti karacunan, margi tingkat [[arsén]] dina jasadna ratusan kali langkung rendah batan anu diperyogikeun kanggé maéhan jalma.<ref name="Marriott">{{cite news|last=Marriott|first=Michel|title=Verdict In: 12th President Was Not Assassinated|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/06/27/us/verdict-in-12th-president-was-not-assassinated.html?ref=zacharytaylor17841850|access-date=October 17, 2011|date=June 27, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ORNL">{{cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev27-12/text/ansside6.html |title=President Zachary Taylor and the Laboratory: Presidential Visit from the Grave |publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory |access-date=November 2, 2010 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100728065612/http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev27-12/text/ansside6.html |date=July 28, 2010 }}</ref> Analisis éta nyimpulkeun yén Taylor parantos katarajang "cholera morbus, atanapi gastroenteritis akut", margi harita Washington miboga sistem solokan anu kabuka, sarta kadaharan atanapi inumanana mungkin parantos kacemar. Kasempetan kanggé pulih beuki ipis alatan tindakan para dokterna, anu ngubaran anjeunna nganggo "[[ipecac]], [[Merkuri(I) klorida|kalomél]], [[opium]], sarta [[kuinin]]" saloba 40 graine per dosis (kira-kira 2,6 gram), sarta ogé ngalakukeun métode "[[bekam|pendarahan (bleeding)]] sarta lepuh."<ref name="Sampas">{{cite news|last=Sampas|first=Jim|title=Scandal and the Heat Did Zachary Taylor In|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/07/04/opinion/l-scandal-and-the-heat-did-zachary-taylor-in-998691.html|access-date=October 17, 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 4, 1991}}</ref> Hiji tinjauan taun 2010 nyimpulkeun: "teu aya bukti definitif yén Taylor dipaéhan, nanging sigana ogé teu aya bukti definitif yén anjeunna henteu dipaéhan."<ref>{{cite book|last=Willard and Marion|title=Killing the President|year=2010|page=189}}</ref> == Reputasi sajarah sarta panginget-nginget == [[File:Zachary Taylor Grave.JPG|thumb|right|Mausoleum Taylor di [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] di Louisville, Kentucky]] Alatan mangsa jabatanna anu pondok, Taylor dianggap henteu méré pangaruh anu kuat kana jabatan présidén atanapi ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|MCIL}} Sababaraha sajarawan percaya yén anjeunna teuing kurang pangalaman dina dunya pulitik dina mangsa dimana para pajabat merlukeun hubungan caket sareng para operator pulitik.{{sfn|MCIL}} Sanajan miboga kakurangan, [[Traktat Clayton–Bulwer]] anu mangaruhan hubungan sareng Britania Raya di Amérika Tengah "diakuan salaku léngkah penting dina ngurangan komitmen nagara kana kawijakan [[Manifest Destiny]]."{{sfn|MCIL}} [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] umumna nempatkeun Taylor dina saparapat bagian panghandapna. Taylor mangrupa présidén terakhir anu [[Perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|gaduh budak belian]] nalika nuju ngajabat. Anjeunna mangrupa présidén katilu tina opat présidén Whig, anu terakhir nyaéta Fillmore, panerusna. Taylor ogé mangrupa présidén kadua anu pupus nalika nuju ngajabat, tiheula ku [[William Henry Harrison]], anu pupus salapan taun sateuacanna. Dina taun 1883, [[Pasamakmuran Kentucky]] nempatkeun monumén saluhur 50 suku anu luhurna aya patung Taylor saluyu ukuran asli caket makamna. Dina taun 1920-an, kulawarga Taylor ngamimitian usaha kanggé ngarobah lahan pamakaman kulawarga Taylor janten makam nasional. Pasamakmuran Kentucky nyumbangkeun dua kapling lahan di gigireunana kanggé proyék ieu, ngarobah makam kulawarga Taylor anu legana satengah héktar janten 16 héktar. Dina 5 Méi 1926, sésa-sésa jasad Taylor sarta pamajikanana (nu pupus taun 1852) dipindahkeun ka mausoleum Taylor anu nembé diwangun tina batu kapur kalayan dasar granit sarta interior marmer di caket dinya. Lahan pamakaman éta ditetepkeun salaku [[Makam Nasional Zachary Taylor]] ku [[Sekretaris Perang]] [[Dwight F. Davis]] dina 12 Maret 1928. [[Departemén Kantor Pos AS]] ngaluarkeun [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina perangko AS|perangko munggaran kanggé ngahormatan Taylor]] dina 21 Juni 1875, 25 taun saatos pupusna. Dina taun 1938, Taylor némbongan deui dina perangko AS, waktos ieu dina [[Edisi Présidén 1938]] harga 12 sén. Penampilan terakhirna (dugi ka taun 2010) dina perangko AS lumangsung dina taun 1986, nalika anjeunna dihormat dina édisi présidén AMERIPEX. Saatos Washington, Jefferson, Jackson sarta Lincoln, Taylor mangrupa présidén Amérika kalima anu némbongan dina perangko AS. Lagu pelaut ([[sea shanty]]) "General Taylor" nyaritakeun ngeunaan kameunangan Taylor dina [[Patempuran Buena Vista]] salami Perang Méksiko-Amérika. Lagu ieu parantos dirékam ku grup sapertos [[Steeleye Span]] dina album ''[[Ten Man Mop, or Mr. Reservoir Butler Rides Again]]''; [[Fairport Convention]] dina ''[[The Bonny Bunch of Roses (album)|The Bonny Bunch of Roses]]''; [[Great Big Sea]] dina ''[[Play (Great Big Sea album)|Play]]''; sarta [[The Longest Johns]] dina ''Between Wind and Water''. === Sajarah pulitik sarta militer === * Birkner, Michael J. "Zachary Taylor in Office: Clay, the Whig Party, and the Sectional Crisis". dina ''A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861'' (2014): 291–308. * {{cite book |first1= David M. |last1= Kennedy |first2= Thomas Andrew |last2= Bailey |first3= Lizabeth |last3= Cohen |name-list-style= amp |year= 2006 |title= The American Pageant |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618958962 |location= Boston |publisher= Houghton Mifflin |isbn= 0618479279 |edition= 13th |oclc= 846067545 }} * {{cite book |last=Dyer |first=Brainerd |title=Zachary Taylor |url=https://archive.org/details/technicolortimem0000harr_u6k5 |url-access=registration |series=Southern Biography series |publisher=[[Louisiana State University Press]] |year=1946 }} * {{cite book |last=Holt |first=Michael F |title=The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofameric0000holt |year=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-505544-3 |ref=Holt}} * Lewis, Felice Flanery. ''Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor's Mexican War Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders,'' (2010). * {{cite book |last=Lossing |first=Benson J |title=The American nation: its executive, legislative, political, financial, judicial and industrial history |url=https://archive.org/details/amnationexec01clevrich |year=1888 |publisher=Williams Publishing Co. |ref=Lossing }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Elbert B. |title=The Presidencies of Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore |url=https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofza0000smit |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-7006-0362-6}} == Bacaan salajengna == === Umum === * {{cite journal|first=Stephen|last=Currie|title=Zachary Taylor, Plantation Owner|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_civil-war-history_1984-05_30_2/page/144|journal=Civil War History|year=1984|pages=144–156|volume=30|number=2}} * {{cite book |last1=McKinley |first1=Silas B. |last2=Bent |first2=Silas |title=Old Rough and Ready: The Life and Times of Zachary Taylor |url=https://archive.org/details/oldroughreadyzac0000mcki |location=New York |publisher=[[Vanguard Press]] |year=1946}} * {{cite book |last=Silbey |first=Joel H. |title=Party Over Section: The Rough and Ready Presidential Election of 1848 |url=https://archive.org/details/partyoversection0000silb |year=2009 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]]}} === Genealogis (Silsilah) === * {{cite book |title=The Brewster Genealogy, 1566–1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/brewstergenealog01jone |last=Jones |first=Emma C. Brewster |location=New York |publisher=Grafton Press |year=1908}} * {{cite book |last1=Otto |first1=Julie Helen |last2=Roberts |first2=Gary Boyd |year=1995 |title=Ancestors of American Presidents |publisher=New England Historic Genealogical Society}} == Tumbu luar == {{wikisource|works=or}} {{wikiquote}} {{Commons}} * [https://millercenter.org/president/taylor Zachary Taylor] ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] di [[Universitas Virginia]]. * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/taylor/index.html Zachary Taylor: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress). * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Zachary Taylor |birth=1784 |death=1850}} * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?123944-1/life-portrait-zachary-taylor "Life Portrait of Zachary Taylor"], ti [[C-SPAN]]. {{Zachary Taylor}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghargaan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-mil}} {{s-new|office}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Tentara Pandudukan (Méksiko)|Panglima Tentara Pandudukan]]|years=1845–1848}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Davenport (militer AS)|William Davenport]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]] kanggé Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|1848]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Winfield Scott]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James K. Polk]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1849–1850}} {{s-aft|after=[[Millard Fillmore]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Zachary Taylor| ]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1784]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1850]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Nasionalis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Tokoh Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat nu pupus nalika ngajabat]] [[Kategori:Jenderal Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Véteran Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] [[Kategori:Véteran Perang 1812]] la79lv4h5dvrk845wgz3ewhh1gw2ibd Franklin Pierce 0 107824 712403 711534 2026-08-28T22:46:27Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712403 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 300px; font-size: 90%;" |+ style="font-weight: bold; background: #ccddee; font-size: 110%; padding: 5px;" | Franklin Pierce |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;" | [[Gambar:Mathew Brady - Franklin Pierce - alternate crop (cropped)(2).jpg|250px]]<br/>''Franklin Pierce {{circa|1855–65}}'' |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-14 |- ! Masa jabatan | 4 Maret 1853 – 4 Maret 1857 |- ! Wakil Présidén | [[William R. King]] (1853)<br/>''Kosong'' (1853–1857) |- ! Ti payun | [[Millard Fillmore]] |- ! Ti pengker | [[James Buchanan]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | Inpormasi Pribadi |- ! Babar | 23 Nopémber 1804<br/>[[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]], A.S. |- ! Pupus | 8 Oktober 1869 (yuswa 64)<br/>[[Concord, New Hampshire]], A.S. |- ! Partéy pulitik | [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] |- ! Garwa | [[Jane Pierce|Jane Appleton]] (nikah 1834) |- ! Atikan | [[Bowdoin College]] |- ! Padamelan | Politikus, Ahli Hukum |- ! Tanda tangan | [[Gambar:Franklin Pierce Signature2.svg|120px]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background: #e7e7e7; text-align: center;" | Dinas Militer |- ! Kasasatoan | [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] |- ! Pangkat | [[Brigadir Jéndral]] |- ! Perang | [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] |} '''Franklin Pierce''' (ᮖᮢᮀᮊᮣᮤᮔ᮪ ᮕᮤᮈᮁᮞᮨ; 23 Nopémber 1804{{spnd}}8 Oktober 1869) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] anu ka-14, anu ngajabat ti taun 1853 dugi ka 1857. Anjeunna téh tokoh ti [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] ti wewengkon kalér anu gaduh kayakinan yén [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|gerakan abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) mangrupa ancaman utama pikeun persatuan nasional. Ku sabab anjeunna nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] sarta ngajalankeun [[Undang-undang Budak Buron]] (''Fugitive Slave Act''), anjeunna dikritik ku kelompok anti-perbudakan. Bangbaluh antawis Kalér sareng Kidul teras lumangsung sabada [[Masa présidén Franklin Pierce|masa jabatan Pierce]], sarta saatos [[Abraham Lincoln]] meunang dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860]], [[Nagara Konpéderasi Amérika|nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul misahkeun diri]] (séksési), anu ngabalukarkeun pecahna [[Perang Sipil Amérika]]. Pierce dibabarkeun di [[New Hampshire]]; ramana nyaéta gubernur nagara bagian [[Benjamin Pierce (gubernur)|Benjamin Pierce]]. Anjeunna ngajabat dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]] ti taun 1833 dugi ka kapilih janten anggota [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]], dimana anjeunna ngajabat ti taun 1837 dugi ka pangunduran dirina dina taun 1842. Karirna salaku ahli hukum swasta kawilang suksés, sarta anjeunna diangkat janten [[Jaksa Amérika Sarikat kanggé Distrik New Hampshire]] dina taun 1845. Pierce ogé milu aub dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] kalayan pangkat [[Brigadir jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]]. Partéy Démokrat ningal anjeunna salaku kandidat kompromi anu tiasa ngahijikeun kapentingan Kalér sareng Kidul, lajeng nyalonkeun anjeunna janten présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]]. Anjeunna sareng pasanganana, [[William R. King]], hasil ngéléhkeun pasangan ti [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]], nyaéta [[Winfield Scott]] sareng [[William Alexander Graham]], dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]]. Salaku présidén, Pierce nyobi nerapkeun standar nétral dina dunya birokrasi, nanging dina waktos anu sasarengan anjeunna ogé nyobian nyugemakeun rupa-rupa elemen Partéy Démokrat ku cara méré jabatan (patronase), hiji tarékah anu tétéla gagal sarta matak malik janten kangéwa ti anggota partéyna sorangan. Anjeunna téh tokoh ékspansionis ti [[Gerakan Young America|Young America]] anu nandatanganan [[Pameselan Gadsden]] kanggé mésér lahan ti Méksiko, sarta mingpin tarékah anu gagal pikeun ngarebut Kuba ti Spanyol. Anjeunna ogé nandatanganan pajangjian dagang sareng Britania sarta Jepang, bari kabinétna ngalakukeun réformasi departemén sarta ngaronjatkeun akuntabilitas; nanging, riribugan pulitik dina mangsa jabatanna ngalelepkeun éta kasuksésan. Popularitas anjeunna nyirorot pisan di nagara-nagara bagian Kalér saatos anjeunna ngadukung [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]], anu ngabatalkeun [[Kompromi Missouri]], sedengkeun warga bule di Kidul mah tetep ngadukung anjeunna. Bijilna éta undang-undang ngabalukarkeun [[Bleeding Kansas|konplik getih]] ngeunaan perluasan perbudakan di Amérika Kulon. Pamaréntahan Pierce beuki ruksak nalika sababaraha diplomatna ngaluarkeun [[Manifésto Ostend]] anu ménta anéksasi Kuba, hiji dokumén anu dikritik béak-béakan. Anjeunna ngarep-ngarep Démokrat bakal nyalonkeun deui anjeunna dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856]], nanging tarékahna téh gagal. Reputasi anjeunna di Kalér beuki ruksak nalika Perang Sipil Amérika jalaran anjeunna janten kritikus anu vokal ka Présidén Lincoln. Sanaos Pierce téh jalma anu dipikaresep sarta gampang campur gaul, kahirupan kulawargana mah kawilang beurat; tilu putrana pupus nuju aralit kénéh, sarta garwana, [[Jane Pierce]], nandangan panyakit sarta déprési méh sapanjang hirupna.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jeffrey W. |last=Coker |title=Presidents from Taylor Through Grant, 1849–1877: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bVCVFXG9mqkC&pg=PA54 |year=2002 |publisher=Greenwood |page=54 |isbn=978-0-3133-1551-0 |access-date=2026-02-12 }}</ref> Putra pamungkasna anu masih hirup pupus dina kacilakaan karéta api nalika kulawargana nuju dina perjalanan, sakedap sateuacan [[Pelantikan Franklin Pierce|pelantikan Pierce]]. Salaku jalma anu resep nginum alkohol méh sapanjang hirupna, Pierce pupus dina taun 1869 alatan [[sirosis]]. Jalaran dukunganna ka pihak Kidul, sarta kagagalanna dina ngajaga persatuan (Uni) dina mangsa riribugan, para sajarawan sareng sarjana umumna nempatkeun Pierce salaku salah sahiji [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|présidén anu panggoréngna]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2021 |title=Presidential Historians Survey 2021 |work=C-SPAN |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall |access-date=2026-02-12 }}</ref> sarta présidén anu paling sakedik diinget dina sajarah A.S.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Franklin Pierce, the tragic president |url=https://www.chieftain.com/story/opinion/2017/11/25/franklin-pierce-tragic-president/9241087007/ |access-date=2025-12-11 |website=Pueblo Chieftain }}</ref> == Kahirupan awal sareng kulawarga == === Mangsa budak sareng atikan === [[File:Pierce Homestead.jpg|jmpl|kénca|[[Franklin Pierce Homestead]] di [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]], tempat Pierce digedékeun, ayeuna janten [[National Historic Landmark|Titinggal Sajarah Nasional]].<ref name="homestead">{{cite web |url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |title=Pierce, Franklin, Homestead |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=2014-06-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309001459/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |archive-date=2015-03-09 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309001459/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=29&ResourceType=Building |date=2015-03-09 }}</ref> Anjeunna dibabarkeun di hiji [[saung log|imah panggung (log cabin)]] deukeut dinya nalika imahna nuju diréngsékeun.{{refn|group=note|Sababaraha catetan lokal nyebutkeun yén anjeunna dibabarkeun di Homestead. Nanging, [[National Register of Historic Places]] nyebutkeun yén imah panggung (log cabin) mangrupa tempat babar anu leuwih luyu,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/66000027_text |title=Nomination Form: Franklin Pierce |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |page=8 |date=1976 |access-date=2014-06-29 }}</ref> sarta sajarawan Peter A. Wallner negeskeun yén hal ieu téh bener pisan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=3}}</ref>}}]] Franklin Pierce dibabarkeun dina kaping 23 Nopémber 1804, di hiji [[saung log|imah panggung (log cabin)]] di [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire]]. Anjeunna mangrupa turunan kagenep ti Thomas Pierce, anu pindah ka [[Koloni Teluk Massachusetts]] ti [[Norwich, Norfolk]], Inggris, kira-kira dina taun 1634. Ramana, [[Benjamin Pierce (gubernur)|Benjamin]], mangrupa saurang léptnan dina [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]] anu pindah ti [[Chelmsford, Massachusetts]], ka Hillsborough saatos perang, kalayan mésér lahan saluas 50 ékar (20 héktar). Pierce mangrupa putra kalima ti dalapan duduluran anu lahir ti Benjamin sareng garwa kaduana, Anna Kendrick; garwa kahijina, Elizabeth Andrews, pupus nalika ngalahirkeun sarta ninggalkeun saurang putri. Benjamin téh saurang tokoh penting ti [[Partéy Démokratik-Républik|Partéy Démokrat-Républik]], anggota législatif nagara bagian, patani, sarta nu gaduh kedai (tavern). Nalika Pierce masih budak, ramana aub pisan dina pulitik nagara bagian, sedengkeun dua lanceukna perang dina [[Perang 1812]]; ku kituna, urusan publik sarta militér méré pangaruh anu kacida gedéna dina awal kahirupanana.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=1–8}}</ref> Ramana nempatkeun Pierce di hiji sakola di Hillsborough Center nalika keur leutik, sarta ngirim anjeunna ka sakola kota di [[Hancock, New Hampshire|Hancock]] nalika yuswana 12 taun.{{refn|group=note|Gedong sakola dua tingkat éta kahuruan sababaraha taun saatosna, sarta Hancock Academy diadegkeun dina taun 1836 kanggé ngagentosna.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hurd |first1=D. Hamilton |title=History of Hillsborough County, New Hampshire |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofhillsbo00hurdd |date=1885 |publisher=J.W. Lewis & Co. |location=Philadelphia |page=350}}</ref>}} Kusabab teu pati resep sakola, Pierce ngarasa sono ka bumi (''homesick'') sarta leumpang sajauh 12 mil (19 km) balik ka bumina dina hiji poé Minggu. Ramana masihan tuang siang, nanging saatosna anjeunna dijajapkeun nganggo kareta ngan satengah jalan, lajeng dipiwarang leumpang sésana di tengah hujan dordar gelap. Pierce di hareupna nyebutkeun yén ieu kajadian téh mangrupa "titik balik dina hirup kuring".<ref name="turning">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=10–15}}</ref> Dina taun éta kénéh, anjeunna pindah ka [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] kanggé nyiapkeun diri asup kuliah. Harita, anjeunna tos kawéntar salaku murid anu pikaresepeun, nanging sakali-kali sok bangor.<ref name="turning"/> [[File:Nathaniel Hawthorne.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.85|Pangarang novél [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], sobat dalit Pierce sapanjang hirupna, nyerat biografi ''Life of Franklin Pierce'' kanggé ngarojong kampanye présidén Pierce taun 1852.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=35–36}}</ref>]] Dina usum gugur taun 1820, Pierce asup ka [[Bowdoin College]] di [[Brunswick, Maine]], salah saurang ti 19 mahasiswa anyar. Anjeunna gabung sareng Athenian Society, hiji pakumpulan sastra progresif, babarengan sareng [[Jonathan Cilley]] (nu engkéna kapilih janten anggota Kongrés) sarta [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], anu janten sobat dalitna sapanjang hirup. Dina dua taun munggaran, peunteun Pierce téh panghandapna di kelasna, nanging anjeunna soson-soson ngalereskeun peunteunna dugi ka tiasa lulus di peringkat kalima dina taun 1824<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=16–21}}</ref> ti 14 lulusan.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=229}}</ref> [[John P. Hale]] asup ka Bowdoin nalika Pierce nuju di tingkat tilu; anjeunna janten batur sapancakaki dina pulitik, nanging engkéna janten saingan utama. Nalika di tingkat tilu, Pierce ngadegkeun sarta mingpin hiji unit milisi teu resmi anu dingaranan "Bowdoin Cadets", anu anggotana kalebet Cilley sareng Hawthorne. Ieu unit sok ngayakeun latihan baris-berbaris di kampus deukeut imah réktor, dugi ka kaributanna matak réktor ménta éta kagiatan dieureunkeun. Para mahasiswa barontak sarta ngayakeun mogok (''strike''), hiji kajadian dimana Pierce disangka janten pamingpinna.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wallner |first=Peter A. |date=Spring 2005 |title=Franklin Pierce and Bowdoin College Associates Hawthorne and Hale |url=https://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |journal=Historical New Hampshire |publisher=New Hampshire Historical Society |page=24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817151324/http://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |archive-date=2015-08-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817151324/http://www.nhhistory.org/publications/Revealing_RelationShips_Franklin_Pierce.pdf |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref> Dina taun pamungkasna di Bowdoin, anjeunna méakkeun sababaraha bulan ngajar di [[Hebron Academy]] di padésaan [[Hebron, Maine]], dimana anjeunna kenging gajih munggaranana; salah sahiji muridna nyaéta [[John J. Perry]], anu engkéna janten anggota Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Waterman |first=Charles E. |date=March 7, 1918 |title=The Red Schoolhouse in Action |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzc6AQAAMAAJ |journal=The Journal of Education |volume=87–88 |issue=10 |page=265 }}</ref> Pierce [[diajar hukum]] sakedap sareng tilas Gubernur New Hampshire, [[Levi Woodbury]], anu mangrupa sobat kulawargana di [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=230}}</ref> Saatos éta, anjeunna méakkeun saseméster di [[Sakola Hukum Northampton]] di [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], lajeng diteraskeun ku mangsa diajar dina taun 1826 sareng 1827 di handapeun Hakim Edmund Parker di [[Amherst, New Hampshire]]. Anjeunna resmi janten pengacara (''admitted to the bar'') di New Hampshire dina ahir taun 1827 sarta mimiti muka prakték hukum di Hillsborough.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=28–32}}</ref> Sanaos anjeunna kawon dina kasus munggaranana, Pierce tétéla sanggup ngabuktikeun kamampuhna salaku pengacara. Sanajan anjeunna sanés saurang sarjana hukum anu jero élmuna, kamampuhna dina nginget nami sarta raray jalma kacida ngabantuna, kitu ogé ku ayana sipatna anu pikaresepeun sarta sorana anu beurat (bass).<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=258}}</ref> Di Hillsborough, batur sapraktekna nyaéta Albert Baker, anu kantos diajar hukum ka Pierce sarta mangrupa lanceuk ti [[Mary Baker Eddy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=56}}</ref> === Hillsborough sareng pulitik nagara bagian === Dina taun 1824, New Hampshire janten puseur riribugan partéy, kalayan inohong sapertos Woodbury sareng [[Isaac Hill]] anu neundeun dasar kanggé Partéy Démokrat pikeun ngadukung Jéndral [[Andrew Jackson]]. Aranjeunna nentang kelompok [[Partéy Péderalis|Péderalis]] (sareng panerusna, [[Partéy Républik Nasional]]), anu dipingpin ku Présidén [[John Quincy Adams]]. Hasil gawé Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire mimiti katingal dina Maret 1827, nalika calon anu pro-Jackson, Benjamin Pierce, kenging pangrojong ti faksi pro-Adams sarta kapilih janten gubernur New Hampshire tanpa aya lawan anu hartosna. Nalika Pierce ngora nuju ngawangun karirna salaku pengacara, anjeunna mimiti kabetot kana dunya pulitik nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828]] antawis Adams sareng Jackson beuki deukeut. Dina pamilihan nagara bagian Maret 1828, faksi Adams narik deui pangrojongna ka Benjamin Pierce sahingga anjeunna éléh jabatan,{{refn|group=note|Gubernur New Hampshire harita mah kapilihna unggal taun; tingali ogé [[Daptar gubernur New Hampshire]].}} nanging Franklin Pierce sorangan hasil meunang dina pamilihan munggaranana, nyaéta jabatan sataun salaku moderator [[Rapat kota|rapat kota]] (''town meeting moderator'') di Hillsborough, hiji jabatan anu dicepeng ku anjeunna dugi ka genep kali berturut-turut.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=28–33}}</ref> Pierce aktip ngayakeun kampanye di distrikna kanggé ngadukung Jackson, anu tétéla unggul di distrik kasebut sarta di tingkat nasional kalayan sora anu kacida loba dina pamilihan Nopémber 1828, sanaos Jackson [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1828 di New Hampshire|kawon di New Hampshire]]. Ieu hasil beuki nguatkeun Partéy Démokrat, sarta Pierce kenging korsi législatif munggaranana dina taun saterusna, ngawakilan Hillsborough dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat New Hampshire]]. Ramana Pierce ogé kapilih deui janten gubernur, lajeng pangsiun saatos masa jabatan éta réngsé. Pierce ngora diangkat janten pupuhu Komisi Atikan Déwan dina taun 1829 sarta Komisi Kasundaan (''Committee on Towns'') dina taun saterusna. Dina taun 1831, Partéy Démokrat kenging mayoritas di législatif, sarta Pierce kapilih janten Spéker (Pupuhu) Déwan. Spéker ngora ieu ngagunakeun jabatanna kanggé nentang perluasan perbankan, ngajaga milisi nagara bagian, sarta méré pangrojong ka Partéy Démokrat nasional sarta tarékah kapilihna deui Jackson. Dina yuswa 27 taun, anjeunna parantos janten "béntang" dina Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire. Sanaos parantos kenging kasuksésan pulitik sarta profésional di yuswa ngora, dina serat-serat pribadina anjeunna tetep ngarasa sedih jalaran masih kénéh nyalira (léléngkan/bujangan) sarta mikahayang kahirupan anu langkung lega saluareun Hillsborough.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=33–43}}</ref> Sakumaha sakumna lalaki bule di New Hampshire anu yuswana antawis 18 dugi ka 45 taun, Pierce téh mangrupa anggota [[Milisi Nagara Bagian New Hampshire|milisi nagara bagian]], sarta diangkat janten [[aide-de-camp]] (ajudan) kanggé Gubernur [[Samuel Dinsmoor]] dina taun 1831. Anjeunna tetep janten anggota milisi dugi ka taun 1847, sarta kenging pangkat [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] sateuacan engkéna janten [[Brigadir Jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]] dina [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] nalika [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]].<ref>John Farmer, G. Parker Lyon, éditor, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0JEBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA53 The New-Hampshire Annual Register, and United States Calendar], 1832, p. 53.</ref><ref>Brian Matthew Jordan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YJULQZ47IBYC&pg=PA31 Triumphant Mourner: The Tragic Dimension of Franklin Pierce], 2003, p. 31.</ref> Pierce kacida kabetotna kana tarékah ngahirupkeun deui sarta ngoméan (réformasi) milisi nagara bagian anu parantos lami teu aktip saatos [[Perang 1812]]. Kanggé ngawujudkeun hal éta, Pierce gawé bareng sareng [[Alden Partridge]], réktor [[Norwich University]] (hiji akadémis militer di [[Vermont]]), sarta [[Truman B. Ransom]] sareng [[Alonzo Jackman]] anu mangrupa dosén Norwich sakaligus perwira milisi. Aranjeunna babarengan ngaronjatkeun tarékah rékrutmen sarta ngaronjatkeun kualitas latihan sarta kasiapsiagaan pasukan.<ref>{{cite book |last= Betros |first= Lance |date= 2004 |title= West Point: Two Centuries and Beyond |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sp7bAAAAMAAJ&q=%22militia+in+the+field%22 |publisher= McWhiney Foundation Press |page= 155 |isbn= 978-1-893114-47-0 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Ellis |first= William Arba |date= 1911 |title= Norwich University, 1819–1911; Her History, Her Graduates, Her Roll of Honor, Volume 1 |url= https://archive.org/details/norwichuniversi00dodggoog |publisher= Capital City Press |pages= 87, 99 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref> Pierce ngajabat salaku wali amanat (''trustee'') Norwich University ti taun 1841 dugi ka 1859, sarta nampi [[Gelar kahormatan|gelar doktor kahormatan]] ([[Legum Doctor|LL.D.]]) ti Norwich dina taun 1853.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ellis |first= William Arba |date= 1911 |title= Norwich University, 1819–1911; Her History, Her Graduates, Her Roll of Honor, Volume 2 |url= https://archive.org/details/norwichuniversit02elli |publisher= Capital City Press |pages= 14–16 |access-date= 2014-08-30 }}</ref> Dina ahir taun 1832, konvénsi Partéy Démokrat nyalonkeun Pierce kanggé salah sahiji ti lima korsi New Hampshire dina [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]]. Pencalonan ieu téh [[sarua jeung meunang]] (''tantamount to election'') kanggé ieu Démokrat ngora, jalaran kakuatan Partéy Républik Nasional parantos nyirorot, sedengkeun [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Whig]] tacan mimiti narik loba pangrojong. Kakuatan Démokrat di New Hampshire ogé beuki kuat ku ayana [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|kameunangan mutlak Jackson dina taun éta]].<ref name="w44plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=44–47}}</ref> New Hampshire anu tadina mangrupa nagara bagian anu kurang diperhitungkeun sacara pulitik, ti mimiti taun 1832 dugi ka pertengahan 1850-an janten nagara bagian anu paling satia ka Démokrat di [[Amérika Sarikat Kalér]], anu satuluyna ngangkat karir pulitik Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=273–300}}</ref> Masa jabatan Pierce dimimitian dina Maret 1833, nanging anjeunna nembé disumpah nalika Kongrés ngayakeun sidang dina sasih Désémber, sahingga perhatianana harita mah nuju ka sanés tempat. Anjeunna nembé pisan papacangan sarta mésér bumi munggaranana di Hillsborough. Franklin sareng Benjamin Pierce mangrupa sababaraha tokoh penting anu ngabagéakeun Présidén Jackson nalika anjeunna nganjang ka éta nagara bagian dina pertengahan taun 1833.<ref name="w44plus" /> === Pernikahan sareng putra-putra === [[File:Jane Means Appleton Pierce first lady of the USA.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.85|Salaku jalma anu alim sarta resep nyorangan, [[Jane Pierce]] téh sabalikna pisan tina sipat carogéna dina rupa-rupa hal.<ref name="jane">{{harvnb |Wallner|2004 | pp = 31–32, 77–78}}</ref><ref name="jane2">{{harvnb |Gara|1991 | pp = 31–32}}</ref><ref name="jane3">{{cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |title=Franklin Pierce: Life Before the Presidency |work=American President: An Online Reference Resource |publisher=University of Virginia |access-date=2019-01-16 |first=Jean H. |last=Baker |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217140649/http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |archive-date=2010-12-17 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217140649/http://millercenter.org/president/pierce/essays/biography/2 |date=2010-12-17 }}</ref>]] Dina kaping 19 Nopémber 1834, Pierce nikah sareng [[Jane Pierce|Jane Means Appleton]], putra ti pendéta [[Géréja Kongrégasional|Kongrégasional]] [[Jesse Appleton]] sareng Elizabeth Means. Kulawarga Appleton téh inohong [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Whig]], kontras pisan sareng kulawarga Pierce anu satia ka Démokrat. Jane Pierce téh saurang anu éraan, kacida taatna kana ageman, sarta ngadukung [[gerakan temperance]] (anti-alkohol); anjeunna sering ngajurung Pierce supados lirén nginum alkohol. Jane perawakanna rada kuru (langsir), sarta remen gering alatan [[tuberkulosis]] sarta gangguan psikologis. Anjeunna kacida mikangéwa dunya pulitik, utamana teu resep ka Washington, D.C., anu satuluyna nyiptakeun tegangan sapanjang karir pulitik Pierce.<ref name="jane" /><ref name="jane2" /><ref name="jane3" /> Jane Pierce ogé teu resep cicing di Hillsborough, sahingga dina taun 1838, kulawarga Pierce pindah ka puseur dayeuh nagara bagian, nyaéta [[Concord, New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=79–80}}</ref> Aranjeunna gaduh tilu putra, nanging sadayana pupus nalika nuju alit kénéh. Franklin Jr. (2–5 Pébruari 1836) pupus nalika orok kénéh, sedengkeun Frank Robert (27 Agustus 1839 – 14 Nopémber 1843) pupus dina yuswa opat taun alatan [[tipus épidémik]]. Benjamin (13 April 1841 – 6 Januari 1853) pupus dina yuswa 11 taun alatan [[Kacilakaan karéta api Franklin Pierce|kacilakaan karéta api]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=241–244}}</ref> Nalika anggota DPR [[James Henry Hammond]] ti Carolina Kidul narékahan pikeun nyegah surat panyambat (petisi) anti-perbudakan supados teu asup ka sidang Déwan, Pierce mah sabalikna, anjeunna mihak ka hak para abolisionis pikeun ngintunkeun petisi. Sanajan kitu, Pierce ogé ngadukung aturan anu engkéna kawéntar salaku [[Aturan 21|aturan panyumpet]] (''gag rule''), anu ngidinan petisi kasebut ditarima, nanging teu meunang dibaca atanapi dipertimbangkeun. Ieu aturan ditarima ku Déwan dina taun 1836.<ref name="wallner-i-57-59">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=57–59}}</ref> Anjeunna ditarajang ku surat kabar anti-perbudakan ti New Hampshire, ''Herald of Freedom'', sarta dilandi salaku saurang "**[[doughface]]**", hiji istilah anu mibanda dua harti: "lalaki anu borangan" sarta "urang Kalér anu boga simpatik ka urang Kidul".<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=59–61}}</ref> Pierce kantos nyatakeun yén ti 500 warga New Hampshire, moal aya saurang-urang acan anu janten abolisionis; artikel dina ''Herald of Freedom'' lajeng ngétang jumlah tanda tangan dina petisi ti éta nagara bagian, dibagi ku jumlah nu nyicingan dumasar kana sénsus 1830, sarta nyimpulkeun yén jumlah sabenerna mah nyaéta hiji ti unggal 33 jalma. Pierce kacida ambekna nalika Sénator Carolina Kidul, [[John C. Calhoun]], macakeun éta artikel dina sidang Sénat salaku "bukti" yén New Hampshire téh puseur abolisionisme. Calhoun tungtungna ménta hampura saatos Pierce ngawaler dina hiji biantara anu nyatakeun yén kalolobaan nu tanda tangan téh nyaéta kaum awéwé sareng barudak anu teu gaduh hak sora, sahingga angka hiji-tina-33 éta téh matak cangcaya.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=362–375}}</ref> === Sénat Amérika Sarikat === [[File:Franklin Pierce by Southworth & Hawes c1852.png|jmpl|kénca|Pierce dina taun 1852]] Pangunduran diri Sénator Isaac Hill dina sasih Méi 1836, jalaran anjeunna kapilih janten gubernur New Hampshire, nyababkeun ayana lowongan samentis dina Sénat anu kedah dieusi ku législatif nagara bagian. Kusabab masa jabatan Hill salaku sénator bakal réngsé dina Maret 1837, législatif ogé kedah milih jalma kanggé masa jabatan genep taun salajengna. Pencalonan Pierce kanggé Sénat dirojong ku anggota DPR nagara bagian, John P. Hale, réncangna di Athenian Society nalika di Bowdoin. Saatos debat anu panjang, législatif milih [[John Page (politikus New Hampshire)|John Page]] kanggé ngeusi sésa masa jabatan Hill. Dina Désémber 1836, Pierce kapilih kanggé masa jabatan pinuh anu dimimitian dina Maret 1837. Dina yuswa 32 taun, anjeunna harita janten salah sahiji anggota pangngorana dina sajarah Sénat. Ieu pamilihan téh sumping dina mangsa anu beurat kanggé Pierce, jalaran ramana, lanceukna, sarta adina nuju teu damang parna, sedengkeun garwana ogé teras-terasan nandangan kaséhatan anu buruk. Salaku sénator, anjeunna tiasa ngabantosan sobat lami na, Nathaniel Hawthorne, anu sering kasesek sacara ékonomi, ku cara mangnyiarankeun jabatan [[sinékur]] salaku pangukur batubara sareng uyah di Kantor Béa Cukai Boston, anu masihan waktos ka éta panulis pikeun neraskeun karyana.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=64–69}}</ref> Pierce milih luyu sareng garis partéy dina kalolobaan pasualan sarta janten sénator anu parigel, nanging sanés anu punjul pisan; anjeunna kéléhkeun ku wibawa "**[[Triumvirat Agung]]**" anu diwangun ku Calhoun, [[Henry Clay]], sareng [[Daniel Webster]], anu ngadominasi Sénat harita.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=68, 91–92}}</ref> Pierce asup ka Sénat dina mangsa krisis ékonomi, nalika [[Panik 1837]] dimimitian. Anjeunna nganggap yén déprési ieu téh mangrupa balukar tina kamekaran sistem perbankan anu gancang teuing, di tengah-tengah "kaleuwihan dina dagang sarta spékulasi anu liar".<ref name="w6972" /> Supados artos féderal henteu dianggo kanggé ngarojong injeuman bank anu spékulatif, anjeunna ngadukung présidén Démokrat anu nembé kapilih, [[Martin Van Buren]], sarta rencanana kanggé ngadegkeun [[Perbendaharaan Indepénden|perbendaharaan indepénden]], hiji usulan anu méré sela (pepecahan) dina Partéy Démokrat. Debat ngeunaan perbudakan teras lumangsung di Kongrés, sarta para abolisionis ngusulkeun supados perbudakan dilarang di Distrik Columbia, di mana Kongrés gaduh wewenang hukum. Pierce ngadukung résolusi ti Calhoun anu nentang ieu usulan, anu dianggap ku Pierce salaku léngkah bahaya anu tiasa nungtun kana émansipasi (pambébasan budak) di sakuliah nagara.<ref name="w6972">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=69–72}}</ref> Samentis éta, kakuatan Partéy Whig di Kongrés beuki nguat, anu nyababkeun partéy Pierce ngan ukur gaduh mayoritas leutik dina ahir dékadé éta.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=80}}</ref> Salah sahiji jejer anu kacida pentingna kanggé Pierce nyaéta widang militér. Anjeunna méré perhatian husus kana tunjangan (pansiun) militér, jalaran ningal lobana prakték curang (panylewengan) dina éta sistem. Satuluyna, anjeunna diangkat janten pupuhu Komisi Sénat ngeunaan Pansiun Militér dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-26]] (1839–1841). Dina jabatanna, anjeunna ngadesek ayana modérenisasi sarta perluasan Angkatan Darat, kalayan pokus kana milisi sarta mobilitas pasukan tinimbang ngawangun benténg-benténg di basisir anu dianggapna parantos katinggaleun jaman.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=78–84}}</ref> Pierce ngayakeun kampanye anu kacida sumangetna di nagara bagian asalna kanggé ngarojong kapilihna deui Van Buren dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1840]]. Van Buren mémang unggul di New Hampshire, nanging kawon dina pamilihan nasional ku kandidat ti Partéy Whig, nyaéta pahlawan militér [[William Henry Harrison]]. Partéy Whig hasil kenging mayoritas korsi dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-27]]. Harrison pupus saatos sabulan ngajabat, sarta Wakil Présidén [[John Tyler]] ngagentos anjeunna. Pierce sareng para Démokrat langsung nangtang pamaréntahan énggal kasebut, ku cara marios panyabutan jabatan para pajabat féderal sarta nentang rencana Whig kanggé ngadegkeun bank nasional. Dina Désémber 1841, Pierce mutuskeun pikeun mundur tina Kongrés, hiji hal anu tos dirancanakeun ku anjeunna ti sateuacanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=84–90}}</ref> Para Démokrat di New Hampshire negeskeun yén sénator A.S. ti nagara bagianna kedah diwatesanan mung sataun masa jabatan (genep taun), sahingga Pierce alit kamungkinanana kanggé kapilih deui. Salian ti éta, anjeunna ogé ngarasa frustasi janten anggota minoritas di législatif sarta hoyong nyéépkeun waktosna kanggé kulawarga sarta prakték hukum.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=419}}</ref> Tindakan terakhirna di Sénat dina Pébruari 1842 nyaéta nentang undang-undang distribusi dana féderal ka nagara-nagara bagian—jalaran anjeunna yakin yén éta artos langkung saé dialokasikeun kanggé militér—sarta nangtang Partéy Whig supados muka hasil panalungtikanana ngeunaan Kantor Béa Cukai New York, di mana Whig parantos marios dugaan korupsi Démokrat salami méh sataun nanging teu mendakan bukti nanaon.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=91–92}}</ref> == Pamimpin partéy == === Ahli hukum sareng politikus === [[File:Piercemanse.JPG|jmpl|upright=1.1|Imah di [[Concord, New Hampshire]] tempat Pierce matuh ti taun 1842 dugi ka 1848; ayeuna kawéntar salaku [[Pierce Manse]], ieu gedong parantos dirénovasi dina taun 1970-an sarta dijagi salaku objék wisata sajarah.<ref name="manse">{{cite web |url=http://www.piercemanse.org/Learn.html |title=The Pierce Manse |access-date=2014-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816064656/http://www.piercemanse.org/Learn.html |archive-date=2010-08-16 |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331221736/http://www.piercemanse.org/learn.html |date=2021-03-31 }}</ref>]] Sanaos parantos mundur ti Sénat, Pierce tacan aya niat kanggé liren tina dunya publik. Pindahna ka Concord masihan anjeunna langkung seueur lolongkrang kanggé nanganan kasus-kasus hukum, sarta masihan kasempetan ka Jane Pierce kanggé hirup di lingkungan masarakat anu langkung merenah.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=79}}</ref> Jane tetep matuh di Concord sareng putra alitna, Frank, sarta Benjamin anu nembé lahir nalika bagian ahir masa jabatan Pierce di Sénat; ieu papisahan téh mémang beurat karasana kanggé kulawarga. Samentis éta, Pierce parantos ngamimitian gawé bareng hukum anu nguntungkeun pisan sareng [[Asa Fowler]] nalika masa réhat (''recess'') Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=86}}</ref> Pierce mulang ka Concord dina awal taun 1842, sarta reputasina salaku pengacara teras nanjak. Kawéntar ku kapribadianana anu soméah, kaahlianana dina biantara, sarta daya émutna anu luar biasa, Pierce sering narik perhatian loba pamiarsa di pangadilan. Anjeunna ogé sering ngabéla masarakat miskin kalayan nampi bayaran anu sakedik atanapi malah haratis pisan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=98–101}}</ref> Pierce tetep aub dina Partéy Démokrat nagara bagian anu nuju karepék ku sababaraha pasualan. Gubernur Hill, anu ngawakilan faksi komérsial sarta kota dina partéy, ngadukung pamakéan piagam pamaréntah kanggé ngarojong korporasi, méré hak husus sapertos tanggung jawab kawates (''limited liability'') sarta hak [[domain punjul]] kanggé ngawangun jalan karéta api. Faksi radikal "**[[Locofocos|Locofoco]]**" dina partéyna ngawakilan para patani sarta pamilih di padésaan, anu mikahayang perluasan program sosial sarta regulasi tanaga gawé, sarta pangwatesan kana hak husus korporasi. Budaya pulitik di éta nagara bagian janten kirang toleran ka bank sareng korporasi saatos Panik 1837, sahingga Hill tungtungna éléh dina pamilihan. Pierce sacara filosofis langkung caket ka faksi radikal, sarta kalayan asa-asa anjeunna kersa janten pengacara kanggé lawan Hill dina sengketa hukum ngeunaan kapamilikan hiji surat kabar—Hill kawon, lajeng ngadegkeun surat kabar sorangan anu sering ngajantenkeun Pierce salaku sasaran seranganna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=93–95}}</ref> Dina Juni 1842, Pierce diangkat janten pupuhu Komite Démokrat Nagara Bagian, sarta dina pamilihan nagara bagian taun saterusna, anjeunna ngabantosan faksi radikal kanggé ngawasa législatif nagara bagian. Partéy tetep karepék ku sababaraha pasualan, kalebet pangwangunan jalan karéta api sareng [[gerakan temperance]] (anti-alkohol), sarta Pierce nyepeng peran utama dina mantuan législatif nagara bagian kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta bédana pamandangan. Prioritas anjeunna nyaéta "tartib, moderasi, kompromi, sareng kahijian partéy", anu ku anjeunna diusahakeun supados langkung diutamakeun tinimbang pamandangan pribadina ngeunaan pasualan pulitik.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=103–110}}</ref> Sakumaha engkéna nalika janten présidén, Pierce kacida ngajénan pisan kana kahijian Partéy Démokrat, sarta ningal yén oposisi kana perbudakan téh mangrupa ancaman kanggé hal éta.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=431}}</ref> Kameunangan [[James K. Polk]] anu teu disangka-sangka (''[[kuda hitam (pulitik)|dark horse]]'') dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1844]] mangrupa warta anu pikabagéakeun kanggé Pierce, anu parantos sosobatan sareng tilas [[Pupuhu Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat|Pupuhu Déwan]] kasebut nalika duanana ngajabat di Kongrés. Pierce ngayakeun kampanye badag kanggé Polk salila pamilihan, sarta salaku balesanna, Polk ngangkat anjeunna janten [[Jaksa Amérika Sarikat kanggé Distrik New Hampshire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=131–132}}</ref> Tujuan utama Polk anu pangnonjolna nyaéta [[aneksasi Texas]], hiji pasualan anu nyababkeun papaséaan kacida jero antawis Pierce sareng tilas batur sapancakakina, Hale, anu harita janten anggota DPR A.S. Hale kacida nentangna kana nambihan nagara bagian budak anyar, sahingga anjeunna nyerat serat kabuka ka konstituénna anu nétélakeun panolakanana kana éta léngkah.<ref>{{harvnb|Wadleigh|1913|p=249}}</ref> Pierce ngawaler ku cara ngayakeun deui konvénsi Démokrat nagara bagian kanggé ngabatalkeun pencalonan Hale dina masa jabatan Kongrés salajengna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wadleigh|1913|p=249}}</ref> Ieu "badai pulitik" ngabalukarkeun Pierce megatkeun hubungan sareng sobat laminana, kitu ogé sareng batur sapraktekna dina hukum, Fowler, anu mangrupa pangrojong Hale.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=111–122}}</ref> Hale nolak mundur, sarta kusabab diperyogikeun sora mayoritas kanggé kapilih di New Hampshire, peupeusna partéy ngabalukarkeun ''deadlock'' (jalan buntu) sarta korsi DPR janten kosong. Tungtungna, Partéy Whig sareng faksi [[Démokrat Indepénden]] Hale hasil ngawasa législatif, milih [[Anthony Colby]] ti Whig janten gubernur, sarta ngirim Hale ka Sénat, hiji hal anu matak ngambek pisan ka Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=447}}</ref> === Perang Méksiko-Amérika === [[File:Franklin Pierce - 1852.jpg|jmpl|upright|Pierce nganggo seragam brigadir jéndralna, {{Kira-kira|1852}}]] Aub dina dunya militér téh mangrupa impian lami kanggé Pierce, anu saprak rumaja kacida mikareueusna kana jasa-jasa rama sarta para lanceukna, utamana lanceukna [[Benjamin Kendrick Pierce|Benjamin]], ogé [[John McNeil Jr.]], carogé ti lanceuk sabapana, Elizabeth. Salaku anggota législatif, anjeunna téh mangrupa pangrojong anu vokal kanggé milisi sukaréla. Salaku perwira milisi, anjeunna gaduh pangalaman dina ngumpulkeun sarta ngalatih pasukan. Nalika Kongrés ngumumkeun perang ngalawan Méksiko dina Méi 1846, Pierce langsung daptar janten sukarélawan, sanaos harita tacan aya régimén ti New England. Harepanana kanggé milu perang dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]] mangrupa salah sahiji alesan anjeunna nolak tawaran ti Polk kanggé janten [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Gerakan maju Jéndral [[Zachary Taylor]] mimiti kendor di Méksiko kalér, sarta Jéndral [[Winfield Scott]] ngusulkeun kanggé ngarebut palabuan [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Vera Cruz]] sarta neruskeun perjalanan darat ka Kota Méksiko. Kongrés ngaluarkeun undang-undang anu ngidinan dibentukna sapuluh régimén, sarta Pierce diangkat janten komandan sarta kolonél [[Régimén Infanteri ka-9 (Amérika Sarikat)|Régimén Infanteri ka-9]] dina Pébruari 1847, kalayan Truman B. Ransom salaku [[Léptnan Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|léptnan kolonél]] sarta wakil komandanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=131–135}}</ref> [[File:FrankP-mounted.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=0.9|Mangsa jabatan Pierce anu sakedap salaku [[perwira jéndral|jéndral]] dina Perang Méksiko-Amérika ningkatkeun citra publikna.<ref name="war-reception" />]] Dina 3 Maret 1847, Pierce ditaékkeun pangkatna janten [[Brigadir jéndral (Amérika Sarikat)|brigadir jéndral]], sarta nyepeng paréntah pikeun hiji [[brigade]] pasukan tambahan kanggé angkatan darat Jéndral Scott, sedengkeun Ransom ngagentos anjeunna janten komandan régimén. Sabada méakkeun waktos kanggé ngumpulkeun brigadena, Pierce dugi ka palabuan Vera Cruz anu parantos ditéwak dina ahir Juni. Di dinya, anjeunna nyiapkeun perjalanan 2.500 pasukan anu ngawal logistik kanggé Scott. Perjalanan tilu minggu ka darat téh kacida bahayana, sarta pasukanna kedah sababaraha kali ngalawan serangan sateuacan tungtungna ngahiji sareng pasukan Scott dina awal Agustus, pas pisan nalika badé lumangsungna [[Pertempuran Contreras]].<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=490}}</ref> Ieu pertempuran téh mangrupa musibah kanggé Pierce: kudana ujug-ujug reuwas nalika nuju narajang, anu ngabalukarkeun awakna kabetot sarta palangkakanana kagejret kana sela kuda. Éta kuda lajeng tikait kana sela batu sarta labuh, nu ngabalukarkeun Pierce kakeueum ku kudana sorangan sarta tuurna tatu parna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=144–147}}</ref> Ieu kajadian ngajantenkeun anjeunna katingal sapertos anu kapiuhan, sahingga salah saurang prajurit ngagorowok menta batur kanggé nyepeng komando bari nyebutkeun, "Jéndral Pierce téh saurang jalma borangan anu dibendo."<ref name="h505">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=505}}</ref> Pierce mulang deui kanggé aksi dinten salajengna, nanging tuurna tatu deui sahingga anjeunna kedah luluncatan (pincang) nuturkeun pasukanna; nalika anjeunna dugi ka lokasi, pertempuran téh ampir réngsé.<ref name="h505" /> Nalika [[Pertempuran Churubusco]] beuki deukeut, Scott maréntahkeun Pierce supados ka tukang kanggé cageur heula (konvalésénsi). Anjeunna ngawaler, "Demi Allah, Jéndral, ieu téh pertempuran badag anu terakhir, sarta kuring kedah mingpin brigade kuring." Scott tungtungna ngijinan, sarta Pierce asup ka médan perang bari awakna ditalian kana sela kuda, nanging kanyeri dina sukuna beuki parna sahingga anjeunna kapiuhan di lapangan. Amérika meunang dina éta pertempuran sarta Pierce mantuan rundayan gencatan sanjata. Anjeunna lajeng mulang deui nyepeng komando sarta mingpin brigadena sapanjang sésa kampanye, anu tungtungna aub dina [[Pertempuran kanggé Kota Méksiko|panéwakan Kota Méksiko]] dina pertengahan Séptémber, sanaos brigadena langkung seueur dijantenkeun cadangan salila pertempuran. Salila pertempuran Kota Méksiko, anjeunna langkung seueur cicing di tenda gering alatan nandangan diaré akut.<ref name="h505" /> Pierce tetep nyepeng komando brigadena salila tilu sasih masa pendudukan kota; sanaos ngarasa frustasi ku macétna rundayan perdamaian, anjeunna ogé nyobian ngajaga jarak tina konplik anu terus-terusan lumangsung antawis Scott sareng para jéndral sanésna.<ref name="w147plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=147–154}}</ref> Pierce tungtungna diijinkeun kanggé mulang ka Concord dina ahir Désémber 1847. Anjeunna dibagakeun salaku pahlawan di nagara bagian asalna, sarta ngintunkeun serat pangunduran diri tina Angkatan Darat, anu satuluyna disatujuan dina kaping 20 Maret 1848. Jasa-jasa militérna ningkatkeun popularitas anjeunna di New Hampshire, nanging tatu sarta bangbaluh anu tumiba ka anjeunna di médan perang ngabalukarkeun ayana tuduhan "borangan" anu bakal terus ngabayang-bayang saumur hirupna. Anjeunna parantos némbongkeun kamampuh anu hadé salaku jéndral, utamana nalika mingpin perjalanan awal ti Vera Cruz, nanging mangsa jabatanna anu sakedap sarta tatu anu ditalandanganana nyababkeun para sajarawan teu gaduh seueur bahan kanggé meunteun kamampuhna salaku komandan militér.<ref name="war-reception">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=154–157}}</ref> [[Ulysses S. Grant]], anu gaduh kasempetan kanggé ningal langsung kinerja Pierce salila perang, nolak sagala tuduhan borangan kasebut dina mémoarna anu diserat sababaraha taun saatos Pierce pupus: "Naon waé kualifikasi Jéndral Pierce kanggé kapersidénan, anjeunna téh saurang ''gentleman'' sarta jalma anu gaduh kawani. Kuring sanés pangrojong anjeunna sacara pulitik, nanging kuring terang ka anjeunna langkung jero tinimbang ka jéndral-jéndral sukaréla sanésna."<ref>{{cite book |first=Ulysses S. |last=Grant |author-link=Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fxwTAAAAYAAJ |title=Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant |volume=1 |year=1892 |orig-year=1885 |pages=146–147 |publisher=C. L. Webster}}</ref> === Mulang ka New Hampshire === [[File:Frank-Pierce.jpg|jmpl|upright|Dina taun 1850-an, Pierce parantos janten pamimpin Partéy Démokrat New Hampshire.<ref name="leadership" />]] Mulang ka Concord, Pierce neraskeun deui prakték hukumna; dina hiji kasus anu kawéntar, anjeunna ngabéla kabébasan ageman kelompok [[Shakers]], hiji sékte anu katutup sarta kaancam ku tindakan hukum alatan tuduhan panyiksaan. Nanging, peranna salaku pamimpin partéy tetep nyéépkeun kalolobaan perhatianana. Anjeunna terus riribugan sareng Hale, anu anti-perbudakan sarta nentang perang, sikep anu dianggap ku Pierce salaku provokasi anu teu perlu.<ref name="leadership">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=157–161}}</ref> Wilayah [[Sési Méksiko]] anu kacida legana ngabagi AS sacara pulitik, kalayan loba pihak di Kalér anu negeskeun yén perbudakan teu meunang aya di dinya (sarta ngajukeun [[Wilmot Proviso]] kanggé mastikeunana), sedengkeun anu sanésna hoyong perbudakan dilarang di kalér garis [[Kompromi Missouri]] dina [[Paralel 36°30′ kalér|36°30′ N]]. Duanana usulan éta dianggap haram ku loba urang Kidul, sarta kontrovérsi ieu meulah Partéy Démokrat. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1848]], mayoritas nyalonkeun tilas sénator Michigan [[Lewis Cass]] janten présidén, sedengkeun minoritas misahkeun diri janten [[Partéy Free Soil]], anu ngadukung tilas présidén Van Buren. Partéy Whig milih Jéndral [[Zachary Taylor]], urang Louisiana, anu pamandanganana ngeunaan kalolobaan pasualan pulitik tacan kanyahoan. Sanaos sateuacanna ngadukung Van Buren, Pierce milih ngadukung Cass, sarta nolak tawaran cicingeun kanggé janten calon wakil présidén dina [[tikét (pulitik)|tikét]] Free Soil. Gawé Pierce kacida éféktifna sahingga Taylor, anu ahirna [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|kapilih janten présidén]], kenging perséntase sora panghandapna di New Hampshire dibandingkeun sareng nagara bagian sanésna.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|pp=549–565}}</ref> Sénator Henry Clay, saurang Whig, ngaharepkeun tiasa ngaréngsékeun pasualan perbudakan ku sababaraha usulan anu engkéna kawéntar salaku [[Kompromi 1850]]. Ieu kompromi bakal méré kameunangan boh ka Kalér boh ka Kidul, sarta kenging pangrojong ti sasama urang Whig, Webster. Nalika draf undang-undang éta macét di Sénat, Sénator Illinois [[Stephen A. Douglas]] mingpin tarékah anu hasil kanggé meulahna janten sababaraha bagian anu misah, supados unggal anggota législatif tiasa milih nolak bagian anu teu disatujuan ku nagara bagianna tanpa ngabahayakeun sakabéh pakét aturan éta. Éta undang-undang lulus sarta ditandatanganan ku Présidén [[Millard Fillmore]] (anu ngagentos Taylor saatos sang présidén pupus dina awal 1850).<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=21–22}}</ref> Pierce kacida ngadukungna kana éta kompromi, sarta masihan biantara anu ditarima kalayan saé dina Désémber 1850, di mana anjeunna sumpah satia ka "Uni! Uni Abadi!"<ref name="autogenerated1">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=608}}</ref> Dina sasih anu sami, calon gubernur ti Démokrat, John Atwood, ngaluarkeun surat anu nentang éta Kompromi, sarta Pierce mantuan ngayakeun deui konvénsi nagara bagian kanggé ngabatalkeun pencalonan Atwood tina tikét partéy.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Ieu kajadian ngaganggu pamilihan kanggé Démokrat, anu ahirna kawon dina sababaraha korsi; sanajan kitu, partéyna Pierce tetep nyepeng kadali ka éta nagara bagian, sarta aya dina posisi anu kuat kanggé pamilihan présidén anu badé sumping.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=173–180}}</ref> == Pamilihan 1852 == {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852}} [[File:1852DemocraticCampaignPoster.png|jmpl|upright|Postér kampanye kanggé tikét Pierce/King]] Nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]] beuki deukeut, Partéy Démokrat nuju karepék ku pasualan perbudakan, sanaos kalolobaan kelompok "**[[Barnburners sarta Hunkers#Barnburners|Barnburners]]**" (faksi radikal) anu kantos ninggalkan partéy sareng Van Buren kanggé ngawangun Partéy Free Soil parantos mulang deui. Harita aya harepan yén [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]] bakal manggihan jalan buntu (''deadlock''), di mana moal aya calon anu sanggup kenging sora mayoritas dua per tilu sakumaha anu diperyogikeun. Para Démokrat New Hampshire, kalebet Pierce, tadina ngadukung tilas guruna, [[Levi Woodbury]], anu harita janten [[Hakim Agung Amérika Sarikat|Hakim Agung]], salaku calon kompromi. Nanging, pupusna Woodbury dina Séptémber 1851 muka lolongkrang kanggé sakutu-sakutu Pierce pikeun nampilkeun anjeunna salaku calon "**[[kuda hitam (pulitik)|kuda hideung]]**" (''dark horse'') nuturkeun tapak lacak Polk. Para Démokrat New Hampshire ngarasa yén, salaku nagara bagian anu paling konsistén méré kameunangan kanggé Partéy Démokrat, aranjeunna pantes nyadiakeun calon présidén. Tokoh sanésna anu dianggap bakal maju nyaéta Douglas, Cass, [[William Marcy]] ti New York, [[James Buchanan]] ti Pennsylvania, [[Sam Houston]] ti Texas, sarta [[Thomas Hart Benton (politikus)|Thomas Hart Benton]] ti Missouri.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=181–184}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=23–29}}</ref> Sanaos kenging pangrojong ti nagara bagian asalna, Pierce nyanghareupan rupa-rupa hahalang kanggé pencalonanana, jalaran anjeunna parantos sapuluh taun teu nyepeng jabatan publik sarta teu gaduh reputasi nasional sakumaha para calon utama sanésna. Anjeunna sacara kabuka nyatakeun yén pencalonan sapertos kitu bakal "kacida nolakna kana karesep sarta kahayang kuring", nanging ningal kahayang para Démokrat New Hampshire kanggé ningal salah saurang wargana kapilih, anjeunna terang yén pangaruhna di mangsa payun gumantung kana kasadiaanana kanggé maju.<ref name="w184plus" /> Ku kituna, anjeunna cicingeun ngidinan para pangrojongna kanggé ngayakeun lobi, kalayan pamahaman yén namina moal diasupkeun kana konvénsi kacipta upami parantos jelas yén taya sahiji calon utama anu tiasa meunang. Kanggé ngalegaan basis pangrojongna di Kidul, anjeunna nyerat serat anu negeskeun deui dukunganna kana Kompromi 1850, kalebet [[Undang-Undang Budak Buron]] anu kontrovérsial.<ref name="w184plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=184–197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=32–33}}</ref> Konvénsi dikumpulkeun dina 1 Juni di Baltimore, sarta sakumaha anu parantos duga, jalan buntu (''deadlock'') lumangsung. Dina sora munggaran (''ballot'') ti 288 delegasi dina 3 Juni, Cass kenging 116 sora, Buchanan 93, sarta sésana papencar, kalayan taya hiji sora ogé kanggé Pierce. 34 sora salajengna ogé liwat tanpa aya calon anu caket kana kameunangan, sarta tetep taya sora kanggé Pierce. Tim Buchanan lajeng maréntahkeun delegasina kanggé milih calon-calon leutik, kalebet Pierce, kanggé némbongkeun yén Buchanan téh moal tiasa dibendung sarta kanggé ngahijikeun konvénsi di tukangeunana. Ieu taktik anyar téh kalah janten pakéwuh (''backfired''); saatos sababaraha sora, Virginia, New Hampshire, sarta Maine kalah malik milih Pierce. Sésa kakuatan Buchanan mimiti pecah ka Marcy, sarta Pierce geuwat nempatan posisi katilu. Saatos sora ka-48, anggota Kongrés ti Carolina Kalér [[James C. Dobbin]] masihan dukungan anu teu disangka-sangka sarta kacida sumangetna ka Pierce, anu satuluyna nyiptakeun gelombang pangrojong badag kanggé anjeunna. Dina sora ka-49, Pierce kenging ampir sakabéh sora (iwal genep sora), sahingga resmi janten calon présidén. Para delegasi milih Sénator Alabama [[William R. King]], saurang pangrojong Buchanan, salaku calon wakil présidén, sarta ngadopsi platform anu nolak "riribugan" salajengna ngeunaan perbudakan sarta ngadukung Kompromi 1850.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=197–202}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=33–34}}</ref> Nalika béja hasil konvénsi dugi ka New Hampshire, Pierce ampir teu percaya, sarta garwana dugi ka kapiuhan. Putra aranjeunna, Benjamin, nyerat serat ka ibuna bari ngaharepkeun yén Franklin moal hasil meunang dina pamilihan, jalaran anjeunna terang yén ibuna moal resepeun upami kedah matuh di Washington.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=34}}</ref> [[File:Scott vs Pierce campaign.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=1.3|Kartun pulitik anti-Pierce ieu ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku jalma anu lemah sarta borangan.]] Calon ti Partéy Whig nyaéta Jéndral Scott, urut komandanna Pierce di Méksiko; pasanganana nyaéta [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[William Alexander Graham]]. Partéy Whig teu bisa ngahijikeun faksi-faksina sakumaha anu dilakukeun ku Démokrat, sarta konvénsi maranéhna ngadopsi platform anu ampir teu aya bédana jeung Démokrat, kaasup pangrojong kana Kompromi 1850. Hal ieu nyababkeun faksi Free Soilers majukeun calon sorangan, Sénator Hale, anu satuluyna ngarugikeun sora Whig. Kurangna bédana pandangan pulitik ngajadikeun kampanye ieu ngan saukur paséa ngeunaan kapribadian anu pait sarta nyababkeun [[tingkat partisipasi pamilih]] turun ka tingkat panghandapna ti saprak [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1836|1836]]; nurutkeun biografer Peter A. Wallner, ieu téh "salah sahiji kampanye anu paling teu matak gumbira dina sajarah kapersidénan."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=210–213}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=36–38}}</ref> Scott dirugikeun ku kurangna sumangat ti urang Whig kalér anu anti-perbudakan; éditor ''[[New-York Tribune]]'' [[Horace Greeley]] nyimpulkeun éta sikep nalika nyarita ngeunaan platform Whig, "urang nentang, mikangéwa, sarta nyiduhan éta platform."<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=724}}</ref> [[File:ElectoralCollege1852.svg|jmpl|upright=1.3|Peta éléktoral [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852]]]] Pierce milih cicingeun supados teu ngaganggu kahijian partéyna anu rapuh, sarta ngantepkeun para sakutuna anu ngajalankeun kampanye. Geus jadi adat harita yén calon présidén teu meunang katingal teuing ambisius néangan jabatan, sarta anjeunna mémang teu ngayakeun kampanye pribadi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=231}}</ref><ref name="Gara1991 p38">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=38}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=725}}</ref> Lawan-lawan Pierce nyieun karikaturna salaku jalma borangan anu anti-Katolik sarta tukang mabok ("pahlawan tina loba botol inuman").<ref name="caricature">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=206}}</ref><ref name="Gara1991 p38"/> Samentis éta, Scott ngan kenging pangrojong lemah ti urang Whig anu nuju peupeus ku platform pro-Kompromi, sarta Scott ogé dianggap orator publik anu parah sarta osok salah ucap (''gaffe-prone'').<ref name="Gara1991 p38"/> Para Démokrat kacida yakin meunangna; salah sahiji slogan anu kawéntar nyaéta yén para Démokrat "bakal ''pierce'' (nubles) musuh-musuhna dina 1852 sakumaha maranéhna geus ''poked'' (nyundut/[[James K. Polk|Polked]]) musuhna dina 1844."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|p=203}}</ref> Hal ieu kabuktian bener, Scott ngan bisa unggul di Kentucky, Tennessee, Massachusetts, jeung Vermont, kalayan kenging 42 sora éléktoral, sedengkeun Pierce kenging 254 sora. Kalayan total 3,2 juta sora anu asup, Pierce meunang sora rahayat (''popular vote''), 50,9% ngalawan 44,1%. Sakelompok badag Free Soilers milih rival Pierce ti nagara bagian anu sarua, Hale, anu kenging 4,9% sora rahayat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=229–230}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=39}}</ref> Partéy Démokrat ogé hasil ngawasa mayoritas badag di Kongrés.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=740}}</ref> == Kapersidénan (1853–1857) == {{Utama|Kapersidénan Franklin Pierce}} === Masa transisi sareng kacilakaan karéta api === {{Tempo ogé|Kacilakaan karéta api Franklin Pierce}} [[File:First ladies-pierce.jpg|jmpl|upright|Jane Pierce sareng "Benny", anu pupusna masihan kalangkang duka sapanjang masa jabatan Pierce.<ref name="benny" />]] Pierce ngamimitian kapersidénanana dina kaayaan duka. Sababaraha minggu saatos pamilihan, dina kaping 6 Januari 1853, anjeunna sareng kulawargana nuju angkat ti Boston nganggo karéta api nalika gerbongna anjlog sarta ngaguling ka lamping deukeut [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. Franklin sareng Jane Pierce salamet, nanging putra tunggal aranjeunna anu yuswana 11 taun, Benjamin, pupus alatan kakeueum ku ruruntuhan gerbong, kalayan kaayaan mastaka anu ampir sapat. Pierce teu tiasa nyumputkeun éta tetempoan ti garwana. Duanana nandangan déprési anu kacida parna saatos éta kajadian, anu kamungkinan ageung mangaruhan kinerjana salaku présidén.<ref name="benny">{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=241–249}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=43–44}}</ref> Jane Pierce sempet mikir naha éta kajadian téh mangrupa hukuman ti Gusti alatan salakina kacida ambisiusna ngudag sarta narima jabatan luhur. Anjeunna nyerat serat panjang anu eusina ménta hampura ka "Benny" alatan ngarasa gagal janten indung.<ref name="benny"/> Jane nyingkahan rupa-rupa acara sosial salila ampir dua taun munggaranana salaku [[Ibu Nagara Amérika Sarikat]], sarta nembé némbongan deui ka publik dina acara resépsi taunan di Gedong Bodas dina Poé Taun Anyar 1855, anu harita nampi rasa simpati anu kacida gedéna ti masarakat.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=55}}</ref> Nalika Franklin Pierce angkat ti New Hampshire kanggé diidtrénan, Jane milih teu marengan. Pierce, anu harita janten lalaki pangngorana anu kapilih janten présidén, milih kanggé [[Ikrar (hukum)|ngikrarkeun]] (''affirm'') sumpah jabatanna dina buku hukum tinimbang dina Alkitab, sakumaha anu dilakukeun ku sakabéh présidén sateuacanna iwal John Quincy Adams.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Liptak|first=Adam|date=January 17, 2009|title=The Oath|newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/18/weekinreview/18oath.html|access-date=2022-01-01}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé janten présidén munggaran anu nepikeun biantara pelantikanana dumasar kana ingetan (tanpa téks).<ref>{{cite book |last=Hurja |first=Emil |date=1933 |title=History of Presidential Inaugurations |publisher=New York Democrat |page=49}}</ref> Dina biantara éta, anjeunna ngabagéakeun éra katengtreman sarta kamakmuran di jero nagara sarta ngadesek kanggé negeskeun kapentingan A.S. dina hubungan internasional, kalebet akuisisi wilayah-wilayah énggal anu "kacida pentingna". "Kawijakan Pamaréntahan kuring", saurna, "moal bakal kendor ku ayana kasieun kana balukar buruk tina ékspansi." Bari nyingkahan kecap "perbudakan", anjeunna negeskeun kahayangna kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta "pasualan penting" sarta ngajaga persatuan anu tengtrem. Anjeunna ogé nyabit ngeunaan tragédi pribadina, kalayan nyarios ka balaréa, "Anjeun parantos manggil kuring dina mangsa kuring lemah, anjeun kedah ngarojong kuring ku kakuatan anjeun."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2004|pp=249–255}}</ref> === Pamaréntahan sareng papaséaan pulitik === {{Tempo ogé|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Franklin Pierce}} {{CSS image crop|Image=PIERCE, Franklin-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize=250|cWidth=170|cHeight=240|oTop=40|oLeft=40|Description=Potrét ukiran [[Biro Ukiran sarta Percetakan|BEP]] Pierce salaku présidén.}} Dina nangtukeun pajabat [[Kabinet Amérika Sarikat|Kabinetna]], Pierce narékahan kanggé ngahijikeun partéy anu nuju paséa marebutkeun "buah" kameunangan. Kalolobaan anggota partéy mimitina mah teu ngadukung anjeunna dina pencalonan, malah sawatara aya anu kungsi sakutu sareng Partéy Free Soil kanggé kenging kameunangan dina pamilihan lokal. Pierce mutuskeun kanggé masihan jatah korsi ka unggal faksi partéy, kalebet faksi-faksi anu sateuacanna nentang Kompromi 1850.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=767}}</ref> Sénat kalayan sora buleud langsung nyatujuan sakabéh nominasi Kabinet Pierce.<ref name="wall5plus" /> Pierce méakkeun sababaraha minggu munggaran jabatanna kanggé milih ratusan posisi féderal tingkat handap anu kedah dieusi. Ieu téh mangrupa pagawéan anu beurat, jalaran anjeunna hoyong ngawakilan sakabéh faksi partéy, nanging tungtungna teu aya sahiji ogé faksi anu sugema pinuh. Para pangrojong partéy ngarasa hésé kanggé ngamankeun posisi keur babaturanana, anu satuluyna ngajantenkeun Partéy Démokrat tegang sarta numbuhkeun rasa pait antawis faksi. Teu lami ti dinya, surat kabar di Kalér nuduh Pierce ngeusian pamaréntahanana ku jalma-jalma pro-perbudakan anu hoyong misahkeun diri (''secessionists''), sedengkeun surat kabar di Kidul nuduh anjeunna salaku abolisionis.<ref name="wall5plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=5–24}}</ref> Papaséaan antawis Démokrat anu pro sarta anti-pamaréntahan beuki panas, utamana di jero Partéy Démokrat New York. Kelompok Démokrat "Hardshell" (''Hards'') anu langkung konsérvatif di New York kacida cangcayana ka administrasi Pierce, anu dianggap langkung raket sareng Marcy (anu janten Sekretaris Nagara) sarta faksi New York anu langkung moderat, nyaéta Démokrat "Softshell" (''Softs'').<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=15–18}}</ref> [[File:William R. D. King Vice President.jpg|jmpl|kénca|upright=0.7|Wakil Présidén [[William R. King]] pupus sakedap saatos sabulan ngajabat, anu nyababkeun lowongan jabatan anu teu tiasa dieusi harita.]] Buchanan kantos ngadesek Pierce supados konsultasi sareng Wakil Présidén terpilih, King, dina milih Kabinet, nanging Pierce teu ngalakukeun hal éta—Pierce sareng King mémang teu kantos ngayakeun komunikasi deui saprak dicalonkeun dina Juni 1852. Dina awal taun 1853, King nandangan panyakit tuberkulosis anu parna, sarta angkat ka Kuba kanggé tatamba. Kaayaanana beuki buruk, sahingga Kongrés ngaluarkeun undang-undang husus anu ngidinan anjeunna disumpah di payuneun konsul Amérika di Havana dina 24 Maret. Jalaran hoyong pupus di bumina sorangan, anjeunna mulang ka perkebunanana di Alabama dina 17 April sarta pupus dina dinten énjingna. Jabatan wakil présidén tetep kosong sapanjang sésa masa jabatan Pierce, jalaran Konstitusi harita tacan gaduh katangtuan kanggé ngeusi éta lowongan. Ieu kakosongan hartosna sapanjang kapersidénan Pierce, [[Présidén pro tempore Sénat Amérika Sarikat|Présidén pro tempore Sénat]], anu mimitina dijabat ku [[David Atchison]] ti Missouri, janten jalma munggaran dina garis suksési kapersidénan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=21–22}}</ref> Pierce narékahan kanggé ngajalankeun pamaréntahan anu langkung éfisién sarta akuntabel tinimbang para miheulaanna.<ref name="wallner-20" /> Para anggota Kabinetna nerapkeun sistem awal ujian [[Layanan sipil féderal Amérika Sarikat|layanan sipil]], anu janten prékursor (mimitina) tina [[Undang-Undang Pendleton]] anu nembé lulus tilu dékadé saatosna, di mana posisi-posisi di pamaréntahan A.S. kedah dileler dumasar kana préstasi (''merit system''), sanés dumasar kana sistem ''patronase'' (balas jasa pulitik).<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=35–36}}</ref> Sékretaris [[Robert McClelland (pulitikus Amérika)|Robert McClelland]] ngayakeun réformasi dina [[Departemén Dalam Negeri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Dalam Negeri]], ku cara nyistematiskeun operasina, ngalegaan panggunaan rékaman keretas (arsip), sarta merangan prakték curang (korupsi).<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=36–39}}</ref> Réformasi Pierce sanésna nyaéta ngalegaan peran jaksa agung A.S. dina nangtukeun hakim sarta jaksa féderal, hiji léngkah penting dina prosés kabentukna [[Departemén Kaadilan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Kaadilan]] di mangsa payun.<ref name="wallner-20">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=20}}</ref> Harita aya lowongan di Mahkamah Agung—Fillmore, saatos gagal kenging konpirmasi ti Sénat kanggé calon-calonna, sempet nawarkeun éta posisi ka Sénator Louisiana anu nembé kapilih, [[Judah P. Benjamin]], nanging anjeunna nolak. Pierce ogé nawarkeun éta korsi ka Benjamin, nanging anjeunna tetep nolak.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|1908|pp=118–119}}</ref> Saatos éta, Pierce nyalonkeun [[John Archibald Campbell]], saurang pangrojong hak-hak nagara bagian (''states' rights''); ieu mangrupa hiji-hijina pajabat Mahkamah Agung anu diangkat ku Pierce sapanjang jabatanna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=10}}</ref> === Kawijakan ékonomi sareng pangwangunan internal === [[File:Pierce Indian Peace Medal.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.7|[[Medali Perdaméan Indon|Medali Perdaméan Indian]] anu ngagambarkeun Pierce]] Pierce nganitah [[Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perbendaharaan]] [[James Guthrie (politikus Kentucky)|James Guthrie]] kanggé ngaropéa [[Departemén Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat|Perbendaharaan]], anu harita dikokolakeun sacara teu éfisién sarta mibanda seueur rekening anu tacan bérés. Guthrie ningkatkeun pangawasan ka para pagawé Perbendaharaan sarta para penagih tarif (béa), anu kalolobaanana nahan artos nagara kanggé kapentingan pribadi. Sanaos aya undang-undang anu ngawajibkeun dana nagara disimpen di Perbendaharaan, deposit anu kacida badagna masih kénéh nyangsang di bank-bank swasta salami pamaréntahan Whig sateuacanna. Guthrie narik deui éta dana sarta nyoba nungtut para pajabat anu korup sacara hukum, sanajan hasilna rupa-rupa.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=32–36}}</ref> [[Sekretaris Perang Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Perang]] [[Jefferson Davis]], dumasar kana paménta Pierce, mingpin survey ku [[Korps Insinyur Topografi]] kanggé milari ruteu jalan karéta api transkontinéntal (meulah buana) di sakuliah nagara. Partéy Démokrat mémang parantos lami nolak alokasi dana féderal kanggé pangwangunan internal, nanging Davis ngarasa yén proyék sapertos kitu tiasa dibenerkeun sacara Konstitusional salaku tujuan kaamanan nasional. Davis ogé ngeragkeun [[Korps Insinyur Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat]] kanggé ngawas proyék-proyék konstruksi di Distrik Columbia, kalebet perluasan [[Gedong Capitol Amérika Sarikat]] sarta pangwangunan [[Monumén Washington]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=40–41, 52}}</ref> === Urusan luar nagri sareng militér === Pamaréntahan Pierce sajalan sareng gerakan ékspansionis ''[[Young America movement|Young America]'', kalayan Marcy mingpin ieu gerakan salaku sekretaris nagara. Marcy narékahan kanggé némbongkeun citra républik Amérika anu béda ka dunya. Anjeunna ngaluarkeun surat édanan (sirkular) anu nyarankeun supados para diplomat A.S. nganggé "papakéan saderhana warga nagara Amérika" tinimbang [[seragam diplomatik]] anu méwah sakumaha anu dianggo di karajaan-karajaan Éropa, sarta nyarankeun supados aranjeunna mung ngerahkeun warga nagara Amérika kanggé damel di konsulat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=25–32}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=128}}</ref> Marcy nampi pujian internasional alatan seratna anu panjangna 73 kaca kanggé ngabéla pangungsi [[Austria]] [[Martin Koszta]], anu ditéwak di luar nagri dina pertengahan 1853 ku pamaréntah Austria sanaos anjeunna parantos gaduh niat janten warga nagara A.S.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=61–63}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=128–129}}</ref> Salaku pangrojong ruteu transkontinéntal Kidul, Davis ngayakinkeun Pierce kanggé ngintunkeun pangusaha jalan karéta api [[James Gadsden]] ka Méksiko kanggé mésér lahan anu bakal dijantenkeun ruteu jalan karéta api. Gadsden ogé dititah kanggé ngayakeun rundayan deui ngeunaan katangtuan dina [[Perjangjian Guadalupe Hidalgo]], anu ngawajibkeun A.S. kanggé nyegah serangan sélér asli Amérika (Indian) ka Méksiko ti Wilayah New Mexico. Gadsden hasil ngayakeun perjangjian sareng Présidén Méksiko [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] dina Désémber 1853, kalayan mésér lahan anu kacida legana di kidul-kulon. Ieu rundayan téh ampir waé gagal alatan ékspédisi [[filibuster (militér)|tanpa idin]] [[William Walker (filibuster)|William Walker]] ka Méksiko, sahingga hiji klausa diasupkeun kanggé merangan usaha-usaha sapertos kitu di mangsa payun.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=75–81}}</ref><ref name="Gara 1991 pp.129–133">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=129–133}}</ref> Kongrés ngirangan wilayah [[Pameselan Gadsden]] janten wilayah anu ayeuna ngawengku bagian kidul [[Arizona]] sarta sabagian kidul New Mexico; hargana ogé dipotong tina $15 juta janten $10 juta. Kongrés ogé ngasupkeun klausa panyalindungan kanggé saurang warga swasta, Albert G. Sloo, anu kapentinganana kasinggung ku éta pameselan. Pierce nentang panggunaan pamaréntah féderal kanggé nyokong industri swasta sarta henteu nyatujuan vérsi ahir tina éta perjangjian, nanging perjangjian kasebut tetep diratifikasi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=106–108}}</ref><ref name="Gara 1991 pp.129–133" /> Ieu akuisisi wilayah téh ngajantenkeun [[wilayah Amérika Sarikat anu ngahiji]] dugi ka wates-watesna anu ayeuna, iwal sababaraha panyaluyuan leutik di mangsa salajengna.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=872}}</ref> {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet |align=left |Name=Pierce |President=Franklin Pierce |President start=1853 |President end=1857 |Vice President=[[William R. King]] |Vice President date=1853 |Vice President 2=''Teu aya'' |Vice President start 2=1853 |Vice President end 2=1857 |State=[[William L. Marcy]] |State start=1853 |State end=1857 |Treasury=[[James Guthrie (politikus Kentucky)|James Guthrie]] |Treasury start=1853 |Treasury end=1857 |War=[[Jefferson Davis]] |War start=1853 |War end=1857 |Justice=[[Caleb Cushing]] |Justice start=1853 |Justice end=1857 |Post=[[James Campbell (postmaster general)|James Campbell]] |Post start=1853 |Post end=1857 |Navy=[[James C. Dobbin]] |Navy start=1853 |Navy end=1857 |Interior=[[Robert McClelland (politikus Amérika)|Robert McClelland]] |Interior start=1853 |Interior end=1857 }} Hubungan sareng [[Britania Raya]] peryogi diréngsékeun, jalaran para pamayang Amérika ngarasa kaganggu ku beuki réképna pangawasan [[Angkatan Laut Karajaan]] (Inggris) di wilayah [[perairan téréritorial]] Kanada. Marcy hasil ngaréngsékeun perjangjian timbal balik (''reciprocity'') padagangan sareng menteri Inggris kanggé Washington, [[Sir John Crampton, 2nd Baronet|John Crampton]], anu ngirangan kabutuhan pangawasan di basisir ku pihak Inggris. Buchanan diutus janten menteri ka London kanggé neken pamaréntah Inggris anu dianggap lambat dina ngarojong perjangjian énggal. Hiji perjangjian timbal balik anu nguntungkeun tungtungna diratifikasi dina Agustus 1854, anu ku Pierce dianggap salaku léngkah munggaran nuju anéksasi Kanada ku Amérika.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=27–30, 63–66, 125–126}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=133}}</ref> Nalika pamaréntahanana ngayakeun rundayan sareng Inggris ngeunaan [[wates Kanada–Amérika Sarikat]], kapentingan A.S. ogé janten pasualan di Amérika Tengah, di mana [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] taun 1850 gagal nyegah Inggris kanggé ngalegaan pangaruhna di éta wewengkon. Kénging kaunggulan tina Inggris di éta wilayah mangrupa bagian utama tina tujuan ékspansionis Pierce.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=139–140}}</ref> Para konsul Inggris di A.S. narékahan kanggé ngarékrut urang Amérika milu kana [[Perang Krimea]] dina taun 1854, anu mangrupa palanggaran kana undang-undang nétralitas. Pierce tungtungna ngusir Crampton sarta tilu konsul lianna. Pierce ngarasa héran jalaran Inggris henteu ngusir balik Buchanan salaku balesan. Dina talatah ''State of the Union'' Désémber 1855 ka Kongrés, Pierce nétélakeun argumén Amérika yén Inggris parantos ngalanggar Perjangjian Clayton-Bulwer. Nurutkeun Buchanan, pihak Inggris ngarasa katarik ku éta talatah sarta mimiti mikirkeun deui kawijakanana. Sanajan kitu, Buchanan tetep teu tiasa maksa maranéhna kanggé ninggalkeun wilayah jajahanana di Amérika Tengah. [[Perjangjian Timbal Balik Kanada-Amérika]] tungtungna diratifikasi ku Kongrés, parlemén Inggris, sarta législatif kolonial Kanada.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=902–917}}</ref> Pamaréntahan Pierce nimbulkeun kahariwang antar-wilayah (séksional) nalika tilu diplomat A.S. di Éropa nyusun usulan ka présidén kanggé mésér Kuba ti Spanyol kalayan harga $120 juta, sarta menerkeun tindakan "ngarebut" éta wilayah ti Spanyol upami éta tawaran ditolak. Publikasi [[Manifesto Ostend]], anu disusun dumasar kana pamenta Sekretaris Nagara Marcy, ngondang hinaan ti urang Kalér anu ningal éta hal salaku usaha kanggé nganéksasi wilayah nu gaduh budak demi nguatkeun kapentingan Kidul. Hal ieu milu ngaruksak kapercayaan kana kawijakan ékspansionis "[[Manifest Destiny]]" anu sering didukung ku Partéy Démokrat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=131–157}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=149–155}}</ref> Pierce milih ngarojong ékspansi sarta réorganisasi militér sacara badag. Sekretaris Perang Davis sarta Sekretaris Angkatan Laut James C. Dobbin manggihan kaayaan Angkatan Darat sarta Angkatan Laut anu kurang manceg, kalayan jumlah pasukan anu teu cekap, ayana rasa horéam kanggé ngadopsi téknologi anyar, sarta manajémén anu teu éfisién.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=40–43}}</ref> Dina mangsa pamaréntahan Pierce, Komodor [[Matthew C. Perry]] [[Ékspédisi Perry|ngadatangan Jepang]] (hiji tarékah anu mimitina direncanakeun dina jaman Fillmore) dina raraga ngalegaan padagangan ka Wétan. Perry hoyong maksa asup ka Asia ku kakuatan militér, nanging Pierce sarta Dobbin ngadesek anjeunna supados tetep ngagunakeun jalur diplomatik. Perry tungtungna nandatanganan perjangjian padagangan anu saderhana sareng [[Shogun Tokugawa|Sogun Tokugawa]] Jepang anu hasil diratifikasi.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=172}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=134–135}}</ref> Peluncuran [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimac'']] dina taun 1856, salah sahiji tina genep [[frigat uap]] anu nembé dipesen, mangrupa salah sahiji dinten anu "paling nyugemakeun sacara pribadi" kanggé Pierce salila ngajabat.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=256}}</ref> === Bleeding Kansas (Getih di Kansas) === {{Utama|Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska|Bleeding Kansas}} [[File:1855 Colton Map of Kansas and Nebraska (first edition) - Geographicus - NebraskaKansas-colton-1855.jpg|jmpl|upright=1.6|[[Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska]] ngatur wilayah [[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]] (warna fink) sarta [[Wilayah Nebraska]] (konéng).]] Tantangan pangbadagna pikeun kasaimbangan nagara salila pamaréntahan Pierce nyaéta lulusna [[Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska]]. [[Wilayah anu diatur|Ngaréngsékeun administrasi]] [[Wilayah Nebraska]] anu kalolobaanana tacan dicicingan—anu ngampar ti [[Missouri]] nepi ka [[Pagunungan Rocky]], sarta ti Texas kalér nepi ka wates Kanada–Amérika Sarikat ayeuna—mangrupa bagian penting tina rencana Douglas pikeun ékspansi ka kulon. Anjeunna hoyong jalan karéta api transkontinéntal anu nyambung ti Chicago ka California, ngaliwatan éta wilayah kulon anu lega. Pangaturan wilayah diperlukeun pisan pikeun pamukiman, jalaran éta lahan moal bisa ditalungtik (disurvey) atawa dijual nepi ka pamaréntahan wilayahna resmi dibentuk. Pihak-pihak ti nagara bagian nu gaduh budak tacan pernah sugema ku ayana watesan perbudakan di wilayah kulon. Aranjeunna ngarasa yén perbudakan kudu bisa dimekarkeun ka wilayah-wilayah anu dimeunangkeun ku "getih sarta harta" anu sabagianana asalna ti Kidul. Douglas sarta para sakutuna boga rencana pikeun ngatur éta wilayah sarta ngantepkeun para pamukim lokal [[Kadaulatan rahayat di Amérika Sarikat|nangtukeun sorangan naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan atawa henteu]]. Hal ieu sacara otomatis bakal ngabolaskeun Kompromi Missouri 1820, jalaran kalolobaan éta wilayah perenahna di kalér garis 36°30′ N anu ku Kompromi Missouri dinyatakeun salaku wilayah "bébas" (tanpa budak). Éta wilayah bakal dibagi jadi dua: bagian kalér (Nebraska) jeung bagian kidul ([[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]]), kalayan harepan yén Kansas bakal ngidinan perbudakan sedengkeun Nebraska moal.<ref name="kansas">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=90–102, 119–122}}</ref><ref name="kansas 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=88–100}}</ref><ref name="kansas 3">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1097–1240}}</ref> Nurutkeun pamandangan para politikus [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kidul|Kidul]] anu pro-perbudakan, Kompromi 1850 sabenerna geus ngabatalkeun Kompromi Missouri ku cara narima nagara bagian California (kaasup wilayah di kiduleun garis kompromi) salaku nagara bagian bébas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Jefferson |title=The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government |date=1881 |isbn=978-0-306-80418-2 |page=25|title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government |publisher=Hachette Books }}</ref> Pierce mimitina hoyong ngatur Wilayah Nebraska tanpa sacara éksplisit nyabit-nyabit sual perbudakan, nanging Douglas teu bisa meunangkeun cukup sora ti Kidul upami cara éta anu dianggo.<ref>{{harvnb|Etchison|2004|p=14}}</ref> Pierce sorangan cangcaya kana éta rangkay undang-undang, sabab anjeunna terang yén hal éta bakal ngabalukarkeun oposisi anu pait ti Kalér. Sanajan kitu, Douglas jeung Davis hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna pikeun tetep ngadukung éta undang-undang. Ieu aturan nampi panolakan keras ti tokoh-tokoh Kalér sapertos Sénator Ohio [[Salmon P. Chase]] jeung Sénator Massachusetts [[Charles Sumner]], anu ngagerakkeun opini publik di Kalér pikeun ngalawan éta undang-undang. Urang Kalér geus ti baheula curiga kana Pameselan Gadsden, usaha anéksasi Kuba, sarta pangaruh para menteri nu gaduh budak sapertos Davis. Maranéhna ningal undang-undang Nebraska ieu salaku bagian tina pola agrési urang Kidul. Hasilna nyaéta "badai pulitik" (''political firestorm'') anu ngabalukarkeun karuksakan badag kana kapersidénan Pierce.<ref name="kansas" /><ref name="kansas 2"/><ref name="kansas 3"/> Pierce sarta pamaréntahanana ngagunakeun rupa-rupa ancaman sarta jangji kanggé ngajaga supados kalolobaan urang Démokrat tetep satuju kana éta undang-undang. Partéy Whig peupeus dumasar kana wates wilayah (Kalér-Kidul); ieu konplik ngancurkeun maranéhna salaku partéy nasional. Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska lulus dina Méi 1854 sarta ahirna janten ciri utama kapersidénan Pierce. Karubuan pulitik saatos lulusna éta aturan nyababkeun naékna kakuatan saheulaanan ti Partéy Amérika anu nativis sarta anti-Katolik (sering disebut kelompok [[Know Nothing]]), sarta ngabalukarkeun ngadegna [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]].<ref name="kansas" /><ref name="kansas 2"/><ref name="kansas 3"/> [[File:Forcing slavery down the throat of a freesoiler (1856) (cropped).tif|jmpl|kénca|upright|Urang Kalér mikangéwa tarékah Pierce kanggé ngalegaan perbudakan ngaliwatan Kansas–Nebraska sarta Kuba.<ref name="resentment" /><ref name="resentment 2"/> Dina kartun taun 1856 ieu, saurang anggota [[Partéy Free Soil]] dicekelan ku Pierce, Buchanan, sarta Cass, sedengkeun Douglas maksa ngasupkeun "Perbudakan" (digambarkeun salaku urang kulit hideung) kana sungutna.]] Nalika éta undang-undang nuju didebatkeun, para pamukim ti dua pihak (anu pro sarta anti-perbudakan) budal ka éta wilayah kanggé mastikeun hasil sora anu dipiharep. Lulusna éta aturan ngabalukarkeun kitu lobana kekerasan antawis kelompok sahingga éta wilayah katelah salaku **[[Bleeding Kansas]]** (Kansas Nu Ngagetih). Rébuan urang pro-perbudakan anu disebut [[Border Ruffians]] datang ti Missouri kanggé milih dina pamilihan wilayah sanaos maranéhna sanés warga asli Kansas, sahingga méré kameunangan ka faksi pro-perbudakan. Pierce ngadukung hasil éta pamilihan sanaos loba kajadian anu teu bérés (irégulér). Nalika kelompok [[Free-Stater (Kansas)|Free-Stater]] (anti-perbudakan) ngawangun pamaréntahan tandingan sarta nyusun [[Konstitusi Topeka]], Pierce nyebut tindakan maranéhna salaku pemberontakan. Présidén tetep ngaku ka législatif pro-perbudakan anu didominasi ku Démokrat, sanaos komisi panalungtik Kongrés manggihan yén pamilihanana henteu sah. Anjeunna ngeragkeun pasukan féderal kanggé ngabubarkeun rapat pamaréntahan Topeka.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=195–209}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=111–120}}</ref> Lulusna éta undang-undang ogé bareng sareng ditéwakna budak anu kabur, [[Anthony Burns]], di Boston. Urang Kalér ngahiji kanggé ngadukung Burns, nanging Pierce manceg kanggé ngajalankeun Undang-Undang Budak Buron sacara kaku, sarta ngeragkeun pasukan féderal kanggé mastikeun Burns mulang ka nu gaduhna di Virginia sanaos dihalangan ku balaréa anu ambek.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=122–125}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=107–109}}</ref> Pamilihan sela Kongrés taun 1854 sarta 1855 janten musibah kanggé Démokrat (ogé kanggé Partéy Whig anu ampir runtag). Démokrat kawon di ampir unggal nagara bagian di luar Kidul. Di New Hampshire, nagara bagian asalna Pierce anu tadina satia ka Démokrat, kelompok Know-Nothing hasil milih gubernur, sakabéh tilu wawakil, ngawasa législatif, sarta mulangkeun John P. Hale ka Sénat. Sumangat anti-imigran mawa kelompok Know-Nothing kenging sora panglobana, sarta sababaraha urang Kalér kapilih di handapeun bandéra Partéy Républik anu nembé diadegkeun.<ref name="resentment">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=158–167}}</ref><ref name="resentment 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=99–100}}</ref> === Pamilihan 1856 === {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1856}} [[File:Southern Chivalry.jpg|jmpl|katuhu|upright=1.35|Kekerasan faksi sumebar ka Kongrés dina Méi 1856 nalika Sénator Free Soil [[Charles Sumner]] [[panyerangan ka Charles Sumner|digebug ku iteuk]] ku wawakil ti Démokrat [[Preston Brooks]] di jero rohangan Sénat.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=120–121}}</ref>]] Pierce kacida ngaharepkeun kanggé dicalonkeun deui ku Partéy Démokrat. Nanging kanyataanana, lolongkrang anjeunna kanggé kenging pencalonan (komo deui kanggé meunang dina pamilihan umum) kacida ipisna. Pamaréntahanana dipikangéwa ku balaréa di Kalér alatan sikepna kana Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska, sarta para pamingpin Démokrat sadar yén Pierce kacida lemahna dina sora éléktoral. Sanajan kitu, para pangrojongna mimiti nyusun rencana kanggé beraliansi sareng Douglas supados James Buchanan teu kenging pencalonan. Buchanan gaduh koneksi pulitik anu kuat sarta "aman" di luar nagri sapanjang masa jabatan Pierce, sahingga anjeunna teu kakeueum ku karuksakan pulitik Kansas.<ref name="1856-convention">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=266–270}}</ref><ref name="1856-convention 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=157–167}}</ref><ref name="1856-convention 3">{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1515–1558}}</ref> Nalika pamilihan sora (''balloting'') dimimitian dina 5 Juni di konvénsi di [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], Pierce ngaharepkeun kenging sora mayoritas, atanapi sora dua per tilu anu diperyogikeun. Dina sora munggaran, anjeunna mung kenging 122 sora, anu kalolobaanana ti Kidul, sedengkeun Buchanan kenging 135 sora, sarta sésana ka Douglas sarta Cass. Nepi ka énjingna, opat belas kali pamilihan sora parantos réngsé, nanging taya sahiji tina tilu calon utama anu tiasa kenging dua per tilu sora. Pierce, anu pangrojongna beuki lami beuki ngurangan, tungtungna nitah para pangrojongna kanggé ngalih milih Douglas; anjeunna narik namina salaku tarékah pamungkas kanggé ngéléhkeun Buchanan. Douglas, anu harita nembé yuswa 43 taun, yakin yén anjeunna tiasa dicalonkeun dina taun 1860 upami ngantepkeun Buchanan anu langkung sepuh kanggé meunang ayeuna, sarta anjeunna nampi jaminan ti tim Buchanan yén hal éta bakal laksana. Saatos dua kali deui sora anu macét, tim Douglas narik namina, sahingga Buchanan janten juara anu jelas. Kanggé ngubaran kasedih Pierce, konvénsi ngaluarkeun résolusi "aprobasi tanpa sarat" kanggé muji pamaréntahanana sarta milih sakutu Pierce, tilas Wawakil Kentucky [[John C. Breckinridge]], salaku calon wakil présidén.<ref name="1856-convention" /><ref name="1856-convention 2" /><ref name="1856-convention 3" /> Kéléh deui ieu téh janten catetan munggaran dina sajarah A.S. di mana saurang présidén anu keur ngajabat sarta aktip nyalonkeun deui, kalah henteu dicalonkeun ku partéy pulitikna sorangan kanggé période kadua.{{refn|group=note|Opat présidén sanésna—John Tyler, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, sarta Chester Arthur—gagal dicalonkeun deui ku partéyna masing-masing; nanging, masing-masing ti opat présidén éta téh mimitina mah kapilih salaku wakil présidén sarta janten présidén saatos miheulaanna pupus nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref name="krudin"/>}}<ref name="krudin">{{cite news|last1=Rudin|first1=Ken|title=When Has A President Been Denied His Party's Nomination?|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/politicaljunkie/2009/07/a_president_denied_renominatio.html|access-date=2017-02-15|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=July 22, 2009}}</ref> Pierce méré dukungan ka Buchanan, sanaos hubungan duanana tetep tiis; anjeunna ngaharepkeun tiasa ngabéréskeun kaayaan di Kansas dina bulan Novémber kanggé ningkatkeun lolongkrang kameunangan Démokrat dina pamilihan umum. Anjeunna ngangkat [[John W. Geary]] salaku gubernur wilayah, anu satuluyna ngondang amarah para législator pro-perbudakan.<ref name="w272plus">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=272–280}}</ref> Geary hasil mulangkeun katengtreman di Kansas, nanging karuksakan sacara éléktoral parantos lumangsung—Partéy Républik ngagunakeun slogan "Bleeding Kansas" sarta "Bleeding Sumner" (kajadian [[panyerangan ka Charles Sumner|Charles Sumner digebugan ku iteuk]] sacara brutal ku Perwakilan Carolina Kidul [[Preston Brooks]] di rohangan Sénat) salaku slogan kampanye.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1610}}</ref> Tikét Buchanan/Breckinridge ahirna kapilih, nanging perséntase sora rahayat Démokrat di Kalér anjlog tina 49,8 persén dina taun 1852 janten 41,4 dina taun 1856. Buchanan mung kenging kameunangan di lima tina genep belas nagara bagian bébas (sedengkeun Pierce kapungkur kenging opat belas); malah di tilu nagara bagian mah Buchanan tiasa meunang téh alatan ayana sora anu peupeus antawis calon Républik, tilas sénator California [[John C. Frémont]], sareng calon ti Know Nothing, tilas présidén Fillmore.<ref>{{harvnb|Holt|2010|loc=1610–24}}</ref> Pierce henteu ngalemahkeun rétorikana sanaos parantos gagal kenging pencalonan deui. Dina talatah pamungkasna ka Kongrés anu ditepikeun dina Désémber 1856, anjeunna sacara teuas nyerang urang Républik sarta para abolisionis. Anjeunna ngagunakeun éta kasempetan kanggé ngabéla catetan prestasina dina kawijakan fiskal sarta dina ngahontal hubungan anu tengtrem sareng nagara-nagara sanés.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=292–296}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=177–179}}</ref> Dina dinten-dinten terakhir pamaréntahan Pierce, Kongrés ngaluluskeun undang-undang kanggé naékeun gajih perwira angkatan darat sarta ngawangun kapal-kapal angkatan laut anyar, ogé nambahan jumlah pelaut anu diderék. Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun undang-undang pangirangan tarif anu parantos lami dipiharep ku anjeunna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=303–304}}</ref> Pierce sareng kabinétna ninggalkan jabatan dina 4 Maret 1857, anu janten hiji-hijina sajarah di A.S. di mana sakabéh anggota kabinét asli tetep ngajabat sagemblengna salami opat taun masa jabatan.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=305}}</ref> == Pasca-kapersidénan (1857–1869) == [[File:George P.A. Healy - Franklin Pierce - Google Art Project.jpg|jmpl|upright=0.9|Potrét karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]]. Pierce, anu katingal di dieu dina taun 1858, tetep janten tokoh pulitik anu vokal saatos masa jabatanna réngsé.<ref name="postpres" />]] Saatos ninggalkan Gedong Bodas, kulawarga Pierce tetep cicing di Washington salami langkung ti dua bulan, matuh di bumi tilas Sekretaris Nagara [[William L. Marcy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|p=20}}</ref> Buchanan ngarobah haluan ti pamaréntahan Pierce ku cara ngaganti sakabéh pajabat anu kungsi diangkat ku Pierce. Kulawarga Pierce ahirna ngalih ka Portsmouth, New Hampshire, di mana Pierce mimiti investasi dina widang properti. Kanggé milari hawa anu langkung haneut, anjeunna sarta Jane méakkeun tilu taun salajengna kanggé ngumbara, dimimitian ku cicing di [[Madeira]] sarta dituluykeun ku tur ka Éropa sarta [[Bahamas]].<ref name="postpres" /> Di Roma, anjeunna nganjang ka Nathaniel Hawthorne; duanana méakkeun seueur waktos babarengan sarta Hawthorne ningal yén tilas présidén éta tetep sumanget sapertos biasana.<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=55–56}}</ref> Pierce henteu kantos ngaleupaskeun paneuteupna tina dunya pulitik salami pangumbaraanana, anjeunna rutin méré koméntar ngeunaan konplik antar-wilayah (séksional) anu beuki rongkah. Anjeunna negeskeun yén para abolisionis Kalér kedah mundur supados nyegah Kidul misahkeun diri (séksési). Anjeunna nyerat yén pertumpahan getih tina perang sadulur "moal mung lumangsung di sapanjang garis Mason sarta Dixon", nanging "di jero wates urang sorangan, di jalan-jalan urang sorangan".<ref name="postpres" /> Anjeunna ogé nyempad para pendéta Protéstan New England, anu kalolobaanana ngarojong abolisi sarta calon-calon Républik, salaku tindakan "bidah sarta hianat".<ref name="postpres">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=309–327}}</ref> Naékna Partéy Républik maksa urang Démokrat kanggé ngabéla Pierce; salila [[Debat Lincoln-Douglas|debatna]] sareng calon Sénat Républik [[Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1858, Douglas nyebut tilas présidén éta salaku "lalaki anu gaduh integritas sarta kahormatan".<ref>{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=65–66}}</ref> Nalika Konvénsi Démokrat 1860 beuki deukeut, sababaraha pihak ménta Pierce kanggé maju salaku calon kompromi anu tiasa ngahijikeun partéy anu nuju peupeus, nanging Pierce nolak. Nalika Douglas bajoang kanggé kenging pangrojong ti Kidul, Pierce ngadukung Cushing sarta Breckinridge salaku altérnatif, nanging prioritas utamana nyaéta kahijian Partéy Démokrat. Partéy Démokrat anu peupeus ahirna [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|éléh mutlak]] ku calon ti Républik, Lincoln. Dina bulan-bulan antawis kapilihna Lincoln sarta pelantikanana dina 4 Maret 1861, Pierce nyaksian sababaraha nagara bagian Kidul mimiti nyusun rencana kanggé misahkeun diri (séksési). Anjeunna dipénta ku Hakim Campbell kanggé angkat ka Alabama sarta nepikeun biantara dina konvénsi séksési di dinya. Alatan nuju teu damang anjeunna nolak, nanging anjeunna ngintunkeun serat anu ngajak rahayat Alabama supados tetep satia ka Uni (Sarekat), sarta méré waktu ka Kalér kanggé ngabatalkeun undang-undang anu ngarugikeun Kidul sarta milari jalan tengah.<ref name="secede">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=327–338}}</ref> === Perang Sadulur === Saatos tarékah kanggé nyegah [[Perang Sadulur Amérika|Perang Sadulur]] gagal ku ayana serangan ka [[Benténg Sumter]], urang Démokrat Kalér, kalebet Douglas, ngarojong rencana Lincoln kanggé mawa deui nagara-nagara bagian Kidul ka Uni ku jalan kekerasan. Pierce hoyong nyingkahan perang ku cara naon waé, sarta nyerat ka Van Buren kanggé ngusulkeun ayana pasamoan tilas présidén A.S. kanggé ngaréngsékeun éta pasualan, nanging usulan ieu teu dipaliré. "Kuring moal pernah menerkeun, ngarojong, atanapi ku cara naon waé sarta nepi ka tingkat mana waé ngabela ieu perang anu telenges, teu boga haté, teu boga tujuan, sarta teu perlu," serat Pierce ka garwana.<ref name="secede" /> Pierce sacara kabuka nentang paréntah Présidén Lincoln kanggé nunda hulu (''suspension'') surat paréntah **[[habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat|''habeas corpus'']]**, kalayan alesan yén sanajan dina mangsa perang, nagara teu meunang ninggalkan panyalindungan kana kabébasan sipil. Sikep ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna dikagumi ku kelompok [[Copperheads (pulitik)|Démokrat Kalér anu Pro-Perdaméan]] (''Copperheads'') anu nuju mekar, nanging pihak sanés ningal éta sikep salaku bukti salajengna yén Pierce mémang condong ka Kidul.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=337–343}}</ref> Dina Séptémber 1861, Pierce angkat ka Michigan, nganjang ka tilas Sekretaris Jero Nagara, McClelland, tilas sénator Cass, sarta tokoh sanésna. Saurang tukang buku di Detroit, J. A. Roys, ngirimkeun serat ka Sekretaris Nagara Lincoln, [[William H. Seward]], anu nuduh yén tilas présidén éta ngayakeun pasamoan sareng jalma-jalma anu teu satia, sarta nyarios yén anjeunna nguping aya rencana kanggé ngagulingkeun pamaréntahan sarta ngangkat Pierce janten présidén. Dina bulan anu sami, surat kabar pro-pamaréntah ''[[Detroit Tribune]]'' nyitak hiji tulisan anu nyebut Pierce salaku "mata-mata hianat anu keur kukulampangan", sarta nyebutkeun yén anjeunna téh anggota kelompok pro-Konpédérasi, [[Knights of the Golden Circle]]. Sabenerna mah éta konspirasi téh teu aya, nanging saurang pangrojong Pierce, Guy S. Hopkins, ngirimkeun serat ka ''Tribune'' anu saolah-olah asalna ti anggota Knights of the Golden Circle, anu nyebutkeun yén "Présidén P." mangrupa bagian tina rencana ngalawan Uni.<ref name="michigan">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=341–343}}</ref><ref name="michigan 2">{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=85–100}}</ref> Mimitina Hopkins hoyong supados ''Tribune'' nyebarkeun éta tuduhan, anu satuluyna Hopkins bakal ngaku yén anjeunna anu nyeratna, kanggé némbongkeun yén éditor ''Tribune'' téh kacida partisan sarta babari dibobodo (''gullible''). Sabalikna, éditor ''Tribune'' kalah ngirimkeun éta serat Hopkins ka pajabat pamaréntahan. Seward satuluyna maréntahkeun kanggé néwak jalma-jalma anu dianggap "tukang hianat" di Michigan, kalebet Hopkins. Hopkins ahirna ngaku yén éta serat téh jieunanana sarta ngan saukur bobodoran (''hoax''), nanging sanaos kitu, Seward tetep nyerat ka Pierce kanggé naroskeun naha éta tuduhan téh leres. Pierce nolak sacara teuas, sarta Seward gancang-gancang narik deui ucapanna. Ti saprak harita, surat kabar Républik tetep nyitak éta serat Hopkins sanaos Hopkins parantos ngaku yén éta téh ''hoax'', sahingga Pierce mutuskeun yén anjeunna kedah ngabersihkeun namina sacara kabuka. Nalika Seward nolak kanggé nyebarkeun surat-suratan maranéhna ka publik, Pierce némbongkeun amarahna ku cara ménta sakutu Sénatna, [[Milton Latham]] ti California, kanggé macakeun surat-surat antawis Seward sarta Pierce kana catetan resmi Kongrés, anu satuluyna ngajantenkeun pamaréntahan Lincoln éra.<ref name="michigan" /><ref name="michigan 2"/> Ayana kawijakan wajib militer (''draft'') sarta ditéwakna tokoh Démokrat anti-pamaréntahan [[Clement Vallandigham]] mingkin ngahurungkeun amarah Pierce. Dina bulan Juli 1863, anjeunna nepikeun biantara di payuneun urang Démokrat New Hampshire anu isina nyempad pisan ka Lincoln. "Saha, kuring nanya, anu parantos méré kakawasaan ka Présidén kanggé ngatur saha waé di antawis urang ngeunaan iraha urang kedah atanapi meunang nyarita, atanapi kedah jempe kana sagala pasualan, utamana anu patalina sareng paripolah saurang palayan publik?", tanya anjeunna.<ref name="speech">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=343–357}}</ref><ref name="speech2">{{harvnb|Boulard|2006|pp=109–123}}</ref> Koméntar Pierce ieu ditampa kalayan goréng di sabagian ageung wilayah Kalér, utamana jalaran kritikna ka Lincoln bareng sareng dua kameunangan Uni di [[Patempuran Gettysburg]] sarta [[Pengepungan Vicksburg]]. Reputasi Pierce di Kalér mingkin ruksak dina bulan salajengna nalika perkebunan Présidén Konpédérasi, Jefferson Davis, di Mississippi dikoas ku prajurit Uni. Surat-suratan Pierce sareng Davis (sakabéhna ti mangsa sateuacan perang) anu némbongkeun silaturahmi anu jero sarta ramalan yén perang sadulur bakal ngakibatkeun pemberontakan di Kalér, sumebar ka média massa. Ucapan Pierce ieu mingkin nguatkeun sentimén para abolisionis kanggé ngalawan anjeunna.<ref name="speech" /><ref name="speech2"/> Jane Pierce pupus alatan tuberkulosis di Andover, Massachusetts dina Désémber 1863; anjeunna dikureubkeun di Makam Old North di Concord, New Hampshire. Pierce mingkin nandang duka nalika sahabatna, Nathaniel Hawthorne, pupus dina Méi 1864; Pierce nuju sareng Hawthorne nalika panyerat éta pupus sacara dadakan. Hawthorne sateuacanna parantos ngadédikasikeun buku terakhirna kanggé Pierce, hiji hal anu harita dianggap kontrovérsial. Sababaraha urang Démokrat nyobian deui ngajukeun nami Pierce kanggé dicalonkeun dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864]], nanging anjeunna milih ngajaga jarak; Lincoln tungtungna kenging deui période kadua kalayan sora anu mutlak. Nalika warta ngeunaan [[Rajapati Abraham Lincoln]] sumebar dina April 1865, sakumpulan massa ngumpul di luar bumi Pierce di Concord, nungtut penjelasan naha anjeunna henteu masang bandéra salaku tanda duka publik. Pierce janten ambek, anjeunna nyatakeun rasa sedihna atas pupusna Lincoln nanging nolak yén anjeunna kedah némbongkeun sikep publik sapertos kitu. Anjeunna nyarios ka balaréa yén catetan sajarah jasa militér sarta jasa publikna parantos cukup ngabuktikeun rasa patriotismeuna, anu tungtungna tiasa ngajémpékeun éta massa.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=357–362}}</ref> === Taun-taun terakhir sareng pupusna === [[File:Franklin Pierce Gravesite.jpg|jmpl|Tetengger makam Pierce di Makam Old North, di Concord, New Hampshire.]] Kabiasaan nginum alkohol Pierce ngarusak kasehatanana dina taun-taun terakhirna, sarta anjeunna janten langkung religius. Anjeunna kungsi gaduh hubungan sakedap sareng saurang awéwé anu teu dipikanyaho dina pertengahan taun 1865. Salami mangsa ieu, anjeunna ngagunakeun pangaruhna kanggé ngaronjatkeun palayanan ka Davis, anu harita janten tahanan di [[Benténg Monroe]] di Virginia. Anjeunna ogé nawarkeun bantuan kauangan ka putra Hawthorne, [[Julian Hawthorne]], sarta ka para ponakanana sorangan. Dina pangéling-ngéling dua taun pupusna Jane, Pierce dibaptis kana kapercayaan garwana, nyaéta [[Géréja Épiskopal (Amérika Sarikat)|Épiskopal]] di Géréja St. Paul di Concord. Anjeunna ngarasa ieu géréja téh kurang pulitikna tinimbang dénominasi Kongrégasionalna anu kapungkur, anu dianggap parantos ngajauhkeun urang Démokrat ku rétorika anti-perbudakan. Anjeunna ngajalanan hirup salaku "patani sepuh", sakumaha anjeunna nyebut dirina sorangan, ku cara mésér lahan, ngirangan nginum alkohol, tani ku sorangan, sarta narima kunjungan dulur-dulurna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=363–366}}</ref> Anjeunna méakkeun lolobana waktosna di Concord sarta di pondokna di [[Little Boar's Head Historic District|Little Boar's Head]] di basisir, sakali-kali nganjang ka kulawarga Jane di Massachusetts. Sanaos masih kénéh mikaresep dunya pulitik, anjeunna nyatakeun dukungan kana kawijakan [[Era Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]] [[Andrew Johnson]] sarta ngarojong pembebasan présidén éta dina [[Impeachment Andrew Johnson|sidang pamakzulanana]]; anjeunna ogé engkéna nyatakeun optimismeu ka gaganti Johnson, [[Ulysses S. Grant]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=366–371}}</ref> {{anchor|Death}} Kasehatan Pierce mimiti nyirorot deui dina pertengahan taun 1869; anjeunna deui-deui nginum alkohol sacara kaleuleuwihi sanaos kaayaan fisikna beuki buruk. Anjeunna mulang ka Concord dina Séptémber éta kalayan nandangan panyakit [[sirosis]] ati anu parna, sarta sadar yén anjeunna moal tiasa cageur deui. Saurang pangurus (''caretaker'') diséwa kanggé ngurus anjeunna; teu aya hiji ogé anggota kulawargana anu hadir dina dinten-dinten terakhirna. Anjeunna pupus dina jam 04:35 énjing-énjing dina dinten Jumaah, 8 Oktober 1869, dina yuswa 64 taun. Présidén Grant, anu engkéna ngabéla jasa-jasa Pierce dina Perang Méksiko-Amérika, netepkeun dinten duka nasional. Surat kabar di sakuliah nagara muat carita panjang dina kaca hareup anu medar karir Pierce anu rupa-rupa sarta kontrovérsial. Pierce dikureubkeun di gigireun garwana sarta dua putrana di komplek Minot di [[Makam Old North (Concord, New Hampshire)|Makam Old North]] Concord.<ref name="burial">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=369–373}}</ref> Dina [[wasiat]] terakhirna, anu ditandatanganan dina 22 Januari 1868, Pierce ninggalkeun sajumlah badag barang-barang wasiat sapertos lukisan, pedang, kuda, sarta barang sanésna kanggé réngréngan babaturan, kulawarga, sarta tatanggana. Sabagian badag tina kakayaanana anu ajénna $72.000 (sarua jeung kira-kira $1,5 juta ayeuna) dipasrahkeun ka kulawarga lanceukna, Henry, sarta ka barudak Hawthorne ogé ka nu gaduh imah pondokan Pierce. Putra Henry, Frank Pierce, nampi bagian anu pangbadagna.<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|p=374}}</ref> == Situs, pangéling-ngéling, sareng kahormatan == [[File:Pierce Statue Concord NH.jpg|jmpl|kénca|[[Patung Franklin Pierce]] di [[Gedong Nagara New Hampshire]] di [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]]]] Salian ti gelar LL.D. ti Universitas Norwich, Pierce nampi gelar doktor kahormatan ti Bowdoin College (1853) sarta [[Dartmouth College]] (1860).<ref>{{cite book |last= Dartmouth College |date= 1900 |title= General Catalogue |url= https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sKM4AAAAYAAJ |quote= Franklin Pierce LL.D. dartmouth. |publisher= Dartmouth College |page= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sKM4AAAAYAAJ/page/n432 405]|access-date= August 30, 2014}}</ref> Aya dua tempat di New Hampshire anu kadaptar dina [[Daptar Tempat Bersejarah Nasional]] sacara husus alatan patalina sareng Pierce. **[[Franklin Pierce Homestead]]** di Hillsborough mangrupa taman nagara sarta [[Tanda Sajarah Nasional]], anu kabuka kanggé umum.<ref name="homestead" /> [[Imah Franklin Pierce (South Main Street, Concord, New Hampshire)|Imah Franklin Pierce]] di Concord, tempat Pierce pupus, parantos hancur ku kahuruan dina taun 1981, nanging tetep kadaptar dina daptar bersejarah kasebut.<ref>{{cite web |url={{NRHP url|id=79000318}} |title=Franklin Pierce House |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |access-date=June 29, 2014}} <br /> {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/09/18/us/franklin-pierce-home-burns.html |title=Franklin Pierce Home Burns |agency=Associated Press |date=September 18, 1981 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> **[[Pierce Manse]]**, imahna di Concord ti taun 1842 dugi ka 1848, kabuka sacara musiman sarta dikokolakeun ku kelompok relawan, "**The Pierce Brigade**".<ref name="manse" /> [[Patung Franklin Pierce]] karya [[Henry Augustus Lukeman|Augustus Lukeman]], anu diresmikeun dina taun 1914,<ref>Pride, Mike. [https://www.concordmonitor.com/Franklin-Pierce-statue-34783278 “Franklin Pierce statue was criticized even before its creation”]. ''Concord Monitor.'' Published June 16, 2020. Accessed March 20, 2023.</ref> nangtung di palataran [[Gedong Nagara New Hampshire]]. Sababaraha [[tanda sajarah New Hampshire]] ogé dipasang kanggé miéling Pierce sarta kulawargana di sabudeureun wilayah New Hampshire.<ref>[https://www.nh.gov/nhdhr/markers/documents/markers%20bynumber.pdf ”New Hampshire Highway Historical Markers”]. ''New Hampshire Division of Historical Resources.'' Published January 18, 2023. Accessed March 20, 2023.</ref> Sababaraha lembaga sarta tempat parantos dingaranan dumasar kana nami Pierce, kalolobaanana aya di New Hampshire: * [[Universitas Franklin Pierce]] di [[Rindge, New Hampshire]], diadegkeun dina taun 1962.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.franklinpierce.edu/about/history.htm |title=History |publisher=Franklin Pierce University |access-date=June 29, 2014}}</ref> * [[Sakola Hukum Universitas New Hampshire]] diadegkeun dina taun 1973 kalayan nami Franklin Pierce Law Center. Nalika nami sakola éta dirobih dina taun 2010, hiji Puseur Franklin Pierce kanggé Hak Kakayaan Intelektual diadegkeun.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://law.unh.edu/franklin-pierce-ip-center |title=Franklin Pierce Center for IP |publisher=University of New Hampshire |access-date=June 29, 2014 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102061902/http://law.unh.edu/franklin-pierce-ip-center |date=November 2, 2015 }}</ref> * Aya hiji puncak nu namina [[Gunung Pierce]] dina [[Jajaran Présidén]] di [[Pagunungan Bodas (New Hampshire)|Pagunungan Bodas]] New Hampshire, anu diganti namina tina Gunung Clinton dina taun 1913.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |title=Mountains of the Presidential Range |publisher=Mount Washington Observatory |access-date=June 29, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105070612/http://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |archive-date=November 5, 2013 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714204141/https://www.mountwashington.org/about/visitor/mountains.php |date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref> * Kota leutik [[Pierceton, Indiana]], diadegkeun dina taun 1850-an kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pierceton.us/history/ |title=History |publisher=Pierceton, Indiana |access-date=June 29, 2014 |archive-date=July 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714164746/http://pierceton.us/history/ |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714164746/http://pierceton.us/history/ |date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref> * [[County Pierce, Washington]], county kadua panglobana pangeusina di éta nagara bagian, dingaranan kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historylink.org/File/314|title=King County, Founding of|publisher=HistoryLink.org|last=Rochester|first=Junius|date=November 10, 1998|access-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref> * [[County Pierce, Georgia]], anu diadegkeun dina taun 1857, ogé dingaranan kanggé ngahormatan Présidén Pierce.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guss |first=John Walter |date=2001 |title=Pierce County, Georgia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FWuHBiQ1GoMC&pg=PA9 |location=Charleston, SC |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |page=9 |isbn=978-0-7385-1387-4}}</ref> == Warisan == {{multiple image | footer = Gambar Pierce parantos dianggo dina [[Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps|perangko A.S.]] (1938) sarta [[Presidential $1 Coin Program|Koin Dolar Présidén]] (2010). | total_width = 220 | image_gap = 10 | image2 = Franklin Pierce $1 Presidential Coin obverse sketch.jpg | alt2 = Koin hiji dolar anu nampilkeun Pierce | image1 = Franklin Pierce 1938 Issue-14c.jpg | alt1 = Perangko anu nampilkeun Pierce }} Saatos pupusna, Pierce kalolobaanana leungit tina kasadaran rahayat Amérika, iwal ti dianggap salaku salah sahiji tina séri présidén anu masa jabatanna janten musibah anu ngarah kana perang sadulur.<ref name="g180">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=180}}</ref> Masa kapersidénanana sacara lega dianggap salaku kagagalan; anjeunna sering digambarkeun salaku salah sahiji [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|présidén panggoréngna dina sajarah Amérika]].{{refn|group=note|Wallner nyerat: "Aya karaguan naha aya tilas présidén sanés anu kitu dipikangéwa dina mangsa sepuhna sapertos Franklin Pierce, sarta reputasina ampir taya parobahan dina abad satengah saatos pupusna. Malah mah, anjeunna parantos dipopohokeun sarta ukur janten catetan suku dina buku sajarah—salaku jalma biasa anu ramah nanging teu gaduh kamampuan kanggé janten présidén sarta ngan saukur kenging éta posisi luhur alatan kabeneran nasib."<ref>{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=377–379}}</ref><ref name="legacy">{{harvnb|Wallner|2007|pp=xi–xii}}: "Sajarah parantos méré bagian kasalahan ka administrasi Pierce kanggé kawijakan anu ngahurungkeun deui pasualan perbudakan, ngagancangkeun runtagna sistem dua partéy, sarta ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. ... Ieu mangrupa penilaian anu teu akurat sarta teu adil. Pierce salawasna janten saurang nasionalis anu narékahan milari jalan tengah kanggé ngajaga Uni tetep ngahiji. ... Alternatif tina ngajalankeun jalur modérat nyaéta pecahna Uni, Perang Sadulur, sarta pupusna langkung ti genep ratus rébu urang Amérika. Pierce teu kedah disalahkeun alatan narékahan sapanjang karir pulitikna kanggé nyingkahan takdir ieu."</ref><ref name="legacy 2">{{harvnb|Gara|1991|pp=180–184}}: "Maranéhna anu maénkeun kaulinan peringkat présidén salawasna masihan skor di handapeun rata-rata ka Franklin Pierce. ... Ningal kana kajadian-kajadian satuluyna, administrasi Pierce mung tiasa ditingal salaku musibah kanggé bangsa. Kagagalanana mangrupa kagagalan sistem sakumaha kagagalan Pierce sorangan, anu ku Roy Franklin Nichols parantos digambarkeun kalayan parigel salaku tokoh anu kompléks sarta tragis."</ref><ref name="legacy 3">''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', "[https://www.usnews.com/news/history/articles/2007/02/16/worst-presidents-franklin-pierce Worst Presidents: Franklin Pierce]" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002031707/http://www.usnews.com/news/history/articles/2007/02/16/worst-presidents-franklin-pierce |date=October 2, 2013 }} (2007): "Semangatna kanggé ngalegaan wates wilayah milu nyiapkeun jalan kanggé Perang Sadulur."</ref>}} Publik nempatkeun anjeunna dina urutan katilu panghandapna di antawis para présidén sanésna dina survéi [[C-SPAN]] (2000 sarta 2009).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://legacy.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |title=C-SPAN Survey |date=2009 |access-date=June 30, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140722122306/http://legacy.c-span.org/PresidentialSurvey/Overall-Ranking.aspx |archive-date=July 22, 2014 }}</ref> Sabagian tina kagagalanana nyaéta alatan ngantepkeun Kongrés anu parantos peupeus kanggé nyandak inisiatif, anu paling fatal nyaéta dina Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska. Sanaos anjeunna henteu mingpin éta perjoangan—sabab dipingpin ku Sénator Douglas—nanging Pierce anu kedah mayar hargana ku ruksakna reputasi anjeunna.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=182}}</ref> Kagagalan Pierce, salaku présidén, kanggé ngahontal perdamaian antar-wilayah (séksional) milu mungkas dominasi Partéy Démokrat anu dimimitian ku Jackson, sarta ngarah kana période salila tujuh puluh taun di mana urang Républik kalolobaanana ngawasa pulitik nasional.<ref name="crockett">{{cite journal|title=The Historical Presidency: The Perils of Restoration Politics: Nineteenth-Century Antecedents|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_2012-12_42_4/page/881|last=Crockett|first=David A.|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=42|issue=4|date=December 2012|pages=881–902|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2012.04023.x}}</ref> Ahli sajarah [[Eric Foner]] nyatakeun, "Pamaréntahanana tétéla janten salah sahiji anu pangparahna (disastrous) dina sajarah Amérika. Ieu nyaksian runtagna sistem partéy anu diwariskeun ti Jaman Jackson".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foner |first1=Eric |title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History |date=2006 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |page=413 |volume=1}}</ref> Penulis biografi [[Roy Franklin Nichols|Roy F. Nichols]] boga pamandangan:<ref>Roy F. Nichols, "Franklin Pierce", ''Dictionary of American Biography'' (1934) {{cite book|last=Capace|first=Nancy|title=Encyclopedia of New Hampshire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyCVd_nCYl8C&pg=PA268|year=2001|pages=268–69|publisher=Somerset Publishers |isbn=978-0-403-09601-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Flagel|first=Thomas R. |date=2012 |title=History Buff's Guide to the Presidents |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FY7fAAAAQBAJ&q=%22franklin+pierce%22&pg=PA157 |location= Nashville, Tennessee|publisher= Cumberland House|page= 404|isbn=978-1-4022-7142-7}}</ref> > Salaku pamingpin pulitik nasional, Pierce téh mangrupa hiji "kabeneran" (accident). Anjeunna jujur sarta manceg kana pandanganana, nanging, jalaran anjeunna hésé dina nyandak kaputusan sarta sering robah pikiran sateuacan mutuskeun hal anu ahir, anjeunna méré gambaran umum ngeunaan kateustabilan. Jalmi anu bageur, sopan, sarta berehan, anjeunna narik ati loba jalma, nanging usahana kanggé nyugemakeun sakabéh faksi kalah gagal sarta ngajantenkeun anjeunna gaduh seueur musuh. Dina ngajalankeun prinsip konstruksi hukum anu ketat, anjeunna langkung sapuk sareng urang Kidul, anu umumna gaduh dasar hukum anu kuat dina pihak maranéhna. Anjeunna gagal pisan dina nyadar jero sarta ihlasna parasaan urang Kalér kanggé ngalawan Kidul, sarta anjeunna ngarasa bingung ku ayana palanggaran umum kana hukum sarta Konstitusi, sakumaha anu ku anjeunna digambarkeun, ku rahayat ti New England-na sorangan. Teu kantos sakali-kali ogé anjeunna hasil narik imajinasi rahayat. Kateumampuanana kanggé nungkulan masalah-masalah hésé anu muncul dina awal pamaréntahanana ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan hormat ti loba jalma, utamana di Kalér, sarta sababaraha kasuksésanana gagal mulangkeun kapercayaan publik. Anjeunna mangrupa jalmi anu kurang pangalaman, anu ujug-ujug dipénta kanggé nanggung tanggung jawab anu kacida badagna, anu kalayan jujur nyobian ngalakukeun anu pangsaéna tanpa pelatihan atanapi kasesuaian watek anu nyukupan. Sanaos gaduh reputasi salaku politikus anu parigel sarta jalmi anu dipikaresep, salami kapersidénanana Pierce mung janten modérator di antawis faksi-faksi anu beuki pait anu nuju mawa bangsa kana perang sadulur.<ref>Robert Muccigrosso, ed., ''Research Guide to American Historical Biography'' (1988) 3:1237</ref> Kanggé Pierce, anu ningal perbudakan salaku pasualan hak milik (properti) tinimbang moralitas,<ref name="crockett" /> Uni téh mangrupa hal anu sakral; alatan hal ieu, anjeunna ningal tindakan para abolisionis sarta kelompok Free Soiler anu langkung modérat salaku hal anu ngadu domba sarta janten ancaman kana hak-hak urang Kidul anu dijamin ku konstitusi.<ref>{{harvnb|Gara|1991|p=181}}</ref> Sanaos anjeunna nyempad jalma-jalma anu narékahan kanggé ngawatesan atanapi mungkas perbudakan, anjeunna jarang negur politikus Kidul anu nyandak posisi ékstrim atanapi nentang kapentingan Kalér.<ref>{{cite journal|title=''Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son'' [book review]|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_2005-09_92_2/page/612|last=Gara|first=Larry|journal=Journal of American History|date=September 2005|volume=92|number=2|page=612|doi=10.2307/3659320|jstor=3659320}}</ref> Ahli sajarah [[David Potter]] nyimpulkeun yén Manifesto Ostend sarta Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska mangrupa "dua musibah badag tina pamaréntahan Franklin Pierce... Duanana ngadatangkeun badai kritik publik."<ref name="potter">{{harvnb|Potter|1976|p=192}}</ref> Anu langkung penting, ceuk Potter, éta dua hal sacara permanén ngaruksak kapercayaan kana "Manifest Destiny" sarta "kadaulatan rahayat" salaku doktrin pulitik.<ref name="potter" /> Ahli sajarah Kenneth Nivison, dina tulisanna taun 2010, miboga sawangan anu langkung saé kana kawijakan luar nagri Pierce. Anjeunna nyatakeun yén ékspansionisme Pierce janten bubuka kanggé présidén-présidén saatosna sapertos [[William McKinley]] sarta [[Theodore Roosevelt]], anu ngajabat nalika Amérika parantos gaduh kakuatan militér kanggé ngawujudkeun ambisina. "Kawijakan luar nagri sarta komérsial Amérika anu dimimitian dina taun 1890-an, anu ahirna ngagentos kolonialisme Éropa dina pertengahan abad ka-20, seueur ngahutang budi kana paternalisme Démokrasi Jacksonian anu dikulawartakeun dina aréna internasional ku kapersidénan Franklin Pierce."<ref>{{cite journal | title=Purposes Just and Pacific: Franklin Pierce and the American Empire | last=Nivison | first=Kenneth | journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft | date=March 2010 | volume=21 | number=1 | page=17| doi=10.1080/09592290903577668 | s2cid=154406060 }}</ref> Ahli sajarah sarta panulis biografi Peter A. Wallner nyatet yén:{{sfn|Wallner|2007|pp=xi–xii}} Sajarah parantos méré bagian kasalahan ka administrasi Pierce kanggé kawijakan anu ngahurungkeun deui pasualan perbudakan, ngagancangkeun runtagna sistem dua partéy, sarta ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. ... Ieu mangrupa penilaian anu teu akurat sarta teu adil. Pierce salawasna janten saurang nasionalis anu narékahan milari jalan tengah kanggé ngajaga Uni tetep ngahiji. ... Alternatif tina ngajalankeun jalur modérat nyaéta pecahna Uni, Perang Sadulur, sarta pupusna langkung ti genep ratus rébu urang Amérika. Pierce teu kedah disalahkeun alatan narékahan sapanjang karir pulitikna kanggé nyingkahan takdir ieu. Ahli sajarah Larry Gara, anu nyerat buku ngeunaan kapersidénan Pierce, nyerat dina éntri tilas présidén kasebut dina ''American National Biography Online'':<ref>{{cite web|last=Gara|first=Larry|title=Pierce, Franklin|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/04/04-00788.html|work= American National Biography Online|date=February 2000}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Anjeunna janten présidén dina mangsa anu merlukeun kaahlian anu ampir luar biasa (superhuman), nanging anjeunna teu gaduh kaahlian sapertos kitu sarta teu kantos tiasa mekarkeun diri dina jabatan anu parantos dipercayakeun ka anjeunna. Sawanganana ngeunaan [[Konstitusi]] sarta Uni asalna tina jaman Jacksonian di mangsa katukang. Anjeunna teu kantos sapinuhna ngartos kana sipat sarta jerona sentimén Free Soil di Kalér. Anjeunna hasil badami ngeunaan perjangjian dagang timbal-balik sareng Kanada, ngamimitian bubuka Jepang kana perdagangan barat, nambihan lahan di Kulon Kidul, sarta nandatanganan undang-undang kanggé nyiptakeun kakaisaran di luar nagri [[Undang-Undang Kapuloan Guano]]. Kawijakan Kuba sarta Kansas-na mung ngakibatkeun papaséaan antar-wilayah ''(séksional)'' anu langkung jero. Dukunganana kana Undang-Undang Kansas–Nebraska sarta tekadna kanggé ngajalankeun Undang-Undang Budak Buron milu nyiptakeun polarisasi antar wilayah. Pierce mangrupa jalmi anu getol digawé sarta pamaréntahanana kalolobaanana bersih tina prakték suap (graft), nanging warisan tina opat taun anu pinuh ku kaributan éta milu nyumbang kana tragédi misahkeun diri (séksési) sarta perang sadulur. == Tempo ogé == {{portal|New Hampshire}} * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (51–75)#65|Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire]]: Pierce Homestead, No. 65 * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (76–100)#80|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 80]]: Franklin Pierce 1804–1869 * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (101–125)#125|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 125]]: The Pierce Manse * [[Daptar tanda sajarah New Hampshire (201–225)#216|Tanda sajarah New Hampshire no. 216]]: Pierce Shops == Catetan == {{Reflist|group="note"}} {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} === Karya anu dicutat === {{Refbegin|60em}} * {{cite book|last=Boulard|first=Garry|year=2006|title=The Expatriation of Franklin Pierce: The Story of a President and the Civil War|url=https://archive.org/details/expatriationoffr0000boul|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-40367-7}} * {{cite book|last=Gara|first=Larry|year=1991|title=The Presidency of Franklin Pierce|url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyoffran0000gara|publisher=University Press of Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-0494-4}} * {{cite book|last=Holt|first=Michael F.|year=2010|title=Franklin Pierce|url=https://archive.org/details/franklinpierce0000holt|publisher=Times Books|isbn=978-0-8050-8719-2}} * {{cite book|last=Potter|first=David M.|year=1976|title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861|url=https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00pott|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0-06-013403-7}} * {{cite book|last=Wallner|first=Peter A.|year=2004|title=Franklin Pierce: New Hampshire's Favorite Son|publisher=Guildhall Press|isbn=978-0-9707961-1-0}} * {{cite book|last=Wallner|first=Peter A.|year=2007|title=Franklin Pierce: Martyr for the Union|publisher=Guildhall Press|isbn=978-0-9707961-5-8}} {{Refend}} acy0nwmvsj617urp1tf1xjothd3keya James Buchanan 0 107851 712376 711530 2026-08-28T22:10:56Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712376 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" style="width:25em; float:right; border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0.5em; font-size: 90%;" |+ style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold; margin-bottom:0.2em;" | James Buchanan |- | colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[File:James Buchanan.jpg|230px]]<br /><small>Daguerreotype sakira taun 1850–1868</small> |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-15 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Masa jabatan | 4 Maret 1857 – 4 Maret 1861 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Wakil Présidén | [[John C. Breckinridge]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ti payun | [[Franklin Pierce]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Ti pengker | [[Abraham Lincoln]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Mentri Luar Nagri AS ka-17 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Masa jabatan | 10 Maret 1845 – 7 Maret 1849 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Présidén | [[James K. Polk]], [[Zachary Taylor]] |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #efefef; text-align:center;" | Inpormasi Pribadi |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Wedal | 23 April 1791<br />[[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania]], AS |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Pupus | 1 Juni 1868 (yuswa 77)<br />[[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], AS |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Partéi pulitik | [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] (1814–1824)<br />[[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] (ti 1828) |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Almamater | [[Dickinson College]] |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Padamelan | [[Ahli hukum]], pulitikus |- ! style="text-align:left;" | Tanda tangan | [[File:James Buchanan Signature2.svg|120px]] |} '''James Buchanan Jr.''' (wedal 23 April 1791 – pupus 1 Juni 1868) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-15 anu ngajabat ti taun 1857 dugi ka 1861. Sateuacanna, anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat ka-17 (1845–1849) sarta ngawakilan nagara bagian [[Pennsylvania]] di dua lembaga [[Kongrés AS]] (Sénat sarta DPR). Buchanan mangrupa nu ngarojong hak-hak nagara bagian, utamana ngeunaan masalah [[perbudakan]], sarta ngawatesan ''peran'' pamaréntah féderal dina mangsa sateuacan [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]].<ref name="oxford">{{cite book|last1=Olausson|first1=Lena|last2=Sangster|first2=Catherine|year=2006|title=Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbbcguideto0000olau|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordbbcguideto0000olau/page/56 56]|isbn=0-19-280710-2}}</ref> == Mangsa keur leutik == Mangsa keur leutik sarta atikan == [[File:Buchanan Home Mercersburg.jpg|thumb|Tempat babar Buchanan|left]] James Buchanan Jr. dibabarkeun dina kulawarga [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scotch-Irish]] kaping 23 April 1791, di hiji saung kai (''log cabin'') di kebon anu dingaranan [[Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|Stony Batter]], deukeut [[Cove Gap, Pennsylvania|Cove Gap]] di Pagunungan Allegheny, Pennsylvania kidul.<ref name="whitehouse">{{cite web | url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-presidents-timeline | title=The Presidents Timeline |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 }}</ref> Anjeunna téh anak kadua ti sabelas sadulur, sarta putra cikal ti pasangan James Buchanan Sr. sarta Elizabeth Speer. Ramana nyaéta imigran ti [[County Donegal]], Irlandia, anu pindah ka Amérika dina taun 1783.<ref name="ulster">{{cite web|url=https://discoverulsterscots.com/emigration-influence/america/1718-migration-east-donegal/ulster-and-white-house|title=Ulster and the White House|publisher=Discover Ulster-Scots|access-date=17 Pébruari 2026}}</ref> Saatos Buchanan lahir, kulawargana pindah ka [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]] dina taun 1794. Ramana janten jalma beunghar di éta wewengkon salaku padagang sarta investor. Buchanan ngarasa yén indungna miboga pangaruh badag kana kacerdasanana, sabab sering ngajak diskusi pulitik sarta maca karya [[William Shakespeare]]. Buchanan kuliah di [[Dickinson College]] di Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Dina taun 1808, anjeunna ampir-ampiran dikaluarkeun alatan polahna anu badung sarta sering mabok di tavern, nanging anjeunna lulus kalayan hasil saé dina taun 1809. Saterusna anjeunna pindah ka [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]] pikeun diajar hukum salami dua satengah taun ka James Hopkins. Di dinya anjeunna neuleuman [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]] sarta dasar-dasar hukum Inggris ti [[William Blackstone]]. === Karir awal hukum sarta DPR Pennsylvania === Dina taun 1812, [[James Buchanan]] lulus ujian kaanggotaan advokat (''bar exam'') sarta tetep cicing di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] saatos diaku salaku ahli hukum. Anjeunna gancang jadi salah sahiji wawakil hukum anu kawéntar di éta kota. Panghasilanana naék drastis saatos muka prakték sorangan; dina taun 1821, anjeunna parantos miboga panghasilan langkung ti $11,000 per taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=13–16}} Dina mangsa ieu ogé, Buchanan janten saurang [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], sarta ngajabat salaku ''Worshipful Master'' di Loge Masonik No. 43 di Lancaster.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=27}} Anjeunna ogé ngajabat salaku pupuhu cabang [[Federalist Party|Partéi Féderalist]] di Lancaster. Buchanan ngarojong program pulitik partéina saperti pangadegan deui bank sentral. Anjeunna janten kritikus anu kacida vocalna ka Présidén [[James Madison]] nalika [[Perang 1812]]. Sanajan henteu ngagabung sacara resmi kana milisi, Buchanan kungsi milu jeung sakelompok pamuda pikeun maling kuda pikeun kabutuhan [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat|Angkatan Darat AS]] di Baltimore nalika aya penjajahan Inggris. Buchanan nyaéta présidén panungtungan anu kungsi kalibet dina Perang 1812.<ref name="moody">{{cite book |last=Moody |first=Wesley |title=The Battle of Fort Sumter |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=23}}</ref> Dina taun 1814, anjeunna kapilih salaku wakil ti Féderalist ka [[DPR Pennsylvania]] sarta janten anggota pangmudana harita (ngajabat dugi ka 1816). Dina taun 1815, anjeunna hasil ngabéla Hakim Distrik [[Walter Franklin (judge)|Walter Franklin]] dina sidang pamakzulan (''impeachment'') di hareupen [[Sénat Pennsylvania]]. Buchanan hasil ngayakinkeun para sénator yén pamakzulan mung tiasa dilakukeun upami aya palanggaran hukum anu jelas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=17–18}} == Karir di Kongrés == {{utama|Sajarah pamilihan James Buchanan}} === DPR Amérika Sarikat === Dina pamilihan kongrés taun 1820, [[James Buchanan]] nyalonkeun diri pikeun korsi di [[Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat Amérika Sarikat|DPR AS]]. Teu lami saatos kameunanganana, ramana pupus alatan kacilakaan karéta kuda.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=22}} Salaku anggota Déwan anu anom, Buchanan janten salah sahiji pamingpin anu kawéntar dina faksi pulitik "Amalgamator" di Pennsylvania, dingaranan kitu margi anggotana diwangun ku gabungan urang Démokratik-Républik sarta urang tilas Féderalist dina mangsa transisi tina [[Sistem Partéi Kahiji]] ka [[Éra Perasaan Saé]] (''Era of Good Feelings''). Dina éra ieu, Démokratik-Républik janten partéi anu pangmangaruhna. Kayakinan Buchanan ka partéi Féderalist mimiti luntur, saterusna anjeunna pindah partéi saatos nolak hiji rarancang undang-undang Féderalist anu boga sipat nativis.<ref name=":0">Etcheson, Nicole. (2013). "General Jackson Is Dead: James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and Kansas Policy". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 88–90.</ref> Dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1824|Pilihan Raya 1856]], Buchanan mimitina ngadukung [[Henry Clay]], nanging saterusna pindah ngadukung [[Andrew Jackson]] nalika katingal yén masarakat Pennsylvania leuwih milih Jackson.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |title=A History of Pennsylvania |year=1980 |pages=135–136}}</ref> Saatos Jackson éléh dina pamilihan 1824, Buchanan ngagabung ka faksina, nanging Jackson miboga rasa teu resep ka Buchanan alatan salah harti dina upaya Buchanan janten médiator antara pihak Clay sarta Jackson.<ref name=":0" /> Di Washington, Buchanan janten anu bébéla kana hak-hak nagara bagian ([[states' rights]]) anu kacida kuatna, sarta raket jeung seueur anggota Kongrés ti bagian Kidul. Anjeunna nganggap sababaraha anggota Kongrés ti New England salaku [[Radikalisme|radikal]] anu bahaya. Kamampuh Buchanan dina ngajaga hubungan sareng daérah pamilihanana ngamungkinkeun anjeunna ngawangun koalisi Démokrat di Pennsylvania anu diwangun ku patani tilas Féderalist sarta imigran Ulster-Scots. Dina pamilihan présidén 1828, anjeunna hasil ngamankeun sora Pennsylvania pikeun Jackson.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=24–27}} Buchanan ogé meunang perhatian nalika mingpin prosés hukum dina sidang pamakzulan hakim distrik féderal [[James H. Peck]], sanajan ahirna Sénat mutuskeun hakim éta bébas. Anjeunna diangkat janten anggota Komite Pertanian dina taun munggaranna, sarta lila-lila janten pupuhu Komite Yudisial DPR AS. Dina taun 1831, Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun deui pikeun Kongrés ka-22 ti daérah pamilihanana. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna masih miboga ambisi pulitik, malah sababaraha urang Démokrat Pennsylvania ngajukeun anjeunna salaku calon wakil présidén dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1832|pamilihan 1832]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=28–30}} === Duta Besar pikeun Rusia === Saatos Jackson kapilih deui dina taun 1832, anjeunna nawarkeun jabatan [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Rusia]] ka [[James Buchanan]]. Buchanan saleresna horéam ninggalkan nagarana, margi nganggap kota [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] anu tebih téh salaku tempat pangbuangan pulitik, nanging ahirna anjeunna nyaluyuan. Éta memang maksud Jackson, jalaran anjeunna nganggap Buchanan salaku jalma anu "teu parigel sarta resep pipilueun" (''incompetent busybody'') sarta kurang dipercaya.<ref name=":0" /> Tugas utama Buchanan di ditu nyaéta nyieun perjangjian dagang sarta pelayaran jeung Rusia. Sanajan Buchanan hasil dina urusan dagang, prosés negosiasi ngeunaan kabébasan pelayaran kapal dagang jeung Mentri Luar Nagri Rusia, [[Karl Nesselrode]], tétéla kacida héséna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=30–31}} Sataun sateuacanna nalika masih di Kongrés, Buchanan kantos nyebat Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] salaku saurang ''despot'' (pamingpin diktator); harita seueur urang Amérika anu méré réaksi négatif kana tindakan Rusia dina numpes [[Pemberontakan Nopémber|pemberontakan Polandia 1830]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Leary |first=Derek Kane |date=6 Maret 2023 |title=James Buchanan's 1832 Mission to the Tsar... |url=https://ageofrevolutions.com/2023/03/06/james-buchanans-1832-mission-to-the-tsar-the-plight-of-poland-and-the-limits-of-americas-revolutionary-legacy-in-jacksonian-foreign-policy/ |access-date=17 Pébruari 2026 |publisher=Age of Revolutions}}</ref> === Sénator Amérika Sarikat === [[File:James Buchanan painted by J. Eichholtz.jpg|thumb|Lukisan Buchanan taun 1834 ku [[Jacob Eichholtz]]|right]] Saatos mulang ka lemburna, [[James Buchanan]] kapilih ku legislatif nagara bagian Pennsylvania pikeun ngaganti [[William Wilkins (U.S. politician)|William Wilkins]] di Sénat AS. Sabalikna, Wilkins ngaganti posisi Buchanan salaku duta besar di Rusia. Salaku pangrojong Jackson (Jacksonian), Buchanan anu kapilih deui dina taun 1836 sarta 1842, nolak ayana [[Second Bank of the United States]] sarta narékahan pikeun ngahapus kacawadan (''censure'') Kongrés ka Jackson alatan [[Bank War]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} Buchanan ngajabat di Sénat nepi ka Maret 1845.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=32}} Pikeun ngahijikeun urang Démokrat Pennsylvania, anjeunna dipilih janten calon maranéhna dina Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat. Buchanan kacida patuhna kana tungtunan legislatif nagara bagianana, malah sakapeung mah anjeunna milih nolak hiji posisi di Kongrés anu saleresna dirojong ku anjeunna dina biantara pribadina, demi ambisi pulitikna ka Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} Buchanan dipikawanoh ku komitmenna kana hak-hak nagara bagian (**[[states' rights]]**) sarta doktrin ékspansi wilayah (oʻ[[manifest destiny]]). Anjeunna nolak tawaran Présidén [[Martin Van Buren]] pikeun janten Jaksa Agung AS sarta kalah milih janten pupuhu komite-komite bergengsi di Sénat saperti Komite Yudisial sarta Komite Hubungan Luar Nagri.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=33–34}} Buchanan mangrupa salah sahiji ti saeutik sénator anu nolak [[Webster–Ashburton Treaty]] sabab dianggap "nyerahkeun" lahan ka Britania Raya. Dina sengketa wates Oregon, anjeunna nungtut garis 54°40′ salaku wates kalér sarta satuju kana anéksasi [[Républik Texas]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} Sajaba ti éta, Buchanan nolak aturan pembungkaman ([[Gag rule (United States)|gag rule]]) anu diajukeun ku [[John C. Calhoun]] anu tujuanna pikeun ngeureunkeun petisi anti-perbudakan. Buchanan nyebutkeun, "Urang boga hak anu kacida saeutikna pikeun pipilueun kana urusan perbudakan di Kidul, sarua jeung saeutikna hak urang pikeun ngaganggu hak petisi." Anjeunna boga pamandangan yén masalah perbudakan téh mangrupa urusan masing-masing nagara bagian sarta nyalahkeun kaum [[abolisionis]] anu dianggapna ngan saukur manas-manasan kaayaan. Dina mangsa méméh Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1844, Buchanan nyiapkeun diri janten alternatif pikeun Martin Van Buren, nanging nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[James K. Polk]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=35–38}} == Karir Diplomasi == === Mentri Luar Nagri === [[File:Polkcabinet1849edited.png|left|thumb|Buchanan (kadua ti kenca) dina kabinét Polk, 1849]] [[James Buchanan]] ditawaran jabatan [[Mentri Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] dina administrasi Polk atanapi, salaku pilihan séjén, korsi di [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]. Ieu tawaran mangrupa bales budi kana rojonganana nalika kampanye, nanging ogé tujuanna pikeun nyingkirkeun Buchanan salaku saingan internal dina partéi. Anjeunna milih jabatan di Departemén Luar Nagri sarta ngajabat salami mangsa jabatan Polk. Nalika anjeunna ngajabat, Amérika Sarikat kacatet miboga panambahan wilayah panggedéna dina sajarah ngaliwatan [[Perjangjian Oregon]] sarta [[Perjangjian Guadalupe Hidalgo]], anu ngawengku wilayah anu ayeuna janten Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, sarta Colorado.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=38–40}} Dina negosiasi jeung Britania ngeunaan Oregon, Buchanan mimitina satuju kana garis [[paralel ka-49 kalér]] salaku wates Wilayah Oregon, sedengkeun Polk hayang garis wates anu leuwih ka kalér. Nalika urang Démokrat Kalér ngagunakeun semboyan populér [[Fifty-Four Forty or Fight]] ("54°40′ atanapi perang") dina kampanye 1844, anjeunna milu satuju, nanging ahirna nuturkeun arahan Polk anu ngahasilkeun Kompromi Oregon 1846, anu netepkeun paralel ka-49 salaku wates di [[Pacific Northwest]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=40–41}} Buchanan percaya yén serangan Méksiko ka pasukan Amérika di peuntas [[Rio Grande]] dina April 1846 mangrupa palanggaran wates sarta alesan anu sah pikeun perang. Nalika [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]], mimitina anjeunna mamatahan sangkan ulah nungtut wilayah di kiduleun Rio Grande alatan sieun perang jeung Britania sarta Perancis. Nanging, nalika perang rék bérés, Buchanan robah pamandangan sarta ngarojong anéksasi wilayah anu leuwih lega, kalayan alesan yén Méksiko anu salah mitembean perang sarta kompensasi pikeun karugian Amérika dianggap leutik teuing. Buchanan nyoba nyalonkeun diri dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1848]], margi Polk parantos jangji ngan bakal ngajabat sakali, nanging anjeunna mung meunang rojongan ti delegasi Pennsylvania sarta Virginia, sahingga Sénator [[Lewis Cass]] ti Michigan anu ahirna dicalonkeun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=41–43}} === Kahirupan sipil sarta pilihan raya présidén 1852 === [[File:James Buchanan sculpture at National Portrait Gallery IMG 4538.JPG|right|thumb|Patung dada James Buchanan ku [[Henry Dexter (sculptor)|Henry Dexter]]]] Saatos [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pamilihan 1848]] anu dimeunangkeun ku [[Zachary Taylor]] ti Partéi Whig, [[James Buchanan]] balik deui kana kahirupan pribadi. Buchanan mingkin sepuh sarta masih kénéh dangdos nganggo gaya katinggaleun jaman sapertos mangsa anomna, sahingga anjeunna meunang jujulukan "[[Old Public Functionary]]" ti média massa. Para nu nolak perbudakan di bagian Kalér ogé ngéyék anjeunna salaku "titinggal manusa purba" alatan ajén-inajén moralna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}} Anjeunna mésér bumi [[Wheatland (James Buchanan House)|Wheatland]] di sisi kota [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] sarta sering nampi tamu bari terus ngawas kaayaan pulitik.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=43–46}} Dina mangsa ieu, Buchanan janten puseur kulawarga anu diwangun ku 22 alon-alon (''nieces/nephews'') sarta katurunanana, tujuh di antarana budak yatim. Anjeunna milarian padamelan umum pikeun sawatara baraya ngaliwatan jalu (''patronage''). Hubungan émosional anu pangkuatna nyaéta sareng alon-alonna, [[Harriet Lane]], anu engkéna janten Ibu Nagara (''First Lady'') pikeun Buchanan di Gedong Bodas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=46–48}} Dina taun 1852, anjeunna diangkat janten présidén Déwan Pangurus [[Franklin and Marshall College]] di Lancaster, sarta ngajabat dugi ka taun 1866.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=210, 415}} Buchanan teu sagemblengna ninggalkeun dunya pulitik. Anjeunna ancrub deui dina kampanye siluman pikeun nominasi présidén ti Partéi Démokrat taun 1852. Alatan ayana [[Kompromi 1850]], Buchanan ayeuna nolak [[Kompromi Missouri]] sarta ngadukung panolakan Kongrés kana [[Wilmot Proviso]] (anu ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah meunang perang ti Méksiko). Buchanan ngritik [[Abolisionisme|abolisionisme]] salaku sikep fanatik sarta percaya yén urusan perbudakan kedah diputuskeun ku legislatif nagara bagian, sanés ku Kongrés. Anjeunna janten kawéntar salaku saurang "**[[doughface]]**" alatan rasa simpatina ka pihak Kidul.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=52–56}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1852]], anjeunna meunang rojongan ti loba delegasi Kidul nanging gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu sora anu diperyogikeun. Nominasi éta ahirna murag ka [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan nolak dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén, sahingga konvénsi milih sobat deukeutna, [[William R. King]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}} === Duta Besar pikeun Britania Raya === Pierce meunangkeun pamilihan dina taun [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1852|1852]], sarta genep sasih saatosna, [[James Buchanan]] nampi jabatan salaku [[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat pikeun Britania Raya]]. Jabatan ieu sabenerna mangrupa léngkah mundur dina karirna sarta sateuacanna kantos ditolak dua kali ku anjeunna.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=57–59}} Buchanan balayar ka Inggris dina usum panas taun 1853 sarta netep di ditu salami tilu taun. Dina taun 1850, Amérika Sarikat sarta Britania Raya parantos nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]], anu ngabeungkeut kadua nagara pikeun ngokolakeun babarengan sagala terusan (kanal) anu bakal diwangun pikeun nyambungkeun Samudra Atlantik sarta Pasifik ngaliwatan Amérika Tengah. Buchanan sababaraha kali ngayakeun riungan sareng [[George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]], mentri luar nagri Britania, kalayan harepan bisa neken Britania sangkan kaluar tina Amérika Tengah. Anjeunna hasil ngurangan pangaruh Britania di [[Honduras]] sarta [[Nicaragua]]. Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ogé museurkeun perhatian kana rencana anéksasi [[Kuba]], anu parantos lami dipikaresep ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=58–64}} Atas paréntah Pierce, Buchanan ngayakeun riungan di [[Ostend|Ostend, Bélgia]], sareng Duta Besar AS pikeun Spanyol [[Pierre Soulé]] sarta Duta Besar AS pikeun Perancis [[John Y. Mason|John Mason]], pikeun ngararancang rencana panyokotan Kuba. Hasilna nyaéta draf mémorandum anu disebut [[Manifésto Osténd]], anu ngusulkeun sangkan AS mésér Kuba ti Spanyol anu harita nuju krisis ekonomi alatan révolusi. Éta dokumén nyatakeun yén pulo Kuba téh "sarua pentingna pikeun républik Amérika Kalér jiga nagara-nagara bagian séjénna". Sanajan Buchanan kurang panuju, draf ahir manifésto kasebut nyarankeun yén upami Spanyol nolak ngajual, tindakan "ngarebut paksa ti Spanyol" dianggap sah "sacara hukum manusa sarta Ilahi".{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}} Manifésto ieu nampi réaksi anu papaséan sarta henteu kungsi dilaksanakeun. Ieu hal malah ngaleuseuhkeun administrasi Pierce sarta ngurangan rojongan kana doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]].{{sfn|McPherson|1988|p=110}} Dina taun 1855, nalika Buchanan hayang pisan mulang ka lemburna, Pierce ménta anjeunna sangkan tetep aya di [[London]] alatan ayana perpindahan armada laut Britania ka [[Karibia]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=65–67}} == Pilihan Raya 1856 == {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1856.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Peta sora élektoral taun 1856]] Tugas Buchanan di luar nagri nguntungkeun anjeunna sabab anjeunna bisa nyingkahan padu jédog ngeunaan [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] anu nuju nyérot perhatian nagara dina sengketa perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}} Sanajan anjeunna henteu sacara terang-terangan nyiar jabatan présidén, anjeunna nyaluyuan gerakan anu diayakeun ku para pangrojongna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=248–252}} Nalika masih di Inggris, anjeunna kampanye ku cara muji [[John Hughes (archbishop)|John Joseph Hughes]], saurang Uskup Agung Katolik di New York. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun anjeunna nampi rojongan ti kalangan luhur umat [[Katolik]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=67–68}} Nalika Buchanan mulang ka lemburna dina ahir April 1856, anjeunna unggul dina sora munggaran kalayan dironjong ku sénator kawéntar sapertos [[John Slidell]], [[Jesse Bright]], sarta [[Thomas F. Bayard]]. Maranéhna némbongkeun Buchanan salaku pamingpin anu boga pangalaman sarta bisa ditarima ku urang Kalér ogé urang Kidul. [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1856]] anu diayakeun dina bulan Juni ngahasilkeun platform anu saluyu jeung pamandangan Buchanan, kaasup rojongan kana [[Undang-undang Budak Buron]] (''Fugitive Slave Law''). Buchanan ahirna meunangkeun nominasi saatos [[Stephen A. Douglas]] ngundurkeun diri. Anjeunna papasangan sareng [[John C. Breckinridge]] ti Kentucky salaku calon wakil présidén pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan wilayah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}} Dina pilihan raya umum, Buchanan nyanghareupan dua saingan: tilas Présidén [[Millard Fillmore]] ti Partéi Amérika (''Know-Nothing'') anu anti-imigran sarta anti-Katolik, sarta [[John C. Frémont]] ti [[Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat|Partéi Républik]]. Buchanan henteu aktip kampanye sacara langsung, nanging anjeunna nyuratan sarta jangji bakal nyekel delegasi Démokrat. Dina poéan pamilihan, anjeunna unggul di sakabéh nagara bagian anu ngalegalkeun perbudakan (iwal Maryland), sarta lima nagara bagian anu bébas perbudakan, kaasup nagara bagian asalna, Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=69–70}} Buchanan meunang 45 persén sora rahayat sarta unggul mutlak dina sora élektoral (174 ti 296 sora). Kameunangan ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran ti Pennsylvania. Dina biantara kameunanganana, Buchanan nyebat Partéi Républik salaku partéi anu "bahaya" sarta "geografis" (ngan sakelompok wilayah) sabab dianggap geus narajang pihak Kidul sacara teu adil. Anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén tujuan pamaréntahanana nyaéta pikeun "ngancurkeun partéi sektoral, boh di Kalér atanapi di Kidul, sarta mulangkeun kaharmonisan Uni di handapeun pamaréntahan nasional anu konservatif."{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=261–262}} == Masa Kaprésidénan (1857–1861) == {{utama|Masa kaprésidénan James Buchanan}} === Pelantikan === {{utama|Pelantikan James Buchanan}} [[James Buchanan]] dilantik dina kaping 4 Maret 1857, kalayan sumpah jabatan anu dipingpin ku Hakim Agung [[Roger B. Taney]]. Dina biantara pelantikanana anu panjang, Buchanan jangji ngan bakal ngajabat salami sakali mangsa jabatan. Anjeunna kacida teu resepna kana perpecahan anu mingkin parna ngeunaan perbudakan, sarta nyatakeun yén Kongrés sakuduna teu boga peran dina nangtukeun status perbudakan di nagara bagian atanapi wilayah-wilayah énggal.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}} Anjeunna ngajukeun solusi dumasar kana [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]], anu nyatakeun yén prinsip [[Popular sovereignty in the United States|kadaulatan rahayat]] téh nangtukeun, sarta Kongrés teu boga hak pipilueun. Buchanan ogé nyabit-nyabit kasus anu harita nuju diprosés di Mahkamah Agung, nyaéta ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu ceuk anjeunna bakal mutuskeun masalah perbudakan salilana. Dred Scott nyaéta saurang budak anu dibawa ku dunyana, [[John F. A. Sanford]], ti nagara bagian perbudakan ka wilayah bébas. Saatos Scott mulang ka nagara bagian perbudakan, anjeunna ngajukeun petisi pikeun kabébasan dirina dumasar kana mangsa hirupna di wilayah bébas kasebut.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=80–83, 85}} Hakim Agung [[Robert C. Grier]] bocor saénggalna ngeunaan putusan kasus ''Dred Scott'' ka Buchanan. Dina biantara pelantikanana, Buchanan nyatakeun yén masalah perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS bakal "saénggalna sarta sacara final diputuskeun" ku Mahkamah Agung.<ref>James Buchanan, "Inaugural Address," Washington, D.C., March 4, 1857.</ref> Numutkeun sajarawan [[Paul Finkelman]]: {{kutipan|Buchanan ''parantos'' terang naon anu bakal diputuskeun ku Mahkamah. Dina palanggaran étika Mahkamah anu gedé, Hakim Grier, anu asalna ti Pennsylvania jiga Buchanan, parantos méré nyaho ka Présidén-pilih ngeunaan kamekaran kasus sarta debat internal di jero Mahkamah. Nalika Buchanan ngajak sakuliah nagara pikeun ngarojong putusan kasebut, anjeunna parantos terang naon anu bakal diomongkeun ku Taney. Kacurigaan urang Républik ngeunaan ayana kacurangan tétéla kabuktian bener.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Paul |last1=Finkelman |title=Scott v. Sandford: The Court's most dreadful case and how it changed history |journal=Chicago-Kent Law Review |volume=82 |date=2007 |pages=46}}</ref>}} Para sajarawan sapuk yén putusan mahkamah kasebut mangrupa bencana gedé sabab kacida manas-manasan kaayaan, anu ahirna ngabalukarkeun Perang Sadulur. Dina taun 2022, sajarawan [[David W. Blight]] nyatakeun yén taun 1857 mangrupa "titik balik utama dina jalan nuju perpecahan... utamana alatan kasus Dred Scott, anu méré rasa sieun, teu percaya, sarta kabéngis di Kalér ogé di Kidul nepi ka tingkat anu kacida parnana."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Blight |first1=David W. |title=Was the Civil War Inevitable? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/magazine/civil-war-jan-6.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=21 Désémber 2022}}</ref> ==== Jalu yudisial ==== {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku James Buchanan}} [[James Buchanan]] ngangkat hiji Hakim Agung, nyaéta [[Nathan Clifford]], ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nathan Clifford, 1858–1881 |url=https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-court-timeline-of-the-justices-nathan-clifford-1858-1881/ |publisher=The Supreme Court Historical Society}}</ref> Sajaba ti éta, anjeunna ngangkat tujuh hakim féderal séjénna pikeun pangadilan distrik AS sarta dua hakim pikeun Pangadilan Klaim AS.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}} === Campur tangan dina kasus ''Dred Scott'' === Kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'', anu disebut ku Buchanan dina biantara pelantikanana, parantos dimimitian ti taun 1846. Dred Scott ngagugat pikeun kabébasan dirina di [[Missouri]], kalayan alesan yén anjeunna kantos hirup ngabakti ka dunyana di wilayah bébas [[Illinois]] sarta [[Teritori Wisconsin]]. Kasus ieu nepi ka Mahkamah Agung sarta jadi perhatian nasional dina taun 1856. Dina Januari 1857, Buchanan ngayakeun konsultasi sareng Hakim [[John Catron]], nanyakeun ngeunaan hasil kasus kasebut sarta nyarankeun sangkan Mahkamah ngaluarkeun putusan anu leuwih lega (teu ngan saukur urusan Scott wungkul) supados masalah perbudakan bisa réngsé salilana.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=271–272}} Buchanan boga harepan yén putusan anu ngajaga hak perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah bisa ngabéréskeun parépat nasional, sahingga anjeunna bisa fokus kana urusan nagara séjénna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=83–84}} Catron ngawaler dina 10 Pébruari, nyebutkeun yén mayoritas hakim ti Kidul bakal mutuskeun ngalawan Scott, nanging maranéhna butuh dukungan ti hakim asal Pennsylvania, [[Robert Cooper Grier]], sangkan putusanana boga pangaruh anu kuat sarta lega. Buchanan saterusna nyuratan Grier sarta hasil mangaruhan anjeunna sangkan gabung jeung mayoritas hakim Kidul. Hal ieu méré kakuatan ka Mahkamah pikeun nyatakeun yén [[Kompromi Missouri 1820]] téh teu luyu jeung konstitusi (inkonstitusional).{{sfn|Potter|1976|p=287}}{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=85}} Dua poé saatos Buchanan dilantik, Hakim Agung Taney ngumumkeun putusan ''Dred Scott'', anu nolak paménta kabébasan Scott. Putusan kasebut sacara lega negeskeun yén Kongrés teu boga kakawasaan konstitusional pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah AS. Numutkeun ieu putusan, budak téh salilana mangrupa harta banda nu bogana, sarta euweuh urang Afrika-Amérika anu bisa jadi warga nagara Amérika Sarikat anu sah. Sanajan surat-surat Buchanan harita teu dipublikasikeun, masarakat nempo anjeunna ngobrol ricit sareng Hakim Agung nalika pelantikan. Hal ieu ngahudang amarah urang Kalér sarta malah mingkin nguatkeun Partéi Républik anu dikutuk ku Buchanan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=85–86}} === Panik 1857 === Krisis finansial anu disebut **[[Panik 1857]]** dimimitian dina usum panas taun kasebut, nalika cabang New York tina ''Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company'' ngumumkeun bangkrut (insolvénsi).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sobel |first=Robert |title=Panic on Wall Street: A History of America's Financial Disasters |year=1999 |publisher=Beard Books}}</ref> Ieu krisis nyebar kacida gancangna, sarta dina usum gugur, 1.400 bank nagara bagian sarta 5.000 pausahaan parantos bangkrut. Pangangguran sarta kalaparan janten hal anu lumrah di kota-kota bagian Kalér, nanging wilayah Kidul anu ngandelkeun tatanén leuwih kuat nahan kaayaan. Buchanan sapamadegan sareng urang Kidul yén ieu karuksakan ékonomi téh disababkeun ku spékulasi anu kaleuleuwihi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} Buchanan nindak dumasar kana prinsip [[Jacksonian democracy|Démokrasi Jacksonian]], nyaéta ngawatesan pamedalan duit kertas sarta ngeureunkeun (''freeze'') dana féderal pikeun proyék pangwangunan umum. Hal ieu ngahudang rasa teu resep ti masarakat alatan anjeunna nolak ngajalankeun program [[Stimulus ékonomi|stimulus ékonomi]].<ref>Morrison, Michael A. (2013). "President James Buchanan, Executive Leadership and the Crisis of the Democracy". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 151.</ref> Sanajan pamaréntah dirasa "teu miboga kakuatan pikeun méré bantuan",{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} pamaréntahanana tetep mayar hutang nganggo koin emas/pérak (''specie''). Kalayan harepan bisa ngurangan jumlah duit kertas sarta neken inflasi, anjeunna ngadesek nagara-nagara bagian sangkan ngawatesan krédit bank sarta ulah ngagunakeun obligasi féderal salaku jaminan duit bank. Ékonomi ahirna pulih dina sababaraha taun, nanging loba urang Amérika anu sangsara alatan ieu krisis. Buchanan tadina hayang ngurangan defisit, nanging nalika anjeunna lungsur tina jabatanna, anggaran féderal kalah naék 15%.{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=90}} === Perang Utah === {{utama|Perang Utah|Pajabat nu Kabur taun 1851}} Dina usum semi taun 1857, kelompok [[Gereja Yesus Kristus ti Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir|Jalma-jalma Suci Zaman Akhir]] sarta pamingpinna, [[Brigham Young]], parantos nangtang wawakil féderal di [[Wilayah Utah]], anu ngabalukarkeun ayana gangguan sarta kekerasan ka warga non-Mormon. Young ogé ngalarang urang luar pikeun netep di wewengkon [[Salt Lake City]]. Dina Séptémber 1857, [[Milisi Wilayah Utah]] anu aya patalina jeung kelompok Mormon ngalakukeun [[Bantéyan Mountain Meadows]], dimana milisi lokal narajang rombongan karéta kuda sarta maéhan 125 urang padumuk. Buchanan ngarasa kaganggu ku sikep militeristik sarta prakték [[Mormonisme sarta poligami|poligami]] anu dilakukeun ku Young.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=90–92}} Alatan laporan kekerasan kasebut, Buchanan ngidinan ékspédisi militer ka Wilayah Utah dina ahir Maret 1857 pikeun ngaganti Young tina jabatan gubernur. Pasukan ieu diwangun ku 2.500 prajurit, kaasup [[Alfred Cumming (gubernur)|Alfred Cumming]] sarta stafna, anu dipingpin ku Jéndral [[William S. Harney]]. Masalah mingkin pabeulit sabab béwara ngeunaan panggantian gubernur henteu nepi ka Young alatan administrasi Pierce parantos mutuskeun kontrak pos ka Utah. Young nganggap pasukan anu datang téh salaku upaya kudéta anu teu sah.<ref>MacKinnon, William P. (2013). "Prelude to Armageddon: James Buchanan, Brigham Young, and a President’s Initiation to Bloodshed". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp 52–59.</ref>{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}} Sikep Buchanan ieu ngahudang perlawanan ti urang Mormon di sabudeureun Young, utamana sabab Harney dipikawanoh salaku jalma anu telenges. Dina Agustus 1857, [[Albert Sidney Johnston|Albert S. Johnston]] ngaganti Harney alatan urusan organisasi.<ref>MacKinnon, William P. (2013). pp 59–62.</ref> Young ngaréaksi ku cara ngancurkeun rombongan logistik sarta harta banda Angkatan Darat. Buchanan saterusna ngirimkeun [[Thomas L. Kane]] salaku agén pribadi pikeun negosiasi perdamaian. Éta misi hasil; Gubernur Young daék diganti ku Cumming, sarta [[Perang Utah]] réngsé sacara daméy. Présidén méré amnésti ka sakabéh padumuk anu satia ka pamaréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=317}} Buchanan teu méré koméntar deui ngeunaan ieu konflik nepi ka biantara ''State of the Union'' dina Désémber 1857. Salah sahiji tindakan resmi panungtungan Buchanan dina Maret 1861 nyaéta ngurangan legana Wilayah Utah pikeun dibikeun ka [[Nevada]], [[Colorado]], sarta [[Nebraska]]. Sanajan kelompok Mormon sering nangtang otoritas féderal, sababaraha sajarawan nganggap yén tindakan Buchanan téh mangrupa réspons anu kaleuleuwihi dumasar kana laporan anu can kabuktian benerna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=316}} === Kabel telegraf transatlantik === Buchanan mangrupa jalma munggaran anu nampi [[telegraf]] resmi anu dikirimkeun meuntasan Samudra Atlantik. Saatos sababaraha tés sarta konfigurasi, dina kaping 16 Agustus 1858, [[Ratu Victoria]] ngirimkeun pesen saloba 98 kecap ka Buchanan anu nuju aya di kediaman usum panasna di [[Bedford Springs Hotel]], [[Pennsylvania]]. Dina éta pesen, Ratu Victoria ngaharepkeun yén kabel anu nembé dipasang éta bisa janten "beungkeut tambahan antara bangsa-bangsa anu sosobatanana dumasar kana kapentingan babarengan sarta silih hargaan". Pesen ti Ratu Victoria kasebut merlukeun waktu 16 jam pikeun nepi.<ref name="Trade1861">{{cite book |title=Report of the Joint Committee... |access-date=1 Maret 2018 |year=1861 |publisher=Eyre}}</ref> Buchanan ngawaler: "Ieu mangrupa kameunangan anu leuwih mulya, sabab jauh leuwih mangpaat pikeun umat manusa, batan kameunangan anu kantos dimeunangkeun ku nu nalukkeun di médan perang. Muga-muga telegraf Atlantik, kalayan berkah ti Langit, bisa janten beungkeut perdamaian sarta sosobatan anu langgeng antara bangsa-bangsa anu sarumpun, sarta janten alat anu ditangtukeun ku Takdir Ilahi pikeun nyebarkeun agama, peradaban, kabébasan, sarta hukum ka sakuliah dunya."<ref name="spencer-vol3">{{cite book |title='THE QUEEN'S MESSAGE' and 'THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY' |volume=3 |author=Jesse Ames Spencer |publisher=Johnson, Fry |year=1866 |page=542}}</ref> === Bleeding Kansas sarta sengketa konstitusional === {{utama|Bleeding Kansas}} [[File:US SlaveFree1858.gif|thumb|upright=1.6|Kasaimbangan nagara bagian bébas sarta perbudakan dina taun 1858, saatos [[Minnesota]] ngagabung.]] [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] taun 1854 nyieun [[Teritori Kansas]] sarta ngidinan para padumuk di dinya pikeun nangtukeun naha bakal ngidinan ayana perbudakan atanapi henteu. Hal ieu ngakibatkeun kekerasan antara kelompok "[[Free-Soil]]" (anti-perbudakan) sarta kelompok pro-perbudakan, anu saterusna janten mangsa "[[Bleeding Kansas]]" (Kansas nu Getihan). Kelompok anti-perbudakan ngawangun pamaréntahan sorangan di [[Topeka]], sedengkeun kelompok pro-perbudakan ngadegkeun pamaréntahan di [[Lecompton, Kansas|Lecompton]]. Buchanan milih pikeun ngarojong pamaréntahan Lecompton anu pro-perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=93–98}} Buchanan ngangkat [[Robert J. Walker]] pikeun ngaganti John W. Geary salaku Gubernur Teritori. Dina Oktober 1857, pamaréntahan Lecompton nyusun [[Konstitusi Lecompton]] anu pro-perbudakan. Nanging, referendum anu diayakeun ngan masihan pilihan anu kacida heureutna, sahingga kelompok mayoritas anu anti-perbudakan milih pikeun boikot éta sora.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=97–100}} Sanajan diténtang ku Walker, Buchanan tetep narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Dina Désémber 1857, Buchanan papanggih jeung [[Stephen A. Douglas]] sarta maksa sangkan sakabéh urang Démokrat ngarojong anjeunna. Buchanan ngagunakeun sagala cara, kaasup nawarkeun jabatan sarta duit pikeun meunangkeun sora di Kongrés. Konstitusi Lecompton hasil ditarima ku Sénat dina bulan Maret, nanging ahirna éléh di DPR ku gabungan kakuatan Partéi Républik sarta urang Démokrat Kalér.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}} Buchanan teu kungsi ngahampura Douglas. Anjeunna miceun sakabéh pangrojong Douglas tina jabatan pamaréntahan di Illinois sarta Washington, D.C. Salaku ganti tina éléhna Konstitusi Lecompton, Buchanan ngadukung [[English Bill (1858)|English Bill]] taun 1858, anu nawarkeun taneuh anu lega pikeun Kansas upami maranéhna narima Konstitusi Lecompton. Nanging, dina Agustus 1858, rahayat Kansas tetep nolak éta konstitusi sacara mutlak. Kansas ahirna nampi konstitusi anti-perbudakan, nanging diténtang pisan ku urang Kidul di Kongrés dugi ka Kansas kakara bisa jadi nagara bagian dina Januari 1861.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|pp=100–105}} Ieu parépat di Kansas janten médan perang pikeun rebutan kakawasaan di jero Partéi Démokrat. Di hiji sisi aya Buchanan sarta urang Démokrat Kidul, sedengkeun di sisi séjén aya Douglas sarta mayoritas urang Démokrat Kalér. Douglas tetep ngadukung kadaulatan rahayat, sedengkeun Buchanan keukeuh yén Partéi Démokrat kedah hormat kana putusan ''Dred Scott'' anu ngalarang campur tangan féderal kana urusan perbudakan.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=120–121}} === Pilihan raya sela 1858 === Mangsa jabatan Sénat Stephen A. Douglas bakal réngsé dina taun 1859, sarta legislatif Illinois hasil pilihan raya 1858 anu bakal nangtukeun naha Douglas kapilih deui atanapi henteu. Korsi Sénat ieu janten pasualan utama dina pamilihan legislatif kasebut, anu dicirian ku perdebatan kawéntar antara Douglas sarta lawan Républikna, [[Abraham Lincoln]] (''[[Lincoln–Douglas debates]]''). Buchanan, ngaliwatan kakuatan jalu (''patronage'') di Illinois, ngajukeun calon-calon legislatif sorangan pikeun nyerang pihak Républik sakaligus pihak Douglas. Hal ieu némbongkeun sakumaha jerona rasa ceuceub Buchanan ka Douglas.{{sfn|Chadwick|2008|p=117}} Ahirna, urang Démokrat Douglas meunang sarta Douglas kapilih deui ka Sénat. Dina pamilihan taun éta, kakuatan Douglas ngawasa ampir sakuliah Kalér, iwal di Pennsylvania, nagara bagian asal Buchanan. Rojongan pikeun Buchanan mingkin ngeret, ngan sésa di wilayah Kidul wungkul.{{sfn|Potter|1976|pp=297–327}}{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=286–299}} Perpecahan antara urang Démokrat Kalér sarta Kidul ngamungkinkeun Partéi Républik meunangkeun sora panglobana (pluralitas) di DPR dina [[Pilihan raya Amérika Sarikat 1858|pamilihan 1858]]. Hal ieu ngalantarankeun maranéhna bisa ngahalangan ampir sakabéh agenda Buchanan. Sabalikna, Buchanan ogé némbongkeun mumusuhan ku cara ngagunakeun hak véto kana genep undang-undang penting anu diajukeun ku urang Républik.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=312}} Di antarana nyaéta [[Homestead Acts|Homestead Act]], anu bakal méré lahan 160 héktar ka para padumuk, sarta [[Morrill Land-Grant Acts|Morrill Act]] pikeun ngadegkeun paguron luhur tatanén. Buchanan boga pamandangan yén undang-undang ieu téh inkonstitusional. Di wilayah kulon, malah seueur urang Démokrat anu ngutuk kawijakan présidén ieu, sedengkeun masarakat anu nganggap pendidikan salaku aset penting ngarasa kuciwa ku véto Buchanan kana pangwangunan universitas.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=117–118}} === Kawijakan luar nagri === Buchanan ngamimitian jabatanna kalayan kawijakan luar nagri anu ambisius, anu dirarancang pikeun ngukuhkeun [[Hégémoni]] AS di Amérika Tengah sarta ngurangan pangaruh Britania Raya.{{sfn|Smith|1975|pp=69–70}} Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngahirupkeun deui doktrin [[Manifest Destiny]]** sarta negeskeun [[Doktrin Monroe]], anu harita nuju ditarajang ku Spanyol, Perancis, sarta utamana Britania dina taun 1850-an.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). "In Defense of Doughface Diplomacy...". ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War''. pp. 112–114.</ref> Anjeunna boga harepan pikeun negosiasi deui [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] pikeun nolak [[Imperialisme Éropa]] di Hémisfér Kulon. Buchanan ogé hayang ngadegkeun protéktorat AS di nagara bagian Méksiko sapertos [[Chihuahua (nagara bagian)|Chihuahua]] sarta [[Sonora]], sarta anu paling utama, anjeunna masih kénéh miboga ambisi jangka panjang pikeun miboga Kuba. Nanging, ambisi Buchanan di Kuba sarta Méksiko kalolobaanana dihalangan ku DPR AS. Saatos negosiasi panjang sareng Britania, anjeunna hasil ngayakinkeun maranéhna pikeun nyerahkeun [[Departemén Kapuloan Bay|Kapuloan Bay]] ka [[Honduras]] sarta [[Basisir Mosquito]] ka [[Nicaragua]].{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} Dina taun 1858, Buchanan maréntahkeun [[Ékspédisi Paraguay]] pikeun ngahukum [[Paraguay]] alatan némbakan kapal {{USS|Water Witch|1851|6}}. Ékspédisi anu méakkeun waragad gedé ieu hasil meunangkeun paménta hampura sarta pamayaran ganti rugi ti Paraguay.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} Buchanan ogé kantos mikirkeun pikeun mésér Alaska ti [[Kaisar Rusia]], margi kagiatan moro paus di ditu kacida pentingna pikeun ékonomi AS. Dina usum tiris taun 1859, tawaran awal sajumlah $5.000.000 parantos diajukeun. Sanajan proyék ieu ahirna gagal harita, obrolan ieu janten dadasar pikeun pameulian Alaska dina mangsa nu bakal datang.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 124–126.</ref> Di Asia, Buchanan nyiar perjangjian dagang sareng [[Dinasti Qing]] di Cina sarta Jepang. Di Cina, utusanana [[William Bradford Reed]] hasil ngasupkeun AS salaku pihak dina [[Perjangjian Tientsin]]. Dina Méi 1860, Buchanan nampi delegasi Jepang anu mawa Perjangjian Harris pikeun diratifikasi babarengan.<ref>Belohlavek, John M. (2013). pp. 126–128.</ref> Buchanan ogé kantos ditawaran sakandang [[Gajah]] ku Raja [[Rama IV]] ti [[Thailand|Siam]], nanging suratna kakara nepi saatos Buchanan lungsur tina jabatanana, sarta panerusna, Abraham Lincoln, nolak éta tawaran alatan kaayaan iklim di AS anu teu cocog.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lincoln Rejects the King of Siam's Offer of Elephants|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/lincoln-rejects-king-siams-offer-elephants|publisher=American Battlefield Trust}}</ref> Sato piaraan présidén lianna kalebet sapasang dadali botak (''bald eagles'') sarta anjing Newfoundland.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=107–112}} === Pilihan Raya 1860 === {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]] Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, "Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan."{{sfn|Klein|1962}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}} Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} === Pilihan Raya 1860 === {{utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:John C Breckinridge-04775-restored.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[John C. Breckinridge]], [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa Buchanan]] Sakumaha anu parantos dijangjikeun dina biantara pelantikanana, [[James Buchanan]] henteu nyalonkeun deui. Anjeunna malah kantos nyarios ka panerusna, "Upami anjeun ngarasa bagja nalika lebet ka Gedong Bodas sapertos kabagjaan kuring nalika mulang ka Wheatland, hartosna anjeun téh jalma anu bagja pisan."{{sfn|Klein|1962}} Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1860]] di Charleston, Partéi Démokrat peupeus alatan urusan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Hal ieu ngaruksak reputasi Buchanan anu dianggap salaku jalma anu paling tanggung jawab kana ieu pasualan. Sanajan [[Stephen A. Douglas]] unggul dina unggal pamilihan sora, anjeunna gagal meunangkeun dua per tilu mayoritas anu diperyogikeun. Ahirna, urang Kidul nolak hasil konvénsi sarta nyalonkeun Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku calon maranéhna sorangan. Buchanan, anu masih miboga dendam ka Douglas, henteu nyoba ngahijikeun deui partéina sarta kalah ngarojong Breckinridge sacara satengah haté. Alatan beulahna Partéi Démokrat, calon ti Partéi Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]], hasil meunangkeun pamilihan. Buchanan janten urang Démokrat panungtungan anu meunang pilihan raya présidén dugi ka [[Grover Cleveland]] dina taun 1884.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=118–120}} Ti mimiti bulan Oktober kénéh, Panglima Angkatan Darat [[Winfield Scott]] parantos ngingetan Buchanan yén kameunangan Lincoln bakal ngabalukarkeun saeutikna tujuh nagara bagian misahkeun diri tina Uni ([[Secession in the United States|secession]]). Scott nyarankeun sangkan pasukan féderal sarta artileri dikirimkeun ka nagara-nagara bagian kasebut pikeun ngajaga aset pamaréntah. Nanging, saprak taun 1857, Kongrés parantos ngabaheulakeun kaayaan militer sahingga kakuatanana kacida lemahna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} Buchanan teu percaya ka Scott sarta maliré kana saran-saranna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=76, 133}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, Buchanan sabenerna maréntahkeun Mentri Perang [[John B. Floyd]] pikeun nguatkeun bénténg-bénténg di Kidul, nanging Floyd hasil ngayakinkeun Buchanan pikeun ngabatalkeun éta paréntah.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=356–358}} === Pemisahan Diri (Sekesi) === Kameunangan Lincoln ngajantenkeun obrolan ngeunaan pemisahan diri ([[Secession in the United States|sekesi]]) sarta perpecahan Uni nepi ka titik puncak. Dina biantara panungtungna ka Kongrés kaping 10 Désémber, [[James Buchanan]] nolak hak nagara bagian pikeun misahkeun diri, nanging anjeunna ogé negeskeun yén pamaréntah féderal teu boga kakuatan pikeun nyegah hal éta. Anjeunna kalah nyalahkeun urang Kalér atas "campur tangan anu kaleuleuwihi kana urusan perbudakan di nagara bagian Kidul."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=363}} Hiji-hijina solusi anu diajukeun ku Buchanan nyaéta "amandemen guaran" pikeun ngukuhkeun legalitas perbudakan sarta [[Kadaulatan rahayat|kadaulatan rahayat]] di wilayah-wilayah anyar. Biantara ieu dikritik ku dua pihak: urang Kalér ambek sabab Buchanan dianggap memble teu bisa ngeureunkeun sekesi, sedengkeun urang Kidul ambek sabab hak maranéhna pikeun misahkeun diri ditolak. Lima poé saatosna, Mentri Kauangan [[Howell Cobb]] ngundurkeun diri alatan parantos teu sapamadegan deui sareng Présidén.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} [[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|{{center|'''Status nagara bagian, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri méméh 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Nagara bagian anu misahkeun diri saatos 15 April 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngidinan perbudakan}} {{legend|#204A87| Nagara bagian Uni anu ngalarang perbudakan}} {{legend|#D3D7CF| Wilayah Teritori}}]] [[South Carolina]] janten nagara bagian munggaran anu misahkeun diri dina 20 Désémber 1860. Buchanan narékahan pikeun ngayakinkeun kelompok moderat di Kidul sangkan nagara bagian séjén teu milu misah. Anjeunna ngayakeun riungan sareng komisioner South Carolina pikeun ngaréngsékeun masalah di [[Fort Sumter]], bénténg féderal anu aya di wilayah maranéhna. Buchanan nganggap yén Kongrés, sanés dirina, anu tanggung jawab milarian solusi pikeun krisis sekesi ieu.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} Buchanan nolak miceun Mentri Jero Nagri [[Jacob Thompson]] sanajan Thompson janten agén Mississippi pikeun ngabahas sekesi. Anjeunna ogé nolak miceun Mentri Perang **[[John B. Floyd]]** sanajan aya skandal korupsi. Floyd ahirna mundur, nanging sateuacanna anjeunna parantos ngirimkeun rébuan pakarang ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul anu engkéna ragrag ka leungeun Konfédérasi. Malah, sobat Buchanan, [[Rose O'Neal Greenhow]], ngamangpaatkeun hubungan deukeutna sareng présidén pikeun janten mata-mata pikeun pihak Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=132–134}} Sawatara upaya kompromi sapertos anu diajukeun ku Sénator [[John J. Crittenden]] sarta tilas présidén [[John Tyler]] tétéla gagal. Buchanan sacara rusiah ménta présidén-pilih Lincoln pikeun ngayakeun referendum nasional ngeunaan perbudakan, nanging Lincoln nolak. Usaha sanésna nyaéta [[Amandemen Corwin]], anu bakal ngalarang Kongrés campur tangan kana perbudakan di nagara bagian, nanging ieu ogé teu kungsi diratifikasi ku jumlah nagara bagian anu cukup.{{Sfn|Smith|1975|p=152–160}} Dugi ka ahir Januari 1861, genep nagara bagian perbudakan séjénna milu misahkeun diri. Buchanan saterusna ngaganti anggota kabinét asal Kidul ku urang Kalér anu satia ka Uni, saperti [[Edwin M. Stanton]] sarta [[Joseph Holt]]. Nalika Buchanan mikir badé nyerahkeun Fort Sumter, kabinét anyarna ngancem badé mundur, sahingga Buchanan ngabatalkeun éta niat. Dina 5 Januari, anjeunna ngirim kapal ''[[Star of the West]]'' mawa 250 prajurit sarta logistik ka Fort Sumter, nanging éta kapal ditémbakan sarta kapaksa balik deui ka Kalér. Buchanan milih pikeun henteu ngaréaksi kana éta tindakan perang. Dina 3 Maret, Buchanan nampi pesen yén logistik di Fort Sumter parantos méh béak, nanging urusan éta ahirna janten tanggung jawab Lincoln anu dilantik isukna.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=135–140}} === Nagara bagian anu ngagabung ka Uni === Aya tilu nagara bagian anyar anu [[Admission to the Union|ngagabung ka Uni]] nalika Buchanan ngajabat: * [[Minnesota]] – 11 Méi 1858 * [[Oregon]] – 14 Pébruari 1859 * [[Kansas]] – 29 Januari 1861 == Taun-taun panungtung sarta wafat (1861–1868) == [[File:James Buchanan - post presidency.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|right|Buchanan dina mangsa sepuhna, kira-kira pertengahan 1860-an.]] Saatos lungsur tina jabatanna, **[[James Buchanan]]** milih hirup tenang di Wheatland. Di dinya, anjeunna méakkeun waktosna pikeun maca buku sarta nyuratan babaturanana. Perang Sadulur peupeus dua sasih saatos Buchanan pangsiun. Sanajan loba nu nyawad, Buchanan sabenerna ngarojong Uni sarta usaha perang kasebut. Anjeunna nyerat yén panarajangan ka Sumter mangrupa awal perang ku nagara-nagara bagian Konfédérasi, sarta euweuh pilihan séjén iwal ti kudu dilawan kalayan parancah.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Buchanan ngarojong kawijakan wajib militer (''conscription'') Lincoln di nagara bagian Kalér, nanging anjeunna nolak **[[Proklamasi Émansipasi]]** (kabébasan budak). Anjeunna ogé ngadesek para pamuda di Pennsylvania sangkan milu daptar janten relawan tentara Uni. Nanging, Buchanan kudu nyanghareupan amarah masarakat anu nyebut Perang Sadulur téh salaku "Perang Buchanan". Anjeunna sering nampi surat anceman unggal dinten. Di toko-toko di Lancaster, poto Buchanan dipulas beureum panonuna, digambaran tali gantung dina beuheungna, sarta ditulisan "PANGHIANAT" (''TRAITOR'') dina tarangna. Koran-koran nuduh anjeunna parantos sakongkol sareng pihak Kidul. Tilas anggota kabinétna ogé kalolobaanana alim ngabela anjeunna sacara terang-terangan di hareupeun umum.{{sfn|Klein|1962|pp=408–413}} Alatan serangan mental kasebut, Buchanan janten gering sarta depresi. Dina taun 1866, sataun saatos perang réngsé, anjeunna medalkeun mémoar nu judulna ''Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion'' pikeun ngabela sagala tindakanna. Dina éta buku, anjeunna nyalahkeun urang Républik sarta gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) salaku cukang lantaran sekesi.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Dina Méi 1868, Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit salesma (flu) anu mingkin parna alatan faktor yuswa. Anjeunna wafat dina kaping 1 Juni 1868 alatan gagal napas dina yuswa 77 taun di bumina, Wheatland. Jasadna dikureubkeun di **Woodward Hill Cemetery**, Lancaster.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} == Sawangan pulitik == [[File:George Peter Alexander Healy - James Buchanan - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|James Buchanan (1859) ku [[George Healy]] sakumaha anu katingali di [[Galéri Potrét Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Galéri Potrét Nasional]], Washington, D.C.]] Buchanan sering dianggap ku urang Kalér anu anti-perbudakan salaku saurang "[[doughface]]", nyaéta urang Kalér anu boga prinsip pro-Kidul.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}} Rasa simpati Buchanan ka nagara-nagara bagian Kidul téh sanés ngan saukur strategi pulitik pikeun nuju ka Gedong Bodas. Anjeunna ngarasa cocok sareng ajén-inajén budaya sarta sosial kelas juragan (''planter class'') di Kidul.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=137–138}} Teu lami saatos kapilih, anjeunna nyatakeun yén "tujuan utama" administrasi anjeunna nyaéta pikeun ngeureunkeun gégér masalah perbudakan di Kalér sarta ngancurkeun partéi-partéi séktoral.{{sfn|Stampp|1990|p=48}} Sanajan sacara pribadi Buchanan nolak perbudakan,{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=30}} anjeunna yakin yén gerakan [[abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) kalah ngahalangan solusi pikeun masalah kasebut. Anjeunna nyatakeun, "Sateuacan [kaum abolisionis] ngamimitian gégér ieu, parantos aya partéi anu mingkin ageung di sababaraha nagara bagian perbudakan anu ngarojong penghapusan perbudakan sacara bertahap; nanging ayeuna teu aya hiji sora ogé anu kadéngé ngarojong hal éta."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}} Dina biantara taunan katiluna ka Kongrés, présidén malah ngaku yén para budak téh "diperlakukeun kalayan saé sarta manusiawi." Buchanan yakin yén kadali diri mangrupa inti tina pamaréntahan anu saé. Anjeunna percaya yén konstitusi téh diwangun ku "...watesan-watesan anu ditetepkeun ku rahayat pikeun dirina sorangan sarta wawakilna."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=143}} Ngeunaan perbudakan sarta Konstitusi, anjeunna nyatakeun: "Sanajan di Pennsylvania urang sadaya nolak perbudakan sacara abstrak, urang moal bisa ngalanggar kasapukan konstitusional anu urang boga sareng nagara-nagara bagian dulur urang. Hak-hak maranéhna bakal dijaga sacara suci ku urang."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=150}} [[File:Wheatland - IMG 7694.JPG|alt=James Buchanan House, 1120 Marietta Avenue, Lancaster Township|thumb|Imah James Buchanan, Wheatland]] Salah sahiji pasualan utama harita nyaéta masalah [[Tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif]].{{sfn|Jurinski|pages=16–17}} Buchanan ngarasa bingung antara [[perdagangan bébas]] sarta tarif pelindung (''protective tariff''), margi salah sahijina pasti bakal nguntungkeun hiji wilayah nanging ngarugikeun wilayah sanésna. Salaku sénator ti Pennsylvania, anjeunna nyarios: "Kuring dianggap salaku pangrojong perlindungan anu pangkuatna di nagara bagian séjén, nanging kuring dikutuk salaku musuhna di Pennsylvania."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=144}} Buchanan ogé cangcaya antara kahayangna pikeun ngalegaan wilayah nagara demi karaharjaan umum, sarta ngajamin hak-hak jalma anu nempatan wilayah kasebut. Ngeunaan ékspansi wilayah, anjeunna nyarios, "Ngeureunkeun rahayat meuntasan [[Pagunungan Rocky]]? Sarua baé jeung marentahkeun [[Niagara Falls|Curug Niagara]] sangkan ulah ngalir. Urang kudu minuhan takdir urang (''manifest destiny'')."{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}} Nanging, anjeunna ogé nyatakeun yén anjeunna hoream upami ékspansi éta kalah ngalegaan kakawasaan perbudakan.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=147}} {{Clear}} === Kahirupan pribadi === Buchanan kakeunaan panyakit mata [[ésotropia]]. Sajaba ti éta, panon anu sabeulah kakeunaan [[Miopia|panon deukeut]] sarta nu sabeulahna deui [[Hipermetropia|panon jauh]]. Pikeun nutupan hal ieu, anjeunna sering ngadéngdékkeun sirahna ka gigir nalika nuju ngobrol sareng batur.{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=19}} Hal ieu mindeng janten bahan lulucon ku musuh pulitikna, kalebet [[Henry Clay]].{{Sfn|Baker|2004|p=28}} Dina taun 1818, Buchanan pendak sareng Anne Caroline Coleman dina hiji pésta di [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]]. Anne mangrupa putra ti Robert Coleman, saurang pangusaha beusi anu beunghar. Dina taun 1819, maranéhna tunangan, nanging jarang patepang sabab Buchanan sibuk teuing ku urusan hukum sarta pulitik nalika kajantenan [[Panik 1819]]. Ayana gosip yén Buchanan caket sareng awéwé séjén ngabalukarkeun Anne mutuskeun hubungan tunanganana. Teu lami saatosna, dina 9 Désémber 1819, Anne pupus sacara misterius alatan dosis kaleuleuwihi (overdosis) [[laudanum]] dina yuswa 23 taun.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=142–143}} Buchanan ménta idin ka ramana Anne pikeun ngiringan pamakaman, nanging ditolak. Harita, Buchanan nyarios yén "kabagjaan parantos kabur ti kuring salilana." Saatos kajantenan éta, Buchanan ngaku yén anjeunna milih teu nikah salaku tanda kasatiaan ka cinta sajatina anu pupus ngora keneh. Anjeunna janten hiji-hijina présidén Amérika Sarikat anu henteu kantos nikah. [[File:William Rufus King edited..jpg|thumb|upright=.70|[[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], batur sakamar Buchanan sarta anu disangka pasanganna]] Dina taun 1833 sarta 1840-an, anjeunna kantos gaduh rencana badé nikah, nanging teu aya nu laksana. Salah sahijina nyaéta ka Anna Payne, alon-alonna tilas Ibu Nagara [[Dolley Madison]]. Nalika anjeunna janten présidén, alon-alonna anu parantos yatim piatu, **Harriet Lane**, diangkat janten anak sarta janten "hostess" (nu boga imah/pendamping) resmi di Gedong Bodas. Aya ogé gosip anu teu kabuktian yén anjeunna miboga hubungan sareng randa Présidén Polk, nyaéta [[Sarah Childress Polk]]. === Hubungan sareng William R. King === Buchanan miboga hubungan anu kacida raketna sareng [[William R. King|William Rufus DeVane King]], anu janten targét gosip anu populér. King, sapertos Buchanan, teu kantos nikah.<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/175-year-history-examining-bachelor-president-james-buchanan-close-friendship-william-rufus-king-180972992/ The 175-Year History of Speculating About President James Buchanan’s Bachelorhood], Smithsonian Magazine, 2019</ref> King mangrupa politisi ti Alabama anu kungsi ngajabat janten wakil présidén dina mangsa [[Franklin Pierce]]. Buchanan sareng King hirup babarengan di hiji imah kos (''boardinghouse'') di Washington sarta sering sumping ka acara-acara sosial babarengan ti taun 1834 dugi ka 1844. Susunan hirup sapertos kitu harita mémang lumrah, nanging Buchanan kantos nyebat hubunganana salaku "''communion''" (persekutuan/hubungan batin). Présidén [[Andrew Jackson]] sacara moyok nyebat maranéhna "Miss Nancy" sarta "Aunt Fancy", dimana istilah nu kahiji mangrupa éufémisme dina abad ka-19 pikeun lalaki anu sipatna kawas awéwé (kemayu).{{sfn|Baker|2004|p=75}} Mentri Pos Buchanan, Aaron V. Brown, ogé nyebat King salaku "Aunt Fancy" sarta nyebat anjeunna salaku "pamajikan" atawa "beulahan jiwa" Buchanan. King pupus alatan TBC teu lami saatos pelantikan Pierce, opat taun sateuacan Buchanan janten présidén. Buchanan ngadiskripsikeun King salaku "salah sahiji lalaki publik anu pangsaéna, pangsucina, sarta pang-konsisténna anu kantos kuring kenal." Sajarawan Jean H. Baker miboga pamandangan yén alon-alon ti dua lalaki ieu kamungkinan parantos ngancurkeun surat-surat korespondensi antara maranéhna. Nanging, anjeunna yakin yén surat-surat anu masih aya ngan saukur némbongkeun "rasa mikaasih tina hiji sosobatan anu husus."{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=25–26}} Status Buchanan salaku bujangan saumur hirup saatos pupusna Anne Coleman terus ngondang minat sarta spékulasi. Sababaraha pihak boga anggapan yén carita pupusna Anne ngan saukur dianggo pikeun nyingkahan patarosan ngeunaan séksualitas Buchanan. Sajarawan sapertos [[James W. Loewen]] sarta [[Robert P. Watson]] boga duga yén Buchanan téh [[homoséksual]]. Loewen nyebutkeun yén dina mangsa sepuhna, Buchanan kantos nyerat surat anu ngaku yén anjeunna kamungkinan bakal nikah ka awéwé anu bisa nampi "kurangna rasa asih anu ngagedur atanapi romantis" ti dirina.{{sfn|Ross|1988|pp=86–91}} == Warisan == === Reputasi sajarah === Sanajan Buchanan kantos ngaramal yén "sajarah bakal ngabuktikeun yén kuring bener,"<ref name="state park">{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateParks/parks/buchanansbirthplace.aspx|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}</ref> para sajarawan kalah nyawad Buchanan alatan anjeunna dianggap horéam atawa teu mampuh nindak nalika nyanghareupan krisis sekesi. ''[[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]]'' ampir sok nempatkeun Buchanan salaku salah sahiji présidén anu paling gagal dina sajarah Amérika. Dina rupa-rupa survéy para ahli, anjeunna nempatii posisi panghandapna dina hal visi, kapamingpinan doméstik, kawijakan luar nagri, sarta otoritas moral. Survéy ti taun 1948 dugi ka 1982 sacara konsistén nempatkeun Buchanan dina jajaran présidén pangburukna, babarengan sareng [[Warren G. Harding]], Millard Fillmore, sarta [[Richard Nixon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Arthur B. |title=Evaluating the Presidents of the United States |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1984}}</ref> Sajarawan Philip S. Klein dina taun 1962 nyoba méré sawangan anu leuwih obyéktif: {{blockquote|Buchanan nyepeng kapamingpinan... nalika gelombang amarah anu can kungsi aya sateuacanna nuju narajang bangsa. Yén anjeunna mampuh nahan ''faksi-faksi'' anu silih musuhan dina mangsa révolusionér éta téh sabenerna mangrupa hiji préstasi anu luar biasa. Kahéngkéranana dina taun-taun anu pinuh ku prahara mingkin digedé-gedékeun ku para partisan ti Kalér sarta Kidul. Bakatna anu sakuduna bisa ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén hébat dina mangsa anu tenang, kalah kaurugan ku kajadian-kajadian Perang Sadulur sarta ku sosok Abraham Lincoln anu kacida jangkung pangaruhna.{{sfn|Klein|1962|p=429}}}} Sabalikna, biografer Jean Baker dina taun 2004 méré sawangan anu leuwih peureus: {{blockquote|Kagagalan Buchanan nalika krisis Uni sanés alatan anjeunna cicingeun, nanging alatan sikepna anu condong ka Kidul, hiji hal anu ampir sarua jeung panghianatan pikeun saurang pajabat anu parantos sumpah pikeun ngabela sakuliah Amérika Sarikat. Anjeunna téh pamingpin anu bahaya, saurang [[idéolog]] anu bedegong sarta salah sahiji anu prinsipna teu méré rohangan pikeun kompromi. Dina hianatna anjeunna kana kapercayaan nasional, Buchanan leuwih deukeut kana ngalakukeun tindakan makar batan présidén séjénna dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=141}}}} Sajarawan lianna saperti Bruce Catton nyebutkeun yén Buchanan sarta kabinétna téh "jalma-jalma anu mumpuni pikeun henteu ngalakukeun nanaon anu penting kalayan gaya anu kacida wibawana." Catton nganggap yén hiji-hijina tindakan Buchanan anu miboga pangaruh badag nyaéta ngahalangan Stephen A. Douglas janten calon tunggal Partéi Démokrat dina taun 1860, anu ahirna kalah nguntungkeun Lincoln. === Monumén sarta Pangéling-ngéling === Hiji [[Monumén James Buchanan|monumén]] tina [[parunggu]] sarta granit di juru kidul-wétan [[Meridian Hill Park]], Washington, D.C., dirarancang ku arsiték William Gorden Beecher sarta dipahat ku seniman Maryland, [[Hans Schuler]]. Sanajan parantos dipesen ti taun 1916, monumén ieu nembé disatujuan ku Kongrés dina taun 1918 sarta réngsé diresmikan dina 26 Juni 1930. Ieu monumén némbongkeun patung Buchanan anu diaping ku inohong klasik lalaki sarta awéwé anu ngalambangkeun hukum sarta diplomasi. Di dinya aya tulisan: "Negarawan anu jujur, anu léngkahna saluyu jeung hukum," mangrupa cutatan ti anggota kabinétna, **[[Jeremiah S. Black]]**.{{sfn|Strauss|2016|p=213}} [[File:BuchananmonmtDC.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Monumén Buchanan di Washington, D.C.]] Monumén anu leuwih tiheula diwangun dina taun 1907–1908 di tempat gumelarna Buchanan di [[Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan|Stony Batter, Pennsylvania]]. Bagian tina monumén ieu mangrupa struktur piramida beuratna 250 ton anu nangtung di urut lokasi saung leutik (''cabin'') tempat Buchanan dilahirkeun. Ieu monumén dirarancang pikeun némbongkeun tékstur batu asli sarta mortir ti wewengkon kasebut.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/stateparks/findapark/buchanansbirthplace/index.htm|title=Buchanan's Birthplace State Park|publisher=Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources}}</ref> Aya tilu county anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna, nyaéta di [[Buchanan County, Iowa|Iowa]], [[Buchanan County, Missouri|Missouri]], sarta [[Buchanan County, Virginia|Virginia]]. Aya ogé hiji county di Texas anu dingaranan Buchanan dina taun 1858, nanging dirobah janten [[Stephens County, Texas|Stephens County]] dina taun 1861, dicandak tina ngaran wakil présidén Konfédérasi, [[Alexander Stephens]].{{sfn|Beatty|2001|p=310}} Kota [[Buchanan, Michigan]] ogé dingaranan luyu jeung ngaran anjeunna. Salian ti éta, sawatara komunitas séjén ogé maké ngaran Buchanan, sapertos di Georgia sarta Wisconsin. Di [[Dickinson College]], kampus tempat Buchanan sakola sarta lulus di [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania]], aya hiji asrama anu dingaranan pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dickinson.edu/info/20238/office_of_residence_life_and_housing/1291/traditional_residence_halls/6|title=Traditional Residence Halls|publisher=Dickinson College}}</ref> [[Leuweung Nagara Buchanan]] (''Buchanan State Forest'') anu perenahna di deukeut wates nagara bagian Maryland ogé dingaranan pikeun miéling anjeunna. Salian ti éta, aya ogé SMA James Buchanan (''James Buchanan High School''), hiji sakola di sisi kota tempat anjeunna digedékeun di [[Mercersburg, Pennsylvania]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar skandal séks pulitik féderal di Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat dina prangko AS]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} === Karya anu dicutat === {{refbegin|35em}} * {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Jean H. |title=James Buchanan |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805069464 |publisher=Times Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8050-6946-4}} * {{cite book |last=Beatty |first=Michael A. |title=County Name Origins of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/countynameorigin0000beat |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-1025-5 |year=2001}} * {{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=Bruce |title=1858: Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant and the War They Failed to See |url=https://archive.org/details/1858abrahamlinco00chad |year=2008 |publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc. |isbn=978-1402209413}} * {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=George Ticknor |title=Life of James Buchanan: Fifteenth President of the United States |year=1883 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |volume=2 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Flude |first=Anthony G. |title=Manuscript XXIII: A Raiatean Petition for American Protection |journal=The Journal of Pacific History |volume=47 |issue=1 |date=March 2012 |publisher=Australian National University}} * {{cite book |last=Grossman |first=Mark |title=Political Corruption in America: An Encyclopedia of Scandals, Power, and Greed |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalcorrupt0000gros |year=2003 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-060-4}} * {{cite book |last=Hall |first=Timothy L. |title=Supreme Court justices: a biographical dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/supremecourtjust00melv |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8153-1176-8}} * {{cite journal |last=Klein |first=Philip Shriver |journal=American Heritage Magazine |title=The Lost Love of a Bachelor President |date=December 1955 |volume=7 |issue=1}} * {{cite book |last=Klein |first=Philip S. |title=President James Buchanan: A Biography |publisher=American Political Biography Press |year=1962 |edition=1995 |isbn=978-0-945707-11-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Philip Shriver |last2=Hoogenboom |first2=Ari |title=A History of Pennsylvania |publisher=Penn State University Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-271-01934-5}} * {{cite book |last=Jurinski |first=James John |date=2012 |title=Tax Reform: A Reference Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/taxreformreferen0000juri |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-322-4}} * {{cite book |last=McPherson |first=James M. |title=Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era |url=https://archive.org/details/battlecryoffreed0000jame |year=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974390-2}} * {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David Morris |title=The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 |year=1976 |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-090524-8}} * {{Cite book |title=James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War |publisher=University Press of Florida |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8130-4426-2 |editor-last=Quist |editor-first=John W. |editor-last2=Birkner |editor-first2=Michael J.}} * {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Shelley |date=1988 |title=Fall from Grace: Sex, Scandal, and Corruption in American Politics from 1702 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/fallfromgracesex00ross |publisher=Ballantine Books |isbn=978-0-345-35381-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Elbert |title=The Presidency of James Buchanan |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofjame0000smit_t2i3 |date=1975 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0132-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Stampp |first1=Kenneth M. |title=America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink |url=https://archive.org/details/americain185700kenn |date=1990 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-987947-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Robert |title=Worst. President. Ever.: James Buchanan, the POTUS Rating Game, and the Legacy of the Least of the Lesser Presidents |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-4930-2484-1 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} * {{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-952-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Watson |first1=Robert P. |title=Affairs of State: The Untold History of Presidential Love, Sex, and Scandal, 1789–1900 |url=https://archive.org/details/affairsofstateun0000wats |date=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-1836-9}} {{refend}} == Bacaan lanjutan == {{refbegin|35em}} === Sumber sekunder === * {{cite book |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |title=Bosom Friends: The Intimate World of James Buchanan and William Rufus King |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-091460-8}} * {{cite book |chapter=Harriet Rebecca Lane Johnston |title=A Companion to First Ladies |year=2016 |last1=Balcerski |first1=Thomas J. |pages=197–213 |publisher=Wiley}} * {{cite journal |last1=Binder |first1=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan: Jacksonian Expansionist |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historian_autumn-1992_55_1/page/n78 |journal=The Historian |year=1992 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=69–84}} * {{cite book |last=Binder |first=Frederick Moore |title=James Buchanan and the American Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesbuchananame0000bind |year=1994 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press |isbn=978-0-945636-64-9}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Birkner |editor-first=Michael J. |title=James Buchanan and the Political Crisis of the 1850s |year=1996 |publisher=Susquehanna University Press}} * Birkner, Michael J., et al., eds. ''The Worlds of James Buchanan and [[Thaddeus Stevens]]: Place, Personality, and Politics in the Civil War Era'' (Louisiana State University Press, 2019) * Horrocks, Thomas A. ''President James Buchanan and the Crisis of National Leadership'' (Nova Science Publisher's, Inc., 2011) * {{cite journal |last1=Meerse |first1=David E. |title=Buchanan, the Patronage, and the Lecompton Constitution: A Case Study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_civil-war-history_1995-12_41_4/page/291 |journal=Civil War History |year=1995 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=291–312}} * {{cite book |last=Nevins |first=Allan |title=The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859 |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-BTU-677 |year=1950 |publisher=Scribner}} * [[Roy Franklin Nichols|Nichols, Roy Franklin]]; ''The Democratic Machine, 1850–1854'' (1923) * Quist, John W. sarta Birkner, Michael J., eds. (2013). ''James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War'' * {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=James Ford |title=History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the End of the Roosevelt Administration |volume=2 |year=1906 |publisher=Macmillan}} * {{cite journal |last1=Rosenberger |first1=Homer T. |title=Inauguration of President Buchanan a Century Ago |journal=Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. |year=1957}} * {{cite book |title=A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861 |year=2014 |publisher=Wiley |editor-last1=Silbey |editor-first1=Joel H.}} * {{cite book |last=Updike |first=John |title=Buchanan Dying: A Play |url=https://archive.org/details/buchanandyingpla0000updi |year=2013 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group}} (fiksi). * {{cite book |author=Wells, Damon |chapter=Douglas and Goliath |title=Stephen Douglas |url=https://archive.org/details/stephendouglasla0000well |year=1971 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/stephendouglasla0000well/page/12 12]–54 |publisher=University of Texas Press}} === Sumber primér === * Buchanan, James. ''Fourth Annual Message to Congress.'' (3 Désémber 1860). * Buchanan, James. ''[[Mr Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of the Rebellion]]'' (1866) * ''National Intelligencer'' (1859) {{refend}} == Rujukan == <references /> == Tumbu luar == {{wikisource|works=or}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons}} {{EB1911 poster|Buchanan, James}} * {{CongBio|B001005|ref=none}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/buchanan/index.html James Buchanan: Pitunjuk Sumber] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [https://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/b/Buchanan0091.html Makalah James Buchanan], ngawengku sakuliah karir hukum, pulitik, sarta diplomasi anjeunna, sayogi di [[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]]. * [https://www.wheatland.org/ Wheatland] * [https://www.dcnr.pa.gov/StateParks/FindAPark/BuchanansBirthplaceStatePark/Pages/default.aspx Taman Nagara Tempat Gumelar Buchanan, Franklin County, Pennsylvania] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125214-1/life-portrait-james-buchanan "Life Portrait of James Buchanan"], ti [[C-SPAN]], 21 Juni 1999. '''Sumber primér''' * {{Gutenberg author |id=1648}} * {{Librivox author |id=11288}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Buchanan}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200809152928/http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/buchanan.html Biantara Pelantikan] * [https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 Pesen Taunan Kaopat ka Kongrés, 3 Désémber 1860] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912170953/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29501 |date=2018-09-12 }} {{James Buchanan}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Hibshman]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar wawakil Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-3 Pennsylvania]]|years=1821–1823}} {{s-aft|after=[[Daniel H. Miller]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[James S. Mitchell]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar wawakil Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|DPR AS]]<br />ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-4 Pennsylvania]]|years=1823–1831}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Muhlenberg Hiester]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Philip P. Barbour]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Pupuhu [[Komite Yudisial DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komite Yudisial DPR]]|years=1829–1831}} {{s-aft|after=[[Warren R. Davis]]}} {{s-dip}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Rusia|Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Rusia]]|years=1832–1833}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Wilkins (American politician)|William Wilkins]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Joseph Reed Ingersoll]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya|Menteri Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya]]|years=1853–1856}} {{s-aft|after=[[George M. Dallas]]}} {{s-par|us-sen}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Wilkins (U.S. politician)|William Wilkins]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania|Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania]]|years=1834–1845}} {{s-aft|after=[[Simon Cameron]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Calhoun]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Menteri Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1845–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[John M. Clayton]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Franklin Pierce]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1857–1861}} {{s-aft|after=[[Abraham Lincoln]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Franklin Pierce]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Partéi Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] [[Daptar calon présidén Partéi Démokrat AS|calon]] Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1856|1856]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Stephen A. Douglas]] (Kalér)<br />[[John C. Breckinridge]] (Kidul)}} }} {{Portal bar|Biografi|Perang Sadulur Amérika|Amérika Sarikat|Pulitik|Pennsylvania|Hukum}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Buchanan, James}} [[Kategori:James Buchanan| ]] [[Kategori:Gumelar 1791]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1868]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Kakaisaran Rusia]] [[Kategori:Duta Besar Amérika Sarikat ka Britania Raya]] [[Kategori:Militan Amérika dina Perang 1812]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti Partéi Démokrat]] [[Kategori:Alumni Dickinson College]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Loya Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Menteri Luar Negeri Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin pulitik Uni (Perang Sadulur Amérika)]] [[Kategori:Sénator Amérika Sarikat ti Pennsylvania]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ogé Freemason]] j4byr0jqfq06um5omelk64kwazr4uc6 Abraham Lincoln 0 107852 712329 711775 2026-08-28T20:56:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Présidén Amérika Sarikat ti taun 1861 dugi ka 1865}} {{Infobox officeholder | image = Abraham Lincoln 1863 Portrait (3x4 cropped).jpg | caption = Lincoln dina taun 1863 | alt = Potrét Abraham Lincoln janggotan némbongkeun sirah sarta taktakna | order = ka-16 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = {{plainlist| * [[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861–1865) * [[Andrew Johnson]] (Mar–Apr. 1865) }} | term_start = 4 Maret 1861 | term_end = 15 April 1865 | predecessor = [[James Buchanan]] | successor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | state1 = [[Illinois]] | district1 = ka-7 | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1847 | term_end1 = 3 Maret 1849 | predecessor1 = [[John Henry (representative)|John Henry]] | successor1 = [[Thomas L. Harris]] | state_house2 = Illinois | constituency2 = {{nowrap|ti [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]]}} | term_start2 = 1 Désémber 1834 | term_end2 = 4 Désémber 1842 | predecessor2 = [[Achilles Morris]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12}} | birth_place = [[LaRue County, Kentucky]], Amérika Sarikat | death_date = {{death date and age|1865|4|15|1809|2|12}} | death_place = Washington, D.C., Amérika Sarikat | death_cause = [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|Rajapati ku témbakan]] | occupation = {{hlist|Politikus|loya}} | resting_place = [[Lincoln Tomb|Makam Lincoln]] | party = {{plainlist| * [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (méméh 1856) * [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (saatos 1856) }} | otherparty = [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] (1864–1865) | height = 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]|4 Nopémber 1842}} | relatives = [[Kulawarga Lincoln]] | signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif dina mangsi | allegiance = | branch = [[Milisi Illinois]] | serviceyears = April–Juli 1832 | rank = {{plainlist| * [[Captain (United States O-3)|Kaptén]] * [[Private (United States)|Prajurit]] }} | battles = [[Perang Black Hawk]] | nickname = "Honest Abe" (Abe anu Jujur) }} '''Abraham Lincoln'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|ŋ|k|ən|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Lincoln.wav}} {{Respell|LINK|ən}}}} (12 Pébruari 1809{{snd}}15 April 1865) mangrupa [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-16, anu ngajabat ti taun 1861 dugi ka [[Rajapati Abraham Lincoln|tiwasna alatan rajapati]] dina taun 1865. Anjeunna mingpin Amérika Sarikat ngaliwatan [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]], néléhkeun [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|Nagara Konfédérasi]], sarta maénkeun peran utama dina [[Ngahapusna perbudakan di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]]. Dilahirkeun di [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|saung leutik (log cabin)]] di Kentucky, Lincoln digedékeun di wewengkon [[American frontier|frontier]]. Anjeunna diajar sacara [[autodidaktisme|otodidak]] sarta janten loya (pangacara), [[DPR Illinois|législator]] nagara bagian [[Illinois]], sarta [[DPR Amérika Sarikat|wawakil AS]]. Anjeunna ngarasa ambek ku ayana [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nébraska]] taun 1854 anu méré jalan pikeun ''perbudakan'' di wilayah-wilayah anyar, sahingga anjeunna janten pamingpin [[Sajarah Partéi Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Républik]] anu nembé kabentuk. Anjeunna janten kawentar di tingkat nasional dina [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|debat kampanye Sénat 1858]] ngalawan [[Stephen A. Douglas]]. Lincoln meunang dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|pilihan raya présidén 1860]], sarta janten présidén munggaran ti Partéi Républik. Kameunanganana nyababkeun sabagéan ageung nagara bagian perbudakan mimiti [[Sekesi di Amérika Sarikat|misahkeun diri (sekesi)]] sarta ngabentuk Nagara Konfédérasi. Sabulan saatos Lincoln ngajabat présidén, pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|nyerang Fort Sumter]], anu janten awal Perang Sadulur. Salaku urang Républik anu moderat, Lincoln kedah nganapigasi rupa-rupa sawangan pulitik anu silih lawan ti faksi-faksi anu aya nalika usaha perang. Anjeunna ngawas sacara raket strategi sarta taktik perang, kaasup milih para jénderal sarta ngalaksanakeun [[Blokade Uni|blokade laut]] ka palabuhan-palabuhan Kidul. Anjeunna nunda hak ''[[habeas corpus]]'' dina April 1861, hiji tindakan anu dianggap teu konstitusional ku Hakim Agung [[Roger Taney]] dina kasus ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'', sarta anjeunna nyegah perang sareng [[Britania Raya]] ku cara ngabéréskeun [[Trent Affair|Urusan ''Trent'']]. Dina 1 Januari 1863, anjeunna ngaluarkeun **[[Proklamasi Émansipasi]]**, anu nyatakeun yén para budak di nagara-nagara bagian anu "barontak" janten merdéka. Dina 19 Nopémber 1863, anjeunna nepikeun [[Biantara Gettysburg]], anu janten salah sahiji biantara anu paling kasohor dina sajarah Amérika. Anjeunna ngamajukeun [[Amandemén ka-13 Konstitusi AS]], anu dina taun 1865 sacara resmi ngahapus [[perbudakan chattel]]. Saatos kapilih deui dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864|pilihan raya 1864]], anjeunna narékahan pikeun nyageurkeun bangsa anu ruksak alatan perang ngaliwatan mangsa [[Éra Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]]. Dina 14 April 1865, lima dinten saatos [[Patempuran Appomattox Court House|pasukan Konfédérasi nyerah di Appomattox]], Lincoln nuju ningali pintonan sandiwara di [[Téater Ford]], Washington, D.C., nalika anjeunna ditémbak dugi ka pupusna ku [[John Wilkes Booth]], saurang simpatisan Konfédérasi. Lincoln diéling-éling salaku [[syuhada]] sarta pahlawan nasional alatan kapamingpinanana dina mangsa perang sarta usaha-usahana pikeun ngajaga Uni sarta ngahapus perbudakan. [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|Anjeunna sacara konsistén nempatan peringkat]] luhur salaku salah sahiji présidén pangpunjulna dina [[Sajarah Amérika Sarikat]].{{TOC limit|5}} {{Abraham Lincoln series}} == Kulawarga sarta mangsa leutik kénéh== === Kahirupan awal === {{Main|Kahirupan awal sarta karir Abraham Lincoln}} Dilahirkeun di [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park|saung leutik (log cabin)]] di Kentucky dina 12 Pébruari 1809, Abraham Lincoln digedékeun di [[Sinking Spring Farm]] deukeut [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=20–22}} Anjeunna mangrupa putra kadua ti pasangan [[Thomas Lincoln]] sarta [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln]]. Lincoln mangrupa katurunan ti [[Samuel Lincoln]], urang Inggris anu migrasi ka [[Koloni Teluk Massachusetts]] dina taun 1638,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} sarta katurunan ti [[Kulawarga Harrison ti Virginia]].{{efn|group="lower-alpha"|Sanajan can pasti, nini Lincoln dipercaya nyaéta Bathsheba Herring, putri ti Alexander sarta Abigail Herring (néé Harrison).}} Aki ti pihak bapana, anu ngaranna sarua nyaéta [[Kaptén Abraham Lincoln]], mindahkeun kulawargana ti [[Koloni Virginia]] ka Kentucky. Éta kaptén téh tiwas dina [[Perang India Kalér-Kulon|serangan urang pribumi Amérika]] dina taun 1786.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} Kulawarga ieu teras cicing di [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], dina mimiti taun 1800-an. Thomas sarta Nancy nikah dina 12 Juni 1806, sarta pindah ka [[Elizabethtown, Kentucky]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 4}} Maranéhna gaduh tilu putra: Sarah, Abraham, sarta Thomas; Thomas (bungsu) pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|White|2009|p=18}} Bapa Lincoln mésér sababaraha kebon di Kentucky, nanging henteu kantos kénging [[Sertifikat taneuh|surat hak milik]] anu jelas, sahingga kaleungitan ratusan héktar taneuh alatan sengketa hukum.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=22–24|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 6–8}} Dina taun 1816, kulawarga ieu pindah ka [[Indiana]], dimana surat hak milik taneuh di dinya langkung aman.{{sfn|Winkle|2011|pp=6–7}} Maranéhna nempatan lahan di leuweung di [[Komunitas Little Pigeon Creek]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 22–23}} Di Kentucky sarta Indiana, Thomas damel salaku patani, tukang nyieun lomari, sarta tukang kai. Thomas sarta Nancy mangrupa anggota [[Gereja Baptis Pisah]] (''Separate Baptist Church''), hiji kelompok évangélikal anu taat sarta anggota-anggotana sacara teges nolak ayana perbudakan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=24}} Ku cara bajoang nyanghareupan masalah waragad, Thomas ahirna kénging surat hak milik anu jelas pikeun lahan sa-80 ékar (32 héktar) di Little Pigeon Creek dina taun 1827.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=24, 104}} Dina 5 Oktober 1818, Nancy (indung Lincoln) pupus alatan [[panyakit susu]] (''milk sickness''), ninggalkeun Sarah (lanceukna) anu yuswana nembe 11 taun pikeun ngurus rumah tangga, kalebet ngurus bapana, Abraham anu yuswana 9 taun, sarta baraya yatim piatu Nancy, Dennis Hanks.{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=22–23, 77}} Thomas teras nikah deui sareng [[Sarah Bush Johnston]], saurang randa anu gaduh tilu putra, dina 2 Désémber 1819. Abraham janten caket pisan sareng indung téréna ieu sarta nyebatna "Mama".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=27–28}} Dina 20 Januari 1828, lanceuk Lincoln (Sarah) pupus nalika ngalahirkeun, hiji kajadian anu kacida nganyerikeun haténa Lincoln.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=34, 116}} === Atikan sarta pindah ka Illinois === Lincoln mah sabagéan ageungna diajar sacara [[otodidaktisme|otodidak]].{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|pp=10, 33}} Atikan formalna ngan saukur ti guru-guru anu ngumbara (''[[itinerant teacher]]''). Éta téh kalebet dua mangsa sakola anu singget di Kentucky, dimana anjeunna diajar maca, nanging kamungkinan mah teu acan diajar nulis. Saatos pindah ka Indiana dina yuswa tujuh taun, anjeunna sakola sacara selang-seling; upami ditotal mah kirang ti 12 sasih dugi ka yuswana 15 taun.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp= 23, 29}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna téh saurang anu hobi pisan maca sarta miboga karep anu jejem pikeun terus diajar saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Madison|2014|p=110}} Nalika Lincoln masih rumaja, ramana kacida ngandelkeun anjeunna pikeun damel di kebon sarta milari panghasilan tambahan. Lincoln sok diséwakeun ka patani di sabudeureunana, sarta hasilna dicandak ku ramana, sakumaha adat kabiasaan harita.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 30, 41}} Nalika yuswana parantos rada déwasa, Lincoln sarta sababaraha réngrénganana narima padamelan ngangkut barang nganggo parahu datar (''[[flatboat]]'') ka [[New Orleans]], Louisiana. Di dinya, anjeunna ningali [[Pasar budak|pasar-pasar budak]] anu, numutkeun sajarawan [[Michael Burlingame]], "bakal ninggalkeun kesan anu moal bisa poho dina dirina.... Éta mangrupa munggaranana, nanging sanés anu panungtung, anjeunna ngarasa geuleuh nalika ningali sacara langsung prakték perbudakan."{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 44}} Dina Maret 1830, alatan sieun ku ayana deui wabah panyakit susu (''milk sickness''), sababaraha anggota kulawarga badag Lincoln, kalebet Abraham, pindah ka kulon ka Illinois sarta matuh di [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon County]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=36}} Hubungan Abraham sareng Thomas (ramana) mingkin jauh, sabagéan alatan kurangna minat ramana kana dunya atikan;{{sfn|Bartelt|2008|p=71}} Lincoln engkéna nolak sumping nalika ramana nuju sakarat atanapi sumping ka pamakamanana dina taun 1851. === Pernikahan sarta barudak === {{Further|Kulawarga Lincoln|Kaséhatan Abraham Lincoln|Séksualitas Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Mary, Willie, and Tad Lincoln, c1860.jpg|thumb|alt=Poto hideung-bodas saurang awéwé sareng dua murangkalih lalaki|Mary Todd Lincoln sareng Willie sarta Tad]] Sababaraha sajarawan, sapertos Michael Burlingame, ngaidéntifikasi yén cinta munggaran Lincoln nyaéta [[Ann Rutledge]], saurang awéwé ngora ti Kentucky anu pendak sareng anjeunna nalika pindah ka [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 98}} Sanajan kitu, David Herbert Donald nyatakeun yén bukti-bukti ngeunaan hubungan romantis maranéhna hésé disusun deui dumasar catetan sajarah. Rutledge pupus dina 25 Agustus 1835 alatan [[tipes]]. Lincoln ngarasa kacida sedihna ku pupusna Ann, dugi ka anjeunna katerap ku déprési beurat.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=55–58|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 p. 100}} Dina awal taun 1830-an, Lincoln pendak sareng [[Mary Owens (Abraham Lincoln fiancée)|Mary Owens]]. Dina taun 1836, Lincoln satuju pikeun dijodokeun sareng Owens upami anjeunna balik deui ka New Salem. Maranéhna kungsi silih pikawanoh (pendekatan), nanging duanana ragu-ragu. Dina 16 Agustus 1837, Lincoln nyerat surat ka Owens anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal nyalahkeun upami Owens mutuskeun hubungan maranéhna, sarta Owens mémang nolak pikeun nikah sareng Lincoln.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=67–69}} Dina taun 1839, Lincoln pendak sareng [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]] di [[Springfield, Illinois]], sarta sataun saatosna maranéhna tunangan.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=80–86|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 174–176}} Mary mangrupa putri ti Robert Smith Todd, saurang loya sarta pangusaha beunghar ti Lexington, Kentucky. Lincoln kungsi mutuskeun papacangan dina awal taun 1841, nanging maranéhna akur deui sarta ahirna nikah dina 4 Nopémber 1842. Dina taun 1844, pasangan ieu mésér [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Imah Lincoln|hiji imah]] di Springfield deukeut kantor hukumna. Hubungan pernikahan maranéhna sering disebut pinuh ku cobaan (''turbulent''); Mary sok kasar dina ucapanna sarta sakapeung hampang leungeun ka salakina.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 202}} Maranéhna gaduh opat putra: # [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] (gumelar 1843), hiji-hijina anak anu hirup dugi ka déwasa. # [[Edward Baker Lincoln|Edward Baker "Eddie" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1846), pupus dina taun 1850 kamungkinan alatan [[TBC]]. # [[William Wallace Lincoln|William Wallace "Willie" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1850), pupus alatan panas tiris di [[Gedong Bodas]] dina 20 Pébruari 1862. # [[Tad Lincoln|Thomas "Tad" Lincoln]] (gumelar 1853), pupus dina yuswa 18 taun alatan [[édéma]]. Lincoln kacida mikanyaahna ka barudak, sarta kulawarga Lincoln dipikanyaho henteu pati teges dina ngadidik anakna. Pupusna Eddie sarta Willie méré pangaruh anu jero pisan ka kadua kolotna. Lincoln nyalira sering katerap ku "[[sajarah déprési|melankolia]]", hiji kaayaan anu ayeuna dianggap salaku [[gangguan déprési mayor]].<ref name="Atlanticoct2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200510/lincolns-clinical-depression |title=Lincoln's great depression |first=Joshua Wolf |last=Shenk |date=October 2005 |work=The Atlantic |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009044732/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/10/lincoln-apos-s-great-depression/4247/ |archivedate=October 9, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Karir munggaran sarta palayanan milisi === {{Further|Kahirupan awal sarta karir Abraham Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln dina Perang Black Hawk}} Dina taun 1831, ramana Lincoln mindahkeun kulawargana ka [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Saung Kai Lincoln|padumukan anyar]] di [[Coles County, Illinois]]. Saatos éta, Abraham mimiti hirup mandiri.{{sfn|Manning|2016|p=12}} Anjeunna matuh di [[Lincoln's New Salem|New Salem, Illinois]], salila genep taun.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=23–53}} Antara taun 1831 sarta 1832, Lincoln damel di hiji toko kelontong di New Salem.{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=86–95}} Anjeunna mimiti dipikawanoh ku kakuatan sarta kawantunana saatos meunang dina tanding [[Gulat]] ngalawan pamingpin kelompok jagoan anu katelah "Clary's Grove boys".{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=40–41}} Dina taun 1832, anjeunna nyalonkeun diri pikeun [[DPR Illinois]], nanging kampanyena kapegat alatan anjeunna kedah tugas salaku kaptén dina [[Milisi Illinois]] nalika [[Perang Black Hawk]].{{sfn|Winkle|2001|pp=86–95}} Anjeunna kapilih janten kaptén di kompi milisina nanging henteu kantos ngalaman patempuran langsung.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 67}} Dina kampanye pulitikna, Lincoln ngusulkeun perbaikan navigasi di [[Walungan Sangamon]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 72}} Sanajan anjeunna pinter narik perhatian jalma réa salaku [[raconteur|tukang ngadongéng]] anu hadé, anjeunna masih kénéh kurang kawentar, teu gaduh rérénjang anu kawasa, sarta teu gaduh modal, sahingga anjeunna éléh dina éta pilihan raya.{{sfnm|Winkle|2001|1pp=114–116|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 71–75}} Saatos mulang ti perang, Lincoln ngarencanakeun janten [[tukang panday beusi]], nanging kalah mésér toko kelontong di New Salem gawé bareng sareng William Berry. Alatan harita diperlukeun lisénsi pikeun ngajual inuman alkohol ka palanggan, Berry ngurus lisénsi kasebut, sarta dina taun 1833 [[Toko Kelontong Lincoln-Berry]] ogé janten hiji [[tavérna]] (kedai). Burlingame nyerat yén Berry téh saurang "nu sok mabok sarta teu disiplin", sedengkeun Lincoln "teuing ku hadé haté sahingga sok méré hutang ka saha baé". Sanajan ékonomi harita nuju saé, bisnisna kalah bangkrut sarta loba hutang, anu ngabalukarkeun Lincoln kedah ngajual bagianana.{{sfn|Meacham|2022|p=38}} Lincoln teras ngabakti salaku [[kapala kantor pos]] New Salem sarta saatosna janten [[tukang ukur tanah]] (surveyor) county. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep rajin maca sarta mutuskeun pikeun janten loya.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 77–81, 87}} Tinimbang sakola di kantor pengacara anu parantos aya sakumaha adatna harita, Lincoln kalah [[diajar hukum]] sacara mandiri ku cara nginjeum buku-buku hukum, kalebet ''Commentaries'' karya [[William Blackstone]], ti pengacara [[John Todd Stuart]]. Anjeunna engkéna nyebatkeun ngeunaan atikan hukumna yén anjeunna "diajar sorangan, henteu ka sasaha."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=55}} == Jabatan pulitik munggaran sarta loya padang jukut == === Législatur nagara bagian Illinois (1834–1842) === [[File:Abes House.JPG|thumb|alt=Tampilan hareup imah bersejarah|[[Situs Sajarah Nasional Imah Lincoln|Imah Lincoln]] di [[Springfield, Illinois]], tempat anjeunna matuh ti taun 1844 dugi ka janten présidén dina taun 1861]] Dina kampanye kaduana pikeun DPR nagara bagian dina taun 1834, salaku pangrojong pamimpin [[Partéi Whig (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Whig]], [[Henry Clay]], Lincoln nempatan peringkat kadua ti tilu belas kandidat anu marebutkeun opat korsi.{{sfn|White|2009|p=59}} Lincoln nyaluyuan dukungan Clay kana [[Masarakat Kolonisasi Amérika]], anu ngusulkeun [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]] bareng jeung mindahkeun para budak anu parantos dibébaskeun ka [[Libéria]].{{sfn|Foner|2010|pp=17–19, 67}} Partéi Whig ogé ngarojong modernisasi ékonomi dina widang perbankan, tarif pikeun ngabiayaan [[pangwangunan internal]] sapertos jalan karéta api, sarta urbanisasi.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=137–153}} Lincoln ngajabat salila opat mangsa jabatan di DPR Illinois ngawakilan [[Sangamon County]].{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=283}} Dina peran ieu, anjeunna bajoang pisan pikeun pangwangunan [[Terusan Illinois sarta Michigan]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 102}} Lincoln méré sora pikeun ngalegaan [[hak pilih]] saluareun nu boga lahan kulit bodas ka sakabéh lalaki kulit bodas.{{sfn|Simon|1990|p=130}} Anjeunna ngarojong panyieunan piagam Bank Nagara Illinois, sarta mingpin kampanye anu suksés pikeun mindahkeun puseur dayuh (ibukota) nagara bagian ti [[Vandalia, Illinois|Vandalia]] ka Springfield.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lincoln in the Illinois State Legislature |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/lincoln-in-the-illinois-state-legislature.htm |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=August 24, 2025}}</ref> Dina 27 Januari 1838, Lincoln nepikeun [[Biantara Lyceum Abraham Lincoln|biantara di Lyceum]] di Springfield, saatos kajadian rajapati éditor koran anti-perbudakan, [[Elijah Parish Lovejoy]]. Dina biantara anu saolah-olah non-partisan ieu, Lincoln nyerang [[Stephen A. Douglas]] sarta [[Partéi Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Démokrat]], anu numutkeun urang Whig nuju ngarojong "mobokrasi" (kakawasaan massa anu anarkis). Biantarana ogé nyerang anti-abolisionisme sarta prasangka ras.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 140–142}} Anjeunna kungsi dikritik dina pers alatan rencana [[Duel#Amérika Sarikat|tanding (duel)]] sareng [[James Shields (pulitikus, gumelar 1806)|James Shields]], anu parantos dionyam ku anjeunna dina serat-serat anu dimuat nganggo ngaran samaran "Bibi Rebecca". Sanajan éta duel téh ahirna henteu lumangsung, Burlingame nyatet yén "éta urusan téh kacida ngerakeunana pikeun Lincoln".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 190–194}} === DPR Amérika Sarikat (1847–1849) === [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Nicholas Shepherd, 1846-crop.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Daguerreotype Lincoln, dicandak sakitar taun 1847, poto pangheulana anu dipikanyaho<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepherd |first=Nicholas H. |date=1846 |title=Abraham Lincoln, Congressman-elect from Illinois. Three-quarter length portrait, seated, facing front |url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2004664400/ |accessdate=December 23, 2025 |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref>]] Dina taun 1843, Lincoln narékahan pikeun kéngingkeun nominasi Whig pikeun [[Distrik kongrés ka-7 Illinois]] di [[DPR Amérika Sarikat]]; sanajan [[John J. Hardin]] anu kapilih janten kandidat, Lincoln hasil ngayakinkeun konvénsi partéi pikeun ngawatesan jabatan Hardin ngan ukur hiji mangsa jabatan.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 215–218}} Lincoln henteu ngan saukur kéngingkeun nominasi dina taun 1846, nanging anjeunna ogé suksés meunang dina éta pilihan raya.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 231–241}} Salaku hiji-hijina urang Whig dina délégasi Illinois, anjeunna ditugaskeun dina Komite Kantor Pos sarta Komite Balanja Departemén Perang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 263–265}} Lincoln gawé bareng sareng [[Joshua R. Giddings]] dina rancangan undang-undang pikeun ngahapus perbudakan di [[Distrik Columbia (dugi ka 1871)|Distrik Columbia]], nanging éta rancangan dibatalkeun alatan kurangna dukungan ti sabagéan ageung anggota Whig sanésna.{{sfnm|Harris|2007|1p=54|Foner|2010|2p=57}} Lincoln sacara teges nyarita ngalawan [[Perang Amérika–Méksiko]] (1846–1848). Anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Présidén [[James K. Polk]] miboga "sababaraha motif anu kuat... pikeun ngalibetkeun dua nagara dina perang, sarta miharep bisa lolos tina pamariksaan ku cara museurkeun paningal publik kana caangna kamulyaan militér—katumbiri anu narik ati, anu mucunghul dina cihujan getih".{{sfnm|1a1=Heidler|1a2=Heidler|1y=2006|1pp=181–183|2a1=Greenberg|2y=2012|2pp=250–251}} Anjeunna ogé ngarojong [[Wilmot Proviso]], hiji usulan taun 1846 pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah AS anu dimeunangkeun ti Méksiko.{{sfn|Holzer|2004|p=63}} Polk negeskeun yén prajurit Méksiko parantos ngamimitian perang ku cara "nyerang wilayah Nagara Bagian Texas... sarta ngocorkeun getih warga urang di tanah urang sorangan". Dina taun 1847, Lincoln ngaluarkeun "[[spot resolutions]]" (résolusi titik lokasi) anu sacara rétoris nungtut Polk pikeun némbongkeun ka Kongrés "titik lokasi" (''spot'') anu pasti dimana éta kajadian lumangsung, nanging administrasi Polk henteu ngawaler.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=123–124}} Sikep Lincoln ieu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan dukungan pulitik di distrikna, sarta surat kabar lokal méré landihan (julukan) anu ngahina, nyaéta "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln parantos janji dina taun 1846 yén anjeunna ngan bakal ngajabat sakali mangsa di DPR.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=124}} Sadar yén Henry Clay hésé meunang jadi présidén, anjeunna ngarojong [[Zachary Taylor]] dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|pilihan raya 1848]]. Taylor meunang, sarta Lincoln miharep bisa diangkat janten komisaris Kantor Taneuh Umum AS, nanging kahayangna henteu kabandungan.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=138–140|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 296–303}} Pamaréntah malah nawarkeun jabatan janten sekretaris [[Wilayah Oregon]]. Alatan éta jabatan bakal ngaganggu karir hukum sarta pulitikna di Illinois, Lincoln nolak sarta milih neruskeun deui prakték hukumna.{{sfn|Harris|2007|pp=55–57}} === Loya padang jukut === {{See also|Daptar kasus hukum anu ngalibetkeun Abraham Lincoln}} Lincoln resmi [[Penerimaan advokat di Amérika Sarikat|diaku salaku loya di Illinois]] dina 9 Séptémber 1836. Anjeunna pindah ka Springfield sarta mimiti muka prakték hukum di handapeun bingbingan [[John T. Stuart]], baraya Mary Todd. Anjeunna gawé bareng salila sababaraha taun sareng [[Stephen T. Logan]], sarta dina taun 1844, mimiti muka [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Kantor Hukum Lincoln-Herndon|kantor hukumna sorangan]] bareng sareng [[William Herndon (loya)|William Herndon]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=88–101}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |title=Abraham Lincoln |publisher=Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission |accessdate=July 2, 2023 |archivedate=July 2, 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702123429/https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702123429/https://www.iardc.org/Lawyer/PrintableDetails/b838e3e7-a864-eb11-b810-000d3a9f4eeb |date=July 2, 2023 }}</ref> Dina praktékna di Springfield, numutkeun Donald, Lincoln nanganan "ampir sagala rupa urusan bisnis anu bisa disanghareupan ku saurang loya padang jukut".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=96}} Anjeunna nanganan loba kasus transportasi di tengah ékspansi ka kulon, utamana konflik tongkang walungan dina sasak jalan karéta api anu anyar diwangun. Dina taun 1849, anjeunna nampa [[Paten Abraham Lincoln|patén pikeun alat ngambang]] pikeun ngagerakkeun parahu walungan dina cai deet. Hal ieu ngajadikeun Lincoln hiji-hijina présidén anu miboga hak patén.{{sfn|Emerson|2009|pp=27–28}} Lincoln kungsi ngawakilan perusahaan sasak ngalawan perusahaan parahu walungan dina kasus ''[[Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company]]'', hiji kasus penting ngeunaan parahu terusan anu titeuleum saatos nabrak sasak. Lincoln mucunghul di payuneun [[Mahkamah Agung Illinois]] dina 411 kasus. Salah sahiji klien pangbadagna anjeunna ti taun 1853 dugi ka 1860 nyaéta [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. Salah sahiji kasus anu paling kawentar nyaéta nalika Lincoln ngabéla William "Duff" Armstrong dina sidang rajapati James Preston Metzker taun 1858. Kasus ieu jadi sabiwir hiji alatan cara Lincoln ngagunakeun fakta tina [[Farmers' Almanac]] pikeun ngagugurkeun kasaksian saksi mata. Saatos hiji saksi sumpah yén anjeunna ningali kajadian rajapati éta ku caangna cahaya bulan, Lincoln némbongkeun almanak anu ngabuktikeun yén dina poé éta posisi bulan nuju handap pisan, sahingga mustahil saksi bisa ningali kalayan jelas. Armstrong ahirna dibébaskeun.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|pp=150–151|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 345–346}} Dina kasus rajapati taun 1859, anjeunna ngabéla "Peachy" Quinn Harrison. Harrison didakwa nelasan Greek Crafton. Lincoln sacara teges protés nalika hakim mimitina nolak kasaksian yén Crafton, dina mangsa sakaratna, parantos ngahampura Harrison. Lincoln boga pamadegan yén éta téh mangrupa [[Pernyataan sakarat|dying declaration]] (pernyataan méméh maot) anu sah sacara hukum. Hakim ahirna narima éta bukti, sarta Harrison dibébaskeun.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Mitgang |first1=Herbert |date=February 10, 1989 |title=The law; Lincoln as lawyer: transcript tells murder story |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/10/nyregion/the-law-lincoln-as-lawyer-transcript-tells-murder-story.html}}</ref>{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=150–151|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 p. 560}} == Pulitik Républik (1854–1860) == {{Main|Karir pulitik Abraham Lincoln (1849–1861)}} === Muncul salaku pamimpin Républik === {{Further|Nagara bagian perbudakan sarta nagara bagian merdéka|Abraham Lincoln sarta perbudakan}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln by Byers, 1858 - crop.jpg|alt=Potrét sirah sarta taktak Lincoln anu teu janggotan|thumb|Lincoln dina taun 1858, taun lumangsungna [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|debatna]] sareng [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]] ngeunaan perbudakan]] [[Kompromi 1850]] gagal ngurangan katégangan ngeunaan perbudakan antara pihak Kidul (anu ngarojong perbudakan) sarta pihak Kalér (anu merdéka).{{sfn|White|2009|pp=175–176}} Nalika debat perbudakan di wilayah [[Wilayah Nebraska|Nebraska]] sarta [[Wilayah Kansas|Kansas]] mingkin panas, Sénator Illinois Stephen A. Douglas ngusulkeun [[Kadaulatan rahayat di Amérika Sarikat|kadaulatan rahayat]] salaku jalan kompromi; ieu aturan téh ngidinan para pamilih di unggal wilayah pikeun mutuskeun sorangan status perbudakan di daérahna. Ieu undang-undang ngahariwangkeun loba urang Kalér anu hayang nyegah sumebarna perbudakan, nanging [[Undang-undang Kansas–Nebraska]] karya Douglas ahirna lulus di Kongrés dina Méi 1854.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=188–190}} [[Biantara Peoria Abraham Lincoln|Biantara Peoria]] Lincoln dina Oktober 1854, anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna nolak perbudakan,{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=148–152}} mangrupa salah sahiji ti sakitar 175 biantara anu ditepikeun ku anjeunna dina genep taun ka hareup ngeunaan topik nolak perluasan perbudakan ka wilayah-wilayah anyar.<ref name=anb> The second child of [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks Lincoln]], he was a descendant of [[Samuel Lincoln]], an Englishman who migrated to [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] in 1638,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 1–4}} and of the [[Harrison family of Virginia]].{{efn|Though it is uncertain, Lincoln's grandmother is believed to have been Bathsheba Herring, the daughter of Alexander and Abigail Herring (née Harrison).<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=40189910|last=Coleman|first=Charles|title=Lincoln's Lincoln grandmother|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-illinois-state-historical-society_spring-1959_52_1/page/59|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society|date=1959 |volume=52|issue=1|pages=59–90}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 658, 667}} Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would "co-operate with the President-elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards".<ref name=anb/> Hakim Agung [[Roger B. Taney]] nyerat dina pamadegan hukumna yén Kompromi Missouri téh teu konstitusional alatan ngalanggar hak milik para nu boga budak ku cara ngalarang maranéhna mawa budakna ka wilayah-wilayah anyar. Nalika loba urang Démokrat miharep yén putusan ''Dred Scott'' bakal mungkas sengketa ngeunaan perbudakan di wilayah-wilayah anyar, ieu putusan kalah ngahudangkeun amarah anu langkung gedé di Kalér.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=236–238}} Lincoln nyempad ieu putusan salaku hasil tina konspirasi urang Démokrat pikeun ngarojong [[Slave Power]] (Kakuatan nu boga budak).{{sfn|Zarefsky|1993|pp=69–110}} Anjeunna boga pamadegan yén putusan éta patukang tonggong jeung [[Déklarasi Kamardékaan Amérika Sarikat|Déklarasi Kamardékaan]], anu nyatakeun yén "sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua (sajatidiri) ... kalayan hak-hak anu teu bisa dicabut", di antarana "hirup, kamerdékaan, sarta ngahontal kabagjaan".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|pp=299–300}} === Debat Lincoln–Douglas sarta biantara Cooper Union === {{Further|Debat Lincoln–Douglas|Biantara Cooper Union}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln 1860.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|alt=Poto Lincoln tilu parapat awak|''Abraham Lincoln'', potrét karya [[Mathew Brady]] dicandak tanggal 27 Pébruari 1860, poé nalika Lincoln nepikeun [[Biantara Cooper Union]] di New York City.]] Dina taun 1858, Douglas maju deui pikeun kapilih janten Sénat AS, sarta Lincoln miharep bisa néléhkeunana. Loba pihak di partéi ngarasa yén urut urang Whig kudu dicalonkeun dina taun 1858, sarta kampanye Lincoln taun 1856 sarta dukunganna ka Trumbull parantos méré kauntungan pikeun anjeunna.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} Pikeun munggaranana, urang Républik Illinois ngayakeun konvénsi pikeun nyatujuan hiji kandidat Sénat, sarta Lincoln meunangkeun nominasi kasebut kalayan saeutik pisan parlawanan.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–250}} Lincoln nampi éta nominasi kalayan pinuh ku sumanget. Saatos dicalonkeun, anjeunna nepikeun **[[Biantara Imah anu Beulah|Biantara ''House Divided'']]**: <blockquote>"Hiji imah anu papisah (beulah) ngalawan dirina sorangan moal bisa nangtung." Kuring yakin pamaréntahan ieu moal bisa tahan salilana, dina kaayaan satengah ''perbudakan'' sarta satengah ''merdéka''. Kuring henteu ngarepkeun Uni ieu bakal ''bubar''—kuring henteu ngarepkeun imah ieu bakal ''runtuh''—nanging kuring ''mémang'' ngarepkeun Uni ieu moal deui papisah. Ieu bakal jadi hiji hal sagemblengna, atawa sabalikna.{{sfn|White|2009|p=251}}</blockquote> Éta biantara nyiptakeun gambaran anu jelas ngeunaan bahayana perpecahan.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=98}} Nalika dibéré nyaho ngeunaan pencalonan Lincoln, Douglas nyatakeun, "[Lincoln] téh jalma kuat di partéina... sarta lamun kuring néléhkeun anjeunna, kameunangan kuring bakal dihontal kalayan hésé."{{sfn|White|2009|p=258}} Kampanye Sénat éta diwarnaan ku [[Debat Lincoln–Douglas|tujuh debat]] antara Lincoln sarta Douglas; suasanana mirip jeung tanding tinju sarta narik rébuan jalma.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=214–218|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 487–488}} Lincoln ngingetkeun yén ''Slave Power'' (Kakuatan nu boga budak) nuju ngancam ajén-inajén républikanisme, sarta anjeunna nuduh Douglas parantos nyimpangkeun prédisi Jefferson yén [[sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua]]. Dina [[Doktrin Freeport]]-na, Douglas boga pamadegan yén sanajan aya putusan ''Dred Scott'', para pangeusi lokal (dumasar kadaulatan rahayat) kudu bébas milih naha bakal ngidinan perbudakan di wilayahna atawa henteu. Anjeunna ogé nuduh Lincoln parantos ngagabung ka golongan abolisionis.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|pp=201–203, 212–224|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 501–504, 527–531}} Sanajan kandidat législatur Républik meunang sora rahayat anu langkung seueur, urang Démokrat meunang korsi anu langkung seueur dina législatur, sahingga législatur milih deui Douglas. Nanging, cara Lincoln ngajelaskeun masalah-masalah kasebut parantos méré anjeunna tempat dina pulitik nasional.{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=89–90}} Saatos pilihan raya 1858, surat kabar sering nyebutkeun Lincoln salaku kandidat présidén Républik anu poténsial. Dina Pébruari 1860, Lincoln diondang pikeun nepikeun biantara di New York. Dina [[Biantara Cooper Union]] tanggal 27 Pébruari, Lincoln boga pamadegan yén para [[The Founding Fathers|Nu Ngadegkeun Nagara]] teu pati resep kana kadaulatan rahayat sarta parantos ngawatesan perbudakan dina [[Ordinansi Kulon-Kalér]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 585-586}} Anjeunna negeskeun yén moralitas merlukeun parlawanan kana perbudakan sarta nolak usaha "milari jalan tengah antara anu bener jeung anu salah".{{sfn|Jaffa|2000|p=473}} Biantara ieu nunjukkeun kapamingpinan intéléktualna anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna dicalonkeun janten présidén. Sajarawan David Herbert Donald ngagambarkeun biantara kasebut salaku "léngkah pulitik anu hébat pikeun saurang calon présidén anu can diumumkeun sacara resmi."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=240}} === Pilihan raya présidén 1860 === {{Main|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860}} [[File:The Rail Candidate.jpg|alt= Lincoln nuju digotong ku dua lalaki (hiji bodas, hiji hideung) dina papan panjang. |thumb|''The Rail Candidate'', hiji ilustrasi kritis karya [[Currier and Ives]], anu ngagambarkeun platform Lincoln dina [[Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|kampanye présidén 1860]] saolah-olah dironjong ku saurang budak sarta Horace Greeley]] Dina 9–10 Méi 1860, Konvénsi Nagara Bagian Républik Illinois lumangsung di [[Decatur, Illinois]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=244}} Ku cara ngamangpaatkeun legenda hirupna salaku jalma leuweung anu sok babat alas sarta meulah kai pager, para pangrojongna mromosikeun Lincoln salaku "The Rail Candidate" (Kandidat Tukang Meulah Kai).{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=244–245}} Dina 18 Méi dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik di Chicago, Lincoln meunangkeun nominasi dina babak sora katilu.<ref name=anb/> Tilas urang Démokrat, [[Hannibal Hamlin]] ti Maine, dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén pikeun nyaruakeun sora (''[[Ticket balance|balance the ticket]]'').{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 625}} Salila taun 1850-an, Lincoln cangcaya yén bakal aya perang sipil (perang baraya), sarta para pangrojongna nolak anggapan yén kapilihna Lincoln bakal nyababkeun nagara-nagara bagian misahkeun diri (sési).{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=10, 13, 18}} Nalika Douglas kapilih janten kandidat Démokrat Kalér, para utusan ti nagara bagian perbudakan di Kidul milih Wakil Présidén [[John C. Breckinridge]] salaku kandidat maranéhna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=253}} Sakelompok tilas urang Whig sarta Know Nothings ngadegkeun [[Partéi Uni Konstitusional (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Uni Konstitusional]] sarta nyalonkeun [[John Bell (pulitikus Tennessee)|John Bell]]. Lincoln sarta Douglas marebutkeun sora di Kalér, sedengkeun Bell sarta Breckinridge meunang dukungan utamana di Kidul.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=247–248}} Nalika Douglas sarta kandidat sanésna sibuk kampanye, Lincoln mah henteu nepikeun biantara naon-naon, anjeunna ngan ngandelkeun sumanget ti Partéi Républik. Para juru bicara Républik nekenkeun sajarah budakna Lincoln anu miskin pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan "buruh merdéka" (''free labor''), anu ngamungkinkeun saurang budak tani biasa tiasa naék ka luhur ku usahana sorangan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=254–256}} Dina mangsa nunggu pilihan raya, anjeunna muka kantor di [[Situs Sajarah Nagara Capitol Nagara Heubeul|capitol nagara bagian Illinois]] pikeun nanganan perhatian publik anu sakitu lobana. Anjeunna ogé nyéwa [[John George Nicolay]] salaku sekretaris pribadi.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=251–252|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 1 pp. 650–652}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1860, Lincoln kapilih janten présidén munggaran ti Partéi Républik. Kameunanganana sagemblengna dumasar kana dukungan di Kalér sarta Kulon. Malah mah, teu aya hiji-hiji acan sora pikeun anjeunna di 10 tina 15 nagara bagian perbudakan di Kidul.{{sfnm|Mansch|2005|1p=61|Donald|1996|2p=256}} Lincoln nampa 1.866.452 sora, atanapi 39,8 persén ti total sora dina persaingan opat kandidat ieu, nanging anjeunna meunang sacara mutlak dina sora éléktoral (''electoral vote'').{{sfn|White|2009|p=350}} == Kaprésidénan (1861–1865) == {{Main|Kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln}} === Mangsa jabatan munggaran === ==== Sési sarta inagurasi ==== {{Main|Transisi kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln}} {{Further|Usum tiis sési|Plot Baltimore}} {{Multiple image|total_width=500px|image1=Flickr_-_USCapitol_-_Abraham_Lincoln's_First_Inauguration.jpg|alt1=Kumpulan jalma réa di payuneun gedong ageung kalayan seueur tihang.|caption1=[[Biantara munggaran pelantikan Abraham Lincoln|Inagurasi munggaran Lincoln]] di [[Kapitol Amérika Sarikat]] dina 4 Maret 1861, kalayan [[Kubah Kapitol Amérika Sarikat|kubah Kapitol]] di luhureun rotunda anu masih kénéh nuju diwangun.|image2=18610304 Affairs of the Nation - Abraham Lincoln inauguration - The New York Times.jpg|caption2=Judul utama dina ''[[The New York Times]]'' saatos inagurasi munggaran Lincoln anu nandakeun ayana pacogrégan anu bakal lumangsung.}} Saatos Lincoln kapilih, para pendukung sési (''secessionists'') ngalaksanakeun rencana pikeun kaluar ti Uni méméh anjeunna resmi ngajabat dina Maret 1861.{{sfn|Edgar|1998|p=350}}<ref name=anb/> Dina 20 Désémber 1860, South Carolina ngadopsi ordinansi sési; ditéma ku Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, sarta Texas dina 1 Pébruari 1861.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|Potter|1977|p2=498}} Genep tina ieu nagara bagian nyatakeun diri salaku nagara daulat, [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]], sarta milih [[Jefferson Davis]] janten présidén samentarana.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=267|White|2009|2p=369}} Nagara-nagara bagian di wewengkon Kidul-Luhur sarta nagara bagian wates (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, sarta Arkansas) mimitina nolak ajakan sési kasebut.{{sfn|White|2009|p=362}} Présidén Buchanan sarta Présidén-kapilih Lincoln nolak ngaku ayana Konfédérasi, sarta nyatakeun yén sési téh ilegal sacara hukum.{{sfn|Potter|1977|pp=520, 569–570}} Lincoln sarta urang Républik nolak usulan [[Kompromi Crittenden]] alatan dianggap patukang tonggong jeung platform partéi ngeunaan taneuh-merdéka (''free-soil'') di wilayah-wilayah AS.{{sfn|White|2009|pp=360–361}} Lincoln nyatakeun, "Kuring leuwih milih maot tinimbang kudu satuju... kana konsési atawa kompromi naon waé anu katingalina kawas meuli hak istiméwa pikeun nyekel pamaréntahan ieu, anu sabenerna mangrupa hak konstitusional urang".{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=268}} [[File:Lincoln LadyPNG.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|alt=Kartun Lincoln nganggo rok kilt sarta topi méwah nuju ngigel|Lincoln dionyam ku koran-koran oposisi anu sacara palsu nyebutkeun yén anjeunna nyulusup ka Washington bari nyamur saatos pilihan raya 1860.]] Alatan ayana plot sési, kaamanan Lincoln sarta karéta anu ditumpakanna ka Washington dijaga kacida ketatna. Anjeunna hasil nyingkahan ancaman rajapati dina [[Plot Baltimore]]. Lincoln indit bari nyamur, nganggo topi laken (''felt hat'') anu lemes tinimbang [[topi luhur]] (''stovepipe hat'') anu biasa dianggo ku anjeunna, sarta nyampaykeun jubah panjang (''overcoat'') dina taktakna bari rada bongkok pikeun nyumputkeun jangkung awakna. Dina 23 Pébruari 1861, anjeunna anjog di Washington, D.C., anu geus dijaga ku militér. Koran-koran oposisi loba anu ngonyam ieu perjalanan rusiah téh ku cara nyieun karikatur Lincoln anu nuju nyulusup ka puseur dayuh.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=273–279|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 32–39}} Dina biantara inagurasina, Lincoln nyoba ngayakinkeun urang Kidul yén anjeunna moal ngahapus perbudakan di nagara bagian anu geus aya: {{Blockquote|Sigana aya kahariwang di kalangan masarakat di Nagara-nagara Bagian Kidul, yén ku naékna Administrasi Républik, harta banda, katengtreman, sarta kaamanan pribadi maranéhna bakal kaancam. Sabenerna mah teu kungsi aya alesan anu logis pikeun éta kahariwang... Kuring deklarasikeun yén "Kuring teu boga maksud, boh sacara langsung atawa teu langsung, pikeun milu campur dina urusan lembaga perbudakan di Nagara-nagara Bagian dimana éta lembaga geus aya. Kuring yakin kuring teu boga hak sah pikeun ngalakukeunana, sarta kuring teu boga niat pikeun ngalakukeunana."|[[Biantara munggaran pelantikan Abraham Lincoln|Biantara inagurasi munggaran]], 4 Maret 1861{{sfnm|Sandburg|2002|1p=212|Lincoln|1953|2p=333}}|source=}} Présidén mungkas biantarana ku panggero ka urang Kidul: "Urang téh lain musuh, tapi babaturan.... Tatali batin (''mystic chords of memory'') anu manteng tina unggal médan perang, sarta kuburan para pahlawan, ka unggal haté sarta kulawarga anu hirup... bakal ngagedékeun deui lagu persatuan (Uni), nalika ditorélak deui... ku malaikat anu langkung saé dina diri urang (''better angels of our nature'')."{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=283–284}} ==== Personél ==== {{Main|Kaprésidénan Abraham Lincoln#Kawijakan luar nagri|Diplomasi Perang Sipil Amérika}} {{Infobox U.S. Cabinet | Name = Lincoln | President = Abraham Lincoln | President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President = [[Hannibal Hamlin]] | Vice President date = 1861–1865 | Vice President 2 = [[Andrew Johnson]] | Vice President date 2 = 1865 | State = [[William H. Seward]] | State date = 1861–1865 | Treasury = [[Salmon P. Chase]] | Treasury date = 1861–1864 | Treasury 2 = [[William P. Fessenden]] | Treasury date 2 = 1864–1865 | Treasury 3 = [[Hugh McCulloch]] | Treasury date 3 = 1865 | War = [[Simon Cameron]] | War date = 1861–1862 | War 2 = [[Edwin M. Stanton]] | War date 2 = 1862–1865 | Justice = [[Edward Bates]] | Justice date = 1861–1864 | Justice 2 = [[James Speed]] | Justice date 2 = 1864–1865 | Post = [[Montgomery Blair]] | Post date = 1861–1864 | Post 2 = [[William Dennison Jr.]] | Post date 2 = 1864–1865 | Navy = [[Gideon Welles]] | Navy date = 1861–1865 | Interior = [[Caleb Blood Smith]] | Interior date = 1861–1862 | Interior 2 = [[John Palmer Usher]] | Interior date 2 = 1863–1865 | source =<ref>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/lincoln/abraham-lincoln-administration|publisher=Miller Center, University of Virginia|title=Abraham Lincoln: administration|date=December 16, 2016 }}</ref> }} Dina milih kabinétna, Lincoln milih jalma-jalma anu dianggapna paling kompetén, sanajan maranéhna téh kungsi jadi lawan anjeunna dina pilihan raya présidén. Lincoln méré koméntar ngeunaan prosés pamikiranana, "Urang butuh jalma-jalma pangkuatna ti partéi di jero Kabinét. Urang kudu ngahijikeun rahayat urang sorangan. Kuring geus mariksa sakuliah partéi sarta nyimpulkeun yén maranéhna téh mémang jalma-jalma pangkuatna. Sahingga kuring teu boga hak pikeun nyabut jasa maranéhna ti nagara ieu."{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=319}} [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ngagambarkeun ieu kelompok dina biografi Lincoln taun 2005 salaku "**[[Team of Rivals|tim para rival]]**".{{sfn|Goodwin|2005}} Lincoln nujul lawan pulitik utamana, [[William H. Seward]], janten Sekretaris Nagara.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 722}} Lincoln ogé milih lima urang pikeun ngeusian jabatan di Mahkamah Agung. [[Noah Haynes Swayne]], saurang loya korporasi kawentar ti Ohio, ngagentos [[John McLean]] saatos McLean pupus dina April 1861. Saperti McLean, Swayne nolak perbudakan.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=59}} [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], anu ngagentos [[Peter V. Daniel]], mangrupa saurang abolisionis sarta nampa dukungan lega ti para pulitikus Iowa.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=64–65}} [[David Davis (hakim Mahkamah Agung)|David Davis]] mangrupa manajer kampanye Lincoln dina taun 1860 sarta kungsi janten hakim di sirkuit pangadilan Illinois tempat Lincoln prakték.{{sfn|Silver|1998|p=74}} Urang Démokrat [[Stephen Johnson Field]], tilas hakim Mahkamah Agung California, dipilih pikeun nyadiakeun kasaimbangan géografis sarta pulitik.{{sfn|Silver|1998|pp=88–89}} Ahirna, saatos pupusna [[Roger B. Taney]], Lincoln nunjuk tilas sekretaris perbendaharaanana, [[Salmon P. Chase]], pikeun ngagentos Taney salaku hakim agung. Lincoln yakin yén Chase téh saurang yuris anu mampuh sarta bakal ngarojong panerapan undang-undang Rékonstruksi.{{sfn|Blue|1987|p=245}} ==== Panglima Luhur ==== [[File:Abraham Lincoln - NARA - 528325.jpg|thumb|alt=Présidén Abraham Lincoln dina taun 1862|Potrét Lincoln {{circa}} 1862]] Dina awal April 1861, [[Robert Anderson (perwira Uni)|Mayor Robert Anderson]], komandan [[Fort Sumter]] di Charleston, South Carolina, méré nyaho yén stok dahareunana geus ampir béak. Saatos debat anu panjang, Lincoln mutuskeun pikeun ngirimkeun perbekalan; numutkeun Michael Burlingame, Lincoln "teu bisa mastikeun naha kaputusanana bakal nyababkeun perang, sanajan anjeunna boga alesan kuat pikeun percaya yén hal éta bisa lumangsung".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 100–124}} Dina 12 April 1861, pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|némbak pasukan Uni di Fort Sumter]], anu nandaan dimimitianana [[Perang Sipil Amérika]].{{sfn|McClintock|2008|pp=246–250}} Donald nyimpulkeun: <blockquote>Usaha anjeunna anu terus-terusan pikeun nyingkahan tabrakan... némbongkeun yén anjeunna nyekel deleg kana sumpahna moal jadi jalma munggaran anu ngocorkeun getih dulur sorangan. Nanging anjeunna ogé parantos sumpah moal masrahkeun bénténg-bénténg éta.... Hiji-hijina jalan kaluar tina ieu posisi anu kontradiktif nyaéta ku cara pihak Konfédérasi anu némbak munggaran.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=293}}</blockquote> Serangan dina 12 sarta 13 April ka Fort Sumter ngahijikeun publik Kalér pikeun nempo yén tindakan militér ka Kidul téh perlu demi ngabéla nagara.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 134–138, 154–155}} Dina 15 April, [[Proklamasi 80|Lincoln nyauran 75.000 milisi]] pikeun ngarebut deui bénténg-bénténg, ngajaga Washington, sarta mertahankeun Uni. Ieu panggero maksa nagara-nagara bagian pikeun milih: misahkeun diri (sési) atawa ngarojong Uni. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, sarta Arkansas milih sési. Nalika resimén-resimén Kalér dikirim ka kidul, dina 19 April massa di Baltimore anu ngawasa jalur karéta api [[Karusuhan Baltimore 1861|nyerang pasukan Uni]] anu nuju ganti karéta. Para pamingpin lokal teras ngabeuleum sasak-sasak karéta api anu krusial ka puseur dayuh, sarta Angkatan Darat ngaréspon ku cara [[Maryland dina Perang Sipil Amérika#Panetapan hukum darurat militér|néwak para pajabat lokal Maryland]]. Lincoln nangguhkeun hak ''[[Habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat#Penangguhan salila Perang Sipil|habeas corpus]]'', anu ngidinan panéwakan tanpa dakwaan resmi.{{sfnm|1a1=Heidler|1a2=Heidler|1a3=Coles|1y=2002|1p=174|2a1=Burlingame|2y=2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 141, 146–151}} [[John Merryman]], saurang perwira Maryland anu ditéwak alatan ngahambat gerakan pasukan AS, hasil ngajukeun pétisi ka Hakim Agung Taney pikeun ngaluarkeun [[Habeas corpus di Amérika Sarikat|surat ''habeas corpus'']]. Dina opini anu judulna ''[[Ex parte Merryman]]'', Taney nyerat yén Konstitusi ngan ngidinan Kongrés, lain présidén, pikeun nangguhkeun ''habeas corpus''. Nanging Lincoln nolak tunduk sarta tetep ngajalankeun kawijakan penangguhan éta di sababaraha wilayah.{{sfnm|Harris|2011|1pp=59–71|White|2011 |2pp=38–39}} Dina kaayaan penangguhan ieu, 15.000 warga sipil ditahan tanpa sidang; sababaraha urang, kaasup urang Démokrat anti-perang [[Clement L. Vallandigham]], diadili di pangadilan militér alatan tindakan "hianat", anu teras dikecam salaku serangan kana kabébasan nyarita.<ref name=anb/>{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=442–443}} ==== Strategi militér awal Uni ==== {{Main|Téater wétan Perang Sipil Amérika|Téater kulon Perang Sipil Amérika}} {{Further|Téater Trans-Mississippi Perang Sipil Amérika|Téater basisir handap Perang Sipil Amérika}} Lincoln nyepeng kendali éksekutif dina perang sarta ngawangun strategi militér [[Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)|Uni]]. Salaku [[panglima luhur]], anjeunna ngaréspon krisis pulitik sarta militér anu can kungsi aya saacanna ku cara ngagunakeun otoritas anu taya tandingna. Anjeunna ngalegaan kakawasaan perangna, netepkeun [[Blokade Uni|blokade laut]] ka palabuhan-palabuhan Konfédérasi, ngaluarkeun dana méméh disatujuan ku Kongrés, nangguhkeun ''habeas corpus'', sarta néwak sarta manjarakeun rébuan jalma anu dicurigai salaku simpatisan Konfédérasi. Lincoln nampa rojongan ti Kongrés sarta publik Kalér pikeun ieu tindakan. Lincoln ogé kudu nguatkeun simpati Uni di nagara-nagara bagian perbudakan wates sarta ngajaga sangkan ieu perang teu jadi konflik internasional.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=302–304|Carwardine|2003|2pp=163–164}} Ti mimiti katingal jelas yén rojongan ti dua partéi (bipartisan) téh penting pisan pikeun kasuksésan, sarta yén kompromi naon waé bakal ngajauhkeun faksi-faksi di kadua partéi pulitik. Copperheads (urang Démokrat anti-perang) nyacad Lincoln alatan nolak kompromi ngeunaan perbudakan; sedengkeun urang [[Républik Radikal]], anu nungtut tindakan keras ka pihak sési, nyacad anjeunna alatan dianggap lambat teuing dina ngahapus perbudakan.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=315–339, 417}} Dina 6 Agustus 1861, Lincoln nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Konfiskasi 1861]], anu ngidinan prosés hukum pikeun nyita sarta ngabébaskeun budak anu dipaké pikeun ngarojong Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=314|Carwardine|2003|2p=178}} [[File:Running the "machine" LCCN2003689257.jpg|thumb|alt=Sakelompok lalaki diuk dina méja nalika lalaki séjénna nyieun duit dina mesin kai.|''Running the Machine'', hiji kartun pulitik taun 1864 anu nyindir Lincoln sarta administrasina, kaasup [[William Fessenden]], [[Edwin Stanton]], [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], sarta [[Gideon Welles]].]] Strategi perang Lincoln miboga dua prioritas: mastikeun Washington dijaga kalayan hadé sarta ngajalankeun usaha perang anu agrésif pikeun meunangkeun kameunangan anu gancang sarta mutlak.{{efn|Koran-koran utama di Kalér ngaramalkeun kameunangan dina waktu 90 poé.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=295–296}}}} Dua kali saminggu, Lincoln ngayakeun rapat sareng kabinétna. Sakali-kali, pamajikanana, Mary, ngolo anjeunna sangkan kersa jalan-jalan nganggo karéta kuda, alatan hariwang anjeunna damel teuing kacapean.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=391–392}} Di awal perang, Lincoln milih jénderal-jénderal sipil tina rupa-rupa latar tukang pulitik sarta étnis pikeun mastikeun yén perang ieu jadi perjuangan nasional.{{sfn|Work|2024|p=2}} Dina Januari 1862, Lincoln ngaganti Simon Cameron ku [[Edwin Stanton]] salaku menteri perang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 240–244}} Stanton digawé leuwih raket jeung Lincoln tinimbang pajabat sénior séjénna. Lincoln nempo pentingna [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] pikeun ngawasa léngkob [[Walungan Mississippi]] sarta ngarti yén penting pisan pikeun néléhkeun pasukan musuh, lain ngan saukur ngarebut wilayahna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=432–436}} Dina ngarahkeun strategi perang Uni, Lincoln ngajénan pisan naséhat ti [[Winfield Scott]]. Dina taun 1861, Scott ngusulkeun [[Rancangan Anaconda]], anu ngandelkeun blokade palabuhan sarta maju nyusruk Walungan Mississippi pikeun nalukkeun Kidul.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 pp. 180, 320|Marvel|2008|2p=68}} Di dunya internasional, Lincoln hayang nyegah bantuan militér asing ka Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=213–214}} Dina taun 1861, Angkatan Laut AS sacara ilegal ngeureunkeun kapal surat Inggris, ''[[RMS Trent]]'', di laut leupas sarta néwak dua utusan Konfédérasi. Sanajan Kalér ngarayakeun éta penangkapan, Inggris protés keras, sarta [[Insidén Trent]]** ampir nyababkeun perang antara Amérika sarta Inggris. Lincoln mungkas krisis ieu ku cara ngabébaskeun éta dua diplomat.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 222–227}} ==== McClellan ==== [[File:Lincoln and generals at Antietam.jpg|alt=Lincoln di antara sakelompok prajurit di camp militér|thumb|Lincoln nuju rapat sareng para perwira [[Angkatan Darat Uni]] dina 3 Oktober 1862, saatos [[Patempuran Antietam]], kaasup ti kénca ka katuhu: Kol. [[Delos Bennett Sackett|Delos Sackett]]; 4. Jén. [[George W. Morell]]; 5. [[Alexander S. Webb]], Kapala Staf, Korps V; 6. McClellan; 8. [[Jonathan Letterman]]; 10. Lincoln; 11. [[Henry J. Hunt]]; 12. [[Fitz John Porter]]; 15. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]; 16. Kapt. [[George Armstrong Custer]]]] {{main|George B. McClellan}} Saatos Uni kéléh di [[Patempuran Mimiti Bull Run]] sarta pangsiunna Winfield Scott, Lincoln nunjuk [[George B. McClellan]] janten panglima luhur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=318–319}} Di awal perang, McClellan ngawangun pertahanan Washington anu kacida kuatna sarta ampir teu bisa ditembus: 48 bénténg sarta [[artileri|batré artileri]], kalayan 480 mariem anu dijaga ku 7.200 prajurit artileri.{{sfn|Sears|1999|p=116}} Anjeunna méakkeun mangbulan-bulan pikeun ngarencanakeun [[Kampanye Samananjung]] Virginia. Nanging, gerakan McClellan anu lambat sarta sikepna anu ati-ati teuing ngajantenkeun Lincoln frustasi. Sabalikna, McClellan nyalahkeun kagagalan kampanye éta ka Lincoln anu dianggapna kacida ati-atina alatan nahan pasukan cadangan pikeun ngajaga puseur dayuh.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=349–352}} Dina taun 1862, Lincoln ngabébastugaskeun McClellan salaku panglima luhur; anjeunna naékkeun Henry Halleck kana éta jabatan sarta nunjuk [[John Pope (jénéral)|John Pope]] salaku kapala [[Angkatan Darat Virginia]] anu anyar.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 303, 320, 368}} Dina usum panas 1862, Pope ditéléhkeun sacara mutlak dina [[Patempuran Kadua Bull Run]], anu maksa anjeunna mundur ka Washington. Teu lila ti harita, Angkatan Darat Virginia dibubarkeun.{{sfn|Work|2024|p=71}} Sanajan Lincoln teu sugema ku kagagalan McClellan dina ngabantu Pope, anjeunna mulikkeun deui jabatan McClellan pikeun mingpin sakabéh kakuatan di sakitar Washington. Dua poé ti harita, pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]] meuntas [[Walungan Potomac]] ka Maryland, anu ngabalukarkeun kajadianana [[Patempuran Antietam]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=478–480}} Ieu patempuran, anu dimeunangkeun ku Uni, mangrupa salah sahiji anu panggetihna dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|p=481}} Krisis kapamingpinan lumangsung nalika McClellan nolak paménta présidén pikeun ngudag pasukan Lee anu nuju mundur. Lincoln ahirna ngaganti McClellan ku [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Numutkeun Donald, ieu téh mangrupa léngkah pulitik anu "pinter" alatan Burnside mah non-partisan—béda jeung McClellan anu saurang Démokrat.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=390}} Nanging, Burnside ditéléhkeun ku Lee di Fredericksburg dina Désémber.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 445–446}} Ningali sumanget pasukan anu turun, Lincoln ngaganti Burnside ku [[Joseph Hooker]].{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 pp. 484–486|Donald|1996|2pp=411–412}} Hooker nanggung korban jiwa anu kacida lobana dina [[Patempuran Chancellorsville]] bulan Méi, teras mundur dina Juni sarta digantikeun ku [[George Meade]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 498, 503, 510–511}} Meade hasil néléhkeun Lee dina [[Kampanye Gettysburg]] nanging gagal ngahalangan mundurna pasukan Lee ka Virginia, sanajan Lincoln geus maréntahkeun kitu. Dina waktu anu sarua, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] hasil ngarebut Vicksburg sarta ngawasa Walungan Mississippi.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=444–447}} Dina Méi 1863, Lincoln ngaluarkeun [[Lieber Code]], anu ngatur tatakrama perang pikeun Angkatan Darat Uni, sarta netepkeun tanggung jawab komando pikeun kajahatan perang sarta kajahatan kana kamanusaan. ==== Proklamasi Émansipasi ==== {{Main|Abraham Lincoln sarta perbudakan|Proklamasi Émansipasi}} <imagemap> File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|''[[First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln]]'', potrét taun 1864 karya [[Francis Bicknell Carpenter]]<small>'' (gambar bisa diklik)''</small>|alt=Saurang lalaki paruh baya, buuk poék, janggotan, nuju nyekel dokumén di antara tujuh lalaki séjénna. poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 [[Edwin M. Stanton|Edwin Stanton]] poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Chase]] poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 [[Abraham Lincoln]] poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 [[Gideon Welles]] poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 [[William H. Seward|William Seward]] poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 [[Caleb Blood Smith|Caleb Smith]] poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 [[Montgomery Blair]] poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 [[Edward Bates]] poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]] poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 [[Simon Cameron|Potrét Simon Cameron]] poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 [[Andrew Jackson|Potrét Andrew Jackson]] </imagemap> Dua jénderal Uni kungsi ngaluarkeun paréntah émansipasi dina taun 1861 sarta 1862, nanging Lincoln ngabatalkeun duanana: anjeunna ngarasa yén mutuskeun émansipasi téh lain wewenang jénderal, sarta hal éta bisa nyababkeun nagara-nagara bagian wates anu satia milu misahkeun diri (sési).{{sfn|Guelzo|1999|pp=290–291}} Nanging, dina Juni 1862, Kongrés ngaluluskeun undang-undang anu ngalarang perbudakan di sakabéh wilayah féderal, anu teras ditandatanganan ku Lincoln. Dina Juli, [[Undang-undang Konfiskasi 1862]] mimiti lumaku,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 357}} anu ngidinan panyitaan budak ti jalma-jalma anu teu satia ka Amérika Sarikat. Dina 22 Juli 1862, Lincoln mariksa draf Proklamasi Émansipasi sareng kabinétna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=364–365}} Sabalikna, [[Horace Greeley]], éditor ''[[New-York Tribune]]'', dina serat publikna, "Pangdua Dua Puluh Juta" (''The Prayer of Twenty Millions''), ménta Lincoln sangkan geuwat narima émansipasi.{{sfnm|McPherson|1992|1p=124|Lundberg|2019|2p=116}} Dina serat jawabanana tanggal 22 Agustus 1862, Lincoln nyatakeun yén sanajan sacara pribadi anjeunna hayang sakabéh manusa merdéka, kawajiban utamana salaku présidén nyaéta nyalametkeun Uni (nagara):{{sfn|Guelzo|2004|pp=147–153}} {{Blockquote|Tujuan utama kuring dina perjuangan ieu ''nyaéta'' pikeun nyalametkeun Uni, sarta ''lain'' pikeun nyalametkeun atawa ngancurkeun perbudakan. Upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeun Uni tanpa ngabébaskeun ''hiji-hiji acan'' budak, kuring bakal ngalakukeunana; sarta upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeunana ku cara ngabébaskeun ''sakabéh'' budak, kuring ogé bakal ngalakukeunana; sarta upami kuring tiasa nyalametkeunana ku cara ngabébaskeun sababaraha budak sarta ngantepkeun anu sanésna, kuring ogé bakal ngalakukeun éta hal.<ref name=anb/>}} Dironjong ku béja kameunangan Uni di Antietam, dina 22 Séptémber 1862, Lincoln ngaluarkeun Proklamasi Émansipasi awal. Dina 1 Januari 1863, anjeunna ngaluarkeun vérsi ahir,{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 468–469}} anu ngabébaskeun budak di sapuluh nagara bagian anu harita can aya dina kontrol Uni. Lincoln méré koméntar nalika nandatanganan ieu Proklamasi: "Kuring can kungsi, dina hirup kuring, ngarasa leuwih yakin yén kuring boga bener, tinimbang nalika nandatanganan dokumén ieu."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=407}} Sakaligus jeung émansipasi perbudakan di nagara bagian pemberontak anu ayeuna jadi tujuan militér, pasukan Uni anu maju ka kidul ngamungkinkeun rébuan jalma kabur tina perbudakan. Alatan ayana Proklamasi ieu, pangrekrutan jalma-jalma anu nembé merdéka jadi kawijakan resmi. Dina serat ka gubernur militér Tennessee [[Andrew Johnson]], Lincoln nyerat, "Ningali ngan saukur lima puluh rébu prajurit hideung anu pakarangna lengkep sarta katih ku disiplin di sisi Walungan Mississippi, bakal langsung mungkas pemberontakan."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=431}} ==== Biantara Gettysburg (1863) ==== {{Main|Biantara Gettysburg}} [[File:Gettysburg_Address_in_the_Lincoln_Memorial.JPG|alt=Téks Biantara Gettysburg|thumb|Biantara Gettysburg anu diukir dina [[Monumén Lincoln|Lincoln Memorial]]]] Lincoln nepikeun biantara dina upacara panyucian [[Makam Nasional Gettysburg|makam pangperangan Gettysburg]] dina 19 Nopémber 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=453–460}} Anjeunna negeskeun yén nagara ieu téh "dilahirkeun dina kamerdékaan sarta dibaktikeun kana pamadegan yén sakabéh manusa diciptakeun sarua", sarta yén pati para "lalaki wanian... anu parantos bajoang di dieu" moal jadi hal anu mubadir, nanging nagara ieu "bakal miboga kalahiran anyar kamerdékaan—sarta yén pamaréntahan ti rahayat, ku rahayat, pikeun rahayat, moal sirna ti muka bumi".{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=460–466|Wills|2012|2pp=20, 27, 105, 146}} Ieu biantara janten biantara anu paling sering dicutat dina sajarah Amérika.{{sfn|Bulla|Borchard|2010|p=222}} Saatos Laksamana [[David Farragut]] hasil [[Nalukkeun New Orleans|ngarebut New Orleans]] dina taun 1862, sarta saatos kameunangan di Gettysburg sarta Vicksburg, Lincoln méré maklumat pikeun poé libur nasional [[Thanksgiving (Amérika Sarikat)|Thanksgiving]] (Poé Aturan Nuhun), anu dirayakeun dina poé Kemis pamungkas dina bulan Nopémber 1863.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=471}} ==== Ngangkat Jabatan Grant ==== [[File:Ulysses S. Grant by Mathew Brady 1864.jpg|thumb|alt=Potrét Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses S. Grant dina taun 1864]] Kameunangan [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] dina [[Patempuran Shiloh]] sarta dina [[Kampanye Vicksburg]] ngahudang rasa reueus Lincoln. Nalika ngaréspon kritik ka Grant saatos Shiloh, Lincoln nyatakeun, "Kuring teu bisa kaleungitan ieu jalma. Anjeunna mah daék tarung."{{sfn|Thomas|2008|p=315}} Saatos kagagalan Meade pikeun néwak pasukan Lee sanggeus Gettysburg sarta kasuksésan Grant dina [[Kampanye Chattanooga]], Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten komandan sakabéh angkatan darat Uni.<ref name=anb/> Lincoln ngaréspon kaleungitan pasukan Uni ku cara ngagerakkeun dukungan di sakuliah Kalér.{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=422–424}} Pasukan Uni nargétkeun infrastruktur—perkebunan, jalan karéta api, sarta sasak—pikeun ngalempeureuhkeun sumanget sarta kamampuh tarung Kidul.{{sfn|Witt|2013|pp=276–277}} Sanajan Lincoln nyatujuan ieu pendekatan, anjeunna leuwih nekenkeun kana néléhkeun pasukan Konfédérasi tinimbang ngan saukur ngancurkeun harta benda. [[Kampanye Overland]] Grant anu getih pisan{{sfn|McPherson|2009|p=113}} janten kasuksésan strategis pikeun Uni sanajan aya sababaraha kali hambalan. Nanging, ieu kampanye mangrupa anu panggetihna dina sajarah Amérika: kira-kira 55.000 korban di pihak Uni (kaasup 7.600 maot), dibandingkeun jeung kira-kira 33.000 di pihak Konfédérasi (kaasup 4.200 maot). Kaleungitan di pihak Lee, sanajan sacara angka leuwih saeutik, sacara proporsional leuwih luhur (leuwih ti 50%) dibandingkeun jeung Grant (kira-kira 45%).{{sfnm|Young|2013|1pp=242–243|Tucker|2014|2p=159}} Dina awal April, pamaréntah Konfédérasi ninggalkeun Richmond, sarta Lincoln nganjang ka éta puseur dayuh anu geus ditalukkeun.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=589}} Di tengah geunjleungna tindakan militér, dina 30 Juni 1864, Lincoln nandatanganan undang-undang [[Yosemite Grant]], anu méré panangtayungan féderal anu can kungsi aya saacanna pikeun wilayah anu ayeuna katelah [[Taman Nasional Yosemite]].{{sfn|Schaffer|1999|p=48}} Numutkeun Rolf Diamant sarta Ethan Carr, "Yosemite Grant mangrupa balukar langsung tina perang... hiji perwujudan tina prosés anu terus lumangsung dina ngawangun deui pamaréntahan... hiji negeskeun tina kapercayaan anu kuat kana kameunangan Uni ahirna."{{sfn|Diamant|Carr|2022|pp=54–55}} ==== Kabijakan fiskal sarta monétér ==== {{Main|Sajarah ékonomi Perang Sipil Amérika Sarikat}} [[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|alt=Dua sisi duit sartaeler|Duit sa-dolar "greenback"]] Lincoln sarta Sekretaris Perbendaharaan Salmon Chase nyanghareupan tangtangan beurat dina ngabiayaan ékonomi mangsa perang. Kongrés gancang nyatujuan paménta Lincoln pikeun ngumpulkeun angkatan darat, malah nambahan jumlah prajurit tina 400.000 janten 500.000 urang, nanging Kongrés sarta Chase mimitina nolak naékkeun pajeg.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=27–28}} Saatos Uni ditéléhkeun dina Patempuran Mimiti Bull Run, anu nyababkeun pasar obligasi runtuh, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Pendapatan 1861]]. Ieu undang-undang netepkeun [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg panghasilan féderal AS]] anu munggaran, kalayan pajeg rata (''flat tax'') tilu persén pikeun panghasilan taunan di luhur $800.{{sfn|Weisman|2002|pp=30–35, 85}} Lincoln ogé nandatanganan kanaékan [[Tarif Morrill]], anu geus jadi hukum dina bulan-bulan panungtung masa jabatan Buchanan. Ieu tarif naékkeun béa impor sacara signifikan pikeun nambahan pendapatan sarta mantuan produsén lokal nanggung beban pajeg anyar.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=113–114}} Ukuran pendapatan taun 1861 tétéla teu mahi pikeun ngabiayaan perang. Dina Pébruari 1862, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Alat Bayar Sah]] (''Legal Tender Act''), anu ngidinan panyitakan $150 juta dina wujud "[[Greenback (duit 1860-an)|greenbacks]]"—duit kertas munggaran anu dikaluarkeun ku pamaréntah AS saprak jaman Révolusi Amérika. Greenback teu dironjong ku emas atawa pérak, tapi dumasar kana jangji pamaréntah pikeun ngajénan nilaina. Dina ahir perang, sakitar $450 juta greenback geus sumebar.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1pp=109–110|Weisman|2002|2p=37}} Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun Undang-undang Pendapatan 1862, anu netepkeun [[pajeg cukai]] pikeun ampir sakabéh komoditas, sarta [[Pajeg warisan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg warisan]] nasional anu munggaran.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1p=111|Weisman|2002|2pp=41–42}} Ieu undang-undang ogé nambahan struktur [[pajeg progrésif]] kana pajeg panghasilan féderal. Pikeun ngumpulkeun ieu pajeg, Kongrés ngadegkeun Kantor Komisaris Pendapatan Internal (cikal bakal IRS).<ref name="pollack1">{{cite journal|last1=Pollack|first1=Sheldon D.|title=The first national income tax, 1861–1872|journal=Tax Lawyer|date=2014|volume=67|issue=2|url=https://udel.edu/~pollack/Downloaded%20SDP%20articles,%20etc/academic%20articles/The%20First%20National%20Income%20Tax%2012-18-2013.pdf}}</ref> Hutang nasional AS tumuwuh tina $65 juta dina taun 1860 janten langkung ti $2 miliar dina taun 1866.{{sfn|Paludan|1994|pp=109–110}} Lincoln ogé nyokot tindakan ngalawan kacurangan mangsa perang ku cara nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Klaim Palsu 1863]] (''False Claims Act''). Kalayan harepan pikeun nyetabilkeun mata uang, Lincoln ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngaluluskeun [[Undang-undang Perbankan Nasional]] dina taun 1863, anu ngadegkeun Kantor Komptroler Mata Uang pikeun ngawas "bank nasional."{{sfn|Weisman|2002|p=82}} Kabijakan ékonomi séjénna anu ditarima dina mangsa Lincoln kaasup: * [[Undang-undang Homestead 1862]]: Nyadiakeun jutaan héktar tanah pamaréntah di Kulon kalayan harga murah pikeun warga. * [[Undang-undang Perguruan Tinggi Morrill Land-Grant]]: Nyadiakeun hibah pamaréntah pikeun ngadegkeun akademi tatanén (pertanian) di unggal nagara bagian. * [[Undang-undang Karéta Api Pasifik]]: Nyadiakeun dukungan féderal pikeun pangwangunan * [[jalan karéta api transkontinéntal munggaran]] Amérika Sarikat, anu réngsé dina taun 1869.{{sfnm|Paludan|1994|1pp=114–116|Reynolds|2020|2p=663}} ==== Kawijakan luar nagri ==== {{Further|Diplomasi Perang Sipil Amérika|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagri AS, 1861–1897}} [[File:Abraham Lincoln O-116 by Gardner, 1865.png|thumb|Potrét Lincoln dina 5 Pébruari 1865]] Dina awal perang, Rusia mangrupa hiji-hijina [[kakuatan gedé]] anu ngarojong Uni, sedengkeun kakuatan Éropa séjénna miboga rupa-rupa tingkat simpati ka Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=226–230}} Numutkeun sajarahwan Dean Mahin, Lincoln miboga "pangaweruh anu kawates ngeunaan prakték diplomasi" nanging anjeunna méré "pangaruh anu kacida gedéna kana diplomasi AS" nalika Uni nyoba nyingkahan perang jeung Inggris sarta Perancis.{{sfn|Mahin|1999|pp=2–3}} Lincoln nunjuk para diplomat pikeun ngayakinkeun nagara-nagara Éropa sangkan ulah ngaku kana kadaulatan Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 93}} Kawijakan Lincoln hasil: sakabéh nagara deungeun tetep nétral sacara resmi salila Perang Sipil, sarta taya hiji ogé anu ngaku kana Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=226–230|Mahin|1999|2p=22}} Sababaraha pamingpin Éropa nyoba neangan jalan pikeun ngamangpaatkeun kaayaan AS anu nuju teu mampuh ngajalankeun [[Doktrin Monroe]] (anu nolak pipilueun kolonial Éropa di Amérika): Spanyol nyerang [[Républik Dominika]] dina taun 1861, sedengkeun Perancis ngadegkeun [[Kakaisaran Méksiko Kadua|pamaréntah bonéka]] di Méksiko.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=224–229|Doyle|2015|2p=8}} Nanging, loba urang Éropa anu miharep perang ieu gancang réngsé, boh alatan alesan kamanusaan atawa alatan gangguan ékonomi anu diakibatkeunana.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=230, 240–241}} Aristokrasi Éropa "kacida bungahna nyebutkeun yén karuksakan Amérika mangrupa bukti yén sakabéh ékspérimén pamaréntahan rahayat téh geus gagal," numutkeun [[Don H. Doyle]]. Para diplomat Uni mimitina kedah ngajelaskeun yén Amérika Sarikat henteu boga komitmen pikeun mungkas perbudakan, sarta sabalikna maranéhna boga argumén yén sési (misahkeun diri) téh ngalawan konstitusi. Di sisi séjén, para utusan Konfédérasi leuwih hasil ku cara teu maliré kana masalah perbudakan sarta fokus kana perjuangan kamerdékaan maranéhna, komitmen kana perdagangan bébas, sarta peran penting kapas (''cotton'') pikeun ékonomi Éropa.{{sfnm|Doyle|2015|1pp=5–8, 55, 69–70|Mahin|1999|2pp=19–21}} Nanging, harepan Konfédérasi yén ékspor kapas bakal maksa Éropa pikeun campur tangan téh tétéla teu ngajadi kanyataan, sabab Inggris manggihan sumber alternatif sarta tetep ngajaga hubungan ékonomi jeung Uni.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=235–236}} Sanajan dikaluarkeunana Proklamasi Émansipasi dina Januari 1863 henteu langsung ngeureunkeun kamungkinan campur tangan Éropa, hal éta ngahudang simpati publik Éropa ka Uni ku cara nambahkeun agenda penghapusan perbudakan salaku tujuan perang Uni. Sakabéh kasempetan pikeun campur tangan Éropa dina perang ahirna musna saatos kameunangan Uni di Gettysburg sarta Vicksburg dina Juli 1863, nalika para pamingpin Éropa mimiti percaya yén pihak Konfédérasi geus pasti bakal tumpur.{{sfnm|Herring|2008|1pp=242–246|Mahin|1999|2pp=22, 209}} ==== Urang Pribumi Amérika ==== Lincoln nunjuk [[William P. Dole]] salaku komisaris [[Biro Urusan India]] sarta ngagunakeun "jabatan Layanan India sacara éksténsif pikeun méré hadiah ka para pangrojong pulitikna," numutkeun sajarahwan Thomas Britten.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 85}}<ref name=native>{{cite journal|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1gq5s34k|title=Abraham Lincoln as Great Father: a look at federal Indian policy, 1861–1865|last=Britten|first=Thomas|journal=American Indian Culture and Research Journal|year=2016|volume=40|issue=3|pages=103–122 |doi=10.17953/aicrj.40.3.britten}}</ref> Kawijakan Lincoln kalolobaanana fokus kana asimilasi urang pribumi Amérika sarta ngurangan kapilikan tanah sélér (tribal), saluyu jeung para présidén sateuacanna, nanging papacanténan langsungna dina urusan urang pribumi Amérika téh teu pati jelas.<ref name=native/> Administrasina nyanghareupan kasusah dina ngajaga para padumuk di Kulon, jalan karéta api, sarta jalur tèlégraf tina serangan urang pribumi. Kategangan timbul jeung [[sélér Dakota]] alatan palanggaran perjangjian ku pihak Amérika, perdagangan anu teu adil, sarta prakték pamaréntahan anu nyababkeun kalaparan.<ref name=chomsky>{{cite journal|last=Chomsky|first=Carol|title=The United States–Dakota war trials: a study in military injustice|journal=Stanford Law Review|date=1990|volume=43|issue=13|pages=13–37|doi=10.2307/1228993 |jstor=1228993 |url=https://scholarship.law.umn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1230&context=faculty_articles}}</ref> Dina Agustus 1862, [[Perang Dakota 1862]] peupeus di Minnesota. Ratusan padumuk palastra sarta 30.000 urang kudu ngungsi tina imahna.{{sfn|Clodfelter|1998|pp=40–41, 61}} Sababaraha pihak hariwang (sanaos tétéla salah) yén ieu téh mangrupa konspirasi Konfédérasi pikeun ngamimitian perang di wates kalér-kulon.{{sfn|Finkelman|2018|p=127}} Lincoln ngutus Jéndéral Pope salaku komandan [[Departemén Kalér-Kulon]] anu anyar. [[Henry Hastings Sibley]] ahirna hasil néléhkeun pupuhu Dakota, [[Little Crow]], dina [[Patempuran Wood Lake]].{{sfn|Clodfelter|1998|pp=49, 53–59}} Hiji [[sidang kajahatan perang]] anu dipingpin ku Sibley mutuskeun hukuman mati pikeun 303 prajurit Dakota;{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 481}} pakar hukum Carol Chomsky ngagambarkeun éta sidang salaku "studi ngeunaan kateuadilan militér."<ref name=chomsky/> Lincoln méré pangampura (paron) ka sakabéh prajurit iwal ti 39 urang; sarta ku sabab hiji éksékusi ditunda, 38 urang sésana digantung dina [[éksékusi massal Mankato 1862]], anu mangrupa éksékusi massal panggedéna dina sajarah AS.<ref name=chomsky/> Anggota Kongrés [[Alexander Ramsey]] nyarios ka Lincoln dina taun 1864 yén anjeunna bakal meunang leuwih loba sora dina pilihan raya di Minnesota upami ngagantung sakabéh éta 303 prajurit. Lincoln ngajawab, "Kuring moal rido ngagantung jalma demi meunangkeun sora."{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 483}} Lincoln nyauran pikeun ayana réformasi dina kawijakan India féderal, nanging anjeunna leuwih mentingkeun perang sarta Rékonstruksi. Parobahan kakara lumangsung salaku réspon kana **[[Bantai Sand Creek]]** Nopémber 1864, nanging hal éta kakara kawujud saatos Lincoln pupus.{{sfn|Green|2021|pp=38–39, 95–99}} === Mangsa jabatan kadua === [[File:Harper's_weekly_(1865)_(14577952769).jpg|thumb|alt=Riungan jalma loba di hareupeun gedong badag kalayan loba pilar|[[Biantara pelantikan kadua Lincoln]] di [[Capitol AS]] anu ampir bérés dina 4 Maret 1865]] ==== Pilihan raya deui ==== {{Main|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864}} Lincoln maju deui dina pilihan raya taun 1864; calon ti Partéi Démokrat nyaéta tilas jéndéralna sorangan, McClellan.<ref name=1864results>{{cite web|title=1864|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/statistics/elections/1864|work=The American Presidency Project|publisher=[[University of California, Santa Barbara]]|accessdate=December 29, 2025}}</ref> Partéi Républik milih [[Andrew Johnson]], saurang "Démokrat Perang", salaku calon wakil présidén. Pikeun ngalegaan koalisi sangkan ngawengku urang Démokrat Perang sarta urang Républik, Lincoln maju dina labél anyar nyaéta [[Partéi Uni Nasional (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéi Uni Nasional]].{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=494–507|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 p. 642}} Kaayaan perang anu stagnan sarta getih pisan dina mangsa Grant, ditambah ku kameunangan Konfédérasi saperti dina [[Patempuran Crater]], sempet ngaruksak prospek Lincoln pikeun kapilih deui. Loba urang Républik anu hariwang bakal kéléh.<ref name=anb/> Lincoln malah sempet nyiapkeun mémorandum rahasia anu eusina jangji yén, upami anjeunna kéléh, anjeunna bakal "digawé bareng jeung Présidén terpilih pikeun nyalametkeun Uni antara mangsa pilihan raya sarta pelantikan; sabab anjeunna (présidén anyar) moal mampuh nyalametkeunana saatos pelantikan."{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=529}} Nanging, kameunangan Uni di [[Kampanye Atlanta|Atlanta]] dina Séptémber sarta di [[Kampanye Léngkob Shenandoah 1864|Léngkob Shenandoah]] dina Oktober ngarobah opini publik. Lincoln kapilih deui kalayan 55,1 persén sora rahayat sarta 212 sora éléktoral dibandingkeun McClellan anu ngan meunang 21 sora. Nalika Grant terus ngalempeureuhkeun pasukan Lee, usaha pikeun badami (damai) mimiti lumangsung. Dina 3 Pébruari 1865, [[Alexander H. Stephens]], wakil présidén Konfédérasi, sarta dua pajabat séjénna patepang jeung Lincoln sarta Seward di [[Konferensi Hampton Roads]]. Lincoln nolak pikeun badami jeung Konfédérasi salaku pihak anu sadarajat, sarta hiji-hijina kasapukan anu kacapai ngan saukur ngeunaan pertukaran tawanan perang.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1p=565|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2, p. 758}} Pelantikan kadua Lincoln lumangsung dina 4 Maret 1865; sajarahwan [[Mark Noll]] nyebutkeun yén [[biantara pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln|biantara pelantikan kaduana]] mangrupa salah sahiji "téks semi-suci anu dipaké ku urang Amérika pikeun mahami posisi maranéhna di dunya"; ieu biantara diukir dina [[Monumén Lincoln]].{{sfn|Noll|2002|p=426}} Lincoln mungkas biantarana ku kekecapan ieu: {{Blockquote|Kalayan rasa teu ijid ka sasaha; kalayan rasa welas asih ka sakabéh; kalayan kateguhan dina bebeneran, sakumaha Gusti maparin urang paningal kana bebeneran éta, hayu urang bajoang pikeun ngabéréskeun pagawéan urang ayeuna; pikeun ngubaran tatu bangsa; pikeun miara sing saha waé anu parantos nanggung beban patempuran, sarta pikeun randa sarta yatim piatuna—pikeun ngalakukeun sagala hal anu tiasa ngahontal sarta ngajaga perdamaian anu adil sarta langgeng, di antara urang sorangan, sarta jeung sakabéh bangsa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/linc/learn/historyculture/lincoln-second-inaugural.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|title=Lincoln's second inaugural address|accessdate=April 27, 2025}}</ref>}} Sabulan ti harita, dina 9 April, Lee [[Patempuran Appomattox Court House|nyerah ka Grant di Appomattox]], nandaan réngséna perang.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=583–589}} Ieu kajadian méré pangaruh kana séri panyerahan diri pasukan Konfédérasi séjénna di sakuliah Kidul. ==== Rékonstruksi ==== {{Main|Éra Rékonstruksi}} Rékonstruksi dimimitian méméh perang réngsé, nalika Lincoln sarta batur-baturna mimiti mikiran ngeunaan panyatuan deui bangsa, sarta nasib para pamingpin Konfédérasi jeung urut budak anu geus merdéka. Nalika saurang jéndéral nanya ka Lincoln kumaha cara nungkulan urang Konfédérasi anu geus kéléh, Lincoln ngajawab, "Let 'em up easy" (Antepkeun maranéhna hudang kalayan hampang);{{sfn|Thomas|2008|pp=509–512}} anjeunna teu fokus kana nyalahkeun pihak nu kéléh, tapi kana ngawangun deui nagara.{{sfn|Koehn|2017|p=191}} Kalayan tékad pikeun ngahijikeun deui bangsa tanpa ngajauhkeun urang Kidul, Lincoln ngadesek sangkan pilihan raya dilaksanakeun gancang kalayan sarat anu hampang sarta béréhan. [[Rancangan sapuluh persén|Maklumat Amnésti]] tanggal 8 Désémber 1863 nawarkeun pangampura pikeun sakabéh jalma anu henteu nyepeng jabatan sipil Konfédérasi sarta henteu nyiksa tawanan Uni, upami maranéhna nandatanganan sumpah satia. Lincoln mingpin kelompok modérat dina kawijakan Rékonstruksi sarta ditangtang ku kelompok Radikal, di handapeun pamingpin saperti [[Thaddeus Stevens]], Charles Sumner sarta [[Benjamin Wade]].{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=471–472}} Nalika nagara-nagara bagian Kidul mimiti ditalukkeun, maranéhna butuh pamingpin anyar. Di Louisiana, Lincoln maréntahkeun [[Nathaniel P. Banks]] pikeun ngajalankeun rencana anu bakal mulikkeun status kanagaraan upami 10 persén pamilih satuju, nanging ngan upami nagara bagian éta ngahapus perbudakan. Musuh-musuh ti Démokrat nuduh Lincoln ngagunakeun ieu rencana demi kapentingan pulitikna sarta Partéi Républik. Kelompok Radikal ogé nyacad kawijakanana alatan dianggap lembéh teuing sarta maranéhna ngaluarkeun rencana sorangan, nyaéta [[Rancangan Undang-undang Wade–Davis]] 1864, nanging Lincoln ngalakukeun [[veto saku]] (''pocket veto'') ka éta rancangan. Kelompok Radikal males ku cara nolak ngaku wakil-wakil terpilih ti Louisiana, Arkansas, sarta Tennessee.{{sfnm|Donald|1996|1pp=509–511|Burlingame|2008|2loc=vol. 2 pp. 594–600, 659–664}} [[File:Lincoln and Johnsond.jpg|upright=1.4|alt=Kartun Lincoln sarta Johnson nuju nyoba ngajait Uni anu peupeus|thumb|Kartun pulitik taun 1865, ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union'', ngagambarkeun Wakil Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]], tilas tukang jait, nuju ngajait nganggo jarum sarta benang, sarta Lincoln, si "[[Tukang meulah pager|pameulah kayu]]", nuju ngagunakeun tihang kai pikeun ngoméan dunya (Uni Amérika).]] Saatos ngajalankeun Proklamasi Émansipasi, Lincoln ningkatkeun tekenan ka Kongrés pikeun ngalarang perbudakan di sakuliah nagara ngaliwatan amandemén konstitusi. Dina 31 Januari 1865, usaha kadua di DPR ahirna lulus.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=562–563}} Saatos disahkeun ku tilu peropat nagara bagian dina Désémber 1865, ieu resmi janten [[Amandemén Katilu Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu ngahapus "perbudakan [sarta] tanaga gawé paksa, iwal ti salaku hukuman pikeun kajahatan".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 751}} Lincoln ogé nandatanganan rancangan undang-undang [[Biro urut Budak]] (''Freedmen's Bureau'') karya Sénator Charles Sumner, nyaéta agénsi féderal samentara anu dirancang pikeun nyumponan kabutuhan poko urut budak. Ieu hukum muka lahan pikeun diséwa salila tilu taun kalayan kasempetan pikeun dipimilik ku urut budak. Numutkeun sajarahwan Richard Carwardine, Lincoln "ngaku yén pamaréntah boga tanggung jawab sahenteuna pikeun kabutuhan matéri jutaan urut budak".{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=238–243}} [[Eric Foner]] boga pamadegan yén upami Lincoln terus hirup dina éra Rékonstruksi, Lincoln sarta Kongrés pasti bakal sapuk pikeun méré panangtayungan féderal pikeun hak-hak sipil dasar sarta hak pilih (voting) anu kawates pikeun warga hideung.{{sfn|Foner|2010|p=335}} == Pamatéhan == {{Main|Pamatéhan Abraham Lincoln}} [[File:Lincoln assassination slide c1900 - Restoration.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Lukisan Lincoln ditémbak ku Booth nalika calik di box téater.|Ilustrasi [[Pamatéhan Abraham Lincoln|pamatéhan Lincoln]] dina 14 April 1865, di box kapersidénan di [[Téater Ford]], némbongkeun (ti kénca ka katuhu): nu maténi [[John Wilkes Booth]], Abraham Lincoln, [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[Clara Harris]], sarta [[Henry Rathbone]]]] [[John Wilkes Booth]] téh saurang aktor kawentar sarta mata-mata Konfédérasi ti Maryland; sanajan anjeunna teu kungsi asup ka angkatan darat Konfédérasi, anjeunna miboga hubungan jeung dinas rahasia Konfédérasi.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=586–587}} Saatos ngupingkeun biantara publik panungtung Lincoln dina 11 April 1865—dimana Lincoln nyatakeun harepanana sangkan hak pilih (franchise) dibikeun ka sababaraha lalaki warga hideung, hususna "ka anu kacida palinter, sarta ka maranéhna anu parantos ngabantu perjuangan urang salaku prajurit"—Booth teras nyusun rencana pikeun maténi Présidén.{{sfn|Harrison|2010|pp=3–4}} Nalika Booth terang yén Lincoln sakulawarga badé nonton sandiwara sareng Grant, anjeunna ngarencanakeun pikeun maténi Lincoln sarta Grant di [[Téater Ford]].{{sfn|Goodwin|2005|pp=734–735}} Lincoln sarta garwana sumping ka pintonan sandiwara ''[[Our American Cousin]]'' dina malem 14 April. Dina menit-menit panungtung, Grant mutuskeun pikeun angkat ka New Jersey nganjang ka barudakna.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=594–597}} Tabuh 10:15 peuting, Booth asup ka box téater Lincoln, ngarayap ti tukang, sarta némbak bagian tukang sirah Lincoln, anu ngabalukarkeun tatu parna anu fatal. Tamu Lincoln, Mayor [[Henry Rathbone]], sempet gelut sakedap jeung Booth, nanging Booth nyosok anjeunna sarta kabur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|p=597}} Saatos dipariksa ku [[Charles Leale]] sarta dua dokter sanésna, Lincoln dicandak ka peuntas jalan ka [[Imah Petersen]]. Anjeunna koma salami salapan jam sarta pupus dina tabuh 7:22 éjing, tanggal 15 April.{{sfn|Steers|2010|p=153}} Layas Lincoln dibungkus ku bandéra sarta diteundeun dina peti, anu teras dibawa nganggo karéta jenazah sarta dikawal ku prajurit Uni ka Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Craughwell|2009|p=4}} Andrew Johnson dilantik janten présidén dina poé éta kénéh.{{sfn|Trefousse|1989|p=194}} Dua minggu ti harita, Booth kapanggih, ditémbak, sarta palastra di hiji tegalan di Virginia ku Sérsan [[Boston Corbett]].{{sfnm|Steers|2010|1p=153|Donald|1996|2p=599}} ==== Upacara panguburan sarta panyarkéan ==== {{Main|Upacara panguburan nagara Abraham Lincoln}} Ti kaping 19 dugi ka 20 April, layas Lincoln disemahkeun (''lay in state''), mimitina di Gedong Bodas teras di [[Rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat|rotunda Capitol]].{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 820}} Peti anu eusina layas Lincoln sarta layas putra katiluna, Willie, teras dibawa salami dua minggu nganggo **[[karéta jenazah Abraham Lincoln]]** ngaliwatan rute anu muter ti Washington D.C. ka Springfield, Illinois. Ieu karéta eureun di sababaraha kota pikeun upacara pangéling-ngéling anu dihadiran ku ratusan rébu urang.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 pp. 822–825}} Loba warga séjénna anu karumpul di sapanjang sisi jalan karéta nalika éta karéta ngaliwat bari dibarengan ku korps musik, durukan api unggun, sarta nyanyian lagu pujian atawa dina kaayaan duka anu jempé.{{sfnm|Burlingame|2008|1loc=vol. 2 p. 822|Goodrich|2005|2pp=231–238}} Sajarahwan nekenkeun ayana rasa reuwas sarta kasedih anu sumebar luas. [[Walt Whitman]] nyiptakeun opat sajak (élégi) pikeun Lincoln, kaasup "**[[When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd]]**" sarta "**[[O Captain! My Captain!]]**".{{sfn|Peck|2015|pp=118–123}} Layas Lincoln dikureubkeun di [[Makam Oak Ridge]] di Springfield sarta ayeuna aya di jero **[[Makam Lincoln]]**. == Filosofi sarta sawangan == [[File:George P.A. Healy - Abraham Lincoln - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|alt=Lincoln calik kalayan pananganna dina gado sarta sikuna dina suku.|''[[Abraham Lincoln (Healy)|Abraham Lincoln]]'' (1869)]] Lincoln nangtukeun deui filosofi pulitik **[[républikanisme di Amérika Sarikat]]**. Alatan Déklarasi Kamerdékaan nyatakeun yén sakabéh manusa miboga hak anu teu bisa diganggu gugat kana hirup, kamerdékaan, sarta ngudag kabagjaan, anjeunna nyebut éta déklarasi salaku "**jangkar utama**" (''sheet anchor'') républikanisme.{{sfnm|1a1=Jaffa|1y=2000|1p=399|2a1=Jividen|2y=2011|2pp=12–15}} Anjeunna midangkeun éta Déklarasi pikeun netepkeun kasaruaan (''equality'') salaku prinsip dasar Amérika Sarikat. Salaku aktivis Whig, Lincoln janten juru bicara pikeun kapentingan bisnis, milih tarif anu luhur, bank, pangwangunan infrastruktur, sarta jalan karéta api, anu lalawanan jeung urang [[Démokrat Jacksonian]].{{sfn|Boritt|Pinsker|2002|pp=196–198, 229–231, 301}} Sanajan kitu, Lincoln reueus ku kateguhan sarta rasa patriotisme [[Andrew Jackson]], sarta nyoko kapercayaan Jacksonian kana "rahayat jelata".{{sfn|Work|2024|p=8}} [[William C. Harris (sajarahwan)|William C. Harris]] mendakan yén rasa hormat Lincoln ka para *Founding Fathers*, Konstitusi, sarta hukum di handapeunana, parantos nguatkeun sikep konservatismena.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=2}} Dina biantara pelantikan kahijina, Lincoln nyacad sési (misahkeun diri) salaku anarki sarta boga argumén yén "mayoritas anu dijaga ku aturan konstitusional, sarta salawasna gampang robah luyu jeung parobahan opini sarta parasaan rahayat anu asak, nyaéta hiji-hijina daulat anu bener pikeun rahayat anu merdéka."{{sfnm|1a1=Belz|1y=1998|1p=86|2a1=Lincoln|2y=1953|2pp=256–257}} === Sawangan kaagamaan === {{Main|Sawangan kaagamaan Abraham Lincoln}} Nalika ngora, Lincoln mangrupa saurang anu [[Skeptisisme kaagamaan|skeptis kana agama]].{{sfnm|Carwardine|2003|1p=4|Wilson|1999|2p=84}} Nanging, anjeunna kacida mikawanohna kana Alkitab;{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49, 514–515}} sapanjang karir publikna, anjeunna sering nyutat ayat-ayat suci.{{sfn|Myers|2018|p=21}} Tilu biantara pangmashurna—[[Biantara Imah anu Bengkah|Biantara Imah anu Bengkah]], [[Biantara Gettysburg]], sarta [[Biantara pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln|biantara pelantikan kaduana]]—sakabéhna ngandung cutatan-cutatan kasebut. Dina taun 1840-an, Lincoln nganut kana **Doktrin Kabutuhan** (''Doctrine of Necessity''), hiji kapercayaan yén pikiran manusa dikadalikeun ku kakuatan anu leuwih luhur.{{sfn|Donald|1996|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Guelzo|2009|pp=27–48}} Saatos pupusna putra anjeunna, Edward, dina taun 1850, Lincoln beuki sering ngedalkeun rasa gumantungna ka Gusti.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parrillo|first=Nicholas|year=2000|title=Lincoln's Calvinist transformation: emancipation and war|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_civil-war-history_2000-09_46_3/page/227|journal=Civil War History|volume=46| issue=3|pages=227–253}}</ref> Anjeunna teu kungsi resmi gabung jeung hiji garéja, sanajan anjeunna sarta garwana mindeng sumping ka [[Garéja Présbitérian Kahiji (Springfield, Illinois)|Garéja Présbitérian Kahiji]] di Springfield, Illinois, ti mimiti taun 1852.{{sfn|White|2009|p=180}} Nalika janten présidén, Lincoln sering sumping ka ibadah di [[Garéja Présbitérian New York Avenue]] di Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Mansfield|2012|pp=125–126}} Pupusna putra anjeunna, Willie, dina Pébruari 1862 kamungkinan janten cukang lantaran anjeunna milari katenangan dina agama.{{sfn|Wilson|1999|pp=251–254}} Seringna Lincoln ngagunakeun siloka sarta basa kaagamaan dina tungtunan hirupna meugun ngagambarkeun kapercayaan pribadina, atawa bisa waé mangrupa pakakas pikeun nyarita ka pamiarsana anu kalolobaanana urang Protéstan [[Évangélikalisme|évangélikal]].{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|pp=27–55}} Sumber-sumber béda-béda dina ngajelaskeun kapercayaan agamana. Mitra hukumna, [[William Herndon (pangacara)|William Herndon]], nyatakeun yén Lincoln téh saurang anu "teu percaya";<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carwardine|first=Richard|title='Simply a theist': Herndon on Lincoln's religion|journal=Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association|year=2014|volume= 35 |number=2}}</ref> nanging James Smith, pastur di Springfield, negeskeun yén Lincoln "ngaku kapercayaanana kana Otoritas Ilahi".<ref>{{cite journal|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Reverend Dr. James Smith|first=Robert |last= Havlik|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society |volume=92|issue= 3|year= 1999}}</ref> Richard Carwardine nyerat yén "Loba élemén tina sisi batin Lincoln, kaasup iman pribadina... tetep janten hiji teka-teki".{{sfn|Carwardine|2003|p=xvi}} Kecap-kecap panungtung Lincoln, sakumaha anu dilaporkeun ku garwana, nyaéta: "Taya tempat anu kacida dipikahayang ku kuring pikeun ditingali salian ti Yerusalem."{{sfn|Mansfield|2012|pp=xvii–xviii}} == Kaséhatan sarta pangawakan == {{Main|Kaséhatan Abraham Lincoln}} Numutkeun Michael Burlingame, Lincoln digambarkeun salaku pamuda anu "kaku" sarta "geledeg".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 41–42}} Dina mangsa rumaja, anjeunna jangkung sarta kuat, sering ngiluan luncat, lémpar, gulat, sarta balap lumpat, sarta némbongkeun kakuatan anu luar biasa.{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 pp. 33, 41}} Burlingame nyatet yén pakéan Lincoln "biasana kasar sarta cocog pikeun kahirupan di wates leuweung (frontier)", kalayan aya sela antara sapatu, kaos kaki, sarta calanana anu sering némbongkeun genep inci atawa leuwih tina tuncutna; "anjeunna teu pati maliré kana urusan fashion".{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 41}} Lincoln miboga pangawakan langsing kalayan jangkung genep kaki opat inci (sakitar 193 cm),{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 1 p. 41}} sarta sora anu rada luhur (céngéng).{{sfn|Braden|1993|p=99}} Sanajan anjeunna biasana digambarkeun miboga janggot, anjeunna sabenerna mah kakara miara janggot dina taun 1860 dumasar kana saran ti budak awéwé umur 11 taun anu namina [[Grace Bedell]]; anjeunna mangrupa présidén AS munggaran anu miboga janggot.{{sfn|Collea|2018|pp=13–14}} [[William H. Herndon]] ngagambarkeun beungeut Lincoln salaku "panjang, sempit, pias, sarta jiga mayit", kalayan pipi anu "jiga kulit sarta warnana semu konéng".{{sfn|Neely|Holzer|2006|p=35}} Lincoln ngagambarkeun dirina miboga "kulit poék, kalayan buuk hideung anu kasar".{{sfn|Neely|Holzer|2006|p=35}} Di antara panyakit anu didokuméntasikeun atawa dispékulasikeun karandapan ku Lincoln nyaéta déprési,<ref name=Atlanticoct2005/> [[panyakit cacar]],{{sfn|Burlingame|2008|loc=vol. 2 p. 578}} sarta [[malaria]].{{sfn|Bollet|2004|p=36}} Anjeunna ngonsumsi pél "blue mass", anu ngandung [[raksa (unsur)|raksa]] (mérkuri), pikeun ngubaran rasa sedih anu jero (''melancholy'') atawa ''hipokondriasis''; hal ieu kamungkinan ngabalukarkeun karacunan raksa.<ref name=mercury>{{cite journal |last1=Hirschhorn |first1=Norbert |last2=Feldman |first2=Robert G. |last3=Greaves |first3=Ian |date=Summer 2001 |title=Abraham Lincoln's blue pills: did our 16th president suffer from mercury poisoning? |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/26064 |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=315–322 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2001.0048 |pmid=11482002|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sababaraha klaim nyebutkeun yén kaséhatan Lincoln nuju nyirorot sateuacan pamatéhanana, sakumaha anu katingali tina [[daptar poto Abraham Lincoln|poto-poto Lincoln]] anu némbongkeun turunna beurat awak sarta parobahan dina beungeutna. Aya ogé téori yén anjeunna miboga gangguan genétik langka saperti [[Sindrom Marfan]] atawa ''[[multiple endocrine neoplasia tipe 2B]]'' alatan pangawakanana anu jangkung sarta leungeun/suku anu panjangna mahiwal.{{sfnm|Kent|2022|1p=240|Schroeder-Lein|2012|2pp=39–40}} == Warisan == {{CSS image crop|Image=LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg |bSize= 226|cWidth= 165|cHeight= 195|oTop= 33|oLeft= 31|Location= right|Description= Potrét Lincoln salaku présidén ku [[Biro Ukir sarta Citak]]}} === Reputasi sajarah === Dina [[survei akademisi AS pikeun réngking présidén]], ti mimiti taun 1948, tilu présidén pangluhurna biasana dicepeng ku Lincoln, [[George Washington]], sarta [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], sanajan urutanana sok robah-robah.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lindgren |first=James |date=November 16, 2000 |title=Rating the Presidents of the United States, 1789–2000 |url=https://fedsoc.org/commentary/publications/rating-the-presidents-of-the-united-states-1789-2000-a-survey-of-scholars-in-history-political-science-and-law}}</ref> Hiji studi taun 2004 manggihan yén para ahli sajarah sarta pulitik nempatkeun Lincoln dina urutan kahiji. Antara taun 1999 dugi ka 2011, Lincoln, [[John F. Kennedy]], sarta [[Ronald Reagan]] mangrupa présidén anu pangluhurna réngkingna dina dalapan survei opini publik ku Gallup. Pamatéhan Lincoln ngajadikeun anjeunna saurang martir nasional. Anjeunna dianggap ku para ''abolitionist'' salaku pajoang kamerdékaan manusa. Di dunya luar, Lincoln janten paporit para intéléktual libéral. Sosiolog [[Barry Schwartz (sosiolog)|Barry Schwartz]] nyatakeun yén dina taun 1930-an sarta 1940-an, Lincoln nyadiakeun "simbol moral anu nginspirasi sarta nungtun kahirupan Amérika." Puncakna lumangsung dina taun 1922 nalika diresmikeunana [[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C.{{sfn|Schwartz|2000|p=109}} ''Orator'' warga hideung sarta tilas budak, [[Frederick Douglass]], nyatakeun yén "nalika sasarengan sareng anjeunna, kuring teu kungsi diingatkeun kana asal-usul kuring anu hina, atawa warna kulit kuring anu teu populér,"{{sfn|Trefousse|1999|p=97}} sarta Lincoln parantos lami katelah salaku ''Pambébas Agung'' (''Great Emancipator''). Nanging, dina ahir 1960-an, sababaraha intéléktual hideung mimiti nolak éta gelar. [[Lerone Bennett Jr.]] narik perhatian nalika anjeunna nyebut Lincoln salaku "supremasi bodas" dina taun 1968.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bennett|first=Lerone Jr.|year=1968|title=Was Abe Lincoln a white supremacist?|magazine=Ebony|volume=23|issue=4|pages=35–42}}</ref> Anjeunna nyatet yén Lincoln kantos ngagunakeun sebutan étnis anu ngahina sarta boga argumén yén Lincoln nolak kasaruaan sosial. Sabalikna, para pambéla Lincoln nekenkeun kana kontribusina dina ngahapus perbudakan sarta nganggap rétorika rasialna téh mangrupa konsési (taktik) kabutuhan pulitik harita. Lincoln ogé dicirian salaku pahlawan rahayat kalayan dilandih ''Honest Abe'' (Abe anu Jujur). Dina biografi taun 1996, David Herbert Donald nyebutkeun yén Lincoln miboga sipat kapamingpinan anu luar biasa. Tokoh-tokoh dunya ogé mikahormat Lincoln, kalebet filsuf Jérman [[Karl Marx]], pamingpin Italia [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], tokoh kamerdékaan India [[Mahatma Gandhi]], sarta [[Nelson Mandela]], anu nyaruakeun "lahirna deui kabébasan" anu diucapkeun ku Lincoln dina Biantara Gettysburg sareng réngséna sistem [[apartheid]] di Afrika Kidul.{{sfn|Avlon|2023|pp=270–271}} === Monumén sarta pangéling-ngéling === {{Main|Monumén pikeun Abraham Lincoln}} {{See also|Gambaran budaya Abraham Lincoln}} Potrét Lincoln aya dina dua ''pecahan'' $ [[Mata uang Amérika Sarikat]], nyaéta koin [[Péni (koin Amérika Sarikat)|péni]] sarta [[Artos lima dolar Amérika Sarikat|lembaran $5]]. Anjeunna ogé aya dina perangko di sakuliah dunya, kalebet di [[Ghana]], [[Honduras]], [[Cina]], [[Haiti]], [[Nikaragua]], [[Kolombia]], sarta [[Argéntina]].{{sfn|Peterson|1995|p=368}} Nami Lincoln diabadikeun janten nami seueur kota sarta wilayah, kalebet [[Lincoln, Nebraska|ibu kota]] Nebraska.{{sfn|Dennis|2018|pp=194, 197}} Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat parantos nganami tilu kapal nganggo nami Lincoln, kalebet kapal induk kelas Nimitz {{USS|Abraham Lincoln|CVN-72}}. [[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C., mangrupa salah sahiji situs [[Layanan Taman Nasional]] anu panglobana didatangan di AS. Pangéling-ngéling di Springfield, Illinois, ngawengku [[Pabukon sarta Muséum Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln]], imah Lincoln, sarta makamna. Ukiran beungeut Lincoln ogé aya bareng jeung tilu présidén séjénna di [[Gunung Rushmore]], anu didatangan ku sakitar 3 juta jalma unggal taun. Statu Lincoln karya [[Augustus Saint-Gaudens]] nangtung di [[Taman Lincoln]], Chicago, sarta salinanana dipasihan salaku kado diplomatik anu ayeuna nangtung di [[Parliament Square]], London, sarta [[Parque Lincoln]], Kota Méksiko. Lincoln ogé parantos seueur ditémbongkeun dina média. Karya-karya awal, saperti ''[[Abraham Lincoln's Clemency]]'' (1910), nyoba mitoskeun anjeunna ku cara nekenkeun rasa welas asihna. Dina mangsa Déprési Gedé, pilem saperti ''[[Young Mr. Lincoln]]'' (1939) ngajantenkeun carita perjuangan hirupna leuwih dramatis. Dina taun 2012, [[Daniel Day-Lewis]] kéngingkeun [[Piala Oscar pikeun Aktor Panghadéna]] saatos maénkeun peran dina pilem biografi ''[[Lincoln (pilem)|Lincoln]]'' anu diarahkeun ku [[Steven Spielberg]]. <gallery widths="160" heights="200" class="center"> File:Head of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg|alt=Raray Lincoln dina batu|Ukiran Lincoln dina batu di [[Gunung Rushmore]] File:Lincoln 1866 Issue-15c.jpg|alt=Perangko Lincoln|Perangko pangéling-ngéling Lincoln taun 1866 anu dikaluarkeun sataun saatos anjeunna pupus. File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg|alt=Poto hawa monumén bodas|[[Monumén Lincoln]] di Washington, D.C. ditalingakeun ti luhur. File:United States penny, obverse, 2002.png|alt=Koin péni|[[Koin péni Lincoln]], koin Amérika anu némbongkeun potrét Lincoln ti gigir. </gallery> * {{cite book|last=Schaffer|first=Jeffrey P.|title=Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails|url=https://archive.org/details/yosemitenational0000scha|publisher=Wilderness Press|year=1999|isbn=9780899972442}} * {{cite book|last=Schroeder-Lein|first=Glenna R.|year=2012|title=Lincoln and Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/lincolnmedicine0000schr|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn= 9780809331949}} * {{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|year=2000|title=Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=XZwX9ANHHbUC}}|isbn=9780226741970}} * {{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Schwartz (sociologist)|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=1p9T8drMHeYC}}|isbn=9780226741888}} * {{cite book|last=Sears|first= Stephen W. |title=George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon|publisher= Da Capo Press|orig-date= 1988|year=1999|isbn=9780306809132}} * {{cite book|last=Silver|first=David|title=Lincoln's Supreme Court|url=https://archive.org/details/lincolnssupremec0000silv_p0p6|year=1998|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252067198}} * {{cite book|last=Simon|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Simon (politician)|year=1990|title=Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Legislative Years|publisher=University of Illinois Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=WSm1wQEACAAJ}}|isbn=9780252002038}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Robert C.|author-link=Robert C. Smith (political scientist)|year=2010|title=Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same|publisher=State University of New York Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=ueQjmQEACAAJ}}|isbn=9781438432335}} * {{cite book|last=Steers|first=Edward Jr.|author-link=Edward Steers Jr.|year=2010|title=The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia|publisher=HarperCollins|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=5XbXsdrLwn8C}}|isbn=9780061787751}} * {{cite book|last=Striner|first=Richard|year=2006|title=Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery|publisher=Oxford University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=EuR2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=9780195183061}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Taranto|editor1-first=James|editor-link1=James Taranto|editor2-last=Leo|editor2-first=Leonard|editor-link2=Leonard Leo|year=2004|title=Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House|publisher=Free Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=myl2AAAAMAAJ}}|isbn=9780743254335}} * {{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Benjamin P.|author-link=Benjamin P. Thomas|year=2008|title=Abraham Lincoln: A Biography|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=fkB_E9GM0XoC}}|isbn=9780809328871}} * {{Cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WTGTAAAAIAAJ|page=385}}|title=Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War|last1=Thomas|first1=Benjamin Platt|author-link1=Benjamin P. Thomas|last2=Hyman|first2=Harold Melvin|author-link2=Harold Hyman|date=1962|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf}} * {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Todd|year=2015|title=The National Joker: Abraham Lincoln and the Politics of Satire|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=9780809334230}} * {{cite book|last1=Trefousse|first1=Hans L.|authorlink=Hans L. Trefousse|title=Andrew Johnson: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjohnson00hans|date=1989|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=9780393317428}} * {{cite book|last1=Trefousse|first1=Hans L.|authorlink=Hans L. Trefousse|chapter=Lincoln and race relations|pages=[https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnhi0000unse_a8u2/page/87 87]–100|editor-last=Hubbard|editor-first=Charles|title=Abraham Lincoln and His Contemporaries|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahamlincolnhi0000unse_a8u2|year=1999|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=9780865546271}} * {{cite book|last=Tucker|first=Spencer|authorlink=Spencer C. Tucker|date=2014|title=Battles that Changed American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781440828621|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6BfHEAAAQBAJ}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Vile|first=John R.|year=2003|title=Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865)|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002|edition=2nd|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851094288}} * {{cite book|last=Vorenberg|first=Michael|year=2001|title=Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=f-UQWNPD5qgC}}|isbn=9780521652674}} * {{cite book |last=Weisman |first=Steven R. |year=2002 |title=The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson—The Fierce Battles over Money and Power That Transformed the Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/greattaxwars00weis |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=9780684850689}} * {{cite book|last=White|first=Ronald C.|author-link=Ronald C. White|year=2009|title=A. Lincoln: A Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781400064991|publisher=Random House|isbn=9781588367754}} * {{cite book|last=White|first= Jonathan W.|title=Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman|publisher= Louisiana State University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780807142158}} * {{cite book|last=Wills|first=Garry|author-link=Garry Wills|year=2012|title=Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America|publisher=Simon & Schuster|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=7-aynIQRkYcC}}|isbn=9781439126455}} * {{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Douglas L.|author-link=Douglas L. Wilson |title=Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/honorsvoicetrans00wils|year=1999|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=9780307765819}} * {{cite book|last=Winik|first= Jay|title=April 1865: The Month That Saved America|url=https://archive.org/details/april1865monthth0000jayw|publisher=HarperCollins|year= 2006|isbn=9780060899684|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite book|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|year=2001|title=The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln|publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=JcEVAAAAQBAJ}}|isbn=9781461734369}} * {{cite book|last=Witt|first=John Fabian|authorlink=John Fabian Witt|year=2013|title=Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History|url=https://archive.org/details/lincoln_wit_2012_00_2483|publisher=Free Press|isbn=9781416576174}} * {{cite book|last=Winkle|first=Kenneth J.|year=2011|title=Abraham and Mary Lincoln|url=https://archive.org/details/abrahammarylinco0000wink|publisher=Southern Illinois University Press|isbn=9780809379996}} * {{cite book|last=Work|first=David|year=2024|title=Lincoln's Political Generals|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=9780252056888}} * {{cite book|last=Young|first= Alfred C. |title=Lee's Army during the Overland Campaign: A Numerical Study|url=https://archive.org/details/leesarmyduringov0000youn|publisher=Louisiana State University Press|year= 2013|isbn=9780807151723}} * {{cite book|last=Zarefsky|first=David|author-link=David Zarefsky|year=1993|title=Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate|publisher=University of Chicago Press|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SlCU9PS9VGcC}}|isbn=9780226978765}} {{Refend}} == Tumbu luar == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Abraham Lincoln |b=no |n=no |q=Abraham Lincoln |s=Author:Abraham Lincoln|v=no|voy=no|species=no|display=Abraham Lincoln|d=Q91}} {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Abraham Lincoln }} {{Biographical Directory of Congress|L000313|ref=no}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abraham Lincoln}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=3}} * [https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/ Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln] * [https://abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Asosiasi Abraham Lincoln] * [https://guides.loc.gov/abraham-lincoln-guide Abraham Lincoln: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Library of Congress]] * [https://papersofabrahamlincoln.org/ Perpustakaan Digital Tulisan Abraham Lincoln] ti [[Perpustakaan Kapersidénan Abraham Lincoln]] {{--}} Digitalisasi sakabéh dokumén anu ditulis ku atawa pikeun Abraham Lincoln salami hirupna * [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ Karya-karya Lengkep Abraham Lincoln – édisi online (1958)] – sayogi ngaliwatan Koléksi Digital Perpustakaan [[Universitas Michigan]] * [https://digital.lib.niu.edu/illinois/lincoln Lincoln/Net: Proyék Digitalisasi Sajarah Abraham Lincoln] – Perpustakaan Digital [[Universitas Illinois Kalér]] * [https://www.loc.gov/collections/alfred-whital-stern-lincolniana/about-this-collection/ Koléksi Alfred Whital Stern ngeunaan Lincolniana] dina [[Divisi Buku Langka sarta Koléksi Husus]] di [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Tulisan-tulisan Abraham Lincoln"] ti C-SPAN, 18 Juni 2001 {{Abraham Lincoln|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes top|title=Jabatan sarta pangajén}} {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Henry (perwakilan)|John Henry]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Illinois|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br />ti [[distrik kongrés ka-7 Illinois]]|years=1847–1849}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Harris|Thomas Harris]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[John C. Frémont|John Frémont]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Partéi Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Daptar tikét kapersidénan Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat|nominator]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat |years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|1860]], [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864|1864]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ulysses S. Grant|Ulysses Grant]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[James Buchanan]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1861–1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Clay]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Tokoh anu [[disemahkeun sacara resmi|disemahkeun di Capitol]] di [[rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1865}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thaddeus Stevens]]}} {{s-end}} {{navboxes bottom}} {{Portal bar|Perang Sipil Amérika|Biografi|Illinois|Hukum|Pulitik|Amérika Sarikat}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lincoln, Abraham}} [[Kategori:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1809]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1865]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Umum Illinois abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Aktivis hak sipil Afrika-Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Amérika]] [[Kategori:Personél militer Amérika dina Perang Indian]] [[Kategori:Nasionalis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Kategori:Survéyor Amérika]] [[Kategori:Aforis]] [[Kategori:Aktivis hak sipil Amérika anu ditémbak]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ditémbak]] [[Kategori:Makam di TPU Oak Ridge]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1864]] [[Kategori:Pupus ditémbak di Washington, D.C.]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Illinois]] [[Kategori:Anggota DPR Illinois]] [[Kategori:Tokoh kapersidénan Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Tokoh ti Springfield, Illinois]] [[Kategori:Présidén Partéi Républik Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Pamingpin pulitik Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] == Catetan == {{reflist|group="lower-alpha"}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} ozgvp8de6bti71vdprvmq59fgm1toci Ulysses S. Grant 0 107862 712319 711807 2026-08-28T20:43:38Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Ulysses S. Grant | image = Ulysses S. Grant 1870-1880 (cropped).jpg | caption = Grant, sakitar taun 1870–1880 | birth_name = Hiram Ulysses Grant | birth_date = {{birth date|1822|4|27}} | birth_place = Point Pleasant, Ohio, A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1885|7|23|1822|4|27}} | death_place = Wilton, New York, A.S. | resting_place = [[Grant's Tomb]], New York City | occupation = [[Jénderal]], [[Politikus]] | office = [[Présidén Amérika Serikat]] ka-18 | term_start = 4 Maret 1869 | term_end = 4 Maret 1877 | predecessor = [[Andrew Johnson]] | successor = [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Républik]] | spouse = [[Julia Dent]] | signature = UlyssesSGrantSignature.svg }} '''Ulysses S. Grant''' (gumelar kalayan nami '''Hiram Ulysses Grant'''; [[27 April]] [[1822]] – [[23 Juli]] [[1885]]) nyaéta saurang jénderal sarta negarawan [[Amérika Serikat]] anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-18 ti taun 1869 dugi ka 1877. Salaku komandan jénderal, anjeunna mingpin [[Tentara Uni]] pikeun meunangkeun [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dina taun 1865. Salaku présidén, Grant miboga peran penting dina mangsa [[Rékonstruksi]], ngarojong [[Amandemén ka-15]], sarta sacara panceg merangan gerakan rasialis [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Sanajan mangsa jabatanna kotor ku sababaraha skandal korupsi di lingkungan kabinétna, Grant tetep dipikawanoh salaku simbol persatuan nasional. Buku mémorandumna (méméar) anu disusun sateuacan anjeunna pupus janten salah sahiji karya sajarah sarta sastra anu kacida dihargaanana di Amérika. == Mangsa leutik sarta atikan == [[File:Birthplace of Ulysses S Grant, color illustration, cropped.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Panyicingan lahir Ulysses S. Grant]] di [[Point Pleasant, Ohio]].]] Ramana Grant, [[Jesse Root Grant]], nyaéta saurang pangrojong [[Partéy Whig (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Whig]] sarta saurang abolisionis (nu nolak perbudakan) anu kacida pancegna. Jesse sarta [[Hannah Simpson]] nikah dina tanggal 24 Juni 1821, sarta putra cikalna, Hiram Ulysses Grant, gumelar dina tanggal [[27 April]] [[1822]]. Pikeun ngahormatan mertuana, Jesse masihan nami "Hiram Ulysses" ka éta budak, sanajan dina sapopoéna anjeunna sok nyebut "Ulysses". Dina taun 1823, kulawargana pindah ka [[Georgetown, Ohio]], dimana lima dulur lianna gumelar: Simpson, Clara, Orvil, Jennie, sarta Mary. Nalika yuswa lima taun, Ulysses mimiti sakola di sakola langganan (subscription school) sarta saterusna nuluykeun ka dua sakola swasta. Dina usum tiris 1836–1837, Grant janten murid di Maysville Seminary, sarta dina usum gugur 1838, anjeunna sakola di akademi milik John Rankin. Dina mangsa budakna, Grant miboga pangabisa anu anéh tapi hébat dina tumpak sarta ngatur kuda; ku kituna, ramana sering masihan pancén ka anjeunna pikeun mawa gorobag paranti nyandak barang sarta nganteurkeun jalma. Béda sareng dulur-dulurna, Grant henteu diwajibkeun ka garéja ku kolotna anu nganut aliran [[Métodisme]]. Sapanjang hirupna, anjeunna sok neneda (ngadoa) sacara pribadi sarta henteu kantos sacara resmi gabung kana dénominasi agama naon waé. Pikeun batur, kaasup putrana sorangan, Grant katingalna sapertos saurang [[agnostik]]. Sateuacan perang, Grant mémang henteu pati mikaresep kana urusan politik, nanging anjeunna kantos nyerat: "Upami kuring kantos miboga simpati politik, tangtos éta téh ka Partéy Whig. Kuring digedékeun di sakola (paham) éta."<ref name="Chernow99">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 99–100.</ref> == Karir militer awal sarta kahirupan pribadi == === West Point sarta tugas munggaran === [[File:Ulysses Grant at 21.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Grant nalika janten perwira ngora, sakitar taun 1845–1847.]] Dumasar kana pamundut Jesse Grant, Anggota Déwan [[Thomas L. Hamer]] nyalonkeun Ulysses ka [[Akademi Militer Amérika Serikat]] di [[West Point, New York]], dina usum semi 1839. Grant ditarima dina tanggal 1 Juli. Kusabab teu pati wanoh ka Grant, Hamer salah nuliskeun namina, sahingga Grant didaptarkeun kalayan nami "U. S. Grant". Nalika lulus ti akademi, anjeunna mutuskeun nganggo nami "Ulysses S. Grant". Kusabab singketan "U.S." ogé hartosna "[[Uncle Sam]]", anjeunna janten kawéntar ku sebutan "Sam" di kalangan rénjangna di tentara. Mimitina, Grant téh teu pati resep kana kahirupan militer, nanging lami-lami anjeunna nyerat yén "sacara umum kuring resep pisan ka ieu tempat". Anjeunna miboga reputasi salaku [[Kabisat tumpak kuda Ulysses S. Grant|nu pangahli tumpak kuda]]. Pikeun ngaleungitkeun kacapé tina rutinitas militer, anjeunna diajar ngalukis ka seniman [[Romantisisme]] Robert Walter Weir. Anjeunna ogé langkung seueur méspending waktos maca buku di perpustakaan tibatan maca buku tatanén akademikna. Sanajan sipatna répéh, anjeunna miboga sababaraha babaturan deukeut sapertos [[Frederick Tracy Dent]] sarta [[James Longstreet]]. Grant lulus dina tanggal 30 Juni 1843, ranking ka-21 tina 39 murid di kelasna, sarta dinten saatosna ditaékeun pangkat janten [[létnan dua]] brevet. Anjeunna sabenerna miboga rencana badé kaluar ti tentara saatos bérés masa tugas opat taun. Sanajan anjeunna ahli tumpak kuda, Grant henteu ditempatkeun di pasukan kavaleri (pasukan kuda), tapi kalah ka [[Résimén Infanteri ka-4]]. Tugas munggaran Grant nyaéta di [[Jefferson Barracks]], caket [[St. Louis, Missouri]], anu mangrupa markas militer pangbadagna di wilayah Kulon dina waktos éta. Grant ngarasa resep ka komandanna, nanging anjeunna tetep nganti-nganti bérésna masa tugas militer sarta miboga harepan hoyong janten pangajar (guru).<ref>Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster. pp. 30–33.</ref> === Kawinan sarta kulawarga === Dina taun 1844, Grant marengan Frederick Dent ka Missouri sarta wawuh jeung kulawargana, kaasup lanceukna Frederick, [[Julia Grant|Julia]]. Teu lami ti harita, duanana papacangan (tunangan). Dina tanggal [[22 Agustus]] [[1848]], aranjeunna nikah di bumi Julia di St. Louis. Ramana Grant, anu saurang ''abolisionis'' (nu nolak perbudakan), teu panuju kana kawinan ieu margi kulawarga Dent miboga budak (budak beulian/budak belian). Ku kituna, duanana sepuh Grant henteu sumping ka éta kawinan.<ref name="Chernow66">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 61–62.</ref> Nalika nikah, Grant dibarengan ku tilu réncangna lulusan West Point anu maraké saragam biru, kaasup [[James Longstreet]] anu mangrupa dulur misan Julia. Anu matak hélok, éta tilu réncang Grant téh engkéna kalah janten perwira di Tentara Konfédérasi (pihak musuh) sarta tungtungna pasrah ka Grant di Appomattox.<ref>Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster. pp. 73–74.</ref> Ieu pasangan téh dipaparin opat putra: [[Frederick Dent Grant|Frederick]], [[Ulysses S. Grant Jr.|Ulysses Jr.]] ("Buck"), [[Nellie Grant|Ellen]] ("Nellie"), sarta [[Jesse Root Grant (politician)|Jesse II]]. Saatos kawinan, Grant kénging perpanjangan cuti salami dua sasih sarta mulang ka St. Louis. Di dinya anjeunna mutuskeun yén demi nganapkahan pamajikanana, anjeunna bakal tetep ngabdikeun diri dina karir militer.<ref>Simpson, Brooks D. (2014). ''Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph Over Adversity, 1822–1865''. Voyageur Press. p. 49.</ref> === Perang Méksiko-Amérika === {{utama|Perang Méksiko-Amérika}} [[File:Battle of Monterrey.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Patempuran Monterrey]], salah sahiji médan laga dimana Grant némbongkeun kawani sarta katapisanna.]] Unit Grant ditempatkeun di Louisiana salaku bagian tina Tentara Pendudukan di handap pingpinan Mayor Jéndéral [[Zachary Taylor]]. Dina Séptémber 1846, Présidén [[James K. Polk]] maréntahkeun Taylor pikeun maju ka kidul nuju [[Rio Grande]]. Nalika nuju ka [[Fort Texas]] pikeun nyegah pangepungan ku urang Méksiko, Grant ngalaman perang munggaranana dina tanggal 8 Méi 1846, dina [[Patempuran Palo Alto]]. Sanajan pancén utamana mah janten kuartermaster (patugas logistik) résimén, Grant kacida hayangna aub langsung dina perang; nalika diidinan, anjeunna mingpin serangan dina [[Patempuran Resaca de la Palma]]. Anjeunna némbongkeun kaparigelanna tumpak kuda dina [[Patempuran Monterrey]] ku cara nawarkeun diri pikeun nganteurkeun surat penting ngaliwatan kepungan nu némbak (sniper); anjeunna gumantung dina sisi kuda, ngajantenkeun awak kuda salaku taméng antara anjeunna sareng musuh. Saterusna, unit Grant dipindahkeun ka pasukan anyar anu di pingpin ku Mayor Jéndéral [[Winfield Scott]]. Pasukan Scott badarat di [[Veracruz]] sarta terus maju nuju [[Mexico City]]. Aranjeunna tarung dina patempuran [[Patempuran Molino del Rey|Molino del Rey]] sarta [[Patempuran Chapultepec|Chapultepec]]. Kusabab kawani sarta inisiatifna di San Cosmé—dimana anjeunna maréntahkeun anak buahna pikeun mawa mariem gunung ''(howitzer)'' ka luhur munara garéja pikeun némbak pasukan Méksiko—Grant ditaékeun pangkatna janten kaptén brevet. Dina tanggal 14 Séptémber 1847, pasukan Scott asup ka kota, sarta Méksiko tungtungna masrahkeun wilayah anu kacida legana, kaasup [[California]], ka Amérika Serikat dina 2 Pébruari 1848. Salila perang ieu, Grant parantos ngukir préstasi anu alus sarta mimiti mikirkeun karir anu leuwih daria di militér. Anjeunna loba diajar ngeunaan taktik sarta stratégi ti Scott sarta Taylor. Dina mémorandumna, Grant nyebatkeun yén dina perang ieu anjeunna diajar yén pamingpin militer téh kudu boga karakter anu kuat. Sanajan anjeunna ngahormatan Scott, gaya kapamingpinan Grant mah langkung deukeut ka Taylor. Dina saterusna, Grant percaya yén perang Méksiko téh sacara moral teu adil, sarta anjeunna boga pamikiran yén [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] téh mangrupa "hukuman ti Gusti" pikeun agrési Amérika ka Méksiko. Para ahli sajarah ogé nyebutkeun pentingna pangalaman Grant salaku asisten kuartermaster. Sanajan mimitina anjeunna teu resep kana éta jabatan, pangalaman éta ngajantenkeun anjeunna ahli dina ngatur rute pasokan, transportasi, sarta logistik perang—faktor utama anu engkéna ngajantenkeun anjeunna suksés dina Perang Sipil. === Tugas pasca-perang sarta pangunduran diri === Saatos perang réngsé, Grant sarta Julia pindah ka [[Detroit]] dina 17 Nopémber 1848. Nanging, teu lami ti harita anjeunna dipindahkeun ka [[Madison Barracks]], hiji pos militér anu simpé sarta kurang pangrojong di New York. Dina taun 1852, nalika aya kajadian ''[[California Gold Rush]]'' (demam emas California), Grant sarta Résimén Infanteri ka-4 ditugaskeun ka basisir kulon. Julia, anu nuju bobot ''(hamil)'' dalapan sasih, henteu tiasa marengan anjeunna.<ref name="Chernow60">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. pp. 60–61.</ref> Nalika nuju ka California ngaliwatan Panama, wabah [[koléra]] narajang pasukan sarta warga sipil. Grant némbongkeun dedikasina ku cara ngadegkeun rumah sakit darurat sarta ngarawat sorangan jalma-jalma anu gering. Anjeunna kénging pujian anu kacida ageungna margi kersa turun tangan langsung sanajan patugas médis sanésna seueur anu sieun katépaan.<ref name="Smith">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Saatos dugi ka basisir kulon, Grant nyobian rupa-rupa usaha bisnis nanging sadayana gagal, malah anjeunna kantos ditipu ku batur bisnisna. Di dinya ogé anjeunna ningal kumaha urang [[Indigénus]] lokal diperlakukeun sacara teu adil sarta kaserang panyakit [[cacar]]. Pangalaman ieu nu ngalantarankeun Grant miboga rasa émpati anu jero ka nasib maranéhna.<ref name="White1">White, Ronald C. (2016). ''American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant''. Random House.</ref> Dina tanggal 5 Agustus 1853, Grant ditaékeun pangkat janten kaptén sarta ditugaskeun mingpin Kompi F di [[Fort Humboldt]], California. Di dieu, Grant ngarasa tiiseun margi papisah sareng kulawargana, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna mimiti resep kana inuman keras (mabok). Komandanna, Létnan Kolonél Robert C. Buchanan, méré peringatan supaya Grant "undur diri atanapi robah." Sanggeus hiji kajadian dimana Grant katingal dipangaruhan ku alkohol nalika tugas, anjeunna panceg kana jangjina sarta milih mundur tina tentara, anu mimiti lumaku dina 31 Juli 1854. Sanajan seueur ahli sajarah anu miboga sawangan béda ngeunaan darajat "mabokna" Grant, Departemén Perang nyatakeun yén: "Teu aya noda dina nami hadéna." Grant mulang ka St. Louis kalayan kaayaan teu gaduh padamelan pikeun ngahiji deui sareng kulawargana.<ref name="Smith" /> == Mangsa malarat, perbudakan, sarta politik == [[File:Hardscrabble.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"Hardscrabble", imah tina tangkal kai (log cabin) anu diwangun ku Grant nalika anjeunna malarat.]] Dina taun 1854, dina yuswa 32 taun, Grant mimiti hirup salaku warga sipil tanpa miboga kaahlian husus pikeun nganapkahan kulawargana. Ieu mangrupa awal ti tujuh taun mangsa susah sarta ékonomi anu teu stabil dina hirupna. Ramana nawarkeun gawé di bisnis kulit kulawarga di [[Galena, Illinois]], nanging méré sarat yén Julia sarta barudakna kedah tetep cicing di Missouri. Grant sarta Julia nolak éta sarat. Salami opat taun ka hareupna, Grant nyobian tatanén di lahan milik baraya Julia, nanging teu hasil. Pikeun nyambung hirup, anjeunna dugi ka ngical suluh di juru-juru jalan kota St. Louis.<ref name="McFeely">McFeely, William S. (1981). ''Grant: A Biography''. W. W. Norton & Company.</ref> Dina taun 1856, kulawarga Grant pindah ka lahan milik mertuana sarta ngawangun imah basajan anu dingaranan "Hardscrabble". Julia nyebat éta imah téh "gubug anu teu pikaresepeun". Nalika lumangsungna [[Krisis Ékonomi 1857]], kaayaan Grant beuki parna; anjeunna dugi ka kedah ngajual (ngagadékeun) arloji emasna ngan saukur pikeun mésér kado Natal keur barudakna.<ref name="White2">White, Ronald C. (2016). ''American Ulysses''. Random House.</ref> Ngeunaan masalah perbudakan, dina taun 1858, Grant nampa saurang budak '(slave)' ti mertuana, lalaki umur 35 taun nami William Jones. Sanajan dina waktos éta Grant sanés saurang ''abolisionis'' (nu nolak perbudakan), anjeunna sabenerna mah teu resep kana perbudakan sarta teu tega mun kedah maksa batur digawé. Dina Maret 1859, Grant ngabébaskeun William Jones ngaliwatan akta ''manumisi'$. Padahal dina waktos éta, Jones tiasa waé dijual kalayan harga $1.000 (anjeunana leuwih milih ngaleupaskeun duit sakitu gedéna batan kudu ngajual jalma).<ref name="Smith">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Dina sisi politik, Grant mimitina mah ''apolitis''. Nanging, kusabab sieun yén kapilihna présidén ti Partéy Républik bakal nyababkeun perang sipil, anjeunna milih James Buchanan (Demokrat) dina taun 1856. Dina taun 1860 ogé anjeunna sabenerna milih Douglas (Demokrat), nanging teu tiasa milih kusabab urusan administratif perenah cicing di Galena.<ref name="Brands">Brands, H. W. (2012a). ''The Man Who Saved the Union''. Doubleday.</ref> Tungtungna dina April 1860, Grant sarta kulawargana pindah ka Galena, Illinois, pikeun gawé di toko barang kulit "Grant & Perkins" milik ramana anu dikelola ku adi-adina. Dina sababaraha bulan, Grant suksés mayaran sakabéh hutang-hutangna sarta mimiti dikenal salaku warga anu miboga reputasi hadé di éta kota.<ref name="White3">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> == Perang Sipil == {{utama|Ulysses S. Grant sarta Perang Sipil Amérika}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant as Brigadier General, 1861.jpg|thumb|upright|Brigadir Jéndéral Grant, 1861.]] Dina tanggal 12 April 1861, [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] dimimitian nalika pasukan Konfédérasi [[Patempuran Fort Sumter|nyerang Fort Sumter]] di Charleston, South Carolina. Warta ieu janten kareuwas pikeun warga Galena, kalebet Grant anu kacida hariwangna ningal kaayaan nagara anu keur mahabu. Dina tanggal 15 April, Présidén Lincoln nyauran 75.000 sukarelawan pikeun ngabéla Uni. Poé isukna, Grant sumping ka hiji riungan masarakat pikeun madungdengan éta krisis sarta ngajak warga pikeun milu daptar janten tentara. Dina éta acara, hiji biantara ti John Aaron Rawlins—anu engkéna janten réncang satia Grant—hasil ngahudangkeun sumanget ''patriotisme'' dina diri Grant. Dina suratna ka ramana kaping 21 April, Grant nétépkeun sikepna ngeunaan pacéngkadan anu bakal lumangsung: "Urang miboga pamaréntahan, hukum, sarta bandéra, anu sadayana kedah dijaga sarta dibéla. Ayeuna ngan ukur aya dua pihak: Panghianat sarta Patriot."<ref>Brands, H. W. (2012a). ''The Man Who Saved the Union''. Doubleday. p. 123.</ref> === Komando awal === {{further|Kentucky dina Perang Sipil Amérika}} Dina tanggal 18 April, Grant mingpin rapat rékrutmen anu kadua, nanging anjeunna nolak jabatan kaptén salaku komandan milisia anu nembé kabentuk. Anjeunna miharep pangalamanana tiasa ngabantosan anjeunna kéngingkeun pangkat anu langkung luhur. Usaha awalna pikeun asup deui ka militer kantos ditolak ku Mayor Jéndéral [[George B. McClellan]] sarta Brigadir Jéndéral [[Nathaniel Lyon]]. Nanging, dina 29 April, kalayan dironjong ku Anggota Kongrés [[Elihu B. Washburne]], Grant diangkat janten asistén militér pikeun Gubernur [[Richard Yates (19th-century politician)|Richard Yates]] sarta hasil ngumpulkeun sapuluh résimén pikeun milisia Illinois. Dina tanggal 14 Juni, masih kalayan bantuan Washburne, Grant diangkat janten kolonél sarta dipasihan tanggung jawab mingpin [[Résimén Infanteri Sukarelawan Illinois ka-21]]. Anjeunna ngangkat [[John A. Rawlins]] salaku asistenna (aide-de-camp) sarta hasil mawa katertiban sarta disiplin ka éta résimén. Teu lami ti harita, Grant sarta Résimén ka-21 dipindahkeun ka Missouri pikeun ngusir pasukan Konfédérasi.<ref>U.S. National Park Service, "Battle Unit Details - the Civil War".</ref> Dina tanggal 5 Agustus, Grant diangkat janten brigadir jéndéral sukarelawan. Mayor Jéndéral [[John C. Frémont]], komandan Uni di wilayah Kulon, milih Grant (ngalangkungan jéndéral-jéndéral anu langkung senior) janten komandan Distrik Missouri Tenggara. Dina tanggal 2 Séptémber, Grant dugi ka [[Cairo, Illinois]], sarta ngadegkeun markasna pikeun ngarencanakeun kampanye militer ka sapanjang walungan Mississippi, Tennessee, sarta Cumberland.<ref name="White4">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> Nalika pasukan Konfédérasi asup ka wilayah kulon Kentucky sarta ngawasa Columbus, Grant geuwat méré nyaho ka Frémont. Tanpa ngantosan walonana, Grant langsung maju ka [[Paducah, Kentucky]], sarta hasil ngawasa éta kota tanpa aya perlawanan dina tanggal 6 Séptémber. Kusabab terang pisan pentingna sikep nétral Kentucky pikeun Présidén Lincoln, Grant ngayakinkeun wargana: "Kuring datang ka aranjeun sanés salaku musuh, tapi salaku babaturan."<ref name="Chernow61">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press.</ref> === Belmont (1861), Bénténg Henry sarta Donelson (1862) === {{utama|Patempuran Belmont|Patempuran Fort Henry|Patempuran Fort Donelson}} [[File:"Battle of Fort Donelson.".jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Patempuran Fort Donelson'' karya [[Kurz and Allison]], 1887.]] Dina tanggal 2 Nopémber 1861, Lincoln ngaleupaskeun Frémont tina jabatanna, anu masihan lolongkrang ka Grant pikeun nyerang pasukan Konfédérasi di Missouri. Dina tanggal 7 Nopémber, Grant aub dina [[Patempuran Belmont]]. Sanajan pasukan Uni sempet ngawasa kémp musuh, nanging datangna bala bantuan Konfédérasi maksa Grant pikeun mundur. Sanajan mundur, patempuran ieu masihan kapercayaan diri sarta pangalaman anu kacida diperyogikeunana ku para sukarelawan Uni. Grant saterusna ngararancang stratégi pikeun ngawasa [[Fort Henry]] di Walungan Tennessee sarta [[Fort Donelson]] di Walungan Cumberland. Tujuanana nyaéta pikeun muka jalan ka wilayah kidul ngaliwatan jalur walungan. Komandanna anu anyar, [[Henry Halleck]], mimitina mah nolak éta rencana, nanging tungtungna satuju kalayan sarat yén Grant kedah gawé bareng sareng Angkatan Laut di handap pingpinan [[Andrew H. Foote]]. Dina 6 Pébruari 1862, kapal-kapal perang Foote ngabom Fort Henry dugi ka éta bénténg pasrah sateuacan pasukan infanteri Grant dugi. Grant geuwat maréntahkeun serangan ka Fort Donelson. Patempuran di dieu langkung sengit. Nalika pasukan Konfédérasi nyoba kabur tina kepungan, Grant anu nuju opat mil ti dinya geuwat sumping sarta ngumpulkeun deui kakuatan pasukanna. Saatos ngaliwatan patempuran anu campuh dina kaayaan cuaca anu tiris kacida, jéndéral Konfédérasi [[Simon Bolivar Buckner]] nanya ngeunaan sarat-sarat pikeun pasrah. Walon Grant kacida tegasna: "Teu aya sarat naon waé iwal ti pasrah anu teu sarat sarta sagancangna" (''unconditional and immediate surrender''). Buckner tungtungna pasrah dina tanggal 16 Pébruari 1862. Kameunangan ieu mangrupa kameunangan gedé munggaran pikeun pihak Uni, dimana Grant hasil nawan leuwih ti 12.000 prajurit musuh. Sanajan Halleck masih kénéh sirik sarta nyoba ngalaporkeun hal-hal négatif ngeunaan Grant ka Washington (kaasup tuduhan yén Grant mabok deui), Présidén Lincoln kalah ngangkat Grant janten Mayor Jéndéral sukarelawan. Pers di wilayah kalér nganggap Grant salaku pahlawan sarta méré landihan anyar dumasar kana singketan namina: "Unconditional Surrender Grant". ===Shiloh (1862) sarta Balukarna=== {{further|Patempuran Shiloh}} [[File:Monument to Tennessee's troops in the battle of Shiloh; dedicated 2005. (f42f2753-1dd8-b71b-0b1e-b3cda4ae9057).jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|250px|''Patempuran Shiloh'' karya [[Thure de Thulstrup]], 1888.]] Sanggeus dibalikkeun deui kana jabatanna ku Lincoln, Grant mingpin [[Tentara Tennessee]] nuju ka Pittsburg Landing. Di dinya, anjeunna ngantosan bantuan ti pasukan Mayor Jéndéral [[Don Carlos Buell]]. Nanging, sateuacan bantuan sumping, dina énjing-énjing tanggal 6 April 1862, pasukan Konfédérasi anu dipingpin ku [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] nyerang dadakan "ibarat longsor salju ti gunung Alpine". Pasukan Uni kapaksa mundur dina kaayaan anu kacau balau nuju ka sisi Walungan Tennessee.<ref name="White1" /> Dina kaayaan anu kritis, Grant hasil ngumpulkeun deui artileri sarta 20.000 pasukan pikeun nahan gempuran musuh di Pittsburg Landing. Hiji momen anu kawéntar nyaéta nalika Sherman manggihan Grant nuju nangtung nyalira di handapeun tangkal bari kahujanan dina wengi saatos perang poé munggaran. Sherman nyebatkeun, "Wah, Grant, urang nuju sial pisan poé ieu, nya?" Grant ngawalon kalayan tenang, "Enya. Tapi isuk mah urang éléhkeun maranéhna."<ref name="Chernow205">Chernow, Ron (2017). ''Grant''. Penguin Press. p. 205.</ref> Poe isukna, kalayan bantuan 18.000 pasukan anyar, Grant ngayakeun serangan balesan sarta hasil ngawasa deui médan laga, maksa pasukan Konfédérasi mundur ka Corinth. Sanajan meunang, Shiloh janten patempuran anu paling getihan dina sajarah Amérika dugi ka waktos éta, kalayan total 23.746 korban (maot sarta tatu). Pers di wilayah kalér saterusna nyerang Grant, nyebutkeun anjeunna gagabah malah aya nu nuduh anjeunna mabok nalika perang lumangsung. Nalika Grant ngarasa pundung sarta badé mundur, Sherman ngayakinkeun anjeunna supaya tetep mertahankeun jabatanna. Présidén Lincoln ogé ngabéla Grant ku nyarios: "I can't spare this man; he fights" (Kuring teu bisa kaleungitan ieu jalma; anjeunna téh tukang tarung). Kameunangan di Shiloh ieu nandeskeun yén Konfédérasi moal bisa deui ngawasa wilayah kulon. Dina ahir taun 1862, saatos Lincoln ngaluarkeun mimitina [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]], Grant maréntahkeun unit-unit di handapna pikeun narima mantan budak (slaves) janten bagian tina Tentara Uni, masihan maranéhna papakéan, tempat cicing, sarta gajih pikeun jasana.<ref name="Flood">Flood, Charles Bracelen (2005). ''Grant and Sherman: The Friendship That Won the Civil War''. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref> === Kampanye Vicksburg (1862–1863) === {{further|Kampanye Vicksburg|Paréntah Umum No. 11 (1862)}} [[File:VicksburgBlockade.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Léngkah wani Grant anu suksés: Kapal-kapal perang Porter nembus némbakan mariem Konfédérasi dina wengi di Vicksburg, [[Walungan Mississippi]].]] Ngawasa [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], bénténg pamungkas Konfédérasi di [[Walungan Mississippi]], dianggap kacida vitalna margi bakal ngabagi dua wilayah Konfédérasi. Présidén Lincoln mimitina nunjuk McClernand pikeun pancén ieu, sanés Grant atanapi Sherman. Nanging, Halleck maréntahkeun McClernand ka Memphis sarta nempatkeun anjeunna di handap ''otoritas'' Grant. Dina tanggal 13 Nopémber 1862, Grant hasil ngarebut [[Holly Springs, Mississippi|Holly Springs]] sarta maju nuju Corinth. Rencanana nyaéta nyerang Vicksburg tina jalur darat, sedengkeun Sherman nyerang ti Chickasaw Bayou. Nanging, serangan kavaleri Konfédérasi dina tanggal 11 sarta 20 Désémber ngaruksak jalur komunikasi Uni sarta ngarebut deui Holly Springs, anu ngabalukarkeun Grant sarta Sherman gagal ngahiji. Serangan anu paling fatal dipingpin ku Jéndéral [[Earl Van Dorn]] anu ngancurkeun gudang pasokan Grant sarta maksa anjeunna ngabolaykeun serangan jalur darat. Saatos kajadian éta, Grant mimiti ngagunakeun stratégi "hirup tina hasil bumi" (foraging) tinimbang ngandelkeun jalur pasokan anu panjang sarta rawan ditarjang musuh. Dina mangsa ieu ogé, Grant kudu ngurus rébua urang tilas budak (African-American) anu kabur nuju ka distrikna. Sacara ''inisiatif'' sorangan, Grant ngadegkeun program ''[[pragmatis]]'' sarta nunjuk John Eaton pikeun ngokolakeun kémp-kémp pangungsian. Mantan budak ieu digawé metetik kapas anu saterusna dikirim ka kalér pikeun ngarojong dana perang Uni. Grant ogé ngagunakeun tanaga gawé maranéhna pikeun ngawangun [[Kanal Grant]] sarta ngasupkeun maranéhna jadi Tentara sarta Angkatan Laut Uni. [[File:Battle of Jackson (cropped).tif|thumb|left|upright=1.2|[[Patempuran Jackson, Mississippi|Patempuran Jackson]] dina 14 Méi 1863, mangrupa bagian tina Kampanye Vicksburg.]] Tanggung jawab Grant ogé ngawengku merangan perdagangan kapas haram. Dina tanggal 17 Désémber 1862, Grant ngaluarkeun [[Paréntah Umum No. 11 (1862)|Paréntah Umum No. 11]] anu kontrovérsial, nyaéta ngusir "urang Yahudi salaku hiji golongan" tina distrik militerna. Saatos meunang protés, Lincoln ngabolaykeun éta paréntah dina 3 Januari 1863. Di mangsa payun, Grant nyebatkeun yén paréntah ieu mangrupa salah sahiji kaduhung pangbadagna dina hirupna. Dina 29 Januari 1863, Grant nyandak alih komando sapinuhna. Anjeunna maréntahkeun Laksamana [[David Dixon Porter]] pikeun mawa kapal perang nembus némbakan mariem Vicksburg dina wengi tanggal 16 April. Grant saterusna ngalakukeun rupa-rupa serangan tipuan pikeun ngabingungkeun musuh, ngawasa Jackson, sarta ngéléhkeun pasukan Pemberton dina [[Patempuran Champion Hill]]. Saatos ngepung kota salami tujuh minggu, Pemberton tungtungna pasrah ka Grant dina tanggal [[4 Juli]] [[1863]]. === Chattanooga (1863) sarta promosi === {{further|Kampanye Chattanooga}} [[File:Battle of Missionary Ridge McCormick Harvesting.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Pasukan Uni nyerbu [[Patempuran Missionary Ridge|Missionary Ridge]] sarta ngéléhkeun pasukan Bragg.]] Dina tanggal 16 Oktober 1863, Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten Mayor Jéndéral dina tentara reguler sarta masihan komando pikeun Divisi Militer Mississippi. Saatos [[Patempuran Chickamauga]], Tentara Cumberland kakeupung di Chattanooga. Grant sumping ka dinya sarta geuwat muka jalur pasokan anu katelah "Cracker Line". Grant ngararancang serangan ka [[Patempuran Missionary Ridge|Missionary Ridge]]. Dina tanggal 25 Nopémber, opat divisi Tentara Cumberland—anu dipingpin ku [[Philip Sheridan]] sarta Thomas J. Wood—ngusir musuh tina solokan pertahanan sarta, sanajan di luar paréntah, terus merenahkeun serangan naék ka lamping gunung anu lungkawing (45 darajat) nepi ka hasil ngawasa puncakna. Kameunangan mutlak ieu méré Uni kontrol pinuh ka Tennessee sarta muka jalan pikeun invasi ka Georgia. Dina tanggal 2 Maret 1864, Lincoln ngangkat Grant janten Létnan Jéndéral, pangkat anu sateuacanna ngan kantos dicepeng ku [[George Washington]]. Grant dugi ka Washington dina 8 Maret sarta sacara resmi dilantik ku Lincoln dina rapat Kabinét. Grant saterusna ngawangun hubungan gawé anu saé sareng Lincoln, dimana présidén ngawenangkeun Grant pikeun nyusun stratégi perangna sorangan. Grant nempatkeun markasna bareng jeung Tentara Potomac anu dipingpin ku Jéndéral [[George Meade]]. Anjeunna ngararancang lima serangan Uni anu kakokoordinasi pikeun nyegah musuh mindahkeun pasukan. Grant sarta Meade fokus nyerang pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]], sedengkeun Sherman—anu ayeuna mingpin sakabéh tentara wilayah kulon—ditugaskeun ngancurkeun pasukan Joseph E. Johnston sarta ngarebut Atlanta. Grant ayeuna mingpin 533.000 prajurit anu siap tempur. === Kampanye Overland (1864) === {{utama|Kampanye Overland}} Kampanye Overland mangrupa runtuyan patempuran brutal anu lumangsung di Virginia salila sasih Méi sarta Juni 1864. Kusabab usaha Sigel sarta Butler gagal, Grant kapaksa kudu nyanghareupan Lee nyalira. Dina tanggal 4 Méi, Grant mingpin pasukanna ti markas nuju ka Germanna Ford sarta meuntas [[Walungan Rapidan]] tanpa aya perlawanan. Dina tanggal 5 Méi, pasukan Uni nyerang Lee dina **[[Patempuran Wilderness]]**. Ieu patempuran lumangsung salila tilu poé kalayan perkiraan korban saloba 17.666 ti pihak Uni sarta 11.125 ti pihak Konfédérasi. Tinimbang mundur saatos patempuran anu sakitu hébatna, Grant kalah ngalakukeun gerakan ''flaking'' (muter) ka arah tenggara pikeun nyoba nyelipkeun pasukanna di antara Lee sarta Richmond di [[Patempuran Spotsylvania Court House]]. Nanging, pasukan Lee sumping ti payun ka Spotsylvania sahingga lumangsung patempuran rongkah salami tilu belas poé anu loba ngahakan korban. Dina tanggal 12 Méi, Grant nyoba nembus pertahanan musuh di bagian ''Muleshoe'' anu dijaga ku artileri Konfédérasi. Ieu serangan janten salah sahiji anu loba ngabalukarkeun korban dina sajarah Perang Sipil, anu katelah ku sebutan [[The Bloody Angle (Spotsylvania)|The Bloody Angle]] (Sudut Getih). Kusabab teu hasil nembus pertahanan Lee, Grant sakali deui muter ka arah tenggara sarta panggih deui jeung musuh dina [[Patempuran North Anna]] anu lumangsung salami tilu poé. ==== Cold Harbor ==== {{utama|Patempuran Cold Harbor}} [[File:Grant crop of Cold Harbor photo.png|thumb|upright=0.9|Jéndéral Grant di markasna di [[Cold Harbor, Virginia]], Juni 1864.]] Sanggeus Kampanye Wilderness anu kacida getihna, Grant miboga kapercayaan yén nembus pertahanan Lee di titik pangmantenna, nyaéta [[Cold Harbor]], bakal mawa perang ieu kana tungtung anu gancang. Cold Harbor téh mangrupa titik jalan anu kacida vitalna sabab nyambung langsung ka Richmond.<ref name="Chernow205" /> Dina tanggal 1 sarta 2 Juni, boh Grant boh Lee nuju ngantosan bantuan pasukan sumping. Pasukan Hancock dugi dina kaayaan anu kacida lungséne saatos leumpang sapeupeuting, sahingga Grant kedah nunda serangan dugi ka tabuh 04:30 énjing dina tanggal 3 Juni. Nanging, aya hal anu teu kanyahoan ku Grant: salila sapeuting éta, Lee hasil ngawangun solokan pertahanan (entrenchments) anu kacida kuatna sarta kalingkung ku tatangkalan jeung rungkun.<ref name="Furgurson">Furgurson, Ernest B. (2000). ''Not War But Murder: Cold Harbor 1864''. Knopf.</ref> Nalika serangan dimimitian dina énjing-énjing tanggal 3 Juni, kalayan kakuatan leuwih ti 100.000 prajurit Uni ngalawan 59.000 prajurit Konfédérasi, pasukan Grant ditarjang ku témbakan mariem sarta bedil anu kacida rongkahna ti balik bénténg musuh. Dina waktu anu singget, tentara Grant nandang korban anu pohara lobana, nyaéta antara 12.000 dugi ka 14.000 casualties, sedengkeun pihak Lee ngan ukur nandang korban sakitar 3.000 dugi ka 5.000 urang.<ref name="Bonekemper">Bonekemper, Edward H. (2011). ''Grant and Lee: Victorious American and Vanquished Virginian''. Regnery History.</ref> Jumlah korban anu sakitu ageungna ngahudangkeun sentimen anti-perang di wilayah Kalér. Sanggeus patempuran, loba prajurit anu tatu sarta maot ditinggalkeun di médan laga alatan héséna perjangjian gencatan pakarang antara Grant sarta Lee. Grant henteu kantos ménta hampura sacara resmi dina laporan militerna, nanging dina buku mémorandumna (méméar) anu disusun sababaraha taun saatosna, anjeunna nandeskeun: "Kuring salawasna hanjakal yén serangan pamungkas di Cold Harbor kantos dilakukeun."<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pengepungan Petersburg (1864–1865) === {{further|Pengepungan Petersburg|Patempuran Kawah}} Henteu kanyahoan ku Lee, Grant mindahkeun pasukanna ka kiduleun Walungan James sarta maju nuju [[Petersburg, Virginia|Petersburg]], pusat jalur karéta api Virginia. Ieu ngabalukarkeun lumangsungna [[Pengepungan Petersburg]] salami salapan sasih. Grant ogé maréntahkeun Sheridan pikeun "ngudag musuh dugi ka maotna" di Lebak Shenandoah pikeun mastikeun jalur pasokan musuh kapegat. Dina ahir Juli, Grant kalayan asa-asa nyatujuan rencana pikeun ngabeledugkeun sabagian solokan pertahan musuh ngaliwatan torowongan anu dieusi bubuk mesiu. Ieu kajadian katelah ku nami [[Patempuran Kawah]] (''Battle of the Crater''). Ledakan éta kacida rongkahna, nanging alatan kapamingpinan anu goréng ti Jéndéral Burnside sarta Ledlie, pasukan Uni kalah asup ka jero kawah tinimbang ngepungna. Pasukan Konfédérasi anu parantos sadar geuwat nembakan pasukan Uni ti luhur kawah. Grant ngaku yén taktik ieu mangrupa "kagagalan anu kacida badagna". [[File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Grant (tengah kénca) gigireun Lincoln bareng jeung Jéndéral [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Sherman]] (paling kénca) sarta Laksamana [[David Dixon Porter|Porter]] (katuhu) – ''[[The Peacemakers]]'' karya [[George Peter Alexander Healy]], 1868.]] Tinimbang neraskeun serangan frontal sapertos di Cold Harbor, Grant milih maksa Lee pikeun manjangkeun garis pertahananna ka arah kidul sarta kulon Petersburg. Ieu tujuanana pikeun ngarebut jalur karéta api anu kacida pentingna pikeun pasokan logistik musuh. Samentara éta, pasukan Uni hasil ngarebut Mobile Bay sarta Atlanta, anu mastikeun Lincoln kapilih deui janten présidén dina Nopémber. Sherman saterusna ngalakukeun [[Sherman's March to the Sea|Lalampahan ka Laut]] nuju Savannah, ninggalkeun ruruntuhan di sapanjang jalan sarta ngancurkeun kamampuh ékonomi Konfédérasi. Dina Désémber, pasukan Thomas hasil ngancurkeun sésa-sésa kakuatan Konfédérasi di Nashville. Ayeuna, ngan ukur pasukan Lee di Petersburg anu janten hahalang pamungkas pikeun kameunangan Uni. Dina Maret 1865, kaayaan Lee beuki kadeseh sarta kakuatanna beuki mérétek. Rébu urang prajurit Konfédérasi kabur (disérsi) sabab geus teu boga kapercayaan deui ka komandanna. Dina 25 Maret, dina usaha pamungkas anu kacida nekatna, Lee ngorbankeun sésa pasukanna di [[Patempuran Fort Stedman]], anu janten patempuran garis pertahanan pamungkas di Petersburg sarta dipungkas ku kameunangan Uni. === Pasrahna Lee sarta kameunangan Uni (1865) === {{utama|Patempuran Katilu Petersburg|Kampanye Appomattox|Patempuran Appomattox Court House}} [[File:General Robert E. Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House 1865.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|left|Saatos kaéléhkeun ku Grant, Lee tungtungna pasrah di Appomattox Court House.]] Dina tanggal 2 April, Grant maréntahkeun serangan umum ka pasukan Lee; Lee kapaksa ninggalkeun Petersburg sarta Richmond, anu saterusna hasil direbut ku Grant. Lee anu keur kaayaan deudeupeun nyoba ngahijikeun sésa pasukanna jeung tentara [[Joseph E. Johnston]]. Nanging, kavaleri Sheridan hasil megatkeun gerakan maranéhna sarta misahkeun musuh tina jalur pasokan logistikna. Grant ngirimkeun asistenna, [[Orville Babcock]], pikeun mawa surat pamungkas ka Lee anu isina nungtut sangkan anjeunna pasrah. Dina lalampahanana, Grant nampa surat walon ti Lee anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna daék masrahkeun pasukanna. Dina tanggal 9 April 1865, Grant sarta Lee panggih di [[Appomattox Court House]]. Sanajan Grant ngarasa sedih ningal musuhna anu "geus tarung sakitu lilana sarta wanian" kudu éléh, anjeunna tetep percaya yén perjuangan pihak Kidul (perbudakan) mangrupa "salah sahiji hal panggoréngna anu kantos diperjuangkeun ku hiji bangsa". Grant nuliskeun sorangan sarat-sarat pasrahna: "unggal perwira sarta prajurit bakal diwenangkeun mulang ka imahna masing-masing, sarta moal diganggu ku otoritas AS salami maranéhna patuh kana jangji (parole) sarta hukum anu lumaku di tempat cicingna." Lee geuwat narima éta sarat sarta nandatanganan dokumén pasrahna tanpa aya pangakuan diplomatik naon waé pikeun Konfédérasi. Nalika Lee ménta sangkan urut prajuritna diwenangkeun mawa kudana masing-masing, Grant kalayan [[Béréhan]] nyatujuan éta paménta. Nalika pasukan Uni mimiti surak ngarayakeun kameunangan, Grant geuwat nyaram sarta ngomong: "Perang geus réngsé; para pemberontak téh ayeuna jadi dulur sabangsa urang deui." Pasukan Johnston di Tennessee tungtungna pasrah dina 26 April, dituturkeun ku pasukan Alabama dina 4 Méi, sarta pasukan Texas dina 26 Méi, anu sacara resmi mungkas sakabéh Perang Sipil Amérika. === Panelasan Lincoln === {{utama|Panelasan Abraham Lincoln}} Dina tanggal 14 April 1865, Grant sumping ka rapat kabinét di Washington. Lincoln ngajak anjeunna sarta pamajidanna, Julia, ka [[Téater Ford]], nanging maranéhna nolak margi parantos miboga rencana badé angkat ka bumina di [[Burlington, New Jersey]]. Dina hiji konspirasi anu tujuanana pikeun ngaruntuhkeun Uni, Lincoln ditémbak ku [[John Wilkes Booth]] di éta téater sarta pupus dina énjingna. Loba jalma, kalebet Grant sorangan, percaya yén Grant ogé sabenerna janten udagan dina éta rencana panelasan.<ref name="White5">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> Nalika ngaluuhan upacara pamakaman Lincoln dina 19 April, Grant nangtung nyalira sarta ceurik balilihan; anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Lincoln téh mangrupa "jalma panghadéna anu kantos kuring kenal." Wakil Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]] saterusna dilantik janten présidén. Grant boga niat pikeun digawé bareng jeung Johnson sarta mimitina mah miboga harepan yén présidén anyar ieu tiasa mingpin pamaréntahan kalayan saé.<ref name="Smith" /> == Komandan Jéndéral (1865–1869) == {{utama|Masa jabatan Komandan Jéndéral Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant-Constant Mayer.jpg|thumb|left|Potrét Jéndéral Grant ku [[Constant Mayer]], 1866.]] Saatos perang réngsé, Grant tetep janten komandan angkatan darat. Pancénna ngawengku urusan [[Maximilian I ti Méksiko|Kaisar Maximilian]] sarta pasukan Perancis di Méksiko, ngajalankeun program [[Rékonstruksi]] di urut nagara-nagara Konfédérasi, sarta ngawas perang ngalawan suku Indian di wilayah Kulon. Nalika Robert E. Lee sarta para jéndéralna dituduh ngalakukeun panghianatan (treason) di Virginia, Présidén Johnson nungtut sangkan maranéhna diadili. Nanging, Grant sacara panceg nolak sarta negeskeun yén maranéhna teu meunang diadili dumasar kana janji pangampunan (amnesti) anu parantos dipasihkeun di Appomattox. Alatan kategasan Grant, tuduhan ka Lee tungtungna dibolaykeun. Dina tanggal 25 Juli 1866, Kongrés ngangkat Grant kana pangkat anyar anu kacida luhurna, nyaéta **[[Jéndéral Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]]**. Pangkat ieu diciptakeun husus pikeun ngajénan jasa-jasa Grant salami Perang Sipil.<ref name="Smith" /> === Lalampahan ka Kidul === {{further|Éra Rékonstruksi}} Kawijakan Rékonstruksi Présidén Johnson leuwih méré lolongkrang ka urut Konfédérasi pikeun mulang ka Kongrés sarta nempatkeun urang kulit bodas deui dina kalungguhan pamaréntahan, bari ngajantenkeun urang kulit hideung salaku warga nagara kelas kadua. Dina 27 Nopémber 1865, Grant dikirim ku Johnson pikeun ngayakeun inspeksi ka wilayah Kidul. Laporanna dina mangsa éta nyarankeun sangkan [[Freedmen's Bureau]] (Biro Urang Merdéka) diteruskeun, sanajan Johnson teu satuju.<ref name="Simpson">Simpson, Brooks D. (1988). ''Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction''.</ref> Grant percaya yén urang Kidul tacan siap pikeun marentah sorangan sarta masih merlukeun panangtayungan ti pamaréntah féderal. Anjeunna tetep ngagunakeun Angkatan Darat pikeun ngajaga katertiban. Sanajan laporanna mimitina rada condong ka Johnson, Grant sabenerna ngadukung sangkan urang kulit hideung tungtungna meunangkeun hak warga nagara anu pinuh. Johnson ngagunakeun laporan Grant pikeun ngalawan oposisi Radikal di Kongrés, anu ngabalukarkeun hubungan Grant jeung kelompok Radikal sempet kaganggu.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pepegatan sareng Johnson === [[File:Image from Swingin' Round the Cirkle, or Andy's trip to the West, together with a life of its hero 04.jpg|thumb|Ilustrasi kartun tina ''Swingin' Round the Cirkle'', anu némbongkeun yén Grant leuwih dipikaresep ku masarakat batan Johnson nalika tur ka sababaraha kota.]] Mimitina Grant téh optimistis ka Johnson, nanging dina Pébruari 1866, hubungan maranéhna mimiti mérétek. Johnson teu satuju nalika Grant nutup koran ''[[Richmond Examiner]]'' anu dianggap teu satia ka nagara. Nalika Johnson ngayakeun tur "[[Swing Around the Circle]]" pikeun néangan dukungan, anjeunna mawa Grant sangkan katingal populér. Nanging, Grant ngarasa éra ku biantara-biantara Johnson anu disebutna salaku "pinauléeun nasional" (''national disgrace'') sarta milih balik ti payun.<ref name="Brands" /> Kongrés saterusna ngaluarkeun **[[Undang-Undang Rékonstruksi]]** dina taun 1867 sanajan di-véto ku Johnson. Pikeun ngajaga Grant, Kongrés ogé ngaluarkeun ''Command of the Army Act'' anu nyababkeun Johnson teu bisa mindahkeun atanapi ngaleupaskeun Grant tanpa idin ti Sénat. Dina Agustus 1867, Johnson miceun Menteri Perang [[Edwin Stanton]] sarta nunjuk Grant salaku Menteri Perang samentara (''ad interim''). Grant nampi jabatan éta sabab anjeunna sieun upami jabatan éta ragrag ka jalma anu bakal ngahalangan prosés Rékonstruksi. Nanging, nalika Sénat mutuskeun pikeun mulangkeun Stanton ka jabatanna dina Januari 1868, Grant geuwat nyerahkeun deui éta jabatan ka Stanton. Johnson kacida ambekna sarta nuduh Grant ngabohong (''duplicity''). Pepegatan ieu janten parna sarta ngabalukarkeun prosés [[Impeachment Andrew Johnson|Pamaksulann Andrew Johnson]]. Johnson salamet ngan ku selisih hiji sora di Sénat. Di sisi séjén, popularitas Grant beuki ningkat di kalangan Républik Radikal, sarta jalan anjeunna nuju korsi kaprésidénan beuki kabuka lébar.<ref name="White6">White (2016), sakumaha anu dicutat dina ''American Ulysses''.</ref> === Pamilihan 1868 === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1868}} [[File:Grant-Colfax.png|thumb|right|Tikét Partéy Républik Grant–Colfax]] Dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1868, para delegasi sacara buled milih Grant salaku calon présidén. Sanajan Grant sabenerna leuwih resep tetep aya di jero militer, anjeunna nampi lolongkrang éta margi percaya yén ngan anjeunna anu tiasa ngahijikeun nagara. Partéy Républik ngusung téma "hak sipil sarta politik anu sarua pikeun sakabéh jalma" sarta méré hak pilih pikeun urang [[Amérika-Afrika]].<ref name="Rep1868">Republican Party Platform of 1868.</ref> Grant henteu milu kampanye sacara langsung, nanging slogan kampanyena, "Let us have peace" (Hayu urang silih daméykeun), janten kawéntar pisan. Dina poé pamilihan, Grant meunang mutlak dina ''Electoral College'' kalayan 214 sora ngalawan 80 sora pikeun Horatio Seymour ti Demokrat. Sanajan Seymour meunang mayoritas sora ti warga kulit bodas, Grant dibantuan ku 500.000 sora ti urang kulit hideung, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna meunang 52,7 persén sora rahayat. Dina yuswa 46 taun, Grant janten présidén pangngorana dina sajarah Amérika harita.<ref name="Smith" /> == Masa Kaprésidénan (1869–1877) == {{utama|Masa Kaprésidénan Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:Ugrant.jpeg|thumb|left|Potrét resmi Gedong Bodas Présidén Grant ku [[Henry Ulke]], 1875.]] Dina biantara pelantikanna, Grant ngarojong ratifikasi **[[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat|Amandemén ka-15]]** sarta nyebatkeun yén urang [[Indian]] kedah diperlakukeun kalayan saé nuju ka warga nagara anu pinuh. Grant nunjuk babaturan lila, [[Hamilton Fish]], salaku Menteri Luar Negeri, sarta ngadegkeun hubungan anu unik ku cara nunjuk urut musuhna, Jéndéral Konfédérasi [[James Longstreet]], salaku pajabat di New Orleans salaku bukti nyata pikeun ngahijikeun deui wilayah Kalér sarta Kidul. Salah sahiji warisan alam panghadéna nyaéta nalika Grant nandatanganan undang-undang anu ngadegkeun [[Taman Nasional Yellowstone]] dina taun 1872, taman nasional munggaran di dunya. ==== Hak Minoritas sarta Kaagamaan ==== Pikeun nebus kaluputanna dina Paréntah Umum No. 11, Grant nunjuk leuwih ti 50 urang Yahudi kana jabatan féderal. Anjeunna ogé nolak diskriminasi dumasar sélér, warna kulit, atawa agama dina pendidikan. Nanging, Grant kacida pancegna dina merangan [[Poligami]] di Utah anu disebutna salaku "kajahatan ngalawan moralitas". Anjeunna ogé nandatanganan **Undang-Undang Comstock** pikeun merangan pornografi sarta prakték aborsi haram.<ref name="Kahan">Kahan, Paul (2018). ''The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant: Preserving the Civil War's Legacy''.</ref> Dina biantara kawéntarna di Iowa (1875), Grant nandeskeun yén sakola umum teu meunang ngagunakeun dana nagara pikeun sakola kaagamaan (sectarian), anu dina mangsa éta mangrupa respon kana tumuwuhna pangaruh Katolik. Anjeunna percaya yén pamisahan antara nagara sarta agama téh penting pikeun kamajuan bangsa.<ref name="White2017">White, Ronald C. (2017). ''American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant''.</ref> === Rékonstruksi === {{utama|Éra Rékonstruksi}} [[File:Amos T Akerman - crop and minor retouch.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Amos T. Akerman]], Jaksa Agung anu ditunjuk ku Grant, anu sacara panceg merangan sarta nangkep anggota [[Ku Klux Klan]].]] Grant dianggap salaku présidén anu éféktif dina ngajaga hak-hak sipil. Dina taun 1869 sarta 1870, anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang anu ngawenangkeun urang kulit hideung pikeun janten juri sarta nyepeng kalungguhan publik. Grant ogé panceg ngarojong ratifikasi [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat|Amandemén ka-15]] sangkan nagara bagian teu bisa ngahalangan hak pilih urang Amérika-Afrika. Alatan kategasanana, dina mangsa ieu pisan pikeun munggaranana dina sajarah, urang kulit hideung tiasa calik salaku anggota Kongrés AS.<ref name="Kahan" /> ==== Merangan Ku Klux Klan ==== Pikeun nerapkeun hukum Rékonstruksi, Grant sarta Kongrés ngadegkeun Departemén Kaadilan dina taun 1870. Grant ngagunakeun tilu ''Enforcement Acts'' pikeun ngancurkeun kelompok rasialis [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK). Jaksa Agungna, [[Amos T. Akerman]], sacara sumanget nangkep leuwih ti 470 anggota Klan di South Carolina, anu ngabalukarkeun kakuatan KKK runtuh dina taun 1872.<ref name="Smith" /> ==== Nyirorotna Dukungan Rékonstruksi ==== Dina mangsa jabatan kaduana, dukungan ti wilayah Kalér mimiti ngurangan alatan masalah ékonomi sarta skandal politik. Kelompok konservatif Kidul anu disebut "[[Redeemers]]" mimiti ngagunakeun kekerasan ngaliwatan organisasi sapertos ''White League'' sarta ''Red Shirts'' pikeun ngagulingkeun pamaréntahan Républik. Sanajan Grant nyoba ngirimkeun pasukan ka Louisiana sarta South Carolina, anjeunna mimiti hésé meunangkeun dukungan ti Kongrés anu ayeuna dikawasa ku Demokrat saatos pamilihan 1874. Grant nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Hak Sipil 1875]], nanging dina praktékna hésé dijalankeun. Éra Rékonstruksi sacara resmi dipungkas saatos Grant lungsur tina jabatan, ngaliwatan Kompromi 1877.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Urusan Kauangan === Teu lami saatos janten présidén, Grant nyandak léngkah konservatif pikeun mulangkeun ékonomi kana standar monétér sateuacan perang. Salila Perang Sipil, Kongrés ngaluarkeun duit kertas anu katelah "[[Greenbacks]]" anu teu dijamin ku emas atanapi pérak, anu ngabalukarkeun inflasi. Dina 18 Maret 1869, Grant nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Krédit Publik 1869]], anu ngajamin yén surat hutang nagara bakal dibayar deui nganggo koin (emas atanapi pérak). Kawijakan ieu boga tujuan pikeun nyetabilkeun mata uang sarta ngurangan hutang nasional sacara bertahap. Grant ngandelkeun pisan kana nasehat para pangusaha sabab anjeunna ngaku yén pamahamanana ngeunaan ékonomi téh kawilang saderhana.<ref name="Simon">Simon, John Y. (1982). ''The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant''. Southern Illinois University Press.</ref> ==== Konspirasi Emas (Black Friday) ==== {{further|Black Friday (1869)}} [[File:Black Friday 1869.jpg|thumb|Poto papan tulis di Gold Room, New York City nalika [[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]], némbongkeun runtagna harga emas.]] Dina April 1869, dua pangusaha karéta api, [[Jay Gould]] sarta [[James Fisk (financier)|Jim Fisk]], ngayakeun konspirasi pikeun "nyecek" (corner) pasar emas di New York. Rencanana nyaéta naékeun harga emas sangkan hasil tatanén ti Amérika bisa dibeli ku urang asing kalayan harga murah (dina ukuran emas), anu saterusna bakal dikirim maké jalur karéta api bogana maranéhna. Gould sarta Fisk ngadeukeutan dulur iparna Grant, **Abel Corbin**, pikeun meunangkeun aksés ka présidén. Maranéhna nyoba ngayakinkeun Grant yén harga emas anu luhur téh alus pikeun patani. Grant, anu lugu dina urusan kauangan, mimitina percaya. Nanging, nalika anjeunna sadar yén ieu téh manipulasi, Grant geuwat maréntahkeun Menteri Kauangan Boutwell pikeun ngajual emas nagara saloba $4.000.000. Dina tanggal 24 Séptémber 1869, anu katelah **[[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]]**, harga emas runtag saketép netra. Pasar ékonomi jadi panik, Gould sarta Fisk kabur, sarta karuksakan ékonomi lumangsung mangbulan-bulan. Panalungtikan Kongrés saterusna ngabébaskeun Grant tina tuduhan nyiar kauntungan, nanging anjeunna dikritik alatan babari teuing dipercaya ku Corbin sarta para spekulan.<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Urusan Luar Nagri === Dina urusan diplomatik, Grant ngandelkeun pisan ka Menteri Luar Negerina anu kacida tapis, **[[Hamilton Fish]]**. Hubungan maranéhna kacida akrabna. Sajaba ti Grant, tokoh utama séjénna nyaéta **[[Charles Sumner]]**, pupuhu Komite Urusan Luar Nagri Sénat, anu sabenerna mah kacida ngéwana ka Grant.<ref name="Calhoun">Calhoun, Charles W. (2017). ''The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant''. University Press of Kansas.</ref> Grant miboga dorongan ékspansionis pikeun ngajaga kapentingan Amérika sarta kacida ngadukung **[[Doktrin Monroe]]**. Sanajan kitu, anjeunna ogé miboga sisi idealis. Contona, Grant nunjuk saurang pengacara Yahudi, **[[Benjamin F. Peixotto]]**, janten Konsul AS di Bukarest salaku réspon kana panganiayaan urang Yahudi di Romania. Grant nandeskeun yén: "Ngajénan hak asasi manusa téh mangrupa kawajiban utama pikeun sing saha waé anu dipercaya janten pamingpin."<ref name="Kahan" /> ==== Perjangjian Washington (1871) ==== {{utama|Perjangjian Washington (1871)}} [[File:Hamilton Fish Brady Edited.jpg|alt=Potrét Hamilton Fish|thumb|upright=.8|Menteri Luar Nagri [[Hamilton Fish]] sarta Grant hasil ngabéréskeun [[Klaim Alabama]] ngaliwatan perjangjian sarta arbitrase.]] Masalah diplomatik anu paling ngadeseh dina taun 1869 nyaéta pangréngséan **''[[Alabama Claims]]''**. Ieu mangrupa tuntutan karuksakan ka kapal dagang Uni anu disababkeun ku kapal perang Konfédérasi, ''CSS Alabama'', anu diwangun di galangan kapal Inggris (hiji palanggaran aturan nétralitas harita).<ref name="Simon"/> Charles Sumner nungtut ganti rugi anu kacida gedéna, malah sempet ngusulkeun sangkan wilayah British Columbia (Kanada) dibikeun ka AS salaku bayaranna. Nanging, Hamilton Fish sarta Menteri Kauangan Boutwell ngayakinkeun Grant yén hubungan daméy jeung Inggris téh leuwih penting. Pikeun ngajaga kalancaran negosiasi, Grant nahan diri pikeun teu ngaku (recognize) pemberontak Kuba anu keur tarung ngalawan Spanyol. Hasilna, hiji komisi di Washington hasil nyusun perjangjian dimana hiji tribunal internasional bakal nangtukeun jumlah ganti rugi. Inggris nyatakeun kaduhungna, sanajan teu ngaku salah sacara resmi. Sénat tungtungna nyatujuan **[[Perjangjian Washington (1871)|Perjangjian Washington]]**, anu ogé ngabéréskeun sengketa hak perikanan sarta wates maritim. Pangréngséan klaim ''Alabama'' ($15.500.000) dianggap salaku **[[Kameunangan Diplomatik]]** pangbadagna Grant, anu hasil ngarobah Inggris ti musuh janten salah sahiji sekutu pangkuatna Amérika dugi ka ayeuna.<ref name="Smith" /> ==== Ékspédisi Korea (1871) ==== {{utama|Ékspédisi Amérika Serikat ka Korea}} Dina taun 1871, Grant ngirimkeun pasukan darat sarta laut anu diwangun ku lima kapal perang sarta leuwih ti 1.200 prajurit ka [[Korea]]. Tujuanana nyaéta pikeun muka jalur padagangan sarta maluruh nasib kapal dagang SS ''General Sherman'' anu leungit dina taun 1866. Nalika kapal-kapal Amérika asup ka Selat Ganghwa dina 1 Juni, bénténg-bénténg Korea némbakan éta kapal. Rodgers nuntut ménta hampura, nanging pamaréntah Korea nolak. Dina tanggal 10 Juni, pasukan Amérika nyerang sarta ngancurkeun sababaraha bénténg Korea dina **[[Patempuran Ganghwa]]**. Sakitar 250 urang Korea palastra, sedengkeun ti pihak Amérika ngan 3 urang anu gugur. Sanajan unggul sacara militer, ieu ékspédisi gagal muka jalur dagang sarta kalah nguatkeun kawijakan isolasi Korea (nagara anu nutup diri).<ref name="Korea1871">The 1871 Korea Campaign, ''[[United States Naval Institute|U.S. Naval Institute]]''.</ref> ==== Santo Domingo (Républik Dominika) ==== {{utama|Rencana anéksasi Santo Domingo}} [[File:Annexation demonstration in San Domingo City-the Seybo regiment in the citadel, bearing the U.S. colors LCCN93515587.jpg|thumb|Kota Santo Domingo; lukisan ku James E. Taylor, 1871.]] Dina taun 1869, Grant ngamimitian rencana pikeun nganéksasi (ngahijikeun) **[[Républik Dominika]]**. Grant percaya yén wilayah ieu bakal ningkatkeun sumber daya alam AS, nguatkeun [[Doktrin Monroe]], sarta anu paling penting: janten tempat panyalindungan (''safe haven'') pikeun warga kulit hideung Amérika tina "kajahatan KKK" (Klu <ref name="Chernow295">Chernow (2017), hlm. 295.</ref> Nanging, rencana ieu dihalangan ku Sénator **[[Charles Sumner]]**, pupuhu Komite Urusan Luar Nagri Sénat. Sumner nganggap ieu rencana téh mangrupa tindakan impérialisme anu nindes nagara leutik. Sanajan Grant parantos sumping langsung ka bumi Sumner pikeun ngarayu, sarta ngirimkeun komisi husus anu dibantu ku **[[Frederick Douglass]]**, Sénat tetep nolak éta perjangjian. Kontrovérsi ieu janten parna pisan dugi ka Grant miceun Menteri Luar Nagri di Inggris anu mangrupa babaturan Sumner, sarta tungtungna hasil nurunkeun Sumner tina jabatanna salaku pupuhu komite Sénat dina Maret 1871. Ieu kajadian janten salah sahiji "perang" politik panggetolna dina mangsa jabatanna.<ref name="White">White (2016), hlm. 21.</ref> ==== Kuba sarta Insidén ''Virginius'' ==== {{utama|Insidén Virginius}} Kawijakan Amérika di handapeun Grant nyaéta tetep nétral salila [[Perang Sapuluh Taun]] (1868–78) di Kuba ngalawan pangawasa Spanyol. Grant nolak ngaku para pemberontak demi ngajaga perdamaian sarta padagangan jeung Spanyol, nanging anjeunna tetep nungtut sangkan perbudakan di Kuba dihapus.<ref name="Priest">Priest, Ty (2009). ''The Great Guano Rush''.</ref> Kawijakan anu rapuh ieu ampir beulah dina Oktober 1873, nalika kapal perang Spanyol néwak kapal dagang **[[Virginius Affair|''Virginius'']]** anu ngapungkeun bandéra AS bari mawa bantuan pikeun pemberontak. Otoritas Spanyol nganggap maranéhna salaku bajak laut sarta maéhan **53 tahanan** tanpa prosés pangadilan, kalebet dalapan urang Amérika. Kaptén Joseph Frye sarta awakna dipaéhan kalayan kaayaan jasad anu kacida ngeneskeunana. Urang Amérika kacida ambekna sarta nungtut perang. Grant geuwat maréntahkeun kapal-kapal perang Angkatan Laut AS pikeun kumpul di Kuba. Nanging, Hamilton Fish hasil ngahontal solusi diplomatik: Spanyol nyatakeun kaduhungna, masrahkeun deui kapal sarta sésa tawanan, sarta mayar **$80.000** salaku ganti rugi pikeun kulawarga korban Amérika.<ref name="Calhoun" /> ==== Padagangan Bébas jeung Hawaii ==== {{utama|Perjangjian Timbal Balik 1875}} [[File: Kalakaua Grant state visit 1874.jpg|alt=reception line|thumb|left|Raja [[Kalākaua|Kalākaua ti Hawaii]] panggih jeung Présidén Grant di Gedong Bodas dina [[Kalākaua's 1874–75 state visit to the United States|kunjungan nagara]], 1874.]] Sanajan ditarjang ku oposisi kuat ti Partéy Démokrat, Grant sarta Fish hasil nandatanganan perjangjian padagangan bébas jeung **[[Karajaan Hawaii]]** dina taun 1875. Raja **[[Kalākaua]]** ngayakeun kunjungan nagara salami 91 poé, janten raja munggaran anu kantos nincakkeun suku di Amérika Serikat. Oposisi ti Démokrat Kidul nolak ieu perjangjian sabab hayang ngajaga patani béas sarta gula lokal, malah maranéhna nganggap urang Hawaii salaku ras anu "handap". Nanging, undang-undang ieu tetep lolos di Kongrés. Amérika meunangkeun hak kana wilayah **Pu{{okina}}u Loa** (anu engkéna janten pangkalan laut [[Pearl Harbor]]), sarta industri gula Hawaii tungtungna asup kana orbit ékonomi Amérika Serikat.<ref name="Farr">Farr, Warner D. (2019). ''The Death of Ulysses S. Grant''.</ref> === Kawijakan Indian Féderal === {{utama|Kawijakan Amérika Pribumi mangsa administrasi Ulysses S. Grant}} {{tempo ogé|Klaim Tanah Black Hills|Great Sioux War}} [[File:Ely S. Parker.jpg|alt=Potrét Ely S. Parker|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Ely Samuel Parker]], urang Amérika Pribumi (''[[Seneca people|Seneca]]'') munggaran anu diangkat janten Komisioner Urusan Indian ku Grant.]] Nalika Grant janten présidén dina 1869, leuwih ti 250.000 urang [[Amérika Pribumi]] diatur ku 370 perjangjian. Grant miboga kapercayaan yén "Anu Nyipta" henteu nempatkeun rupa-rupa ras di bumi sangkan anu kuat ngancurkeun anu lemah. Anjeunna ngajalankeun kawijakan "Perdaméyan" (''Peace Policy'') anu tujuanana pikeun asimilasi: ngarahkeun urang pribumi sangkan boga adat, basa, sarta cara hirup sapertos urang Éropa (tatanén) sarta tungtungna janten warga nagara AS.<ref name="ReferenceA">Smith, Jean Edward (2001). ''Grant''. Simon & Schuster.</ref> Pikeun ngurangan korupsi, Grant nunjuk **[[Ely S. Parker]]**, saurang urang Seneca, janten urang Amérika Pribumi munggaran anu mingpin Biro Urusan Indian. Grant ogé ngaganti para agén Indian anu korup ku para misionaris kaagamaan pikeun ngadidik urang pribumi di réreservasi. ==== Tantangan sarta Kekerasan ==== Sanajan boga niat daméy, mangsa jabatan Grant tetep pinuh ku getih. Sababaraha kajadian tragis lumangsung, sapertos **Pambantéyan Marias** (1870) sarta **Skeléton Cave** (1872). Dina taun 1871, Grant mungkas sistem perjangjian kedaulatan suku; sacara hukum, individu Amérika Pribumi dianggap salaku "tanggungan" (''wards'') pamaréntah féderal. ==== Perang Great Sioux sarta Little Big Horn ==== Masalah pangbadagna muncul nalika emas kapanggih di **[[Black Hills]]**, wilayah anu dijaga ku perjangjian pikeun suku **Sioux**. Para panambang bodas mimiti nyerbu ka éta wilayah. Grant nyoba negosiasi, nanging para pamingpin suku sapertos **[[Sitting Bull]]** nolak ninggalkan tanahna. [[File:Battle of the Big Horn LCCN2003656850.jpg|thumb|left|[[Patempuran Little Big Horn]], 1876.]] Dina taun 1876, lumangsung **[[Great Sioux War of 1876|Perang Great Sioux]]**. Dina **[[Patempuran Little Big Horn]]**, pasukan anu dipingpin ku **[[George Armstrong Custer]]** tumpur ludes ku para pejuang anu dipingpin ku **[[Crazy Horse]]**. Grant nyempad Custer dina média, nyebatkeun yén éta pambantéyan téh mangrupa "pangurbanan pasukan anu sabenerna mah teu perlu" alatan kasalahan Custer sorangan.<ref name="Brands" /> Tungtungna, Grant hasil maksa suku-suku kasebut pikeun masrahkeun Black Hills sateuacan anjeunna lungsur tina jabatan dina 1877. Sanajan kawijakanana dianggap leuwih "manusiawi" dibandingkeun jaman baheula, para ahli sajarah ayeuna ngritik Grant alatan anjeunna dianggap kurang ngahargaan kana kabudayaan asli suku pribumi.<ref name="Smith" /> === Pamilihan 1872 sarta Jabatan Kadua === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1872}} [[File:Grant Liberal Gratitude.jpg|alt=Kartun Thomas Nast|thumb|Kartun ku [[Thomas Nast]] ngeunaan lawan-lawan Grant dina kampanye pamilihan ulang.]] Dina taun 1872, muncul kelompok **[[Liberal Republican Party (United States)|Républik Liberal]] anu misahkeun diri ti Grant. Maranéhna nganggap pamaréntahan Grant téh korup ("[[Grantism]]") sarta nungtut sangkan pasukan féderal ditarik ti Kidul. Maranéhna nyalonkeun [[Horace Greeley]], saurang éditur koran kawéntar, anu saterusna ogé dirojong ku Partéy Démokrat.<ref name="Chernow205" /> Grant hasil meunang mutlak (landslide) kalayan 56% sora rahayat sarta 286 sora Electoral College. Kameunangan ieu dibantu ku ékonomi anu harita masih kuat sarta dukungan masif ti urang Amérika-Afrika di Kidul. Grant dilantik deui dina 4 Maret 1873, kalayan jangji pikeun mulangkeun hubungan hadé antara wilayah Kalér sarta Kidul.<ref name="Smith" /> === Panik 1873 sarta Runtagna Ékonomi === Jabatan kadua Grant langsung dihantem ku krisis kauangan rongkah anu disebut **[[Panic of 1873|Panik 1873]]**. Krisis ieu dimimitian ku bangkrutna firma perbankan ''Jay Cooke & Company''. Akibatna, 89 tina 364 jalur karéta api di Amérika milu bangkrut, sarta pangangguran ningkat drastis. Pikeun nyanghareupan krisis, aya dua léngkah penting anu dicandak ku Grant: # **Veto Tagihan Inflasi (1874)**: Grant nolak (véto) rencana pikeun nyétak leuwih loba duit kertas (greenbacks) sanajan loba anu nungtut. Anjeunna milih ngajaga ajén mata uang tetep stabil dumasar kana emas. # **Specie Payment Resumption Act (1875)**: Grant nandatanganan undang-undang pikeun ngagentos duit kertas ku koin emas sacara bertahap. Sanajan léngkah ieu dianggap wijaksana ku para bankir, rahayat leutik sarta para patani ngarasa beurat. Balukarna, dina pamilihan sela 1874, Partéy Républik kaleungitan mayoritas di DPR (House of Representatives) ka Partéy Démokrat pikeun munggaranana ti saprak Perang Sipil.<ref name="White" /> === Réformasi sarta Skandal === {{tempo ogé|Réformasi administrasi Ulysses S. Grant|Skandal administrasi Ulysses S. Grant}} Ékonomi saatos Perang Sipil mawa kabeungharan industri anu rongkah, nanging ogé mawa korupsi anu sumebar di kantor-kantor féderal. Grant, dumasar kana sipat aslina, mangrupa jalma anu jujur nanging kacida satetia ka babaturanana, sahingga mindeng dimanfaatkeun ku jalma jahat.<ref name="Smith" /> [[File:Cover of Harper's Weekly Dec 7, 1872.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|left|Kartunis [[Thomas Nast]] muji Grant alatan nolak paménta pulitikus Pennsylvania pikeun ngeureunkeun aturan palayanan sipil.]] ==== Usaha Réformasi Birokrasi ==== Dina awalna, Grant nyoba ngabereskeun sistem birokrasi. Anjeunna ngadegkeun [[Komisi Palayanan Sipil Amérika Serikat]] munggaran dina taun 1871 pikeun ngayakeun ujian kompetensi bagi calon pegawé nagara, sangkan jabatan teu ngan saukur dibikeun ka pendukung politik (ending spoils system). Nanging, kusabab Kongrés nolak méré dana permanén, Grant ahirna ngabubarkeun ieu komisi dina taun 1874.<ref name="Calhoun" /> ==== Skandal-Skandal Utama ==== Sajumlah skandal ngotoran ngaran hadé administrasi Grant, di antarana: * **Sanborn Incident (1874): Kontrak swasta pikeun nagih pajeg anu diselewengkeun pikeun dana kampanye Partéy Républik. * [[Whiskey Ring]] (1875): Skandal korupsi pangbadagna dimana para panyuling wiski sarta pajabat pajeg babarengan maok jutaan dollar duit nagara. Menteri Kauangan [[Benjamin Bristow]] hasil ngabongkar ieu jaringan, anu ngalibatkeun 32 pamasangan di sakuliah nagara sarta 110 dakwaan.<ref name="Chernow205" /> * Skandal Belknap (1876): Menteri Perang **[[William W. Belknap]] katohyan nampa sogokan (kickbacks) tina pos padagangan di wilayah Indian (Fort Sill). Anjeunna geuwat mundur saatos kasusna kabongkar.<ref name="Simon"/> [[File:Whiskeyring.jpg|alt=Kartun Whiskey Ring|thumb|upright=0.8|Kartun ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' ngeunaan panalungtikan Whiskey Ring ku Bristow.]] Salah sahiji momen anu paling matak éra pikeun Grant nyaéta nalika sekretaris pribadina, [[Orville Babcock]], kacekel milu dina Whiskey Ring. Grant tetep nampik percaya yén Babcock salah, malah anjeunna méré kasaksian anu ngabéla Babcock, anu ahirna ngabébaskeun sekretarisna nanging ngaruksak reputasi Grant di mata masarakat.<ref name="White" /> Dina pesen taunan ahirna dina 5 Désémber 1876, Grant ménta hampura ka sakabéh bangsa Amérika, nyebatkeun yén: "Kagagalan anu lumangsung mangrupa kasalahan dina méré kaputusan (judgement), sanés kasalahan niat (intent)."<ref name="McFeely" /> === Pamilihan 1876 === {{utama|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1876}} Pamilihan 1876 janten titik balik sajarah Amérika. Grant mutuskeun pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui pikeun periode katilu. Partéy Républik milih [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], sedengkeun Démokrat milih **[[Samuel J. Tilden]]**. Hasil pamilihan ieu kacida saketna sarta pinuh ku sengketa sora di sababaraha nagara bagian Kidul.<ref name="Smith" /> Grant némbongkeun sikep anu tenang (calm visage) sarta nolak ngagunakeun kakuatan militer pikeun milih salah sahiji pihak. Anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang pikeun ngawangun **Komisi Éléktoral**. Hasilna nyaéta [[Kompromi 1877]]: Hayes janten présidén, nanging pasukan féderal ditarik ti Kidul. Kajadian ieu sacara resmi mungkas éra Rékonstruksi sarta muka jalan pikeun éra segregasi (pemisahan ras) **Jim Crow** anu lumangsung salila 80 taun ka hareup.<ref name="Chernow205" /> == Mangsa Saatos Présidén (1877–1885) == {{utama|Mangsa saatos présidén Ulysses S. Grant}} Saatos lungsur ti Gedong Bodas, Grant nyebatkeun yén anjeunna "teu kantos ngarasa bagja sapertos kieu salila hirupna". Anjeunna sarta pamajawanna, Julia, ngamimitian hirup anyar salaku "waifs" (jalma anu teu boga imah tetep) bari ngadatangan kulawargana di sababaraha kota.<ref name="White" /> === Lalampahan Dunya sarta Diplomasi === {{utama|Lalampahan dunya Ulysses S. Grant}} [[File:World tour of Ulysses S Grant, 1879, map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Peta lalampahan dunya Grant ku J. S. Kemp, 1879.]] Ngagunakeun tabunganana saloba $25.000, kulawarga Grant ngayakeun lalampahan kuriling dunya salami dua satengah taun. Ieu sanés ngan saukur pelesir, nanging ogé mangrupa misi diplomatik teu resmi pikeun ngawanohkeun Amérika Serikat salaku kakuatan dunya anu anyar. Salila ieu lalampahan, Grant panggih jeung inohong-inohong dunya, di antarana: * Éropa: [[Ratu Victoria]] (Inggris) sarta Otto von Bismarck (Jérman). * [[Timur Tengah]] & Afrika: Ngadatangan Mesir sarta Yerusalem. * Asia: Panggih jeung Li Hongzhang (Cina) sarta [[Kaisar Meiji]] (Jepang). Lalampahan ieu némbongkeun yén sanajan anjeunna geus lain présidén, wibawa Grant salaku jénderal anu hasil nyalametkeun Uni tetep dipuji di sakuliah buana. Grant tungtungna mulang ka San Francisco dina 20 Séptémber 1879, dipapag ku kacida lobana rahayat anu surak sarta bungah.<ref name="Smith" /> === Usaha Periode Katilu === {{Main|Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880}} [[File:Ulysses S. Grant Trapeze Cartoon Keppler Puck 1880.tif|alt=Kartun Grant acrobat|thumb|upright=0.8|Kartunis [[Joseph Ferdinand Keppler|Joseph Keppler]] nyindekkeun Grant sarta batur-baturna dina majalah ''[[Puck (magazine)|Puck]]'', 1880.]] Dina taun 1880, kelompok [[Stalwarts]] anu dipingpin ku Roscoe Conkling nyoba nyalonkeun deui Grant pikeun periode katilu. Sanajan Grant sacara publik teu loba nyarita, anjeunna sabenerna mah daék narima éta jabatan. Nanging, loba anu nolak sabab dianggap ngalanggar aturan teu tinulis "dua periode" anu dimimitian ku George Washington. Dina konvénsi di Chicago, Grant mimitina unggul sora, nanging teu nepi ka mayoritas. Saatos 36 kali sora (ballots), para lawan Grant ngahiji sarta milih calon kompromi, [[James A. Garfield]]. Grant narima kalayan léngoh sarta milu kampanye pikeun Garfield. Nalika Garfield nemas pati alatan ditémbak ku nu maténi dina 1881, Grant ceurik kanyenyerian.<ref name="Brands" /> === Kagagalan Bisnis sarta Skandal Grant & Ward === Harita, can aya sistem pangsiun pikeun urut présidén. Duit tabungan Grant béak dipaké lalampahan dunya. Pikeun néangan panghasilan, Grant milu investasi dina proyék karéta api Méksiko anu ahirna bangkrut dina taun 1884.<ref name="McFeely" /> Nasib anu leuwih parah datang nalika anakna, Buck Grant, muka firma investasi Grant & Ward jeung saurang calo ngaranna Ferdinand Ward. Grant milu nunda modal $100.000. Teu kanyahoan ku Grant, Ward sabenerna ngajalankeun [[Skéma Ponzi]] (panipuan investasi). Ward disebut nganggap Grant "kawas budak leutik dina urusan bisnis". Dina Méi 1884, firma éta runtuh. Grant kaleungitan sakabéh hartana. Pikeun mayar hutang ka William Henry Vanderbilt, Grant anu kacida ngajaga kahormatanana kapaksa masrahkeun sakabéh pedang perang, medali, sarta imahna. Grant ngarasa kacida kaduhungna sarta nanya sacara pribadi: "Kumaha kuring bisa percaya deui ka manusa?"<ref name="Chernow205" /> === Pamulihan Ngaran sarta Réputasi Sajarah === Salila puluhan taun, ngaran Grant sempet kacemar ku tiori-tiori ti [[Dunning School]] anu mindeng nyalahkeun anjeunna sarta ngalemahkeun jasa-jasana dina mangsa Rékonstruksi. Nanging, dina abad ka-21, para ahli sajarah modern mimiti méré sawangan anu leuwih adil sarta positif ka anjeunna.<ref name="Economist2017">"The warrior-president", ''The Economist'', 2017.</ref> Buku-buku biografi anyar sapertos karya [[H. W. Brands]] (2012), [[Ronald C. White]] (2016), sarta [[Ron Chernow]] (2017) hasil ngangkat deui martabat Grant. White nyebatkeun yén Grant némbongkeun "rasa handap asor, kawani moral, sarta kateguhan anu luar biasa." Grant ayeuna diaku salaku pamingpin anu wani ngalawan panindesan pamilih (voter suppression) anu dilakukeun ku ''Ku Klux Klan''.<ref name="Hunt2017">Hunt, Tristram (2017). "The trials of Ulysses S. Grant", ''The Guardian''.</ref> Sajaba ti éta, para ahli sajarah sapertos Robert Farley nandeskeun yén "Kultus Lee" (pemujaan kaleuleuwihi ka Robert E. Lee) baheula sempet ngabalukarkeun Grant katingal "leutik", nanging kanyataanana Grant nyaéta sosok anu bener-bener merjuangkeun kaadilan pikeun urang Amérika-Afrika. Dina survéy [[C-SPAN]] taun 2021 ngeunaan [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Serikat|peringkat présidén]], Grant ayeuna nempatan posisi ka-20 tina 44 présidén. Ieu mangrupa luncatan anu kacida luhurna ti peringkat ka-33 dina taun 2017. Dunya ayeuna leuwih ngajénan jasa-jasana dina urusan Rékonstruksi sarta diplomasi tinimbang ngan saukur museur kana skandal korupsi anu sabenerna mah lain kalakuan anjeunna pribadi.<ref name="Brockell2021">Brockell, Gillian (2021). "Ulysses S. Grant’s complicated history", ''Washington Post''.</ref> == Rujukan sarta Bibliografi Pilihan == {{refbeg}} === Buku sarta Biografi === * {{cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |title=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/grant0000cher_x5t4 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1594204876|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=White |first=Ronald C. |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/americanulyssesl0000whit_w9r7 |publisher=Random House |year=2016 |isbn=978-1400069026}} * {{cite book |last=Brands |first=H. W. |title=The Man Who Saved the Union: Ulysses S. Grant in War and Peace |url=https://archive.org/details/manwhosavedunion0000bran |publisher=Doubleday |year=2012 |isbn=978-0385532457}} * {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Donald L. |title=Vicksburg: Grant's Campaign That Broke the Confederacy |url=https://archive.org/details/vicksburggrantsc0000mill |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4516-4137-0}} === Jurnal sarta Sajarah Rékonstruksi === * {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 |url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructionam0000fone_q8w6 |publisher=Harper Perennial |year=2014 |isbn=978-0062354518}} * {{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=Brooks D. |title=Grant's Tour of the South Revisited |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-history_1988-08_54_3/page/425 |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=54 |number=3 |year=1988 |pages=425–448 |doi=10.2307/2208997}} * {{cite journal |last=Ertman |first=M. M. |title=Race Treason: The Untold Story of America's Ban on Polygamy |year=2010 |journal=Columbia Journal of Gender and Law |volume=19 |issue=2}} === Masalah Minoritas sarta Skandal === * {{cite book |last=Sarna |first=Jonathan D. |title=When General Grant Expelled the Jews |publisher=Schocken Books |year=2012a |isbn=978-0-8052-4279-9}} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=George C. |title=The New Encyclopedia of American Scandal |publisher=Facts on File, Inc. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8160-4420-7}} {{refend}} == Bacaan Salajengna == {{Refbegin|30em}} === Artikel Pilihan === * Waugh, Joan (2011). "How the 'Lost Cause' poisoned our history books: Ulysses S. Grant championed civil rights". ''[[Salon.com|Salon]]''. * Stockwell, Mary (2019). "Ulysses Grant's Failed Attempt to Grant Native Americans Citizenship". ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]''. === Buku Utama === * {{Cite book |last=Bordewich |first=Fergus |title=Klan War: Ulysses S. Grant and the Battle to Save Reconstruction |url=https://archive.org/details/klanwarulyssessg0000ferg |publisher=Knopf |year=2023 |isbn=978-0-593-31782-2}} * {{Cite book |last=Grant |first=Ulysses S. |title=Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant |year=1885 |publisher=Charles L. Webster & Company}} * {{Cite book |last=Simpson |first=Brooks D. |title=Let Us Have Peace: Ulysses S. Grant and the Politics of War and Reconstruction |url=https://archive.org/details/letushavepeace00broo |year=1991 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press}} {{Refend}} == Tautan Éksternal == * [https://www.usgrantlibrary.org Perpustakaan Présidén Ulysses S. Grant] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309050634/https://apnews.com/1c79b8f4c8974576a3f072b5f204532a |date=2021-03-09 }} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/grant/index.html Ulysses S. Grant: Panduan Sumber Daya - Library of Congress] * {{Gutenberg author | id=527}} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{Ulysses S. Grant}} {{US Presidents}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Grant, Ulysses S.}} [[Category:Ulysses S. Grant]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Union army generals]] hm9bcoz9xtixhk3y5ihvmq92ndxkwyy Rutherford B. Hayes 0 107863 712332 711815 2026-08-28T21:00:46Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712332 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Rutherford B. Hayes | image = President Rutherford Hayes 1870 - 1880 Restored.jpg | caption = Potrét, {{circa|1870–1880}} | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-19 | office = | vicepresident = [[William A. Wheeler]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1877 | term_end = 4 Maret 1881 | predecessor = [[Ulysses S. Grant]] | successor = [[James A. Garfield]] | order1 = Gubernur Ohio ka-29 sarta ka-32 | term_start1 = 10 Januari 1876 | term_end1 = 2 Maret 1877 | predecessor1 = [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] | successor1 = Thomas L. Young | term_start2 = 12 Januari 1868 | term_end2 = 8 Januari 1872 | predecessor2 = [[Jacob Dolson Cox]] | successor2 = [[Edward Follansbee Noyes]] | birth_name = Rutherford Birchard Hayes | birth_date = {{birth date|1822|10|4}} | birth_place = [[Delaware, Ohio]], A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1893|1|17|1822|10|4}} | death_place = [[Fremont, Ohio]], A.S. | resting_place = [[Spiegel Grove]] | party = {{plainlist| * [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (dugi ka 1854) * [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (ti 1854) }} | spouse = [[Lucy Ware Webb]] | children = 8 urang, kalebet [[Webb Hayes|Webb]] sarta [[Rutherford P. Hayes|Rutherford]] | education = {{plainlist| * [[Kenyon College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) * [[Harvard University]] ([[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]]) }} | occupation = Politikus, ahli hukum | signature = Rutherford Birchard Hayes Signature.svg | branch = [[Tentara Uni]] | serviceyears = 1861–1865 | rank = [[Brigadir jenderal]] | unit = [[Infanteri Ohio ka-23]] | battles = [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] }} '''Rutherford Birchard Hayes''' (4 Oktober 1822 – 17 Januari 1893) nyaéta saurang politikus sarta ahli hukum Amérika Sarikat anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-19 ti taun 1877 dugi ka 1881. Sateuacanna, anjeunna ngajabat salaku panaséhat hukum kota (''city solicitor'') [[Cincinnati]] (1858–1861) sarta kawentar salaku sosok ''[[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]]'' anu wanter ngabéla para budak anu kabur di pangadilan.<ref>{{Cite web|title= Rutherford B. Hayes|url= https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/rutherford-b-hayes/|access-date=May 19, 2021|publisher=[[White House]]}}</ref> Nalika lumangeungna Perang Sadulur, Hayes ninggalkeun karir pulitikna pikeun ngagabung ka [[Tentara Uni]]. Anjeunna nandangan tatu lima kali, anu pangparahna nyaéta nalika [[Battle of South Mountain|Patempuran South Mountain]] taun 1862. Hayes meunang pangajén alatan kawani sarta gagah rongkahna dina pangperangan, nepi ka pangkatna naék janten mayor jenderal brevet. Saatos perang, anjeunna janten anggota pinunjul tina faksi "[[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]" di Partéy Républik.<ref>Welch, Richard E., Jr. (1971). ''George Frisbie Hoar and the Half-Breed Republicans'', p. 91. Harvard University Press.</ref> Hayes ngajabat di Kongrés (1865–1867) sarta kapilih janten gubernur Ohio, ngajabat dua période (1868–1872) sarta sawaréh période katilu (1876–1877) sateuacan dilantik janten présidén. Hayes unggul dina nominasi Partéy Républik dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876]]. Dina pamilihan umum anu pinuh ku pacogrégan, anjeunna ngéléhkeun [[Samuel J. Tilden]] ti Partéy [[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] sanajan anjeunna éléh dina sora rahayat (''popular vote''). Kadua kandidat mimitina teu aya nu meunang sora éléktoral anu cukup, nanging Hayes tungtungna unggul saatos Komisi Kongrés masihan 20 sora éléktoral anu jadi sengketa dina [[Kompromi 1877]]. Ieu sengketa réngsé ku kasapukan yén Hayes janten présidén, nanging anjeunna kedah ngeureunkeun dukungan féderal pikeun [[Era Rekonstruksi]] sarta narik tentara ti urut wilayah [[Confederate States of America|Konfédérasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= "Betrayal of the Freedman: Rutherford B. Hayes and the End of Reconstruction"|url= https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/betrayal-of-the-freedman-rutherford-b.-hayes-and-the-end-of-reconstruction/|access-date= May 19, 2021|publisher= [[Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center]]}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124112539/https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/betrayal-of-the-freedman-rutherford-b.-hayes-and-the-end-of-reconstruction/ |date=January 24, 2022 }}</ref> Administrasi Hayes dipangaruhan ku kapercayaanana kana pamaréntahan anu dumasar kana préstasi ([[Meritokrasi]]) sarta perlakuan anu adil tanpa némbongkeun kabeungharan, kalungguhan sosial, atanapi ras. Salah sahiji kajadian penting dina mangsa jabatanna nyaéta [[Great Railroad Strike of 1877|Mogok Karéta Api Gedé 1877]], anu diréngsékeun ku Hayes ku cara nurunkeun Tentara A.S. ngalawan para pagawé. Hayes ogé ngalaksanakeun réformasi layanan sipil anu janten dadasar pikeun réformasi salajengna dina taun 1880-an sarta 1890-an. Dina ahir jabatanna, Hayes nedunan jangjina pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui sarta pangsiun ka bumina di Ohio. == Mangsa leutik sarta kulawarga == === Budak leutik sarta sajarah kulawarga === Rutherford Birchard Hayes gumelar di [[Delaware, Ohio]], dina 4 Oktober 1822, putra ti Rutherford Ezekiel Hayes, Jr. sarta Sophia Birchard. Ramana, saurang padagang ti [[Vermont]], mawa kulawargana ka Ohio dina taun 1817, nanging pupus 10 minggu sateuacan Rutherford gumelar. Sophia ngasuh Hayes sarta lanceukna, Fanny; maranéhna téh dua ti opat duduluran anu salamet dugi ka déwasa.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=7–8}} Sophia teu kantos nikah deui,{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=10|Barnard|2005|2pp=76–77}} sarta adi lalaki Sophia, [[Sardis Birchard]], kantos linggih sareng kulawargana.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=4}} Sardis kacida caketna sareng Hayes sarta janten sosok bapa keur anjeunna, kaasup mantuan dina mangsa atikan awalna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=20–21|Barnard|2005|2pp=27–31}} Ti jalur kadua sepuhna, Hayes téh turunan kolonis [[New England]].{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=41}} Karuhun imigran pangmimitina sumping ka [[Connecticut]] ti [[Skotlandia]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=3}} Buyut Hayes, Ezekiel Hayes, nyaéta saurang kaptén milisi di Connecticut nalika [[Perang Révolusi Amérika]], nanging putra Ezekiel (aki Hayes, nami Rutherford ogé) ninggalkeun bumina di [[Branford, Connecticut]] nalika perang demi kaamanan di Vermont.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=53}} Karuhun ti pihak ibuna ogé pindah ka Vermont dina mangsa anu sarua. Dina catetanana, Hayes nyerat: <blockquote>Sim kuring salawasna nganggap diri sim kuring téh urang Skotlandia (Scotch), nanging ti garis bapa anu sumping ka Amérika, sakitar tilu puluh urang téh urang Inggris sarta mung dua urang, Hayes sareng Rutherford, anu katurunan Skotlandia. Ieu mah ti garis bapa. Ari ti garis ibu, tilu puluh dua karuhun téh sigana mah sanés urang Skotlandia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbhayes.org/hayes/hayes-family-genealogy/|title = Hayes Family Genealogy}}</ref></blockquote> [[John Noyes (politician)|John Noyes]], paman ti jalur pernikahan, kantos janten mitra bisnis ramana di Vermont sarta engkéna kapilih janten anggota Kongrés.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=17–18}} Dulur sabarékna, Mary Jane Mead, nyaéta ibu ti pamatung [[Larkin Goldsmith Mead]] sarta arsiték [[William Rutherford Mead]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=17–18}} [[John Humphrey Noyes]], nu ngadegkeun [[Oneida Community]], ogé mangrupa dulur sabarékna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=62–63|Barnard|2005|2p=113}} === Atikan sarta karir hukum awal === Hayes sakola di sakola umum ([[common school]]s) di Delaware, Ohio, sarta dina taun 1836 asup ka [[Norwalk Seminary]] di [[Norwalk, Ohio]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=4–5}} Anjeunna téh murid anu préstasi di Norwalk, sarta taun salajengna pindah ka Webb School, hiji sakola persiapan kuliah ([[University-preparatory school|preparatory school]]) di [[Middletown, Connecticut]], dimana anjeunna diajar basa [[Latin]] sarta basa [[Yunani Kuna]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=20–22|Trefousse|2002|2p=5}} Saatos mulang ka Ohio, Hayes kuliah di [[Kenyon College]], [[Gambier, Ohio]] dina taun 1838.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=25}} Anjeunna kacida mikaresep mangsa kuliahna sarta hasil sacara akademis;{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=107–113}} nalika di ditu, Hayes ngagabung ka sababaraha perkumpulan mahasiswa sarta mimiti kairut ku pulitik Partéy [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]]. Babaturan sakelasna kalebet [[Stanley Matthews (judge)|Stanley Matthews]] sarta [[John Celivergos Zachos]].<ref name="Topping1">[https://ahepahistory.org/History-of-the-Order-of-AHEPA-1922-1972-George-Leber/docs/John-Zachos-Cincinnati-Historical-Bulletin-1976-by-Eva-Catafygiotu-Topping.pdf "Topping, Eva Catafygiotu"] ''John Zachos Cincinnatian from Constantinople'' The Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin Volumes 33–34 Cincinnati Historical Society 1975: p. 51</ref>{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=33–43}} Hayes lulus kalayan gelar [[Phi Beta Kappa]] sarta meunang pangajén pangluhurna dina taun 1842, tuluy didapuk pikeun nepikeun biantara perpisahan salaku lulusan pangpunjulna ([[valedictorian]]).{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=6}} Saatos sakedap diajar hukum di [[Columbus, Ohio]], Hayes pindah ka wétan pikeun kuliah di [[Harvard Law School]] dina taun 1843.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=43–51|Barnard|2005|2pp=131–138}} Sanggeus lulus kalayan gelar [[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B]], anjeunna meunang ijin praktek hukum di Ohio dina taun 1845 sarta muka kantor hukumna sorangan di Lower Sandusky (ayeuna [[Fremont, Ohio]]).{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=52–53}} Mimitina mah usahana téh sepi, nanging lila-lila Hayes mimiti meunang palanggan sarta ngawakilan pamanna, Sardis, dina urusan hukum tanah.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=55–60}} Dina taun 1847, Hayes katarajang panyakit anu ku dokter dianggap [[tuberculosis|TBC]]. Ku sabab mikir yén parobahan hawa bisa mantuan, anjeunna kantos niat daptar jadi tentara dina [[Perang Méksiko-Amérika]], nanging dumasar kana saran dokterna, Hayes langkung milih nganjang ka kulawargana di New England.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=62–66}} Saatos mulang ti ditu, Hayes sareng pamanna, Sardis, ngayakeun lalampahan tebih ka [[Texas]], dimana Hayes nganjang ka [[Guy M. Bryan]], babaturan kuliahna di Kenyon anu masih kénéh aya hubungan baraya jauh.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=66–70|Barnard|2005|2p=114}} Usahana di Lower Sandusky tetep teu pati majeng, nepi ka Hayes mutuskeun pikeun pindah ka [[Cincinnati]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=8}} === Praktek hukum di Cincinnati sarta pernikahan === Dina taun 1850, Hayes pindah ka Cincinnati sarta muka kantor hukum sareng John W. Herron, saurang ahli hukum ti [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=73}}{{efn|Putri Herron, [[Helen Herron Taft|Helen]], engkéna nikah sareng [[William Howard Taft]].{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=167}}}} Herron engkéna ngagabung ka firma anu langkung mapan, sarta Hayes ngadegkeun kemitraan énggal sareng William K. Rogers sarta Richard M. Corwine.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=184–185}} Usahana di Cincinnati langkung majeng sarta anjeunna mikaresep kahirupan sosial di ditu, dugi ka ngagabung sareng [[Literary Club of Cincinnati|Paguyuban Sastra Cincinnati]] sarta Klub [[Independent Order of Odd Fellows|Odd Fellows]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=74–75}} Hayes ogé sering sumping ka [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Geréja Épiskopal]] di Cincinnati, sanajan anjeunna henteu janten anggota resmina.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=74–75}} Nalika di ditu, Hayes mimiti nganjang sarta mikacinta calon pamajisanna, [[Lucy Webb Hayes|Lucy Webb]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=78–86}} Ibuna sabenerna parantos ngajurung anjeunna wanoh ka Lucy sababaraha taun sateuacanna, nanging harita Hayes nganggap Lucy teuing budak kénéh sarta langkung milih merhatoskeun awéwé sanés.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=61–62}} Opat taun ti harita, Hayes mimiti sering nyéépkeun waktos sareng Lucy. Maranéhna tunangan dina taun 1851 sarta nikah dina 30 Désémber 1852, di bumi ibu Lucy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=78–86}} Dina lima taun salajengna, Lucy ngababarkeun tilu putra lalaki: Birchard Austin (1853), [[Webb Hayes|Webb Cook]] (1856), sarta [[Rutherford P. Hayes|Rutherford Platt]] (1858). Salaku urang [[Methodism|Métodis]], Lucy téh saurang [[Teetotalism|anti-alkohol]] sarta [[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]]. Lucy ageung pangaruhna kana pandangan salakana ngeunaan éta isu, sanajan Hayes teu kantos sacara resmi ngagabung ka geréja pamajisanna.{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=178–180, 187–188|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=93–95}} Hayes mimitina museurkeun praktek hukumna dina urusan komérsial, nanging anjeunna janten langkung kawentar di Cincinnati salaku pangacara panyalindungan kriminal,{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=9}} ngabéla sababaraha urang anu dituduh maéhan.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=87–93}} Dina salah sahiji kasus, anjeunna ngagunakeun alesan [[Panyakit jiwa|gangguan jiwa]] (''insanity defense'') anu tiasa nyalametkeun terdakwa tina hukuman gantung; éta jalma kalahka diasupkeun ka lembaga kaséhatan méntal.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=10}} Hayes ogé ngabéla para budak anu kabur sarta dituduh dumasar kana [[Undang-Undang Budak Kabur 1850]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=95–99|Barnard|2005|2pp=189–191}} Ku margi Cincinnati perenahna peuntas [[Walungan Ohio]] ti [[Kentucky]], nagara bagian anu ngidinan perbudakan, kota ieu janten tujuan pikeun para budak anu kabur, sarta seueur kasus sapertos kitu diperiksa di pangadilanna. Salaku abolisionis anu teguh, Hayes ngarasa karyana ngabéla budak téh masihan kapuasan batin sarta mangpaat sacara pulitik, margi hal ieu ngangkat namina di [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] anu nembé ngadeg.{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=196–197|Trefousse|2002|2pp=14–15}} Reputasi pulitik Hayes naék luyu sareng kasuksésan karirna. Anjeunna nolak nominasi Partéy Républik pikeun jabatan hakim dina taun 1856.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=100}} Dua taun ti harita, sababaraha urang Républik ngusulkeun Hayes pikeun ngeusian jabatan hakim anu kosong, nanging anjeunna nimbang-nimbang deui dugi ka jabatan [[City attorney|panaséhat hukum kota]] (''city solicitor'') ogé kosong.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=104–105|Barnard|2005|2pp=202–203}} Déwan kota milih Hayes janten panaséhat hukum kota pikeun ngeusian éta kekosongan, sarta anjeunna kapilih pikeun période pinuh dua taun dina April 1859 kalayan sora anu langkung seueur tibatan kandidat Républik sanésna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=107|Barnard|2005|2p=204}} == Perang Sadulur == === Virginia Kulon sarta South Mountain === Nalika nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul mimiti misahkeun diri (''secede'') saatos [[Abraham Lincoln]] kapilih janten présidén dina taun 1860, Hayes mimitina mah teu pati sumanget kana [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] pikeun mulikkeun Uni. Kusabab nganggap kadua pihak moal tiasa dironjatkeun deui, anjeunna kantos ngusulkeun sangkan Uni "ngantepkeun maranéhna angkat."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=113|Barnard|2005|2p=210}} Ohio mémang milih Lincoln dina taun 1860, nanging pamilih di Cincinnati kalahka malik ngalawan Partéy Républik saatos aya pamisahan diri éta. Pangeusina seueur anu asalna ti [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kidul]], sarta maranéhna milih Démokrat sarta faksi [[Know-Nothing]], anu ngahiji pikeun meunangkeun pamilihan kota dina April 1861, anu ngabalukarkeun Hayes lélos tina jabatan panaséhat hukum kota.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=114|Barnard|2005|2pp=210–212}} Mulang deui ka prakték swasta, Hayes ngawangun kemitraan hukum anu sakedap pisan sareng [[Leopold Markbreit]], mung tahan tilu dinten sateuacan perang dimimitian.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=114|Barnard|2005|2pp=210–212}} Saatos pihak [[Konfédérasi]] nembak [[Fort Sumter]], Hayes miceun karaguanna sarta ngagabung ka kompi sukarélawan anu diwangun ku babaturanana ti Paguyuban Sastra.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=115|Barnard|2005|2pp=213–214}} Dina sasih Juni, Gubernur [[William Dennison, Jr.]] ngangkat sababaraha perwira ti kompi sukarélawan éta ka posisi dina [[Infanteri Ohio ka-23]]. Hayes diangkat janten [[Mayor (Amérika Sarikat)|mayor]], sarta babaturan kuliahna, [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]], diangkat janten [[Létnan kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|létnan kolonél]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=116–117}} Aya deui anu ngagabung ka resimén éta salaku prajurit (''private''), nyaéta calon présidén sanésna, [[William McKinley]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=116–117}} Saatos sabulan latihan, Hayes sarta resimén ka-23 Ohio mangkat ka Virginia kulon dina Juli 1861 salaku bagian ti [[Divisi Kanawha]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=120–121}} Maranéhna nembé patepang sareng musuh dina sasih Séptémber, nalika resimén éta panggih sareng pasukan Konfédérasi di [[Battle of Carnifex Ferry|Carnifex Ferry]] (ayeuna di [[Virginia Kulon]]) sarta hasil ngusir maranéhna.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=125–126|Reid|1868|2p=160}} Dina sasih Nopémber, Hayes ditaékeun pangkatna janten létnan kolonél sarta mingpin pasukanana langkung jero ka Virginia kulon, dimana maranéhna cicing di markas usum tiis.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=128–130}} Pasukanana maju deui dina usum semi salajengna, sarta Hayes mingpin sababaraha serangan ka pasukan pemberontak, anu salah sahijina ngabalukarkeun anjeunna tatu hampang dina tuurna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=136–141}} Dina sasih Séptémber, resimén Hayes dicalukan ka wétan pikeun ngabantu pasukan Jenderal [[John Pope (general)|John Pope]] dina [[Patempuran Bull Run Kadua]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=141–143}} Hayes sarta pasukanana teu sumping dina waktuna pikeun patempuran éta, nanging maranéhna ngagabung sareng [[Tentara Potomac]] anu nuju rurusuhan ka kalér pikeun megat jalan pasukan [[Robert E. Lee]] anu nuju maju ka [[Maryland]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=141–143}} Nalika maju ka kalér, resimén ka-23 janten pasukan panghareupna anu panggih sareng Konfédérasi dina [[Patempuran South Mountain]] tanggal 14 Séptémber.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=146–148}} Hayes mingpin serangan ka posisi musuh sarta katarajang pélor dina panangan kencana nepi ka tulangna pites.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=146–147|Reid|1868|2p=161}} Hayes ménta salah sahiji anak buahna pikeun nalian tatuna nganggo saputangan supados getihna eureun, sarta terus mingpin pasukanana dina patempuran. Tungtungna, anak buahna mawa Hayes ka tukangeun garis pertahanan sarta dibawa ka rumah sakit. Resiménna terus maju ka [[Patempuran Antietam]], nanging Hayes teu tiasa milu tanding salila sésa kampanye éta.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=149–153}} Dina sasih Oktober, anjeunna diangkat janten [[Kolonél (Amérika Sarikat)|kolonél]] sarta ditugaskeun mingpin brigade kahiji ti Divisi Kanawha salaku [[Brigadir jenderal]] brevet.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=30}} === Army of the Shenandoah === [[File:George Crook - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|alt=Black-and-white picture of a forked-bearded man in an army uniform|[[George Crook]] was Hayes's commander and the namesake of his fourth son]] The division spent the following winter and spring near [[Charleston, West Virginia|Charleston, Virginia]] (present-day West Virginia), out of contact with the enemy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=154–156}} Hayes saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with [[John Hunt Morgan]]'s cavalry at the [[Battle of Buffington Island]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=157–158}} Returning to Charleston for the rest of the summer, Hayes spent the fall encouraging the men of the 23rd Ohio to reenlist, and many did.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=159–161}} In 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and Hayes's division was assigned to [[George Crook]]'s [[Army of West Virginia]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=159–161}} Advancing into southwestern Virginia, they destroyed Confederate salt and lead mines there.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} On May 9, they engaged Confederate troops at [[Battle of Cloyd's Mountain|Cloyd's Mountain]], where Hayes and his men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and again successfully skirmished with the enemy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=162–164|Trefousse|2002|2pp=32–33}} Hayes and his brigade moved to the [[Shenandoah Valley]] for the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Crook's corps was attached to Major General [[David Hunter]]'s [[Union Army of the Shenandoah|Army of the Shenandoah]] and soon back in contact with Confederate forces, capturing [[Lexington, Virginia]], on June 11.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} They continued south toward [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], tearing up railroad track as they advanced,{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} but Hunter believed the troops at Lynchburg were too powerful, and Hayes and his brigade returned to West Virginia.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} Hayes thought Hunter lacked aggression, writing in a letter home that "General Crook would have taken Lynchburg."{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=166–168}} Before the army could make another attempt, Confederate General [[Jubal Early]]'s raid into Maryland forced their recall to the north. Early's army surprised them at [[Second Battle of Kernstown|Kernstown]] on July 24, where Hayes was slightly wounded by a bullet to the shoulder.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=168–169}} He also had a horse shot out from under him, and the army was defeated.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=168–169}} Retreating to Maryland, the army was reorganized again, with Major General [[Philip Sheridan]] replacing Hunter.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=170–171}} By August, Early was retreating up the valley, with Sheridan in pursuit. Hayes's troops fended off a Confederate assault at [[Battle of Berryville|Berryville]] and advanced to [[Battle of Opequon|Opequon Creek]], where they broke the enemy lines and pursued them farther south.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=172–173}} They followed up the victory with another at [[Battle of Fisher's Hill|Fisher's Hill]] on September 22, and one more at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]] on October 19.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=174–177}} At Cedar Creek, Hayes sprained his ankle after being thrown from a horse and was struck in the head by a spent round, which did not cause serious damage.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=174–177}} His leadership and bravery drew his superiors' attention, with [[Ulysses S. Grant]] later writing of Hayes, "[h]is conduct on the field was marked by conspicuous gallantry as well as the display of qualities of a higher order than that of mere personal daring."{{sfn|Grant|2003|p=564}} Cedar Creek marked the end of the campaign. Hayes was promoted to [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in October 1864 and brevetted [[Major general (United States)|major general]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=178–181}} Around this time, he learned of the birth of his fourth son, George Crook Hayes. The army went into winter quarters once more, and in spring 1865 the war quickly came to a close with Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox. Hayes visited [[Washington, D.C.]], that May and observed the [[Grand Review of the Armies]], after which he and the 23rd Ohio returned to their home state to be mustered out of the service.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=186–188}} == Pulitik pasca-perang == === Anggota DPR A.S. ti Ohio === Nalika nuju ngalaksanakeun tugas di [[Tentara Uni Shenandoah]] dina taun 1864, Hayes dicalonkeun ku Partéy Républik pikeun janten anggota [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat]] (DPR A.S.) ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-2 Ohio]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Nalika dipénta ku babaturanana di Cincinnati sangkan ninggalkeun tentara demi kampanye, anjeunna nolak sarta nyebatkeun yén "perwira anu jagjag tur mampuh tugas, anu dina mangsa krisis kieu kalahka ninggalkeun posna demi kampanye korsi di Kongrés, pantesna mah dikuliti (''scalped'')."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Gantina, Hayes nyerat sababaraha serat ka para pamilih anu ngajéntrékeun pandangan pulitikna, sarta anjeunna tungtungna kapilih kalayan kaunggulan 2,400 sora ngéléhkeun petahana ti Démokrat, [[Alexander Long]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=171–176|Barnard|2005|2pp=225–227}} Nalika [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-39]] kumpul dina sasih Désémber 1865, Hayes dilantik salaku bagian tina mayoritas ageung Partéy Républik. Hayes kaasup kana faksi [[Républik Moderat (éra Rékonstruksi)|moderat]], nanging anjeunna kersa milih bareng jeung faksi [[Républik Radikal|radikal]] demi ngajaga persatuan partéy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=200–201|Conwell|1876|2pp=145–180}} Tarékah législatif utama dina Kongrés harita nyaéta [[Amandemén ka-14 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu dirojong ku Hayes sarta hasil disahkeun ku kadua lembaga Kongrés dina sasih Juni 1866.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=200–201|Trefousse|2002|2pp=41–44|Richardson|2001|3pp=17–18}} Pandangan Hayes saluyu sareng baturna di Républik ngeunaan isu [[Éra Rékonstruksi Amérika Sarikat]]: yén nagara-nagara bagian di Kidul kedah dibalikkeun deui ka Uni, nanging kalayan panangtayungan anu cukup pikeun para [[freedmen]] (urut budak anu parantos merdéka) sarta warga kulit hideung sanésna di Kidul.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=203|Trefousse|2002|2pp=40–41}} Sabalikna, Présidén [[Andrew Johnson]], anu naék jabatan saatos rajapati Lincoln, hoyong nampa deui nagara-nagara bagian anu kungsi misahkeun diri sacara gancang tanpa mastikeun yén maranéhna ngadopsi hukum anu nangtayungan hak-hak sipil urut budak; anjeunna ogé masihan pangampura (''grasi'') ka seueur tokoh urut Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=203|Trefousse|2002|2pp=40–41}} Hayes sarta para anggota Kongrés ti Républik teu sapuk kana hal éta. Maranéhna digawé pikeun nolak visi Rékonstruksi Johnson sarta ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Hak Sipil 1866]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=197–199|Trefousse|2002|2p=42}} Saatos kapilih deui dina taun 1866, Hayes mulang pikeun sidang ''lame-duck''. Dina 7 Januari 1867, anjeunna milih resolusi anu ngidinan [[Inkuiri pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson|panalungtikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson]].<ref>{{cite web |title=To Pass a Resolution to Impeach the President. (P. 320-2, 321-2). -- House Vote #418 -- Jan 7, 1867 |url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/39-2/h418 |publisher=[[GovTrack]] |access-date=March 23, 2022}}</ref> Hayes ogé milih [[Undang-Undang Masa Jabatan 1867]], anu mastikeun yén Johnson teu tiasa ngaganti pajabat administrasi tanpa idin ti Sénat,{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=204–205}} sarta narékahan sangkan aya RUU [[Réformasi layanan sipil Amérika Sarikat|réformasi layanan sipil]], sanajan harita tacan hasil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=204–205|Foner|2002|2pp=493–494}} Hayes teras milih bareng mayoritas dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-40]] ngeunaan [[Undang-Undang Rékonstruksi]], nanging anjeunna mundur dina sasih Juli 1867 pikeun nyalonkeun diri janten gubernur Ohio.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=208–210}} === Gubernur Ohio === Salaku anggota Kongrés anu populér sarta urut perwira Angkatan Darat, Hayes dianggap ku urang Républik di Ohio salaku sosok "pamawa bandéra" (''standard-bearer'') anu hadé pikeun [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1867]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Pandangan pulitikna langkung moderat tibatan platform partéyna, sanajan Hayes sapuk kana usulan amandemén konstitusi nagara bagian Ohio anu bakal ngajamin [[Hak pilih|hak pilih]] (''suffrage'') pikeun lalaki kulit hideung di Ohio.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Lawanna, [[Allen G. Thurman]], ngajantenkeun usulan amandemén éta salaku jengjérék (puseur) kampanyena sarta nolak hak pilih pikeun warga kulit hideung. Kadua tokoh éta kampanye kalayan kacida sumangetna, ngayakeun biantara di sakuliah nagara bagian, anu kalolobaanana museur kana sual hak pilih.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=211–213|Trefousse|2002|2pp=45–46}} Ieu pamilihan téh matak kuciwa pikeun urang Républik, margi amandeménna gagal disahkeun sarta Partéy Démokrat hasil ngawasa mayoritas di [[Majelis Umum Ohio|législatif nagara bagian]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=214|Barnard|2005|2pp=238–239}} Hayes mimitina nyangka yén anjeunna ogé éléh, nanging hasil ahir némbongkeun yén Hayes unggul kalayan selisih 2.983 sora tina total 484.603 sora.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=214|Barnard|2005|2pp=238–239}} Salaku gubernur ti Partéy Républik kalayan législatif anu dikawasa ku Démokrat, peran Hayes dina pamaréntahan kacida kawatesna, utamana kusabab [[Gubernur Ohio]] harita teu gaduh hak [[Veto]]. Sanajan aya hahalang éta, anjeunna hasil ngawas pangadegan sakola pikeun jalma tunarungu sarta sakola réformasi pikeun barudak awéwé.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=47–48}} Hayes ngarojong [[Pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|pamakzulan Présidén Andrew Johnson]] sarta ngadesek sangkan anjeunna dihukum, sanajan tungtungna gagal ku salisih hiji sora di Sénat Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=215–216}} Dicalonkeun deui pikeun période kadua dina taun 1869, Hayes kampanye deui pikeun hak-hak anu sarua pikeun warga kulit hideung di Ohio sarta narékahan pikeun ngahubungkeun lawanna ti Démokrat, [[George H. Pendleton]], jeung isu perpecahan sarta simpati ka Konfédérasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=218–220|Barnard|2005|2pp=239–241}} Hayes kapilih deui kalayan mayoritas sora anu langkung seueur, sarta Partéy Républik hasil ngawasa législatif, anu mastikeun ratifikasi Ohio kana [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]], anu ngajamin hak pilih pikeun lalaki kulit hideung.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=218–220|Barnard|2005|2pp=239–241}} Kalayan législatif anu dikawasa ku Républik, période kadua Hayes karasana langkung lugina. Hak pilih dilegakeun sarta hiji paguron luhur tatanén sarta mékanik (nu engkéna janten [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Ohio]]) diadegkeun.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=225–228}} Anjeunna ogé ngusulkeun pangurangan pajeg nagara bagian sarta réformasi sistem panjara nagara bagian. Hayes milih henteu nyalonkeun deui sarta miharep tiasa pangsiun tina dunya pulitik dina taun 1872.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} === Kahirupan pribadi sarta mulang deui ka dunya pulitik === Nalika Hayes nuju tatahar pikeun réngsé tina jabatanna, sababaraha delegasi ti Partéy Républik faksi réformis ngajurung anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri ka [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]] ngalawan petahana ti Républik, [[John Sherman]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} Hayes nolak, langkung milih ngajaga persatuan partéy sarta pangsiun janten rahayat biasa.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=236–240}} Anjeunna kacida miharep tiasa nyéépkeun waktos sareng putra-putrana, anu dua di antarana (Fanny sarta Scott) nembé babar dina lima taun ka tukang.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=241–242}}{{efn|Dua putra munggaranna, Joseph sareng George, pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=31, 42}}}} Mimitina, Hayes nyoba ngamajukeun proyék karéta api ka kota asalna, Fremont. Anjeunna ogé ngokolakeun sababaraha lahan anu dipésérna di [[Duluth, Minnesota]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=240–245|Barnard|2005|2pp=250–252}} Sanajan henteu sagemblengna leupas tina pulitik, Hayes kantos ngaharepkeun jabatan [[Kabinet Amérika Sarikat|kabinet]], nanging anjeunna kuciwa margi mung ditawaran janten asistén bendahara A.S. di Cincinnati, anu teras ditolak ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=246–248}} Hayes sapuk pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina korsi DPR lami na dina taun 1872, nanging anjeunna éléh ku [[Henry B. Banning]], baturna papada alumni Kenyon College.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=243–244|Barnard|2005|2pp=250–252}} Dina taun 1873, Lucy ngababarkeun putra sanésna, Manning Force Hayes.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=249–250}} Dina taun anu sami, [[Krisis Ékonomi 1873]] (''Panic of 1873'') ngaruksak prospek bisnis di sakuliah nagara, kalebet bisnis Hayes. Pamanna, Sardis Birchard, pupus dina taun éta, sarta kulawarga Hayes pindah ka [[Spiegel Grove]], imah agréng anu diwangun ku Birchard khusus pikeun maranéhna.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=249–251}} Hayes ngumumkeun amanat pamanna anu masihan aset $50.000 pikeun ngadegkeun perpustakaan umum di Fremont, anu dingaranan Perpustakaan Birchard. Éta perpustakaan dibuka dina taun 1874, sarta gedong anyarna réngsé di Fort Stephenson State Park dina taun 1878. Hayes ngajabat salaku pupuhu déwan pangurus perpustakaan dugi ka pupusna.<ref>[http://www.birchard.lib.oh.us/missionHistory.htm "Library History: Birchard Public Library of Sandusky County"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804170108/http://www.birchard.lib.oh.us/missionHistory.htm |date=August 4, 2018 }}, Birchard Library website</ref> Hayes miharep tiasa tetep jauh tina dunya pulitik supados tiasa mayar hutang-hutangna balukar krisis ékonomi, nanging nalika konvénsi nagara bagian Partéy Républik nyalonkeun anjeunna janten gubernur dina taun 1875, anjeunna tungtungna nampi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=256–257|Barnard|2005|2pp=270–271}} Kampanyena ngalawan [[William Allen (gubernur)|William Allen]] ti Démokrat museur kana kahéman umat Protéstan ngeunaan kamungkinan [[Blaine Amendment|bantuan nagara pikeun sakola Katolik]].{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=257–260|Barnard|2005|2pp=271–275|Foner|2002|3p=557}} Hayes nolak dana kasebut, sanajan anjeunna pribadi sanés saurang anti-Katolik. Kampanye ieu suksés, sarta dina 12 Oktober 1875, Hayes kapilih deui janten gubernur kalayan selisih 5.544 sora.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=257–260|Barnard|2005|2pp=271–275|Foner|2002|3p=557}} Salaku jalma munggaran anu ngajabat tilu période salaku gubernur Ohio, Hayes hasil ngirangan hutang nagara bagian, ngadegkeun deui Déwan Amal, sarta ngabatalkeun RUU Geghan anu mimitina ngidinan pangangkatan imam Katolik di sakola sarta panjara.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=61–64}} == Pamilihan 1876 == === Nominasi Républik sarta kampanye ngalawan Tilden === Kasuksesan Hayes di Ohio langsung ngangkat namina ka jajaran luhur politikus Républik anu dipertimbangkeun pikeun korsi kapersidénan dina taun 1876.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=62}} Delegasi Ohio dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1876]] ngahiji ngarojong anjeunna, sarta Sénator [[John Sherman]] ngalakukeun sagala cara sangkan Hayes meunang nominasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=260–261|Robinson|2001|2p=57}} Dina sasih Juni 1876, konvénsi dikumpulkeun kalayan [[James G. Blaine]] ti [[Maine]] salaku calon unggulan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=262–263|Robinson|2001|2pp=53–55}} Blaine mimitina mingpin jauh dina cacah delegasi, nanging teu tiasa ngahontal mayoritas. Nalika sora Blaine mimiti turun, para delegasi milari calon sanés sarta tungtungna milih Hayes dina sora (''ballot'') katujuh.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=263–264|Robinson|2001|2pp=61–63}} Konvénsi milih Anggota DPR [[William A. Wheeler]] ti [[New York (nagara bagian)|New York]] salaku wakil présidén, sosok anu nembé ditaroskeun ku Hayes, "Éra ogé sim kuring nyebatkeunana: saha ari Wheeler téh?"{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=260|Robinson|2001|2p=63}} Strategi kampanye Hayes sarta Wheeler museur kana usaha narik simpati faksi Whig di Kidul, kalayan tujuan "misahkeun" urang Whig Kidul lami tina faksi Démokrat Kidul. Nalika [[Frederick Douglass]] naroskeun naha Partéy Républik bakal terus satia nangtayungan hak sipil warga kulit hideung atanapi "bakal leumpang tanpa sora jalma hideung di Kidul", Hayes sarta Wheeler langkung milih jalan anu kadua. Calon ti Démokrat nyaéta [[Samuel J. Tilden]], gubernur New York. Tilden dianggap lawan anu tangguh anu, sami sareng Hayes, gaduh reputasi salaku jalma jujur.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=64–68, 90–95}} Tilden ogé ngarojong sistem mata uang kuat (''hard-money'') sarta réformasi layanan sipil.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=64–68, 90–95}} Luyu sareng kabiasaan harita, kampanye dilakukeun ku wawakil (''surrogates''), sedengkeun Hayes sarta Tilden tetep cicing di kota asalna masing-masing.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=97–98}} Kaayaan ékonomi anu nuju goréng ngabalukarkeun partéy anu nuju kawasa (Républik) janten teu populér, anu ngajantenkeun Hayes curiga yén anjeunna bakal éléh.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=71}} Kadua kandidat museurkeun kakuatan di nagara bagian anu sora pamilihna gampang robah (''swing states'') sapertos New York sarta [[Indiana]], ogé tilu nagara bagian di kidul—[[Louisiana]], [[South Carolina]], sarta [[Florida]]—dimana pamaréntahan Républik éra Rékonstruksi masih kénéh nyesa di tengah kekerasan pulitik, kalebet usaha masif pikeun neken sora para [[freedman]] (urut budak).{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1pp=72–73|Robinson|2001|2pp=113–114}} Urang Républik nekenkeun bahayana upami Démokrat mingpin nagara saatos Démokrat Kidul ngamimitian Perang Sadulur. Di pihak sanésna, Démokrat ngagung-ngagungkeun catetan réformasi Tilden sarta ngabandingkeunana sareng [[Skandal administrasi kapersidénan Ulysses S. Grant|korupsi dina administrasi Grant]].{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=99–102}} Nalika hasil sora diitung dina dinten pamilihan, katingal pisan yén sainganna kacida ketatna: Démokrat unggul di ampir sakuliah Kidul, ogé di New York, Indiana, [[Connecticut]], sarta [[New Jersey]].{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=74}} Di [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kalér-Wétan]], beuki seueur imigran sarta turunanana anu milih Démokrat. Sanajan Tilden unggul dina sora rahayat (''popular vote'') sarta ngklaim 184 sora éléktoral, para pamingpin Républik nangtang éta hasil sarta nuduh Démokrat ngalakukeun kacurangan sarta penekanan sora warga kulit hideung di Florida, Louisiana, sarta South Carolina.{{sfn|Sproat|1974|pp=163–164}} Urang Républik sadar yén upami maranéhna tiasa nahan tilu nagara bagian kidul anu nuju dikoalisi éta sareng sababaraha nagara bagian di kulon, maranéhna bakal unggul dina [[Lembaga Pilihan (Amérika Sarikat)|lembaga pilihan]] (''electoral college'').{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1p=75|Robinson|2001|2pp=119–123|Sproat|1974|3pp=163–164}} === Sora éléktoral anu jadi sengketa === {{utama|Kompromi 1877|Komisi Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)}} Dina 11 Nopémber, tilu dinten saatos dinten pamilihan, Tilden katingalna unggul ku 184 sora éléktoral, kirang hiji sora deui pikeun ngahontal mayoritas.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=126–127}} Hayes katingalna gaduh 166 sora, sedengkeun 19 sora ti Florida, Louisiana, sarta South Carolina masih kénéh cangcaya (''disputed'').{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=126–127}} Urang Républik sarta Démokrat papada ngaklaim kameunangan di tilu nagara bagian éta, nanging hasilna jadi teu tangtu alatan ayana kacurangan ti kadua pihak.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=131–142|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=277–279}} Kaayaan beuki ruyek nalika salah sahiji ti tilu éléktor ti [[Oregon]] (nagara bagian anu dimeunangkeun ku Hayes) didiskualifikasi; hal ieu ngirangan sora Hayes janten 165 sarta ningkatkeun sora anu jadi sengketa janten 20.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=127–128}}{{efn|Éléktor éta, John W. Watts, didiskualifikasi margi anjeunna nyepeng "Jabatan Kapercayaan atanapi Kauntungan di handapeun Amérika Sarikat", anu ngalanggar [[Pasal Dua Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat#Klausa 2: Métode milih éléktor|Pasal II, bagian 1, klausa 2]] Konstitusi A.S.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=279}}}} Upami Hayes teu kénging sadaya 20 sora sengketa éta, Tilden anu bakal kapilih janten présidén. Aya perdebatan rongkah ngeunaan saha jalmana atanapi lembaga mana di Kongrés anu boga wewenang pikeun mutuskeun antara daptar éléktor anu silih saing éta; Sénat anu dikawasa ku Républik sarta DPR anu dikawasa ku Démokrat papada ngaku gaduh hak utama.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=145–154|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=281–286}} Dugi ka Januari 1877, nalika pasualanna teu acan réngsé, Kongrés sarta Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sapuk pikeun nyerahkeun perkara ieu ka [[Komisi Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|Komisi Éléktoral]] dwipartéy.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=157}} Ieu komisi diwangun ku lima anggota DPR, lima sénator, sarta lima hakim Agung.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=158}} Pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan partéy, diangkat tujuh urang Démokrat sarta tujuh urang Républik, kalayan Hakim [[David Davis (hakim Agung)|David Davis]], saurang independen anu dipihormat ku kadua pihak, salaku anggota ka-15.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|p=158}} Nanging, kasaimbangan ieu kaganggu nalika urang Démokrat di législatif Illinois milih Davis janten Sénat kalayan harepan tiasa mangaruhan sorana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=286}} Davis kalahka nguciwakeun urang Démokrat ku cara nolak janten anggota Komisi alatan anjeunna parantos kapilih janten Sénat.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=286}} Kusabab hakim sanésna sadayana urang Républik, Hakim [[Joseph P. Bradley]], anu dianggap paling independen, dipilih pikeun ngagentos Davis.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=159–161}} Ieu Komisi ngayakeun sidang dina sasih Pébruari sarta dalapan urang Républik milih pikeun mikeun sadaya 20 sora éléktoral ka Hayes.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=166–171}} Urang Démokrat, anu ngarasa ambek ku éta hasil, nyoba ngalakukeun [[Filibuster]] pikeun nyegah Kongrés nampi hasil komisi.{{sfn|Robinson|2001|pp=171–183}} Tungtungna, para palaku filibuster nyerah, ngantepkeun DPR sarta Sénat kumpul deui pikeun ngabéréskeun cacah sora. Dina jam 4:10 subuh tanggal 2 Maret, Sénator [[Thomas W. Ferry]] ngumumkeun yén Hayes sarta Wheeler parantos kapilih janten présidén sarta wakil présidén kalayan sora 185–184. Nalika dinten pelantikan beuki caket, para pamingpin Kongrés ti Républik sarta Démokrat panggih di [[Wormley's Hotel]] di Washington pikeun nyawalakeun hiji [[Kompromi 1877]]. Urang Républik jangji bakal masihan konsési (timbal balik) asal urang Démokrat narima kaputusan komisi. Konsési utama anu dijajikeun ku Hayes nyaéta narik pasukan féderal ti Kidul sarta nampi kameunangan pamaréntahan Démokrat di nagara-nagara bagian Kidul anu can "dipulihkeun" (''unredeemed'').{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=182–184|Foner|2002|2pp=580–581}} Urang Démokrat sapuk, sarta dina 2 Maret, filibuster dieureunkeun. Hayes kapilih janten présidén, nanging Éra Rékonstruksi réngsé, sarta para [[freedmen]] (urut budak) ditinggalkeun dina kakawasaan urang Démokrat kulit bodas anu teu boga niat pikeun ngajaga hak-hak maranéhna.{{sfnm|Robinson|2001|1pp=185–189|Foner|2002|2pp=581–587}} {{clear}} == Mangsa Kapersidénan (1877–1881) == {{Utama|Kapersidénan Rutherford B. Hayes}} === Pelantikan === Kusabab tanggal 4 Maret 1877 ragrag dina dinten Minggu, Hayes ngalaksanakeun sumpah jabatan sacara pribadi dina dinten Saptu, 3 Maret, di [[Red Room (White House)|Kamar Beureum]] [[Gedong Bodas]]. Hal ieu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran anu dicokot sumpahna di jero Mansion Éksékutif. Dua dinten saatosna, anjeunna ngalaksanakeun sumpah sacara kabuka di Portico Wétan [[Gedong Capitol Amérika Sarikat]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=295–297}} Dina biantara pelantikanana, Hayes nyobi nenangkeun amarah pulitik anu lumangsung sababaraha sasih ka tukang, kalayan nyebatkeun yén "anjeunna anu panghadéna ngabakti ka partéyna nyaéta anu panghadéna ngabakti ka nagarana" (''he serves his party best who serves his country best'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=85–86}} Hayes jangji bakal ngarojong "pamaréntahan lokal anu wijaksana, jujur, sarta daméy" di Kidul, ogé réformasi [[Layanan sipil Amérika Sarikat|layanan sipil]] sarta mulang deui sagemblengna kana [[Standar emas]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=298–299}} Sanajan anjeunna mawa pesen perdamaian, seueur urang Démokrat anu tetep teu ngaku yén kameunangan Hayes téh sah, sarta maranéhna nyebut Hayes salaku "**Rutherfraud**" atanapi "**His Fraudulency**" (Kacurangan Anjeunna) salila opat taun jabatanna.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=402–403}} === Wilayah Kidul sarta réngséna Rékonstruksi === Hayes sabenerna satia ngarojong kawijakan [[Era Rekonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]] Partéy Républik sapanjang karirna, nanging léngkah munggaran anu penting dina mangsa kapersidénanana nyaéta mungkas Rékonstruksi sarta mulikkeun wilayah Kidul kana "pamaréntahan mandiri" (''home rule'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=90–93}} Sanajan tanpa ayana kasapukan di Wormley's Hotel ogé, Hayes bakal hésé pikeun neraskeun kawijakan nu tiheula. DPR dina [[Kongres Amérika Sarikat ka-45]] dikawasa ku mayoritas Démokrat, sarta maranéhna nolak mikeun dana anu cukup pikeun tentara tetep cicing di wilayah Kidul.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=304–307|Foner|2002|2pp=580–583|Davison|1972|3p=142}} Malah di kalangan urang Républik sorangan, sumanget pikeun neraskeun Rékonstruksi militer mimiti luntur alatan ayana perlawanan sarta kekerasan anu terus-terusan di Kidul.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1p=138|Trefousse|2002|2p=92}} Nalika Hayes mimiti ngajabat dina 5 Maret, mung dua nagara bagian, South Carolina sarta Louisiana, anu masih kénéh aya dina pangaruh Rékonstruksi. Dina 3 April, Hayes maréntahkeun Sekretaris Perang [[George W. McCrary]] pikeun narik pasukan féderal anu ditempatkeun di [[Gedong Nagara South Carolina]] ka barakna masing-masing. Sababaraha minggu ti harita, dina 20 April, anjeunna maréntahkeun McCrary pikeun mindahkeun pasukan féderal ti St. Louis Hotel di [[New Orleans]] ka [[Jackson Barracks]].{{sfnm|Dodds|2013|1p=113|Clendenen|1969|2p=246}} Tanpa ayana pasukan pikeun ngajalankeun undang-undang hak pilih, nagara-nagara bagian ieu geuwat ragrag kana kakawasaan Démokrat.{{sfn|Clendenen|1969|p=244}} Tarékah Hayes salajengna pikeun nangtayungan hak-hak warga kulit hideung di Kidul téh henteu hasil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=317–318|Davison|1972|2pp=141–143}} Nanging, anjeunna hasil ngéléhkeun usaha Kongrés pikeun ngawatesan kakuatan féderal dina ngawas pamilihan umum. Démokrat di Kongrés ngaluluskeun RUU anggaran tentara dina taun 1879 kalayan "aturan tambahan" (''rider'') anu bakal ngabatalkeun [[Undang-Undang Penegakan]] (''Enforcement Acts''), anu mimitina dipaké pikeun neken [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Hayes keukeuh hayang ngajaga hukum anu nangtayungan pamilih kulit hideung sarta ngagunakeun hak [[Veto]]-na kana éta anggaran.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=162–163|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=392–402|Richardson|2001|3p=161}} Urang Démokrat nyoba nepi ka lima kali kalayan RUU anu sarupa, nanging Hayes tetep meveto éta RUU.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=162–163|Hoogenboom|1995|2pp=392–402|Richardson|2001|3p=161}} Tungtungna, Kongrés ngaluluskeun RUU tanpa aturan tambahan éta, nanging nolak ngaluarkeun dana pikeun marsekal féderal anu kacida pentingna pikeun negakkeun hukum pamilihan. Undang-undang pamilihan tetep lumaku, nanging dana pikeun ngajalankeunana dikiihan (dikurangan) pikeun samentara waktu.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=402}} Dina buku poéanana, Hayes nyerat: "Tugas sim kuring nyaéta ngaleungitkeun garis warna (ras), mungkas sekssionalisme, sarta mawa katengtreman. Pikeun ngalakukeun ieu, sim kuring sayagi nyandak léngkah anu mahiwal sarta nanggung résiko kana reputasi sim kuring sorangan di jero partéy sarta nagara."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=418}} Sanajan kitu, sagala tarékahna hanteu hasil; Hayes gagal ngayakinkeun wilayah Kidul pikeun narima sagemblengna sasaruaan hukum ras.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=317–318}} === Réformasi layanan sipil === Hayes mimiti ngajabat kalayan tékad pikeun ngoméan sistem pangangkatan layanan sipil (birokrasi), anu saprak mangsa kapersidénan [[Andrew Jackson]] dumasar kana [[Sistem spoils|sistem balat-kosép]] (''spoils system'').{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|pp=93–94}}{{efn|Nu miheulaan Hayes, Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]], kungsi ngadegkeun [[Komisi Layanan Sipil Amérika Sarikat]] munggaran dina taun 1871, nanging éta komisi bubar dina taun 1874.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|pp=293–294}}}} Gantina masihan padamelan féderal ka para pangrojong pulitik, Hayes hoyong masihan éta jabatan dumasar kana préstasi (''merit system'') luyu sareng hasil [[Ujian layanan sipil|ujian]] anu kedah diikuti ku sadaya pelamar.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=318–319}} Ieu tarékah réformasi téh geuwat mawa anjeunna kana konflik sareng faksi [[Stalwart (pulitik)|Stalwart]], nyaéta faksi di Partéy Républik anu ngadukung sistem balat-kosép. Para sénator ti kadua partéy anu tos biasa ditaroskeun pamadeganana ngeunaan pangangkatan pajabat pulitik kalahka malik ngalawan Hayes. Lawan utamana nyaéta Sénator New York, [[Roscoe Conkling]], anu terus-terusan ngahalangan usaha réformasi Hayes.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=164–165}} Pikeun némbongkeun komitmenna, Hayes ngangkat [[Carl Schurz]], salah sahiji tokoh anu pangvokalna dina réformasi harita, janten [[Sekretaris Urusan Jero Nagara Amérika Sarikat]] sarta miwarang Schurz sareng [[Sekretaris Nagara Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Nagara]] [[William M. Evarts]] pikeun mingpin komite kabinét husus anu ditugaskeun nyusun aturan anyar ngeunaan pangangkatan pajabat féderal.{{sfn|Paul|1998|p=71}} Sekretaris Bendahara [[John Sherman]] maréntahkeun [[John Jay (pangacara)|John Jay]] pikeun nalungtik [[New York Custom House]] (Kantor Béa Cukai New York), anu harita pinuh ku jalma-jalma "titipan" Conkling.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=318–319}} Laporan Jay némbongkeun yén éta kantor téh teuing ku seueur teuing pagawé titipan pulitik nepi ka 20% ti maranéhna sabenerna teu diperlukeun pisan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} Sanajan anjeunna teu tiasa ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngalarang sistem balat-kosép, Hayes ngaluarkeun [[Parentah éksékutif (Amérika Sarikat)|parentah éksékutif]] anu ngalarang para pajabat féderal dipénta sumbangan kampanye atanapi aub dina pulitik praktis partéy.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} [[Chester A. Arthur]], Kapala Béa Cukai Palabuhan New York, sarta anak buahna [[Alonzo B. Cornell]] sarta [[George H. Sharpe]], anu mangrupa pangrojong Conkling, nolak nurut kana éta paréntah.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=322–325|Davison|1972|2pp=164–165|Trefousse|2002|3pp=95–96}} Dina sasih Séptémber 1877, Hayes ménta maranéhna mundur, nanging ditolak. Anjeunna teras ngajukeun nami [[Theodore Roosevelt, Sr.]], [[L. Bradford Prince]], sarta [[Edwin Atkins Merritt]] salaku panggantina ka Sénat. Komite Perdagangan Sénat anu dipingpin ku Conkling milih pikeun nolak sadaya calon kasebut.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=352|Trefousse|2002|2pp=95–96}} Hayes kedah ngantosan dugi ka Juli 1878, nalika Kongrés nuju libur, pikeun ngeureunkeun Arthur sarta Cornell sarta ngangkat Merritt sarta [[Silas W. Burt]] ngaliwatan [[pangangkatan mangsa resés]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=370–371}} Nalika Sénat kumpul deui dina Pébruari 1879, pangangkatan éta tungtungna disahkeun, anu janten kameunangan pangageungna pikeun Hayes dina réformasi layanan sipil.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=382–384|Barnard|2005|2p=456}} Sapanjang sésa jabatanna, Hayes teras-terasan ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngesahkeun undang-undang réformasi permanén. Sanajan henteu lulus nalika jaman anjeunna, tarékah Hayes janten dadasar anu kuat pikeun lahirna [[Undang-Undang Pendleton 1883]], anu ironisna ditéken ku Présidén Chester Arthur (jalma anu kungsi dipecat ku Hayes).{{sfn|Paul|1998|pp=73–74}} Hayes ogé tegas dina merangan korupsi di departemén sanés; dina taun 1880, anjeunna maksa [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Amérika Sarikat|Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] [[Richard W. Thompson]] pikeun mundur saatos Thompson nampi gaji ti pihak swasta Perancis pikeun proyék terusan di Panama.{{sfn|Sproat|1974|pp=169–170}} Hayes ogé nyoba ngabongkar skandal korupsi di layanan pos anu katelah "[[Star route scandal|star route]]".{{sfn|Klotsche|1935|pp=409–411}} Sanajan dituduh ku Démokrat lila teuing dina nalungtikna alatan sieun ngaruksak kasempetan Républik dina pamilihan 1880, Hayes tetep ngeureunkeun kontrak-kontrak anyar anu curiga. Sejarawan [[Hans L. Trefousse]] nyebatkeun yén Hayes sabenerna teu terang-terang acan ka tersangka utamana sarta teu gaduh hubungan sareng korupsi éta.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=144}} === Mogok Karéta Api Ageung === {{Utama|Mogok Karéta Api Ageung 1877}} Dina taun munggaran jabatanna, Hayes nyanghareupan pergolakan buruh pangageungna dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat harita, nyaéta [[Mogok Karéta Api Ageung 1877]].{{sfnm|Foner|2002|1p=583|Stowell|1999|2pp=1–2|Richardson|2001|3p=121}} Pikeun nutupan karugian finansial balukar Krisis Ékonomi 1873, pausahaan-pausahaan karéta api utama neukteuk gaji karyawanana sababaraha kali dina taun 1877.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=326–327}} Dina sasih Juli taun éta, para pagawé di [[Baltimore & Ohio Railroad]] lélos tina pagawéanana di [[Martinsburg, Virginia Kulon]], pikeun protés kana pangurangan gajih kasebut.{{sfnm|Bruce|1989|1pp=75–77|Stowell|1999|2p=117}} Ieu aksi [[Mogok|mogok]] téh geuwat nular ka para pagawé karéta api [[New York Central Railroad|New York Central]], [[Erie Railroad|Erie]], sarta [[Pennsylvania Railroad|Pennsylvania]], nepi ka jumlahna ngahontal rébuan jalma.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Alatan sieun ayana [[Karusuhan|karusuhan]], Gubernur [[Henry M. Mathews]] ménta Hayes pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan féderal ka Martinsburg. Hayes nyaluyuan, nanging nalika pasukan sumping, teu aya karusuhan—anu aya mung protés daméy.{{sfn|Bruce|1989|pp=93–94}} Nanging, [[Mogok karéta api Baltimore 1877|karusuhan leres-leres bitu di Baltimore]] dina 20 Juli, sarta Hayes maréntahkeun pasukan di [[Fort McHenry]] pikeun ngabantu gubernur neken éta karusuhan.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Salajengna, [[Pittsburgh]] ogé bitu ku karusuhan, nanging Hayes rada hamham (ragu-ragu) pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan sateuacan aya paménta ti gubernur.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Warga sanésna anu ngarasa teu puas ogé milu aub jeung para pagawé karéta api dina karusuhan éta.{{sfnm|Stowell|1999|1pp=116–127|Hoogenboom|1995|2p=328}} Saatos sababaraha dinten, Hayes mutuskeun pikeun ngintunkeun pasukan guna nangtayungan banda nagara (aset féderal) di mana waé anu dianggap kaancam, sarta méré wewenang pinuh ka Mayor Jenderal [[Winfield Scott Hancock]] pikeun ngatur kaayaan. Ieu mangrupikeun kajadian munggaran pasukan féderal dipaké pikeun mungkas aksi mogok ngalawan pausahaan swasta.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=328–333|Davison|1972|2pp=145–153|Barnard|2005|3pp=445–447}} Dina tanggal 29 Juli, karusuhan parantos réngsé sarta pasukan féderal mulang ka barakna.{{sfn|Foner|2002|p=585}} Teu aya pasukan féderal anu nelasan demonstran atanapi nemasing pati, nanging bentrokan antara milisi nagara bagian jeung para demonstran ngabalukarkeun korban jiwa di kadua pihak.{{sfnm|Davison|1972|1pp=148–150|Trefousse|2002|2p=95}} Sanajan pausahaan karéta api "meunang" dina jangka pondok, rahayat kalahka nyalahkeun maranéhna alatan ayana kekerasan éta, nepi ka pausahaan kapaksa ngoméan kaayaan gawé.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=334|Davison|1972|2pp=152–153}} Pamadegan Hayes pribadi mah rada **[[Dua Sisi]]**; sakumaha anu diserat dina buku poéanana: <blockquote>"Aksi mogok parantos dieureunkeun ku ''kakuatan;'' nanging ayeuna urang peryogi ubar anu ''nyata''. Naha aya anu tiasa dilakukeun ngaliwatan atikan pikeun para demonstran, sarta ku pangawasan anu wijaksana ka para kapitalis (nu boga modal), sarta ku kawijakan umum anu pinter pikeun mungkas ieu kaburukan? Para demonstran karéta api téh, umumna, jalma-jalma bageur, jujur, calakan, sarta getol daméy."{{sfnm|Barnard|2005|1pp=446–447|Hayes|1922|2loc=v. 3|2p=440}}</blockquote> === Debat mata uang === Hayes nyanghareupan dua pasualan ngeunaan [[Mata uang|mata uang]], anu munggaran nyaéta ngeunaan [[Pérak bébas|penduitan pérak]] sarta hubunganana sareng [[Standar emas]]. Dina taun 1873, [[Undang-Undang Penduitan 1873]] ngeureunkeun panyitakan koin pérak pikeun sakabéh koin anu hargana samiliar dolar atanapi langkung, anu sacara éféktif nali nilai dolar kana nilai emas. Balukarna, [[Deflasi|suplai artos ngaleutikan]] sarta pangaruh Krisis Ékonomi 1873 beuki parah, ngajantenkeun para pautang (''debtors'') beuki hésé mayar hutang anu dijieun nalika nilai mata uang masih handap.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=356}} Para patani sarta buruh kacida mikahayang mulangna deui penduitan dina kadua logam (emas sarta pérak), kalayan kapercayaan yén kanaékan suplai artos bakal mulikkeun gajih sarta nilai banda.{{sfn|Unger|2008|p=358}} Anggota DPR ti Démokrat, [[Richard P. Bland]], ngusulkeun RUU anu ngawajibkeun Amérika Sarikat nyitak saloba-loba pérak sakumaha anu tiasa dijual ku para panambang ka pamaréntah.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} [[William B. Allison]], urang Républik ti Iowa, masihan amandemén pikeun ngawatesan penduitan mung dua dugi ka opat juta dolar per sasih, sarta hasilna nyaéta [[Undang-Undang Bland–Allison]] anu disahkeun ku Kongrés dina taun 1878.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Hayes sieun yén ieu undang-undang bakal ngabalukarkeun [[Inflasi]] anu ngaruksak dunya bisnis. Anjeunna yakin yén nga-inflasikeun mata uang téh tindakan anu teu jujur, kalayan nyebatkeun, "Kabutuhan sarta kaadilan papada nungtut ayana mata uang anu jujur."{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=358–360}} Anjeunna meveto éta RUU, nanging Kongrés hasil ngabatalkeun (''override'') veto-na; ieu mangrupikeun hiji-hijina kajadian veto Hayes dibatalkeun ku Kongrés salila mangsa jabatanna.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Pasualan kadua nyaéta ngeunaan [[Greenback (artos)|greenbacks]], nyaéta jinis [[Mata uang fiat|mata uang fiat]] (artos kertas) anu munggaran dikaluarkeun nalika Perang Sadulur. [[Undang-Undang Pamulihan Pamayaran Spési]] taun 1875 ngawajibkeun bendahara nagara pikeun nukeun deui greenback anu aya ku emas, sangkan mata uang nagara balik deui kana standar emas anu kuat.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=176–177}} Sekretaris Bendahara [[John Sherman]] sapuk sareng pamadegan Hayes sarta ngumpulkeun stok emas pikeun persiapan nukeurkeun greenback.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=358–360}} Nanging, saatos rahayat yakin yén maranéhna tiasa nukeun éta artos kertas ku emas, tétéla mung saeutik anu leres-leres nukeunana. Nalika undang-undang éta mimiti lumaku dina taun 1879, mung $130.000 tina total $346.000.000 greenback anu leres-leres ditukeun ku emas.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=107}} Gabungan antara Undang-Undang Bland-Allison sarta pamulihan pamayaran emas ieu hasil nyiptakeun kompromi antara pihak anu hoyong inflasi sareng pihak "mata uang kuat" (''hard money''), sahingga pacogrégan ngeunaan mata uang mimiti tiis dina sésa mangsa jabatan Hayes.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=177–180}} === Kawijakan luar nagara === Kalolobaan kawijakan luar nagara Hayes aya hubunganana sareng [[Amérika Latin]]. Dina taun 1878, saatos [[Perang Paraguay]], anjeunna janten arbiter (panengah) dina sengketa wilayah antara [[Argéntina]] sarta [[Paraguay]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=416}} Hayes mutuskeun yén lahan anu jadi sengketa di wilayah [[Gran Chaco]] téh milik Paraguay. Pikeun ngajénan jasa Hayes, urang Paraguay nganami hiji kota ([[Villa Hayes]]) sarta hiji [[Departemén (subdivisi nagara)|departemén]] ([[Departemén Presidente Hayes]]) dumasar kana namina.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=416}} Hayes ogé hariwang ku rencana [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]], nu ngawangun [[Terusan Suéz]], anu badé ngawangun terusan meuntas [[Isthmus Panama]] (harita masih bagian tina [[Kolombia]]).{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=417–418}} Hariwang ku kajadian deui campur tangan Perancis sapertos di Méksiko, Hayes negeskeun [[Doktrin Monroe]]. Dina pesenna ka Kongrés, anjeunna ngajéntrékeun: "Kawijakan nagara ieu nyaéta terusan di handapeun kontrol Amérika... Amérika Sarikat moal satuju pikeun nyerahkeun kontrol ieu ka kakuatan Éropa mana waé."{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=420–421|Barnard|2005|2p=442}} Wates [[Méksiko–Amérika Sarikat]] ogé narik perhatian Hayes. Sapanjang taun 1870-an, "gorombolan anu teu patuh hukum" sering meuntas wates pikeun ngalakukeun rampog di Téxas.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=335|Barnard|2005|2p=443}} Tilu sasih saatos ngajabat, Hayes masihan wewenang ka Angkatan Darat pikeun ngudag para [[brandal]], sanajan kudu meuntas ka wilayah Méksiko.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=335|Barnard|2005|2p=443}} Présidén Méksiko [[Porfirio Díaz]] protés sarta ngintunkeun pasukan ka wates. Kaayaan mimitina tegang, nanging tungtungna kalem saatos Díaz sarta Hayes sapuk pikeun babarengan ngudag para brandal.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=337|Barnard|2005|2p=444}} Kekerasan di sapanjang wates ngurangan, sarta dina taun 1880, Hayes nyabut paréntah ngudag ka wilayah Méksiko.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=338}} Di luar [[Hémisfér Kulon]], pasualan luar nagara Hayes anu pangageungna nyaéta sareng China. Dina taun 1868, Sénat parantos ngaratifikasi [[Perjangjian Burlingame]], anu ngidinan imigran China asup ka Amérika Sarikat tanpa wates. Nalika ékonomi murag saatos Krisis Ékonomi 1873, imigran China disalahkeun di Amérika Kulon alatan dianggap nurunkeun gajih buruh.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=387}} Salaku réspon, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Pangaluaran China]] (''Chinese Exclusion Act'') dina taun 1879, anu ngabatalkeun perjangjian 1868 sacara sapihak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Hayes meveto éta RUU, kalayan kapercayaan yén Amérika Sarikat teu meunang ngabatalkeun perjangjian tanpa negoisasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Veto ieu dipuji ku urang Républik di Kalér-Wétan, nanging Hayes dikritik rongkah di wilayah Amérika Kulon.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=388–389|Barnard|2005|2pp=447–449}} Démokrat di DPR malah nyoba pikeun [[Pamakzulan|mamakzulkeun]] anjeunna, nanging gagal. Saatos veto éta, Hayes ngintunkeun utusan pikeun negoisasi sareng pihak China sangkan bisa ngurangan imigrasi sacara babarengan sarta daméy.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=390–391}} Dina taun 1877, urut Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngayakeun perjalanan sakuliah dunya. Hayes sadar kana popularitas Grant di Éropa sarta ngarojong éta perjalanan pikeun nguatkeun kapentingan sarta hubungan luar nagara Amérika.{{sfn|Campbell|2016|pp=xi–xii, 2–3}} Nalika Grant nuju di Nice, anjeunna naék kana kapal [[USS Vandalia (1876)|USS ''Vandalia'']], kapal perang anu sacara husus dikintunkeun ku Hayes pikeun perjalan Grant di Laut Tengah sarta Mesir.{{sfn|White|2016|p=597}} === Kawijakan ka urang Indian === Sekretaris Urusan Jero Nagara [[Carl Schurz]] ngajalankeun kawijakan Hayes ka [[Padumuk asli Amérika|urang Indian]], dimimitian ku nyegah [[Departemén Perang Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Perang]] nyokot alih [[Biro Urusan Indian]].{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=184–185}} Hayes sarta Schurz ngajalankeun kawijakan anu ngawengku asimilasi kana budaya kulit bodas, palatihan atikan, sarta ngabagi-bagi lahan Indian janten kapamilikan somah (kulawarga) masing-masing.{{sfnm|Trefousse|2002|1p=109|Davison|1972|2pp=186–187}} Hayes yakin yén kawijakanana bakal mawa kamerdikaan ékonomi sarta katengtreman antara urang Indian sarta kulit bodas.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=341–343, 449–450}} Sistem pembagian lahan (''allotment system'') di handapeun [[Undang-Undang Dawes]] harita dipikaresep ku para réformis liberal, nanging tétéla kalahka ngarugikeun urang Indian. Maranéhna kaleungitan seueur lahan alatan dijual ku pamaréntah salaku "lahan kaleuwihan", sarta seueur lahan anu dicokot ku para [[Spékulasi|spékulan]] kulit bodas anu teu jujur.{{sfn|Stuart|1977|pp=452–454}} Sanajan Hayes sarta Schurz ngoméan Biro Urusan Indian pikeun ngurangan kacurangan, éta lembaga umumna kakurangan tanaga gawé.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=343–344, 449}} Hayes nanganan sababaraha konflik sareng suku-suku Indian. Suku [[Nez Perce]], anu dipingpin ku [[Chief Joseph]], ngamimitian [[Perang Nez Perce|pemberontakan]] dina sasih Juni 1877 nalika Mayor Jenderal [[Oliver O. Howard]] maréntahkeun maranéhna pindah ka [[Résérvasi Indian|résérvasi]]. Suku Nez Perce nyoba kabur sajauh 1.700 mil ka [[Kanada]], nanging tungtungna Chief Joseph nyerah di [[Bear Paw]], Montana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=338–341}} Perang Nez Perce sanés konflik terakhir; suku [[Bannock]] ogé ngayakeun perlawanan dina taun 1878 di Idaho sateuacan ditalukkeun ku pasukan Howard.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=184–185}} Dina taun 1879, perang sareng suku [[Ute]] bitu di Colorado saatos maranéhna nelasan agén Indian [[Nathan Meeker]]. Ieu konflik réngsé saatos Schurz ngayakeun negoisasi daméy sarta nyegah para padumuk kulit bodas ngalakukeun bales dendam.{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=123}} Hayes ogé aub dina ngaréngsékeun masalah pamindahan suku [[Ponca]] ti [[Nebraska]] ka Téritori Indian (ayeuna [[Oklahoma]]). Masalah ieu narik perhatian Hayes saatos pamimpinna, [[Standing Bear]], ngajukeun gugatan hukum. Hayes ngawangun komisi dina taun 1880 anu mutuskeun yén suku Ponca bébas mulang ka tanah asalna di Nebraska atanapi tetep di résérvasi.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=450–454|Sproat|1974|2p=173}} Dina pesenna ka Kongrés dina Pébruari 1881, Hayes negeskeun yén anjeunna bakal "méré ka ieu jalma-jalma anu katindes ukuran kaadilan sarta kamanusaan anu sakuduna."{{sfn|Trefousse|2002|p=124}} === Perjalanan Ageung ka Kulon 1880 === Dina taun 1880, Hayes ngayakeun perjalanan salami 71 dinten ka [[Amérika Sarikat bagian Kulon]], janten présidén kadua anu nuju ngajabat anu ngalanto ka kuloneun [[Pagunungan Rocky]]. Rombongan perjalanana ngawengku pamajidanna sarta [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], anu mantuan ngatur éta lalampahan. Hayes angkat dina sasih Séptémber 1880, miang ti Chicago ngagunakeun [[Jalur karéta api transkontinental munggaran|jalur karéta api transkontinental]]. Hayes meuntas buana, dugi ka California, sarta eureun heula di Wyoming, Utah, sarta Nevada sateuacan dugi ka Sacramento sarta San Francisco. Ngagunakeun karéta api sarta karéta kuda (''stagecoach''), rombongan éta ngalanto ka kalér ka Oregon, dugi ka Portland, sarta ti dinya ka Vancouver, Washington. Ngagunakeun kapal uap, maranéhna nganjang ka Seattle, teras mulang deui ka San Francisco. Hayes teras ngurilingan sababaraha nagara bagian di kidul-kulon sateuacan mulang ka Ohio dina sasih Nopémber, pas pisan waktosna pikeun méré sora dina pamilihan présidén 1880. === Gedong Bodas jaman Hayes === Hayes sarta pamajidanna, [[Lucy Webb Hayes|Lucy]], kawentar ku kawijakanana anu ngalarang ayana alkohol di Gedong Bodas, anu ngabalukarkeun pamajidanna meunang lalandian "Lemonade Lucy".{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1p=3|Davison|1972|2p=xv}} Resépsi munggaran di Gedong Bodas harita sabenerna masih mintonkeun anggur (''wine''), nanging Hayes ngarasa kuciwa ningal paripolah mabok dina resépsi-resépsi anu diayakeun ku para duta besar di Washington, sahingga anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nuturkeun pamadegan pamajidanna ngeunaan [[Gerakan temperance|pantang alkohol]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=384}} Kritikus nuduh Hayes pedit, nanging Hayes kalahka méspentkeun langkung seueur artos (tina saku pribadi) saatos larangan éta, kalayan maréntahkeun sangkan sésa anggaran tina alkohol dipaké pikeun hiburan anu langkung méwah. Kawijakan ieu ogé mawa kauntungan pulitik, nyaéta nguatkeun dukungan ti para pandita [[Protestan]]. Sanajan Sekretaris Evarts kungsi banyol yén dina jamuan tuang di Gedong Bodas, "cai ngamalir lir ibarat anggur," ieu kawijakan hasil ngayakinkeun para pangrojong larangan alkohol pikeun milih Républik.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=458}} === Pangangkatan hakim === {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Rutherford B. Hayes}} Hayes ngangkat dua [[Hakim Agung Amérika Sarikat|Hakim Agung]]. Anu munggaran nyaéta [[John Marshall Harlan]]. Harlan téh urut calon gubernur Kentucky anu engkéna ngabakti di pangadilan salami 34 taun. Anjeunna kawentar salaku hakim anu (sanajan seringna janten sora minoritas) satia ngabéla penegakan hukum hak sipil sacara agrésif.{{sfn|Davison|1972|pp=130–132}} Dina taun 1880, korsi kadua kosong sarta Hayes nyalonkeun [[William Burnham Woods]]. Woods ngabakti salami genep taun, nanging tungtungna nguciwakeun Hayes margi anjeunna napsirkeun Konstitusi ku cara anu langkung condong ka Démokrat Kidul tinimbang ka pamadegan Hayes sorangan.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=268, 498}} Hayes ogé nyoba nyalonkeun sobatna, [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]], dina taun 1881. Nanging, seueur sénator anu nolak margi Matthews dianggap teuing ku deukeut teuing sareng kapentingan pausahaan ageung sarta karéta api. Sénat nolak méré sora nepi ka mangsa jabatan Hayes réngsé. Engkéna, dina jaman Présidén [[James A. Garfield]], Matthews tungtungna disahkeun janten hakim ku bédana mung hiji sora (24-23). Kaputusanana dina kasus ''[[Yick Wo v. Hopkins]]'' (1886) némbongkeun dukunganana kana hak-hak minoritas étnis, luyu sareng visi Hayes.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|p=457}} == Sabada kapersidénan (1881–1893) == [[File:Hayes in 1886.jpg|thumb|Hayes dina taun 1886]] {{Georgism|politicians}} Hayes nolak pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880|pamilihan 1880]], nepi kana jangjina mung ngajabat salila samasa jabatan.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|p=549}} Anjeunna ngarasa sugema nalika rénjangna ti Ohio, James A. Garfield, kapilih pikeun ngagantikeunana.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=447–465}} Saatos pelantikan Garfield, Hayes sarta kulawargana mulang ka [[Spiegel Grove]].{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=466–467}} Hayes janten tokoh anu vokal dina ngamajukeun amal atikan sarta subsidi atikan féderal pikeun sadaya barudak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=471–475|Thelen|1970|2p=156}} Anjeunna yakin yén atikan téh cara panghadéna pikeun ngubaran "borok" dina masarakat Amérika. Dina taun 1887, Hayes diangkat janten Déwan Pangawas di [[Universitas Nagara Ohio]] (Ohio State University), sakola anu kungsi dibantuan ku anjeunna nalika janten gubernur.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=498–499}} Hayes ogé ngarojong pisan kana atikan vokasional (kaahlian): "Sim kuring mawakeun 'injil' digawé," seratna, "Sim kuring percaya kana tanaga gawé anu ahli salaku bagian tina atikan."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|p=506}} Dina taun 1889, anjeunna masihan biantara anu ngajurung mahasiswa kulit hideung pikeun ngalamar béasiswa ti Slater Fund; salah sahiji anu nampi nyaéta tokoh kawentar [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] dina taun 1892.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=518–523}} Dina mangsa pangsiunna, Hayes ngarasa hariwang ku ayana jurang antara nu beunghar jeung nu miskin. Dina buku poéanana taun 1887, anjeunna nyerat: {{blockquote | Dina pikiran sim kuring, tos waktosna masarakat terang yén bahaya pangageungna di ieu nagara nyaéta kabeungharan raksasa anu dikawasa ku saeutik jalma. Duit téh kakuatan. Di Kongrés, di législatif nagara bagian, di pangadilan, nepi ka mimbar-mimbar agama, pangaruhna beuki ageung. Kabeungharan anu kaleuleuwihi di leungeun saeutik jalma hartosna kamiskinan ékstrim, kabodoan, sarta kasangsaraan pikeun jalma réa... Urang kedah terang yén ieu téh borok sateuacan urang tiasa ngaleungitkeunana.{{sfnm|Hayes|1922|1loc=v. 4|1p=354|Swint|1952|2pp=46–47}} }} Sanaos anjeunna diidéntifikasi salaku saurang konservatif, Hayes némbongkeun rasa simpati kana sawangan sosialisme dina kontéks palayanan publik, sapertos sistem pos sarta sakola nagara anu dianggapna salaku conto "sosialisme praktis". === Pupusna === Hayes kacida sedihna nalika pamajidanna, Lucy, pupus dina taun 1889. Hayes nyerat yén "jiwa parantos ninggalkeun Spiegel Grove".{{sfn|Hoogenboom|1995|pp=508–510}} Dina taun 1890, anjeunna mingpin Konférénsi Lake Mohonk ngeunaan Masalah Kulit Hideung pikeun ngabahas isu-isu rasial.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom|1995|1pp=515–517|Foner|2002|2pp=605–606}} Hayes pupus alatan komplikasi serangan jantung di bumina dina 17 Januari 1893, dina yuswa 70 taun.{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=522–523}} Kecap panungtunganana nyaéta, "Sim kuring terang yén sim kuring bade nuju ka tempat di mana Lucy aya."{{sfn|Barnard|2005|pp=522–523}} Présidén-kapilih Cleveland sarta Gubernur Ohio McKinley mingpin rombongan layon. Hayes mimitina dikurebkeun di Oakwood Cemetery, nanging dina taun 1915, jasadna dipindahkeun ka bumina di [[Spiegel Grove]] sangkan ngahiji sareng makam pamajidanna. {{clear}} == Warisan sarta panghurmatan == Panulis biografi [[Ari Hoogenboom]] nyerat yén prestasi pangageungna Hayes nyaéta mulikkeun kapercayaan rahayat ka lembaga kapersidénan sarta malikkeun deui kakuatan éksékutif anu kungsi nyirorot saatos [[Pamaténian Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1865. Para pangrojongna muji komitmen anjeunna kana réformasi layanan sipil; nanging para kritik nyacad sikepna anu dianggap teuing lungsé ka urut nagara-nagara bagian Konfédérasi, sarta kawijakanana anu narik dukungan féderal pikeun hak pilih sarta hak sipil [[Warga Amérika katurunan Afrika]].{{sfn|Hamilton|2010|p=163}} Para sejarawan sarta akademisi umumna [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Hayes salaku présidén anu "rata-rata" atanapi di handapeun rata-rata.{{sfn|Federalist Society|2000}}{{sfn|Otis|2014}} Saatos bumina disumbangkeun ka nagara bagian Ohio pikeun janten Taman Nagara [[Spiegel Grove]], jasad Hayes dipindahkeun ka dinya dina taun 1915. Taun salajengna, [[Pusat Présidén Rutherford B. Hayes|Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Pangéling-ngéling Hayes]] dibuka di éta lokasi. Ieu mangrupikeun perpustakaan kapersidénan munggaran di Amérika Sarikat, anu diwangun tina sumbangan nagara bagian Ohio sarta kulawarga Hayes.{{sfn|Smith|1980|pp=485–488}} Dina taun 1922, Kantor Pos A.S. ngaluarkeun prangko munggaran pikeun ngahormatan Hayes, tepat 100 taun saatos kalahiranana. Prangko Hayes sanésna, [[:File:RB Hayes 1938 Issue2-19c.jpg|édisi 19 sén]], [[Isu Présidén|dikaluarkeun dina taun 1938]]. Dina taun 2011, United States Mint ngaluarkeun koin "Golden Dollar", anu mangrupikeun mata uang A.S. munggaran anu nganggo gambar Hayes pikeun ngahormatan anjeunna. {| style="margin:auto" | [[Berkas:Hayes 1922 Issue2-11c.jpg|thumb|180px|Prangko Hayes, édisi 1922, pangéling-ngéling 100 taun kalahiranana.]] |&nbsp;&nbsp; | [[Berkas:Rutherford Hayes Presidential Golden Dollar, of 2011, 1 dollar.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|{{center|Koin "Golden Dollar" Hayes,<br>dicitak taun 2011}}]] |} Hayes kungsi janten arbiter sarta mutuskeun sengketa taun 1878 antara Argéntina sarta Paraguay anu nguntungkeun pihak Paraguay. Ieu kaputusan masihan Paraguay sakitar 60% tina wilayahna anu ayeuna. Hal ieu ngabalukarkeun namina diabadikeun janten nami propinsi: [[Departemén Presidente Hayes]] (ibukota: [[Villa Hayes]]). Aya ogé poé peré resmi: **[[Laudo Hayes Firm Day]], pikeun ngéling-ngéling éta kaputusan; malah aya tim maén bal lokal anu dingaranan [[Club Presidente Hayes]] (katelah ogé "Los Yanquis") di ibukota [[Asunción]].{{sfn|Teeter|2009}} Salian ti éta, nami Hayes ogé diabadikeun pikeun: * [[Hayes County, Nebraska]]: Hiji county di nagara bagian Nebraska.{{sfn|Gannett|1905|p=153}} * [[Rutherford B. Hayes High School (Delaware, Ohio)|SMA Rutherford B. Hayes]]: Di kota kalahiranana, Delaware, Ohio. * [[University, Hayes and Orton Halls|Hayes Hall]]: Diwangun taun 1893 di Universitas Nagara Ohio. Ieu mangrupikeun gedong pangkolotna anu masih aya di dinya sarta tos didaptarkeun salaku Tempat Sajarah Nasional. Hayes terang yén éta gedong bakal dingaranan dumasar kana namina, nanging anjeunna pupus sateuacan éta gedong réngsé. Dina 21 Oktober 1890, Hayes ogé kapilih janten anggota [[American Antiquarian Society]]. Kota Delaware ogé ngadegkeun patung Hayes pikeun ngahormatan jasa-jasana. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar politikus Universitas Harvard]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman saméméhna]] == Catetan == {{Notelist|30em}} == Rujukan == === Kutipan === {{Reflist|25em}} === Buku === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last = Barnard | first = Harry | date = 2005 | orig-year = 1954 | title = Rutherford Hayes and his America | url = https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes0000harr | publisher = American Political Biography Press | location = Newtown, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-945707-05-9}} * {{cite book | last = Bruce | first = Robert V. | date = 1989 | orig-year = 1959 | title = 1877: Year of Violence | url = https://archive.org/details/1877yearofviolen0000bruc_w1p1 | publisher = Ivan R. Dee, Publisher | isbn = 978-0-929587-05-9}} * {{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Charles W. |author-link=Charles W. Calhoun |title=The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofulys0000calh |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3}} * {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Edwina S. |title=Citizen of a Wider Commonwealth: Ulysses S. Grant's Postpresidential Diplomacy |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale, Illinois |date=2016 |isbn=978-0809334780}} * {{cite book |last=Conwell |first=Russell H. |title=Life and public services of Gov. Rutherford B. Hayes |url=https://archive.org/details/lifepublicservic01conw |authorlink=Russell H. Conwell |publisher=B. B. Russell; Philadelphia, Quaker city pub. house |location=Boston |year=1876}} * {{cite book | last = Davison | first = Kenneth E. | date = 1972 | title = The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes | url = https://archive.org/details/presidencyofruth00davi | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Connecticut | isbn = 978-0-8371-6275-1}} * {{cite book | last = Foner | first = Eric | author-link = Eric Foner | date = 2002 | orig-year = 1988 | title = Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 | publisher = Harper Perennial Modern Classics | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-06-093716-4}} * {{cite book | last = Grant | first = Ulysses S. | author-link = Ulysses S. Grant | date = 2003 | orig-year = 1885 | title = Personal Memoirs | publisher = Barnes & Noble, Inc | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-7607-4990-6}} * {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Rutherford B. |date=1922 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Charles Richard |title=The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States |publisher=Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society |location=Columbus, Ohio |volume=1}} * {{cite book | last = Hoogenboom | first = Ari | author-link = Ari Hoogenboom | date = 1995 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700606412 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, Kansas | isbn = 978-0-7006-0641-2}} * {{cite book |last=McFeely |first=William S. |author-link=William S. McFeely |title=Grant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00will |location=New York |publisher= Norton |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-3933-4287-1}} * {{cite book | last = Reid | first = Whitelaw | author-link = Whitelaw Reid | date = 1868 | title = Ohio in the War: The history of her regiments, and other military organizations | url = https://archive.org/details/ohiointhewar02reidrich | publisher = Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin}} * {{cite book | last = Richardson | first = Heather Cox | date = 2001 | title = The Death of Reconstruction | url = https://archive.org/details/deathofreconstru0000rich | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | isbn = 978-0-674-00637-9}} * {{cite book | last = Trefousse | first = Hans L. | author-link = Hans L. Trefousse | date = 2002 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes | url = https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes0000tref | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6907-5}} * {{cite book | last = Unger | first = Irwin | author-link = Irwin Unger | date = 2008 | title = The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 1865–1879 | publisher = ACLS Humanities | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-59740-431-0}} * {{cite book |title=American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/americanulyssesl0000whit_w9r7 |last=White |first=Ronald C. |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5883-6992-5}} {{refend}} === Artikel === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | last = Clendenen | first = Clarence | author-link = Clarence C. Clendenen |date=October 1969 | title = President Hayes' "Withdrawal" of the Troops: An Enduring Myth | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_south-carolina-historical-magazine_1969-10_70_4/page/240 | journal = The South Carolina Historical Magazine | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | jstor = 27566958 | pages = 240–250}} * {{cite journal | last = Klotsche | first = J. Martin | author-link = J. Martin Klotsche |date=December 1935 | title = The Star Route Cases | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | jstor = 1892626 | pages = 407–418 | doi = 10.2307/1892626}} * {{cite journal | last = Paul | first = Ezra |date=Winter 1998 | title = Congressional Relations and Public Relations in the Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_winter-1998_28_1/page/68 | journal = Presidential Studies Quarterly | volume = 28 | jstor = 27551831 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–87}} * Skidmore, Max J. "Rutherford B. Hayes." dina ''Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century'' (2014): 50–62. * {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Thomas A. |date=1980 |title=Before Hyde Park: The Rutherford B. Hayes Library |url=https://archive.org/details/american-archivist_fall-1980_43_4/page/485 |journal=The American Archivist |volume=43 |pages=485–488 |jstor=40292342 |issue=4}} * {{cite journal | last = Stuart | first = Paul |date=September 1977 | title = United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_social-service-review_1977-09_51_3/page/451 | journal = Social Service Review | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 451–463 | jstor = 30015511 | doi = 10.1086/643524}} * {{cite journal | last = Swint | first = Henry L. |date=June 1952 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes, Educator | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 45–60 | jstor = 1902843 | doi = 10.2307/1902843}} * {{cite journal | last = Thelen | first = David P. |date=Summer 1970 | title = Rutherford B. Hayes and the Reform Tradition in the Gilded Age | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-quarterly_summer-1970_22_2/page/150 | journal = American Quarterly | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 150–165 | jstor = 2711639 | doi = 10.2307/2711639}} {{refend}} == Tumbu kaluar == * {{CongBio|H000393}} * [http://www.rbhayes.org Pusat Présidén Rutherford B. Hayes] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/hayes/index.html Rutherford B. Hayes: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Perpustakaan Kongrés]] * [http://millercenter.org/president/hayes Eséy éksténsif ngeunaan Rutherford B. Hayes] ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * {{Librivox author |id=11290}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1652}} {{Rutherford B. Hayes}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghurmatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Alexander Long]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Ohio|DPR Amérika Sarikat]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-2 Ohio]]|years=1865–1867}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel Fenton Cary]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Dolson Cox]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon ti [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] pikeun [[Gubernur Ohio]]|years=[[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1867|1867]], [[Pamilihan gubernur Ohio 1869|1869]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Edward Follansbee Noyes]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon ti [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] pikeun [[Daptar tiket présidén Partéy Républik Amérika Sarikat|Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|1876]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James A. Garfield]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Jacob Dolson Cox]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Gubernur Ohio]]|years=1868–1872}} {{s-aft|after=[[Edward Follansbee Noyes]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Allen (gubernur)|William Allen]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Gubernur Ohio|years=1876–1877}} {{s-aft|after=[[Thomas L. Young]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1877–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[James A. Garfield]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |list= {{US Presidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{Governors of Ohio}} {{OhioRepresentatives02}} {{Hayes cabinet}} {{Reconstruction Era}}}} {{Subject bar|commons=y|q=y|s=y|portal1=Biografi|portal2=Perang Sadulur Amérika|portal5=Pulitik|portal6=Hukum|portal7=Amérika Sarikat}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hayes, Rutherford B.}} [[Kategori:Rutherford B. Hayes| ]] [[Kategori:Kalahiran 1822]] [[Kategori:Pupus 1893]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Abolisionis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Gubernur Ohio]] [[Kategori:Alumni Sakola Hukum Harvard]] [[Kategori:Ahli hukum Ohio]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Jénderal angkatan darat Uni]] jf9cgfas5tj0a6r22mhq2qm4vtltwlb James A. Garfield 0 107881 712390 711585 2026-08-28T22:26:47Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = James A. Garfield | image = James Abram Garfield, photo portrait seated.jpg | caption = Garfield {{c.}} 1881 | alt = Poto potrét Garfield, janggotna kandel, nganggo jas "double-breasted" | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-20 | office = Présidén Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = [[Chester A. Arthur]] | term = 4 Maret 1881{{Snd}}19 Séptémber 1881 | predecessor = [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] | successor = [[Chester A. Arthur]] | state1 = [[Ohio]] | district1 = Distrik ka-19 | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1863 | term_end1 = 8 Nopémber 1880 | predecessor1 = [[Albert G. Riddle]] | successor1 = [[Ezra B. Taylor]] | birth_name = James Abram Garfield | birth_date = {{Birth date|1831|11|19}} | birth_place = [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], AS | death_date = {{Death date and age|1881|09|19|1831|11|19}} | death_place = [[Elberon, New Jersey]], AS | death_cause = Inféksi parna ([[sepsis]] sarta [[pneumonia]]) saatos [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|ditémbak]] | resting_place = [[James A. Garfield Memorial]], Cleveland, Ohio | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] | spouse = [[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]] | children = 7, kalebet [[Harry Augustus Garfield|Hal]], [[James Rudolph Garfield|James]], sarta [[Abram Garfield|Abram]] | occupation = Politikus, pangacara, panghulu, pendidik | education = [[Hiram College]], [[Williams College]] | signature = James Abram Garfield Signature.svg | allegiance = [[Uni (Perang Sipil Amérika)|Amérika Sarikat]] | branch = [[Tentara Uni]] | serviceyears = 1861–1863 | rank = [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|Major general]] | battles = * [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] ** [[Pertempuran Middle Creek]] ** [[Pertempuran Shiloh]] ** [[Pengepungan Corinth]] ** [[Kampanye Tullahoma]] ** [[Pertempuran Chickamauga]] }} '''James Abram Garfield''' (19 Nopémber 1831{{Snd}}19 Séptémber 1881) nyaéta Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ka-20, ngajabat ti Maret 1881 dugi ka pupusna dina bulan Séptémber taun éta kénéh saatos [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|ditémbak dina bulan Juli]]. Saurang panghulu, pangacara, sarta jénderal dina [[Perang Sipil Amérika|Perang Sipil]], Garfield ngajabat salila salapan mangsa di [[DPR Amérika Sarikat]] sarta mangrupikeun hiji-hijina anggota DPR anu nuju ngajabat anu kapilih janten présidén. Sateuacan nyalonkeun diri janten présidén, Majelis Umum Ohio parantos milih anjeunna ka Sénat AS, hiji posisi anu ditolak ku anjeunna saatos janten [[President-elect of the United States|présidén terpilih]]. Garfield lahir dina kaayaan miskin di hiji [[imah]] log sarta digedékeun di [[Ohio Kalér-Wétan]]. Saatos lulus ti [[Williams College]] dina taun 1856, anjeunna neuleuman widang hukum sarta janten saurang pokrol (pangacara). Garfield mangrupikeun saurang panghulu dina Gerakan Réstorasi sarta présidén di [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]], anu aya hubunganana sareng jamaah Disciples. Anjeunna kapilih salaku anggota [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] dina Sénat Nagara Bagian Ohio taun 1859, ngajabat dugi ka taun 1861. Garfield nentang pamisahan diri (séksési) Konfédérasi, janten [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|jénderal mayor]] di [[Tentara Uni]] nalika Perang Sipil Amérika, sarta perang dina pertempuran [[Battle of Middle Creek|Middle Creek]], [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]], sarta [[Battle of Chickamauga|Chickamauga]]. Anjeunna kapilih jadi anggota Kongrés dina taun 1862 ngawakilan [[Ohio's 19th congressional district|distrik ka-19 Ohio]]. Salila karirna di Kongrés, Garfield sacara teguh ngarojong [[standar emas]] sarta meunang reputasi salaku orator anu ahli. Mimitina anjeunna satuju sareng pandangan [[Républik Radikal]] ngeunaan [[Éra Rékonstruksi|Rékonstruksi]], tapi saatosna langkung milih pendekatan [[Républik Moderat]] pikeun penegakan hak-hak sipil jalma-jalma anu nembé merdéka (freedmen). Kapinteran Garfield dina matématika ngawengku [[Garfield's proof of the Pythagorean theorem|bukti karyana sorangan]] pikeun [[Téoréma Pythagoras]], anu dipedalkeun dina taun 1876, sarta anjeunna ngarojong panggunaan statistik pikeun nangtukeun kawijakan pamaréntah. Dina Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880, para delegasi milih Garfield, anu sabenerna henteu milari jabatan di Gedong Bodas, salaku calon présidén kompromi dina sora (ballot) ka-36. Dina [[Pemilihan présidén AS 1880|pamilihan présidén 1880]], anjeunna ngajalankeun kampanye "front porch" anu saderhana sarta sakedik pisan ngéléhkeun calon ti Démokrat, [[Winfield Scott Hancock]]. Préstasi Garfield salaku présidén kalebet negeskeun deui otoritas présidén ngalawan kabiasaan sénat (''senatorial courtesy'') dina janjian éksekutif, meresihan korupsi di Departemén Kantor Pos AS, sarta ngangkat saurang hakim Mahkamah Agung. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong téknologi tatanén, masarakat anu terdidik, sarta [[Gerakan hak sipil (1865–1896)|hak-hak sipil pikeun urang Amérika katurunan Afrika]]. Anjeunna ogé ngusulkeun réformasi layanan sipil anu penting, anu ahirna disahkeun ku Kongrés dina taun 1883 salaku [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act|Undang-Undang Réformasi Layanan Sipil Pendleton]] sarta ditéken ku gagantina, [[Chester A. Arthur]]. Garfield mangrupikeun anggota faksi "[[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]" di jero partéy anu ngagunakeun kakawasaan présidén pikeun nentang Sénator "[[Stalwarts (politics)|Stalwart]]" [[Roscoe Conkling]] anu kuat ti New York. Anjeunna ngalakukeun ieu ku cara nunjuk pamingpin faksi Blaine, [[William H. Robertson]], kana posisi anu nguntungkeun salaku Koléktor Palabuhan New York. Patempuran politik anu lumangsung ngabalukarkeun dikonpirmasina Robertson sarta mundurna Conkling jeung [[Thomas C. Platt]] tina Sénat. Dina kaping 2 Juli 1881, Garfield ditémbak ku [[Charles J. Guiteau]], saurang anu boga halusinasi hayang meunang jabatan (''office seeker''). Anjeunna pupus dina 19 Séptémber alatan inféksi tina tatuna sarta digantikeun ku Wakil Présidén Chester A. Arthur. Lantaran mangsa jabatanana anu pondok sarta kurangna parobahan gedé salila mangsa jabatanna, para sejarawan condong [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun anjeunna]] salaku présidén anu di handapeun rata-rata atawa malah teu diasupkeun pisan kana daptar peringkat, sanajan sawatara pihak ningali poténsi Garfield kalayan saé, muji anjeunna dina sikep anti-korupsi sarta pro-hak sipil.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the C-SPAN Presidential Historians Survey? |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall |date=2021 |access-date=February 16, 2024}}</ref> == Masa budak sarta awal kahirupan == [[File:MorelandHillsGarfieldCabin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Imah log kalayan patung sarta tangkal di hareupna|Réplika [[imah log]] di [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]], tempat lahirna Garfield]] James Abram Garfield lahir salaku bungsu ti lima sadulur dina 19 Nopémber 1831, di hiji imah log di [[Orange Township, Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Orange Township]], anu saatosna janten [[Moreland Hills, Ohio]].{{efn|Orange Township perenahna di [[Western Reserve]] dugi ka taun 1800.}} Karuhun Garfield, Edward Garfield, pindah ti [[Hillmorton]], [[Warwickshire]], Inggris, ka Massachusetts sakitar taun 1630. Rama James, [[Abraham Garfield|Abraham]], lahir di [[Worcester, New York]], sarta sumping ka Ohio pikeun milari kabogoh mangsa budakna, Mehitabel Ballou, nanging tétéla anjeunna parantos nikah. Abraham ahirna nikah ka adina Mehitabel, Eliza, anu lahir di New Hampshire. James dingaranan luyu sareng nami putra Eliza sarta Abram sateuacanna anu pupus nalika masih orok.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=4–6}} Dina awal taun 1833, Abram sarta Eliza Garfield ngagabung ka garéja [[Gerakan Réstorasi|Stone-Campbell]], hiji kaputusan anu mangaruhan pisan kana jalan hirup putra bungsuna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=6–7}} Abram pupus dina taun éta kénéh, sarta James digedékeun dina kaayaan miskin di asuhan indungna anu gaduh karep kuat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=8–10}} James mangrupikeun anak anu diogo indungna, sarta duanana terus raket saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=4}} Eliza nikah deui dina taun 1842, nanging teu lami anjeunna ninggalkeun salaki kaduana, Warren (atanapi Alfred) Belden, sarta ditalak (divorce) dina taun 1850. James mihak ka indungna dina éta urusan sarta nyatet pupusna Belden dina taun 1880 kalayan rasa sugema dina buku poéanna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} Garfield ogé resep kana dongéng-dongéng indungna ngeunaan karuhunna, utamana ngeunaan aki buyutna anu asalna ti [[Urang Welsh|Wales]] sarta saurang karuhun anu janten ksatria di [[Kastil Caerphilly]].{{sfn|Brown|1881|p=23}} Lantaran miskin sarta teu gaduh bapa, Garfield sering dihina ku babaturanana sarta janten sénsitif kana hinaan sapanjang hirupna; anjeunna milari hiburan ku cara kacida resepna maca buku.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=10–11}} Anjeunna ninggalkeun bumi dina yuswa 16 taun dina taun 1847 sarta ditolak nalika badé damel dina hiji-hijina kapal anu aya di palabuhan [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. Garfield ahirna mendakan padamelan dina kapal kanal, ngurus bagal (mules) anu narik éta kapal.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=30–33}} [[Horatio Alger]] saatosna ngagunakeun ieu pangalaman damel salaku bahan anu saé nalika anjeunna nyerat biografi kampanye Garfield dina taun 1880.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=10}} Saatos genep minggu, panyakit maksa Garfield mulang ka bumi, sarta nalika nuju panyéhatan, indungna sarta saurang pajabat sakola lokal hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna pikeun milih sakola salila sataun batan damel deui di kanal. Dina taun 1848, anjeunna mimiti sakola di [[Geauga Seminary]], di deukeut [[Chester Township, Geauga County, Ohio]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=14–17}} Garfield saatosna nyarios ngeunaan mangsa budakna, "Kuring hanjelu yén kuring lahir dina kamiskinan, sarta dina karusutan mangsa budak ieu, tujuh belas taun kaliwat sateuacan kuring kenging inspirasi... hiji mangsa 17 taun anu kacida berhargana dimana saurang budak anu gaduh bapa sarta harta meureun parantos gaduh tatapakan anu ajég dina jalan kadéwasan."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=13}} == Atikan, pernikahan, sarta awal karir == [[File:Garfield-at-16.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Garfield ngora anu teu imut, buukna kulimis, nganggo jas tilu potongan|Garfield dina yuswa 16 taun]] Garfield sakola di Geauga Seminary ti taun 1848 dugi ka 1850 sarta diajar mata pelajaran akademik anu sateuacanna teu kaurus ku anjeunna. Anjeunna janten murid anu onjoy sarta kacida kabetotna kana basa jeung [[elokusi]] (seni nyarita). Anjeunna mimiti mahami kakuatan saurang orator di payuneun pamiarsa, sarta nyerat yén panggung pidato téh "ngahudangkeun sumanget. Kuring resep kana perdebatan sarta panalungtikan, sarta sugema nalika ngabéla bebeneran anu teu populer ngalawan kasalahan anu populer."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=6}} Geauga mangrupikeun sakola campuran (lalaki jeung awéwé), sarta Garfield kabetot ku salah saurang babaturan sakelasna, [[Lucretia Garfield|Lucretia Rudolph]], anu saatosna janten pamajikanana.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=71–73}} Pikeun nyukupan pangabutuh hirupna salila di Geauga, anjeunna damel janten asistén tukang kai sarta guru.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=47–49}} Kabiasaan pindah ti kota ka kota pikeun milari padamelan janten guru ngajantenkeun Garfield teu resep kana naon anu ku anjeunna disebut "milari jabatan" (''place-seeking''), anu saatosna janten "hukum dina hirup kuring."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} Dina taun-taun salajengna, anjeunna ngajantenkeun babaturanana héran ku cara ngabaékeun posisi-posisi anu sabenerna bisa dihontal ku anjeunna kalayan sakedik usaha politik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=16}} Garfield mimitina lungsur-langsar ka garéja téh langkung kusabab hoyong nyenangkeun indungna batan ibadah ka Gusti, nanging dina mangsa rumajana anjeunna ngalaman gugah spiritual. Anjeunna ngiringan seueur [[camp meeting]], anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna [[Born again (Christianity)|lahir deui]] dina 4 Maret 1850, nalika anjeunna dibaptis ku cara dikeueum dina cai tiris di [[Walungan Chagrin]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=17}} Saatos kaluar ti Geauga, Garfield damel sataun dina sababaraha widang, kalebet janten guru.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=21}} Nalika terang yén sababaraha urang New England tiasa kuliah bari damel, Garfield nekad pikeun ngalakukeun hal anu sami sarta milari sakola anu tiasa nyiapkeun anjeunna pikeun ujian asup. Ti taun 1851 dugi ka 1854, anjeunna sakola di [[Western Reserve Eclectic Institute]] (saatosna dingaranan [[Hiram College]]) di [[Hiram, Ohio]], hiji sakola anu diadegkeun ku sarta masih aya hubunganana sareng [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]. Nalika di dinya, anjeunna kacida kabetotna kana diajar basa Yunani sarta Latin, nanging anjeunna ogé kabuka pikeun diajar sarta ngadiskusikeun hal anyar naon waé anu kapanggih ku anjeunna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=27–28}} Anjeunna mimitina damel janten [[janitor]] (tukang beberesih) nalika asup, nanging ahirna kenging posisi janten guru nalika masih janten murid di dinya.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=22–23}} [[Lucretia Rudolph]] ogé sakola di éta Institut, sarta Garfield ngadeukeutan anjeunna nalika ngajar basa Yunani ka Lucretia.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=29}} Anjeunna ngamimitian kagiatan janten panghulu (preaching) anu rutin di garéja-garéja sabudeureunana, sarta dina sababaraha kasempetan, kenging bayaran sa- [[gold dollar|dolar emas]] dina unggal palayanan. Dina taun 1854, Garfield parantos neuleuman sakabéh élmu anu aya di éta Institut sarta janten guru pinuh.{{sfnm|Brown|1881|1p=56|Peskin|1978|2p=30}} Garfield salajengna daptar ka [[Williams College]] di [[Williamstown, Massachusetts]], salaku [[Junior (education year)|mahasiswa taun katilu]]; anjeunna kenging kiridit pikeun dua taun diajar di Institut saatos lulus ujian singget. Garfield ogé kataji ku présidén kuliahna, [[Mark Hopkins (educator)|Mark Hopkins]], anu ngabales kalayan haneut surat patarosan Garfield ngeunaan pangakuan murid. Anjeunna nyarios ngeunaan Hopkins, "Kuliah anu idéal nyaéta Mark Hopkins dina hiji tungtung log (watang kai) sarta saurang murid dina tungtung hiji deui."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=34}} Hopkins saatosna nyarios ngeunaan Garfield nalika janten muridna, "Aya kapasitas umum anu lega anu tiasa dilarapkeun kana naon waé mata pelajaran. Henteu aya sikep siga nu jenius atanapi usaha anu ngan ukur sakedapan, nanging mangrupikeun hiji pencapaian anu nyugemakeun dina sagala widang."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} Saatos semester kahijina, Garfield ditémbal pikeun ngajar seni nulis (penmanship) ka murid-murid di deukeut [[Pownal, Vermont]], hiji posisi anu sateuacanna dicepeng ku [[Chester A. Arthur]].{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} [[File:Lucretia Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.75|[[Lucretia Garfield]] dina taun 1870-an]] Garfield lulus kalayan gelar [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbk.org/presidents |title=Phi Beta Kappa Presidents |publisher=PBK |access-date=April 3, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118101012/https://www.pbk.org/presidents |url-status=live }}</ref> ti Williams dina bulan Agustus 1856, sarta janten [[salutatorian]] (lulusan kadua panghadéna) sarta nepikeun pidato dina mangsa [[Wisuda|kalulusan]]. Penulis biografina, Ira Rutkow, nyerat yén mangsa kuliah Garfield di Williams masihan anjeunna kasempetan pikeun mikawanoh sarta ngahormatan jalma-jalma tina latar tukang sosial anu béda, sarta sanajan anjeunna asalna ti urang Kulon anu saderhana, urang New England anu sadar sosial mikaresep sarta ngahormatan anjeunna. "Singketna," Rutkow nyerat, "Garfield miboga pangalaman munggaran anu lega sarta positif sareng dunya di luar Western Reserve Ohio."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=8}} Nalika mulang deui ka Ohio, gelar ti kuliah luhur di Wétan ngajantenkeun Garfield saurang jalma anu dipandang. Anjeunna mulang deui ka Hiram pikeun ngajar di Institut sarta dina taun 1857 diangkat janten kapala sakola (principal), sanajan anjeunna henteu ningali dunya pendidikan salaku widang anu bakal ngawujudkeun sakabéh poténsina. Suasana [[Abolisionisme|abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan) di Williams parantos ngahudangkeun kasadaran politikna, sarta saatos éta anjeunna mimiti mikirkeun politik salaku karirna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=11}} Anjeunna milu kampanye pikeun calon présidén Républik [[John C. Frémont]] dina taun 1856.<ref>{{cite web|last=Doenecke|first=Justus|url=https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|title=James Garfield: Life Before the Presidency|date=October 4, 2016|publisher=UVA Miller Center|access-date=December 18, 2021|archive-date=December 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218194947/https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/life-before-the-presidency|url-status=live}}</ref> Dina taun 1858, anjeunna nikah ka Lucretia, sarta maranéhna miboga tujuh anak, lima di antarana salamet ti mangsa orok.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=44}} Teu lami saatos kawinan, anjeunna daptar pikeun [[Belajar hukum|diajar hukum]] di kantor pokrol [[Albert Gallatin Riddle]] di Cleveland, sanajan anjeunna diajar di Hiram.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Collection Summary Title: James A. Garfield Papers Span Dates: 1775–1889 Bulk Dates: (bulk 1850–1881) ID No.: MSS291956|url=http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|journal=Library of Congress|access-date=December 31, 2019|archive-date=September 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925165541/http://memory.loc.gov/service/mss/eadxmlmss/eadpdfmss/2008/ms008147.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=74–75}} Anjeunna diangkat janten pokrol (diaku ku bar) dina taun 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=82}} Pamingpin [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] lokal ngondang Garfield pikeun asup ka dunya politik saatos pupusna Cyrus Prentiss, calon kuat pikeun korsi sénat nagara bagian lokal. Anjeunna dicalonkeun dina konvénsi partéy dina sora (ballot) kagenep sarta kapilih, ngajabat ti taun 1860 dugi ka 1861.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=60–61}} Usaha utama Garfield di sénat nagara bagian nyaéta ngusulkeun RUU (anu ahirna gagal) anu nyadiakeun [[survéi géologi]] munggaran di Ohio pikeun ngukur sumber daya mineralna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=73}} ==Civil War== [[File:General James Garfield - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Seated portrait in army uniform. Garfield has a full beard and mustache|Garfield as a brigadier general during the Civil War]] After [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s election as president, several Southern states announced their [[Secession in the United States|secession]] from the Union to form a new government, the [[Confederate States of America]]. Garfield read military texts while anxiously awaiting the war effort, which he regarded as a holy crusade against the [[Slave Power]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp = 86–87}} In April 1861, the rebels [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarded Fort Sumter]], one of the South's last federal outposts, beginning the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Although he had no military training, Garfield knew his place was in the Union Army.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=86–87}} At Governor [[William Dennison Jr.|William Dennison's]] request, Garfield deferred his military ambitions to remain in the legislature, where he helped appropriate the funds to raise and equip Ohio's volunteer regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} When the legislature adjourned, Garfield spent the spring and early summer on a speaking tour of northeastern Ohio, encouraging enlistment in the new regiments.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=87–89}} Following a trip to Illinois to purchase muskets, Garfield returned to Ohio and, in August 1861, received a commission as a [[Colonel (United States)|colonel]] in the [[42nd Ohio Infantry]] regiment.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The 42nd Ohio existed only on paper, so Garfield's first task was to fill its ranks. He did so quickly, recruiting many of his neighbors and former students.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} The regiment traveled to [[Camp Chase]], outside [[Columbus, Ohio]], to complete training.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=90–93}} During this period, on November 19, 1861, Garfield became a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]], at Magnolia Lodge, No. 20 in Columbus, Ohio, receiving the third degree after his military service was completed in 1864.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Masonic Presidents & Vice Presidents |url=https://scottishritenmj.org/blog/masonic-presidents-vice-presidents |access-date=January 23, 2025 |website=Scottish Rite, NMJ |language=en-US}}</ref> In December, Garfield was ordered to bring the 42nd to Kentucky, where they joined the [[Army of the Ohio]] under [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Don Carlos Buell]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=98–101}} === Komando Buell === Buell gancang méré pancén ka Garfield pikeun ngusir kakuatan Konfédérasi ti Kentucky wétan, méré anjeunna Brigade ka-18 pikeun ieu kampanye, anu salian ti resiménna sorangan (ka-42), ogé ngawengku [[40th Ohio Infantry]], dua resimén infanteri Kentucky, sarta dua unit kavaléri.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} Maranéhna mangkat ti [[Catlettsburg, Kentucky]], dina pertengahan Désémber, maju ngaliwatan lebak [[Walungan Big Sandy]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=101–103}} Lalampahan éta lumangsung tenang dugi ka pasukan Uni nepi ka [[Paintsville, Kentucky]], dina 6 Januari 1862, dimana kavaléri Garfield silih témbak jeung para pemberontak di Jenny's Creek.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Pasukan Konfédérasi di handapeun Brigadir Jéndéral [[Humphrey Marshall (general)|Humphrey Marshall]] nguasaan éta kota kalayan jumlah pasukan anu méh sarua jeung pasukan Garfield, nanging Garfield nempatkeun pasukanna ku cara anu nipu Marshall sangkan percaya yén jumlah pasukan Uni téh jauh leuwih loba.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=106–112}} Marshall méré paréntah ka pasukanna pikeun mundur ka simpang Middle Creek, dina jalan nuju ka Virginia, sarta Garfield maréntahkeun pasukanna pikeun terus ngudag.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=112–115}} Maranéhna nyerang posisi pemberontak dina 9 Januari 1862, dina [[Pertempuran Middle Creek]], hiji-hijina pertempuran tanding anu dipingpin sacara pribadi ku Garfield.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=76–78}} Dina ahir perang, pihak Konfédérasi mundur ti médan perang sarta Garfield ngirim pasukanna ka [[Prestonsburg, Kentucky|Prestonsburg]] pikeun nyadiakeun deui logistik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=116–120}} [[File:Middle Creek Battlefield.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Médan perang Middle Creek. Garfield maréntah ti pasir nu jauh di tengah poto.]] Salaku pangajén kana kasuksésanana, Garfield dionjatkeun pangkatna janten brigadir jéndéral.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=128}} Saatos mundurna Marshall, komando Garfield janten hiji-hijina kakuatan Uni anu nyésa di Kentucky wétan sarta anjeunna ngumumkeun yén sing saha waé jalma anu kungsi bajoang pikeun Konfédérasi bakal dibéré amnésti (pangampura) upami maranéhna mulang ka imahna, hirup rukun, sarta tetep satia ka Uni.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} Proklamasi éta téh kacida léngsérna (leuleuy), lantaran ayeuna Garfield percaya yén perang téh mangrupikeun hiji perjuangan suci pikeun ngabasmi perbudakan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=122–127}} Saatos lumangsungna silih témbak sakedap di [[Pound Gap]], unit pemberontak pamungkas di wewengkon éta kadeseh sarta mundur ka Virginia.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=81–82}} Kajunjungan pangkat Garfield méré anjeunna komando Brigade ka-20 ti Angkatan Darat Ohio, anu nampi paréntah pikeun ngagabung jeung pasukan [[Major general (Amérika Sarikat)|Jéndéral Mayor]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] nalika maranéhna maju nuju ka [[Corinth, Mississippi]], dina awal taun 1862.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=131–133}} Nanging, sateuacan Brigade ka-20 nepi, pasukan Konfédérasi di handapeun Jéndéral [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] nyerang dadakan pasukan Grant di kémah-kémahna, nepi ka kadeseh mundur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=134–135}} Pasukan Garfield nampi béja ngeunaan éta pertempuran sarta maju kalayan gancang, ngagabung jeung sésa pasukan lianna dina poé kadua pikeun ngusir deui pihak Konfédérasi sarta maksa maranéhna mundur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} Éta kajadian, anu saatosna katelah [[Pertempuran Shiloh]], mangrupikeun perang anu paling getas (paling loba korban) dina mangsa éta; Garfield kakeunaan ku silih témbak dina sabagéan badag poé éta, nanging anjeunna salamet teu tatu sakedik ogé.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=135–137}} Jéndéral Mayor [[Henry W. Halleck]], atasan Grant, nyepeng kadali gabungan angkatan darat sarta maju kalayan ati-ati nuju ka Corinth; nalika maranéhna nepi, pihak Konfédérasi parantos kabur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=138–139}} Dina usum panas éta, Garfield katarajang panyakit [[konéng]] (jaundice) sarta beurat awakna turun drastis.{{efn|Panulis biografi Allan Peskin boga spekulasi yén anjeunna sabenerna katarajang [[hépatitis inféksius]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=632–633}}}}{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} Anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka imahna, dimana pamajikanana ngurus anjeunna dugi ka damang deui.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=146–147}} Nalika anjeunna di imah, babaturan Garfield narékahan sangkan anjeunna kenging nominasi Républik pikeun Kongrés, nanging anjeunna nolak pikeun kampanye jeung para delegasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=147–148}} Anjeunna mulang deui kana tugas militér dina usum gugur éta sarta mangkat ka Washington pikeun ngantosan pancén salajengna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=149–151}} Salila mangsa nganggur ieu, aya gosip ngeunaan hubungan di luar nikah anu ngabalukarkeun géséh dina rumah tangga kulawarga Garfield dugi ka ahirna Lucretia milih pikeun mopohokeun éta urusan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=160–161}} Garfield sababaraha kali nampi rencana pancén anu gancang dibatalkeun deui, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna kuciwa.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=161–162}} Samentawis éta, anjeunna janten anggota [[mahkamah militer Fitz John Porter]] lantaran Porter dianggap kendor dina [[Pertempuran Bull Run Kadua]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} Anjeunna yakin yén Porter salah sarta milu méré sora jeung jéndéral-jéndéral séjénna pikeun ngahukum Porter.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=162–165}} Éta persidangan lumangsung méh dua bulan, ti Nopémber 1862 dugi ka Januari 1863, sarta dina ahirna, Garfield meunang pancén salaku lulugu staf (chief of staff) pikeun Jéndéral Mayor [[William S. Rosecrans]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=166}} === Lulugu staf pikeun Rosecrans === [[File:GenWmSRosecrans.jpg|thumb|upright|Jéndéral [[William S. Rosecrans]]]] Lulugu staf (''chief of staff'') jéndéral biasana dijabat ku perwira anu pangkatna langkung handap, nanging pangaruh Garfield ka Rosecrans langkung ageung batan biasana, kalayan tugas anu ngalangkungan saukur nepikeun paréntah nepi ka ngokolakeun sacara nyata [[Angkatan Darat Cumberland]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=176}} Rosecrans kacida resepna kana sawala (obrolan), utamana upami nuju teu tiasa kulem; dina diri Garfield, anjeunna mendakan "jalma munggaran anu wawasanana lega dina angkatan darat" sarta sosok anu idéal pikeun sawala anu jero nepi ka tengah peuting.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=169}} Maranéhna ngadiskusikeun saniskara hal, utamana ngeunaan agama, sarta duanana janten raket sanajan Garfield langkung ngora 12 taun. Rosecrans, anu parantos pindah agama ti [[Métodisme]] ka [[Katolik Roma]], ngalembutkeun sawangan Garfield kana kaimananana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=170}} Garfield nyarankeun sangkan Rosecrans ngaganti komandan jangjang [[Alexander McCook]] sarta [[Thomas Leonidas Crittenden|Thomas Crittenden]], lantaran anjeunna yakin yén maranéhna téh teu éféktif, nanging Rosecrans ngabaékeun éta saran.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=177}} Babarengan jeung Rosecrans, Garfield ngararancang [[Kampanye Tullahoma]] pikeun ngudag sarta néwak Jéndéral Konfédérasi [[Braxton Bragg]] di [[Tullahoma]]. Saatos kasuksésan awal Uni, Bragg mundur nuju ka [[Chattanooga]], dimana Rosecrans lirén samentawis sarta ménta tambahan pasukan sarta logistik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} Garfield boga pamandangan sangkan geuwat maju, luyu jeung paménta ti Halleck sarta Lincoln.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=180–182}} Saatos déwan perang sarta pertimbangan anu panjang, Rosecrans sapuk pikeun nyerang.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=183–189}} Dina [[Pertempuran Chickamauga]] anu lumangsung dina 19 sarta 20 Séptémber 1863, kabingung di antara para komandan jangjang ngeunaan paréntah Rosecrans ngabalukarkeun lolongkrang dina garis pertahanan, anu ngakibatkeun kadeséhna bagian jangjang katuhu. Rosecrans nyimpulkeun yén pertempuran parantos éléh sarta mundur ka Chattanooga pikeun ngawangun garis pertahanan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Nanging, Garfield mikir yén sabagian angkatan darat masih aya anu nahan sarta, kalayan widi ti Rosecrans, anjeunna mangkat meulah [[Missionary Ridge]] pikeun marios kaayaan. Sangkaan Garfield tétéla bener.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Balukarna, lalampahan kuda Garfield janten carita légéndaris sarta kasalahan Rosecrans deui-deui ngahudangkeun kritik ngeunaan kapamingpinanana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=205–208}} Sanajan angkatan darat Rosecrans tiasa nyingkahan musibah gedé, maranéhna kasingkur di Chattanooga, dikepung ku angkatan darat Bragg. Garfield ngirim télégram ka Sekretaris Perang [[Edwin M. Stanton]] anu ngawanti-wanti Washington ngeunaan perluna tambahan pasukan pikeun nyingkahan karuksakan total. Lincoln sarta Halleck ngaréspon paménta éta ku cara ngirimkeun 20.000 pasukan ka Garfield liwat karéta api dina waktu salapan poé.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=210}} Samentawis éta, Grant dionjatkeun pangkatna pikeun mingpin angkatan darat bagian kulon sarta gancang ngaganti Rosecrans ku [[George H. Thomas]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=213}} Garfield diparéntahkeun pikeun laporan ka Washington, dimana anjeunna dionjatkeun pangkatna janten jéndéral mayor.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=219–220}} Nurutkeun sejarawan [[Jean Edward Smith]], Grant sarta Garfield miboga "hubungan anu kaku" saprak Grant nunjuk Thomas, lain Garfield, pikeun mingpin Angkatan Darat Cumberland saatos Rosecrans diberhentikeun.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550–551}} == Karir Kongrés == === Pilihan raya taun 1862; taun-taun Perang Sipil === [[File:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Salmon P. Chase]] mangrupikeun babaturan deukeut Garfield dugi ka sidang pamakzulan Andrew Johnson.]] Nalika anjeunna nuju pancén di Angkatan Darat dina awal taun 1862, babaturan Garfield ngadeukeutan anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri ka Kongrés ti distrik ka-19 Ohio anu nembé diropéa sarta didominasi ku Partéy Républik. Anjeunna hariwang yén dirina sarta jéndéral-jéndéral séjén anu diangkat ku nagara bagian bakal nampi pancén anu teu jelas, sarta nyalonkeun diri ka Kongrés bakal ngamungkinkeun anjeunna neraskeun deui karir politikna. Lantaran Kongrés anu anyar moal ngayakeun sidang parlemén rutin dugi ka Désémber 1863, anjeunna masih tiasa neraskeun tugas perangnya samentawis waktu.{{efn|Dugi ka ratifikasi Amandemén ka-20 dina taun 1933, Kongrés ngayakeun sidang taunan dina bulan Désémber.}} Nalika keur cuti médis di bumi, anjeunna nolak pikeun kampanye, masrahkeun urusan éta ka para pangurus politik anu ahirna hasil meunangkeun nominasi dina konvénsi lokal bulan Séptémber 1862 dina sora (ballot) kadalapan. Dina pamilihan umum bulan Oktober, anjeunna ngéléhkeun D.B. Woods kalayan babandingan sora dua banding hiji pikeun korsi dina [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-38]].{{sfnm|Rutkow|2006|1p=17|Peskin|1978|2p=148}} Sawatara dinten sateuacan mangsa jabatan Kongrésna dimimitian, Garfield kaleungitan putri cikalna, Eliza anu yuswana nembe tilu taun. Anjeunna janten hariwang sarta bimbang, nyebatkeun yén "kasangsaraan haténa" meureun merlukeun anjeunna mulang deui ka "kahirupan liar di angkatan darat."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}} Anjeunna ogé nyangka yén perang bakal réngsé sateuacan anjeunna lebet ka DPR, nanging tétéla henteu, sarta anjeunna ngarasa kuat yén dirina leuwih merenah aya di médan perang batan di Kongrés. Anjeunna ogé nyangka bakal kenging komando anu hadé, janten anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nepungan Présidén Lincoln. Dina éta patepungan, Lincoln nyarankeun sangkan anjeunna nyandak korsi DPR-na, lantaran harita kaleuwihan jumlah jéndéral nanging kakirangan anggota kongrés anu ngarojong administrasi, utamana anu gaduh pangaweruh ngeunaan urusan militér. Garfield nampi saran ieu sarta ngundurkeun diri tina jabatan militérna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=219}} Garfield patepang sarta janten sobat deukeut Menteri Kauangan [[Salmon P. Chase]], anu ningali Garfield salaku vérsi ngora ti dirina sorangan. Duanana sapuk sacara politik sarta duanana mangrupikeun bagéan tina jangjang [[Républik Radikal]] dina Partéy Républik.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=18}} Saatos anjeunna nyicingan korsi DPR dina Désémber 1863, Garfield ngarasa kuciwa ku sikep Lincoln anu siga wegah pikeun nahan pihak Kidul kalayan keras. Seueur kaum radikal, anu dipingpin di DPR ku [[Thaddeus Stevens]] ti Pennsylvania, hoyong lahan milik para pemberontak disita, nanging Lincoln ngancam bakal méto (veto) sakabéh RUU anu ngusulkeun hal éta sacara masif. Dina debat di DPR, Garfield ngarojong panerapan hukum kasebut sarta, nalika ngabahas ngeunaan [[Révolusi Agung]] (Glorious Revolution) di Inggris, anjeunna masihan isyarat yén Lincoln meureun bisa diusir tina jabatanna upami nolak hal éta.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=139–142}} Garfield parantos ngarojong [[Proklamasi Émansipasi]] Lincoln sarta ngarasa hélok ku "fénoména anéh dina sajarah dunya, nalika saurang pangacara kelas dua ti Illinois janten alat pikeun ngucapkeun kekecapan anu bakal ngabentuk hiji éra anu diéling-éling dina sakabéh mangsa nu bakal datang."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}} Garfield henteu ngan saukur satuju kana [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|ngahapusna perbudakan]], nanging ogé percaya yén pamingpin pemberontakan parantos kaleungitan hak konstitusionalna. Anjeunna ngarojong panyitaan perkebunan di Kidul sarta malah pangasingan atanapi hukuman mati pikeun para pamingpin pemberontakan salaku cara pikeun mastikeun perbudakan réngsé sacara permanén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=233}} Garfield ngarasa Kongrés miboga kawajiban "pikeun nangtukeun panerapan hukum naon anu diperlukeun pikeun mastikeun kaadilan anu sarua pikeun sakabéh jalma anu satia, tanpa ningali warna kulitna."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=234}} Anjeunna langkung ngarojong Lincoln nalika présidén nyandak tindakan nyata ngalawan perbudakan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=152}} Garfield parantos nunjukkeun kapamingpinanana; mimitina anjeunna mangrupikeun hiji-hijina anggota Républik anu méré sora pikeun ngeureunkeun panggunaan karahayu (''bounties'') dina rékrutmen militér. Sababaraha urang anu mampu sacara finansial ngagunakeun sistem ieu pikeun "meuli" kabébasan tina tugas militér (disebut komutasi), anu dianggap kacida hina ku Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=224}} Anjeunna nepikeun pidato anu nunjukkeun kakurangan dina undang-undang wajib militer anu aya: 300,000 urang parantos dipénta daptar, nanging bieu 10,000 urang anu ngalakukeunana, sésana mah ménta pangajamban (''exemption''), méré duit, atanapi néang gaganti. Lincoln sumping ka Komisi Urusan Militér dimana Garfield pancén di dinya, ménta RUU anu leuwih éféktif; sanajan éta kudu ngorbankeun kapilihna deui anjeunna, Lincoln yakin tiasa meunangkeun perang sateuacan mangsa jabatanna réngsé.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=145–147}} Saatos sababaraha kali gagal, Garfield, kalayan rojongan Lincoln, hasil ngagolgolkeun undang-undang wajib militer anu ngaleungitkeun sistem komutasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=232}} Di handapeun pangaruh Chase, Garfield janten panyokong kuat mata uang dolar anu didasarkeun kana [[standar emas]], sarta kacida nentangna kana "[[Greenback (duit)|greenback]]". Anjeunna ogé nampi kabutuhan pikeun [[Specie Payment Resumption Act|ngeureunkeun samentawis pamayaran dina emas atanapi pérak]] nalika Perang Sipil kalayan rasa beurat haté.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=156}} Anjeunna méré sora babarengan jeung kaum Républik Radikal dina ngaluluskeun [[RUU Wade–Davis]], anu dirancang pikeun masihan Kongrés kakuatan leuwih dina mangsa [[Éra Rékonstruksi]], nanging Lincoln ngabatalkeunana ku [[pocket veto]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=241}} Garfield henteu nganggap Lincoln pantes pisan pikeun dipilih deui, nanging sigana teu aya pilihan sanés anu leuwih hadé. "Anjeunna meureun jalmana, sanajan kuring pikir urang bisa néang nu leuwih hadé", saurna.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=25–26}} Garfield ngiringan [[Konvénsi Nasional Uni 1864|konvénsi partéy]] sarta ngamajukeun Rosecrans salaku calon wakil présidén Lincoln, nanging para delegasi langkung milih [[Andrew Johnson]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=240}} Lincoln kapilih deui, kitu ogé Garfield.{{sfn|Brown|1881|pp=134–137}} Harita, Chase parantos kaluar tina Kabinét sarta diangkat janten [[Lulugu Hakim Amérika Sarikat]], sarta hubunganana sareng Garfield janten langkung anggang.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=153}} Dina taun 1865, Garfield mimiti muka prakték hukum pikeun ngalereskeun kauangan pribadina. Usahana nyandak anjeunna ka Wall Street dimana, sapoé saatos Lincoln nemas tilar dunya alatan ditelasan, sakelompok massa anu nuju amarah narik anjeunna pikeun nepikeun pidato dadakan pikeun nenangkeun kaayaan: "Dulur-dulur sakabéh! Méga sarta poék aya di sakuriling Manten-na! Tenda-Na nyaéta cai anu poék sarta méga anu kandel di langit! Kaadilan sarta kaputusan mangrupikeun tatapakan tina tahta-Na! Karahayu sarta bebeneran bakal aya di payuneun pameunteu-Na! Dulur-dulur sakabéh! Gusti nu murbéng alam, sarta Pamaréntah di Washington masih kénéh hirup!"{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=250}} Éta pidato, anu teu nyebatkeun atanapi muji Lincoln, nurutkeun panulis biografi Garfield, Robert G. Caldwell, nyaéta "kacida signifikanna pikeun naon anu henteu dikandungna sakumaha signifikanna pikeun naon anu dikandungna."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=154–155}} Dina taun-taun salajengna, Garfield nembé masihan langkung seueur pujian pikeun Lincoln; sataun saatos Lincoln pupus, Garfield nyarios, "Anu pangageungna di antara sakabéh kamekaran ieu nyaéta karakter sarta kamashuran Abraham Lincoln," sarta dina taun 1878 anjeunna nyebat Lincoln salaku "salah sahiji ti saeutik pamingpin hébat anu kawicaksanaanna ningkat babarengan jeung kakuatanana".{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=155–156}} Nalika di Washington, Garfield rutin lungsur-langsar ka Vermont Avenue Christian Church, anu saatosna janten [[National City Christian Church]], hiji wangunan anu diwangun sarta dibiayaan ku jamaah [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Disciples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rushford |first=Jerry B. |title=The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofst0000unse_g1p0 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |isbn=978-0-8028-3898-8 |editor-last=Foster |editor-first=Douglas A. |editor-link=Douglas A. Foster |location=Grand Rapids, MI |language=en-us |chapter=James Abram Garfield (1831–1881) |editor-last2=Blowers |editor-first2=Paul M. |editor-last3=Dunnavant |editor-first3=Anthony L. |editor-last4=Williams |editor-first4=D. Newell}}</ref> === Rékonstruksi === Dina taun 1864, Sénat AS ngaluluskeun [[Amandemén ka-13 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-13]], anu ngahapus perbudakan di sakuliah Uni. Ieu RUU gagal meunang sora mayoritas dua per tilu di DPR nepi ka tanggal 31 Januari 1865, nalika ahirna dikirim ka nagara-nagara bagian pikeun diratifikasi. Ieu Amandemén muka pasualan séjén ngeunaan hak-hak sipil [[Urang Amérika katurunan Afrika|Afrika-Amérika]]. Garfield naros, "[Naon] ari kabébasan téh? Naha ngan saukur hak husus pikeun teu diranté?... Lamun ngan sakieu, mangka kabébasan téh mangrupikeun éksép anu pait, hiji halusinasi anu telenges."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=66}}{{efn|Dina 13 Juni 1868, DPR ngaluluskeun [[Amandemén ka-14 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-14]] anu masihan kawarganagaraan AS ka [[Afrika-Amérika]].{{sfn|Foner|2014|pp=253-254}}}} Garfield ngarojong [[hak pilih urang hideung]] kalayan teguh sakumaha anjeunna ngarojong panghapusan perbudakan.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=47–48}} Présidén Johnson narékahan pikeun geuwat mulangkeun nagara-nagara bagian Kidul salila bulan-bulan antara jabatanana sarta rapat Kongrés dina Désémber 1865; Garfield ngarojong kawijakan ieu kalayan ragu-ragu salaku hiji ékspérimén. Johnson, saurang sobat lila, ménta rojongan Garfield sarta obrolan maranéhna ngajantenkeun Garfield nyangka yén bédana pamadegan antara Johnson jeung Kongrés téh teu pati gedé. Nalika Kongrés karumpul dina bulan Désémber (anu ngajantenkeun Johnson kuciwa, lantaran tanpa wakil nu kapilih ti nagara bagian Kidul nu dikaluarkeun), Garfield ngajurung babaturanana pikeun ngayakeun rékonsiliasi, sanajan anjeunna hariwang yén Johnson, tilas Démokrat, meureun ngagabung jeung urang Démokrat séjén pikeun meunangkeun kadali politik. Garfield parantos ningali bakal aya konflik malah sateuacan Pébruari 1866, nalika Johnson méto (veto) RUU pikeun manjangkeun umur [[Biro Freedmen]], anu pancénna mantuan tilas budak. Nepi ka bulan April, Garfield geus nyimpulkeun yén Johnson téh boh "gélo atawa mabok ku candu."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=279}} [[File:Garfield Monument1.JPG|thumb|upright=.75|alt=Patung hideung Garfield luhureun tihang anu ukiranana rumit. Rotunda Capitol AS katingali di tukangna.|[[Monumén James A. Garfield|Monumén Garfield]], deukeut Capitol, tempat anjeunna ngabakti ampir dua puluh taun]] Konflik antara Kongrés jeung Présidén Johnson mangrupikeun pasualan utama dina kampanye taun 1866, kalayan Johnson ngayakeun kampanye jalanan dina [[Swing Around the Circle]] sarta Garfield nyanghareupan oposisi di jero Partéy Républik di distrik asalna. Kalayan pihak Kidul anu masih kaleungitan hak pilih sarta opini publik Kalér anu ngarojong urang Républik, maranéhna meunangkeun mayoritas dua per tilu di dua kamar Kongrés. Garfield, saatos hasil ngéléhkeun sainganna dina konvénsi nominasi distrik, meunangkeun deui jabatanna kalayan gampang.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=170–172}} Garfield mimitina nentang [[Usaha pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|usulan pamakzulan Johnson]] nalika Kongrés karumpul dina Désémber 1866, nanging anjeunna ngarojong panerapan hukum pikeun ngawatesan kakawasaan Johnson, sapertos [[Tenure of Office Act (1867)|Undang-Undang Mangsa Jabatan]], anu ngawatesan kamampuan Johnson pikeun ngaleupaskeun pajabat présidén anu parantos diangkat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=278}} Kaganggu ku pancén komisi, Garfield jarang nyarita ngeunaan ieu RUU, nanging anjeunna mangrupikeun sora Républik anu satia ngalawan Johnson.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Dina 7 Januari 1867, Garfield méré sora pikeun ngarojong résolusi anu ngamimitian [[penyelidikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Andrew Johnson|penyelidikan pamakzulan munggaran ngalawan Johnson]]. Dina 7 Désémber 1867, anjeunna méré sora nentang résolusi pamakzulan Johnson anu gagal. Dina 27 Januari 1868, anjeunna méré sora pikeun ngaluluskeun résolusi anu masihan wewenang pikeun [[penyelidikan pamakzulan kadua ngalawan Andrew Johnson|penyelidikan pamakzulan kadua]]. Lantaran aya urusan pangadilan, anjeunna teu hadir dina 24 Pébruari 1868, [[Pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|nalika DPR memakzulkeun Johnson]], nanging anjeunna nepikeun pidato anu sajajar jeung Thaddeus Stevens sarta jalma séjén anu narékahan pikeun ngaleupaskeun Johnson teu lami saatosna.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Garfield hadir dina tanggal 2 sarta 3 Maret 1868, nalika DPR ngayakeun sora ngeunaan pasal-pasal pamakzulan sacara spésifik, sarta anjeunna méré sora pikeun ngarojong sakabéh 11 pasal. Nalika Johnson dibébaskeun dina [[Sidang pamakzulan Andrew Johnson|sidangna di payuneun Sénat]], Garfield ngarasa reuwas sarta nyalahkeun hasil éta ka lulugu sidang, Lulugu Hakim Chase, tilas méntorna.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=173–174|Peskin|1978|2pp=287–289}} Nalika Grant ngagentos Johnson dina taun 1869, Garfield parantos ngajauh ti sésa-sésa kaum radikal (Stevens, pamingpin maranéhna, parantos pupus dina taun 1868). Harita, seueur jalma dina Partéy Républik anu hoyong ngaleungitkeun "pasualan Negro" tina urusan nasional.{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} Garfield ngabagéakeun ratifikasi [[Amandemén ka-15 Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén ka-15]] dina taun 1870 salaku hiji kameunangan sarta ngarojong ditarimanana deui Georgia ka Uni salaku hak, lain urusan politik. Salaku urang Républik anu boga pangaruh, Garfield nyarios, "[Amandemén] ka-15 masihan kakuatan ka ras Afrika pikeun ngurus takdirna sorangan. Hal ieu nempatkeun nasib maranéhna dina leungeun maranéhna sorangan."{{sfn|Foner|2014|p=449}} Dina taun 1871, Kongrés ngabahas [[Undang-Undang Ku Klux Klan]], anu dirancang pikeun merangan serangan kana hak pilih Afrika-Amérika. Garfield nentang éta undang-undang, nyarios, "Kuring can kungsi ngarasa bingung kieu ku hiji panerapan hukum." Anjeunna bimbang antara rasa amarahna ka Klan, anu ku anjeunna disebut "téroris", sarta kahariwangna kana kakuatan anu dipasrahkeun ka présidén pikeun ngajalankeun éta undang-undang ngaliwatan penangguhan ''[[habeas corpus]]''.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=332–334}} === Tarif sarta kauangan === [[File:US-$1-LT-1862-Fr-16c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Duit kertas "greenback" anu kacida teu dipikaresep ku Garfield]] Sapanjang karir politikna, Garfield mihak kana [[standar emas]] sarta nyawad sagala rupa tarékah pikeun nambahan jumlah duit anu medar ngaliwatan pamedaran duit kertas anu teu didasarkeun kana emas, sarta saatosna, ngaliwatan [[pérrak bébas|pamedaran pérak anu bébas sarta teu kawates]].{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=205–218}} Dina taun 1865, anjeunna ditempatkeun dina [[Komisi Urusan Keuangan DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Urusan Keuangan DPR]] (''House Ways and Means Committee''), hiji kasempetan anu parantos lami dinanti-nanti pikeun museurkeun perhatian kana pasualan kauangan sarta ékonomi. Anjeunna negeskeun deui sikepna anu nentang ''greenback'', kalayan nyarita, "Sing saha waé partéy anu milih ngagunakeun duit kertas bakal runtag di tengah musibah umum, katutupan ku supata ti rahayat anu sangsara."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=261}} Dina taun 1868, Garfield nepikeun pidato salila dua jam ngeunaan mata uang di DPR, anu ku seueur pihak dianggap salaku kamampuh orator panghadéna nepi ka mangsa harita; di dinya, anjeunna ngajurung sangkan pamaréntah laun-laun mulang deui kana pamayaran tunai (''specie payments''), nyaéta pamaréntah mayar nganggo pérak sarta emas, lain ku duit kertas anu teu bisa ditukeurkeun.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=268}} Tarif parantos dionjatkeun ka tingkat anu luhur nalika Perang Sipil. Saatosna, Garfield, anu neuleuman pisan urusan kauangan, ngajurung sangkan Amérika nuju kana perdagangan anu leuwih bébas, sanajan sikep baku Partéy Républik harita nyaéta tarif protéktif anu bakal ngamungkinkeun industri Amérika mekar. Ieu béda pamadegan jeung partéyna sigana anu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna kaleungitan posisi di Komisi Urusan Keuangan dina taun 1867, sarta sanajan urang Républik nguasaan mayoritas di DPR nepi ka taun 1875, Garfield tetep teu diasupkeun ka éta komisi. Garfield ahirna mingpin [[Komisi Anggaran DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Anggaran DPR]] (''House Appropriations Committee'') anu kawasa, nanging sabenerna anjeunna langkung hoyong mingpin Komisi Urusan Keuangan lantaran pangaruhna kana kawijakan fiskal.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=31–32}} Salah sahiji alesan naha anjeunna ditolak di Komisi Urusan Keuangan nyaéta oposisi ti redaktur Républik anu boga pangaruh, [[Horace Greeley]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=265, 327}} [[File:Ulysses S Grant by Brady c1870-restored.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|alt=Poto potrét Grant|Potrét [[Ulysses S. Grant]]]] Dimimitian dina Januari 1870, Garfield, anu harita janten pupuhu [[Komisi Perbankan DPR Amérika Sarikat|Komisi Perbankan DPR]], mingpin panalungtikan ngeunaan skandal Panik Emas [[Black Friday (1869)|Black Friday]].{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|p=146}} Dina taun 1869, nalika mangsa jabatan munggaran Grant, dua jalma sakongkol ti New York, [[Jay Gould]] sarta [[James Fisk (financier)|James Fisk]], ngajalankeun skéma pikeun nguasaan pasar emas. Éta konspirasi kagagalkeun dina poé Jumaah, 24 Séptémber 1869, nalika Grant sarta Menteri Kauangan [[George Boutwell]] ngaluarkeun cadangan emas ka pasar, anu ngabalukarkeun panik kauangan sacara lega. Salila panalungtikan, sumebar béja yén kulawarga Grant meureun milu kalibet. Sangkan pamajikan Grant teu kudu méré kasaksian, Garfield ngayakeun patepungan pribadi jeung Grant di Gedong Bodas. Nalika Garfield némbongkeun kasaksian ngeunaan Grant sarta kulawargana, Grant nganuhunkeun ka Garfield nanging nolak maca atanapi méré réspon.{{sfn|Calhoun|2017|pp=125, 146}} Grant sacara pribadi ngarasa tugenah ka Garfield lantaran nalungtik kajadian Black Friday sarta pamajikanana, Julia, ngeunaan kamungkinan kalibet dina éta skandal.{{sfn|Smith|2001|pp=550-551}} Hasil panalungtikan Garfield sarta laporan mayoritas pamungkasna, anu dikaluarkeun dina 12 Séptémber 1870, kacida lengkepna nanging teu mendakan palanggaran hukum anu bisa didakwa sarta ngabébaskeun Grant jeung Julia tina kasalahan.{{sfnm|Calhoun|2017|1p=146|Smith|2001|2pp=550-551}} Garfield boga pamadegan yén éta skandal téh bisa lumangsung alatan ayana duit ''greenback'' anu ngabiayaan éta spékulasi.{{sfnm|McFeely|1981|1p=328|Peskin|1978|2p=311|Calhoun|2017|3p=146|Smith|2001|4pp=550-551}} Garfield teu pati sumanget ngeunaan kapilihna deui Présidén Grant dina taun 1872—nepi ka Greeley, anu muncul salaku calon ti urang Démokrat sarta [[Partéy Républik Liberal (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik Liberal]], janten hiji-hijina pilihan séjén anu sarius. Garfield nyarita, "Kuring bakal nyebutkeun yén Grant téh teu pantes dicalonkeun sarta Greeley téh teu pantes dipilih."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}} Duanana, boh Grant boh Garfield, ahirna kapilih deui kalayan sora anu mutlak.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=350–351}} === Skandal Crédit Mobilier sarta "Salary Grab" === [[Skandal Crédit Mobilier Amérika]] ngalibatkeun korupsi dina pamayaran proyék [[Jalan Karéta Api Union Pacific]], bagéan tina [[jalan karéta api transkontinéntal]] anu réngsé dina taun 1869. Para pajabat sarta diréktur Union Pacific sacara rusiah meuli sarta ngawasa pausahaan [[Crédit Mobilier of America]], salajengna ngayakeun kontrak jeung éta pausahaan pikeun ngalaksanakeun pangwangunan jalan karéta. Pihak jalan karéta mayar tagihan pausahaan anu hargana parantos dionjatkeun sacara kacida (mark-up) ku dana féderal anu dialokasikeun pikeun nyubsidi éta proyék, sarta éta pausahaan diidinan meuli surat berharga Union Pacific dina harga [[par value|nilai par]] (harga asal), anu jauh di handapeun harga pasar. Crédit Mobilier némbongkeun kauntungan sarta kanaékan saham anu kacida badagna, sarta ngabagikeun dividén anu gedé. Biaya anu luhur ieu ngabalukarkeun Kongrés dipénta pikeun ngalokasikeun langkung seueur dana. Salah saurang pajabat jalan karéta anu ngawasa Crédit Mobilier ogé saurang anggota kongrés, [[Oakes Ames]] ti [[Massachusetts]]. Anjeunna nawarkeun ka sababaraha babaturanana kasempetan pikeun meuli saham Crédit Mobilier dina harga par, jauh di handapeun harga jual di pasar, sarta pihak jalan karéta kenging tambahan alokasi dana.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=219}} [[File:Keppler Credit Mobilier Hari-Kari.png|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Kartun éditorial: [[Uncle Sam]] maréntahkeun para Sénator sarta Anggota DPR AS anu kalibet dina skéma Crédit Mobilier pikeun ngalakukeun [[Hara-Kiri]].]] Ieu carita kabongkar dina Juli 1872, di tengah-tengah kampanye présidén. Di antara nami-nami anu kasebut nyaéta Wakil Présidén [[Schuyler Colfax]], Sénator Massachusetts [[Henry Wilson]] (calon wakil présidén ti Républik), Ketua DPR [[James G. Blaine]] ti Maine, sarta Garfield. Greeley kurang untung dina ngamangpaatkeun ieu skandal. Nalika Kongrés karumpul deui saatos pamilihan, Blaine, anu narékahan pikeun meresihan namina, ménta panalungtikan ku DPR. Bukti di payuneun komisi husus ngabébaskeun Blaine tina kasalahan. Garfield nyarita dina Séptémber 1872 yén Ames parantos nawarkeun saham ka anjeunna, nanging anjeunna sababaraha kali nolak. Nalika méré kasaksian di payuneun komisi dina bulan Januari, Ames nyarita yén anjeunna parantos nawarkeun sapuluh lambar saham ka Garfield dina harga par, nanging Garfield teu kungsi nyandak atanapi mayar éta saham, sanajan sataun parantos kalangkung, ti 1867 dugi ka 1868, sateuacan Garfield ahirna bener-bener nolak. Muncul di payuneun komisi dina 14 Januari 1873, Garfield mastikeun sabagian badag tina hal ieu. Ames méré kasaksian sababaraha minggu saatosna yén Garfield sapuk pikeun nyandak saham ku cara kiridit, sarta éta saham parantos dibayar ku dividén pausahaan anu kacida gedéna.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|pp=224–226}} Duanana béda pamadegan ngeunaan duit $300 anu ditarima ku Garfield sarta saatosna dibayar deui, dimana Garfield nganggap éta téh salaku injeuman, sedengkeun Ames nganggap éta téh dividén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=354–359}} Para panulis biografi Garfield siga nu wegah pikeun ngabébaskeun anjeunna sagemblengna dina ieu skandal. Allan Peskin nyerat, "Naha Garfield ngabohong? Henteu persis. Naha anjeunna nyarioskeun sabenerna? Henteu sagemblengna. Naha anjeunna korup? Henteu ogé. Malah musuh-musuh Garfield ogé teu kungsi ngaklaim yén kalibetna anjeunna dina ieu urusan mangaruhan kalakuanana."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}} Rutkow nyerat, "Kasalahan nyata Garfield nyaéta anjeunna sacara sadar nolak di payuneun komisi panalungtik DPR yén anjeunna parantos sapuk nampi saham sarta anjeunna ogé parantos nampi dividén sagedé $329."{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=34}} Caldwell nyarankeun yén Garfield "nyarioskeun bebeneran [di payuneun komisi, nanging] tétéla gagal nyarioskeun sagemblengna bebeneran, sacara jéntré nyingkahan jawaban pikeun sababaraha patarosan penting sarta méré kesan kasalahan anu leuwih parah batan naon anu sabenerna dilakukeun ku anjeunna."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=230}} Yén Crédit Mobilier téh hiji organisasi korup sabenerna mangrupikeun rusiah umum anu geus bocor, malah kungsi disebutkeun dina sidang Kongrés, sarta redaktur Sam Bowles nyerat harita yén Garfield, dina posisina dina komisi-komisi anu ngurus kauangan, "teu boga hak pikeun bodo dina urusan anu sakieu pentingna, sakumaha saurang pangawal teu meunang nundutan dina pos jagana."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=362}} Pasualan sanés anu ngabalukarkeun Garfield kasusah dina usaha kapilihna deui dina taun 1874 nyaéta naon anu disebut "[[Undang-Undang Salary Grab|Salary Grab]]" (Rampog Gaji) taun 1873, anu naékkeun kompensasi pikeun anggota Kongrés sagedé 50%, lumaku surut (retroaktif) nepi ka taun 1871. Salaku pupuhu Komisi Anggaran, Garfield tanggung jawab pikeun ngawal RUU anggaran éta di DPR; salila debat dina Pébruari 1873, Perwakilan Massachusetts [[Benjamin Butler (politikus)|Benjamin Butler]] ngusulkeun kanaékan éta salaku amandemén, sarta sanajan Garfield nentang, éta RUU lulus di DPR sarta ahirna janten undang-undang. Éta hukum kacida populérna di DPR, lantaran ampir satengah anggotana téh urang [[lame duck (politik)|lame duck]] (anu moal ngajabat deui), nanging publik kacida ambekna, sarta seueur konstituén Garfield anu nyalahkeun anjeunna, sanajan sacara pribadi anjeunna nolak nampi éta kanaékan gaji. Dina taun anu goréng pikeun urang Républik, anu kaleungitan kadali di DPR pikeun munggaranana saprak Perang Sipil, Garfield ngalaman pamilihan kongrés anu pangketatna, meunang kalayan ngan 57% sora.{{efn|Garfield biasana meunang dua atanapi tilu kali lipet sora lawanna ti Démokrat.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=148, 244, 277, 292}}}}{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=233–236|Rutkow|2006|2pp=34–35}} ===Floor leader; Hayes administration=== The Democratic takeover of the House of Representatives in 1875 meant the loss of Garfield's chairmanship of the Appropriations Committee, though the Democrats did put him on the Ways and Means Committee. With many of his leadership rivals defeated in the 1874 Democratic landslide, and Blaine elected to the Senate, Garfield was seen as the Republican [[floor leader]], and the likely Speaker, should the party regain control of the chamber.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|pp=37–39}} Garfield thought the [[Public Land Survey System#Railroad land grants|land grants]] given to expanding railroads was an unjust practice. He also opposed monopolistic practices by corporations, as well as the power sought by workers' unions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=331}} He supported the proposed establishment of the [[United States civil service]] as a means of ridding officials of the annoyance of aggressive office seekers. He especially wished to eliminate the practice of forcing government workers, in exchange for their positions, to [[Kickback (bribery)|kick back]] a percentage of their wages as political contributions.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=335–338}} As the [[1876 United States presidential election|1876 presidential election]] approached, Garfield was loyal to the candidacy of Senator Blaine, and fought for the former Speaker's nomination at the [[1876 Republican National Convention]] in Cincinnati. When it became clear, after six ballots, that Blaine could not prevail, the convention nominated Ohio Governor [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. Although Garfield had supported Blaine, he had kept good relations with Hayes, and wholeheartedly supported the governor.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=398–400}} Garfield had hoped to retire from politics after his term expired to devote himself full-time to the practice of law, but to help his party, he sought re-election, and won it easily that October. Any celebration was short-lived, as Garfield's youngest son, Neddie, fell ill with [[whooping cough]] shortly after the congressional election, and soon died.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=401–405}} [[File:Electoral Commission (United States).jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|Garfield (second from right in the row of commissioners just below the gallery) served on the [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]] that decided the disputed 1876 presidential election. Painting by [[Cornelia Adele Strong Fassett]].]] When Hayes appeared to have lost the presidential election the following month to Democrat [[Samuel Tilden]], the Republicans launched efforts to reverse the results in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida, where they held the governorship. If Hayes won all three states, he would take the election by a single electoral vote. Grant asked Garfield to serve as a "neutral observer" of the recount in Louisiana. The observers soon recommended to the state electoral commissions that Hayes be declared the winner—Garfield recommended the entire vote of [[West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana|West Feliciana Parish]], which had given Tilden a sizable majority, be thrown out. The Republican governors of the three states certified that Hayes had won their states, to the outrage of Democrats, who had the state legislatures submit rival returns, and threatened to prevent the counting of the electoral vote—under the Constitution, Congress is the final arbiter of the election. Congress then established an [[Electoral Commission (United States)|Electoral Commission]], consisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats, to determine the winner. Despite his objection to the Commission, Garfield was appointed to it. He felt Congress should count the vote and proclaim Hayes victorious. Hayes emerged the victor by a party line vote of 8–7.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|publisher=Harpers Weekly|title=Hayes vs. Tilden: The Electoral College Controversy of 1876–1877|access-date=December 21, 2021|website=HarpWeek|archive-date=December 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221170539/https://elections.harpweek.com/Controversy.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> In exchange for recognizing Hayes as president, Southern Democrats secured the removal of federal troops from the South, ending Reconstruction.{{sfnm|Caldwell|1965|1pp=251–261|Rutkow|2006|2p=40}} Although an Ohio Senate seat would be vacated by the resignation of [[John Sherman]] to become Treasury Secretary, Hayes needed Garfield's expertise to protect him from the agenda of a hostile Congress, and asked him not to seek it. Garfield agreed. As Hayes's key legislator in the House, he gained considerable prestige and respect for his role there.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=41}} When Congress debated the [[Bland–Allison Act]], to have the government purchase large quantities of silver and strike it into legal tender [[Morgan dollar|dollar coins]], Garfield opposed it as a deviation from the gold standard; it was enacted over Hayes's veto in February 1878.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=261}} In 1876, Garfield purchased the property in [[Mentor, Ohio|Mentor]] that reporters later dubbed [[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield]], where he later conducted the first successful [[front porch campaign]] for the presidency.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=498}} Hayes suggested that Garfield run for governor in 1879, seeing that as a road likely to take Garfield to the White House. Garfield preferred to seek election as a U.S. senator. Rivals were spoken of for the seat, such as Secretary Sherman, but he had presidential ambitions (for which he sought Garfield's support), and other candidates fell by the wayside. The General Assembly elected Garfield to the Senate in January 1880, though his term was not scheduled to commence until March 4, 1881.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=442–447}} === Karir hukum sarta aktivitas séjénna === Dina taun 1865, Garfield janten mitra dina firma hukum [[Jeremiah Black]]. Maranéhna miboga seueur sasaruaan, iwal ti dina widang politik: Black nyaéta saurang Démokrat anu kacida fanatikna, sarta kungsi ngabakti dina kabinét Présidén [[James Buchanan]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=270}} Taun salajengna, Black dipercaya ku sababaraha urang sipil Kalér anu pro-Konfédérasi anu dinyatakeun bersalah ngalakukeun hianat ku pangadilan militer sarta dihukum pati. Black ningali ieu kasempetan pikeun neunggeul pangadilan militer sarta urang Républik.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}} Anjeunna parantos ngadangu pidato-pidato militer Garfield, sarta terang yén Garfield henteu ngan saukur parigel dina orator, nanging ogé nentang kana kakawasaan komisi militer anu tumaninah. Black masrahkeun éta kasus ka Garfield saminggu sateuacan argumén ditepikeun di payuneun Pangadilan Agung AS. Nalika Black ngingetkeun ngeunaan bahaya politikna, Garfield ngajawab, "Éta mah teu jadi masalah. Kuring percaya kana kabébasan Inggris sarta hukum Inggris."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=272}} Dina kasus anu kacida pentingna ieu, ''[[Ex parte Milligan]],'' Garfield hasil ngayakinkeun yén warga sipil teu tiasa diadili di payuneun tribun militer sanajan dina kaayaan darurat militer (martial law), salami pangadilan sipil masih kénéh jalan. Dina panampilan munggaranna di pangadilan, argumén lisan Garfield lumangsung langkung ti dua jam, sarta sanajan kliénna anu beunghar nolak mayar anjeunna, anjeunna parantos ngukuhkeun dirina salaku saurang pangacara anu petingan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=271}} Salila mangsa jabatan munggaran Grant, Garfield ngarasa kurang sugema ku layanan publik sarta dina taun 1872 anjeunna deui-deui ngudag kasempetan dina widang hukum. Nanging, anjeunna nolak tawaran kemitraan ti hiji firma hukum di Cleveland nalika dibéjaan yén calon mitrana miboga reputasi anu "teu bener sarta cabul."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=347}} Dina taun 1873, saatos pupusna Chase, Garfield ménta ka Grant sangkan nunjuk Hakim [[Noah H. Swayne]] janten Lulugu Hakim, nanging Grant kalah nunjuk [[Morrison R. Waite]].{{sfn|McFeely|1981|pp=387–389, 392}} [[File:Garfield Pythagoras.svg|thumb|upright=.75|right|Bukti tiori Pythagoras ti Garfield maké wangun trapésium jeung segitiga siku-siku di jerona.]] Dina taun 1871, Garfield indit ka [[Wilayah Montana]] pikeun ngayakeun badami ngeunaan pamindahan sélér [[Bitterroot Salish]] ka [[Flathead Indian Reservation|Reservasi India Flathead]]. Saatos dibéjaan yén éta jalma-jalma bakal bungah pindah, Garfield nyangka ieu tugas téh bakal gampang. Tétéla, anjeunna mendakan urang Salish téh teguh hayang tetep cicing di tanah karuhunana di [[Lebak Bitterroot]]. Usahana pikeun maksa [[Chief Charlo]] (Lulugu Charlo) sangkan nandatanganan perjangjian méh baé ngabalukarkeun bentrok militer. Ahirna, anjeunna hasil ngayakinkeun dua wakil lulugu pikeun nandatanganan sarta pindah ka reservasi jeung saeutik urang Salish. Garfield teu kungsi bisa ngayakinkeun Charlo pikeun nandatanganan, sanajan dokumén perjangjian resmi anu disahkeun ku Kongrés miboga tanda tangan palsu anjeunna. Dina taun 1876, Garfield ngamekarkeun hiji [[Bukti tiori Pythagoras ti Garfield|bukti trapésium]] pikeun [[tiori Pythagoras]], anu diterbitkeun dina ''[[New England Journal of Education]]''. Sejarawan matematika [[William Dunham (matematikawan)|William Dunham]] nyerat yén karya trapésium Garfield nyaéta "bukti anu kacida pinter benerna." Nurutkeun éta jurnal, Garfield manggihan éta bukti dina sela-sela "hiburan matematika sarta diskusi jeung anggota kongrés séjénna." Saatos pangalaman konvési agamana dina taun 1850, dunya kaagamaan janten prioritas utama pikeun Garfield. Anjeunna seueur maca sarta pamikiranna ngalegaan saluareun wates-wates pangalaman awalna salaku anggota Murid-murid Kristus (Disciples of Christ). Sawangan anyarna anu leuwih lega dumasar kana kacintaanana kana kabébasan mikir sarta pangulikna kana sajarah. Jerona pamikiran kaagamaan Garfield ogé dipangaruhan ku pangalamanana dina panggero perang sarta interaksina jeung para pamilih. == Pilihan raya présidén taun 1880 == {{Utama|Pilihan raya présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880}} === Nominasi Républik === {{Utama|Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1880}} [[File:The Appomattox of the third termers - unconditional surrender.jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.25|alt=Kartun. Grant nuju deku, Garfield nampi pedang ti Grant.|Saatos Grant éléh dina nominasi, majalah [[Puck (majalah)|''Puck'']] nyieun satira ngeunaan talukna [[Robert E. Lee]] ka Grant di Appomattox ku cara némbongkeun Grant masrahkeun pedangna ka Garfield.]] Saatos nembé kapilih janten Sénator kalayan rojongan John Sherman, Garfield sabenerna boga komitmen pikeun ngarojong Sherman dina nominasi présidén Républik taun 1880.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Nanging, sateuacan konvénsi dimimitian, sababaraha urang Républik, kalebet [[Wharton Barker]] ti Philadelphia, nganggap Garfield salaku pilihan panghadéna pikeun nominasi éta.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=454–455}} Garfield nolak yén anjeunna boga minat kana éta jabatan, nanging perhatian publik ieu cekap pikeun ngajantenkeun Sherman curiga kana ambisi leungeun katuhuna éta.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=456–457}} Salian ti Sherman, calon-calon anu diunggulkeun di awal nyaéta Blaine sarta tilas Présidén Grant; sababaraha calon séjén ogé narik perhatian para delegasi.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=17–19}} Partéy Républik harita kabeulah janten dua faksi: "**Stalwarts**", anu ngarojong sistem patronase (bagi-bagi jabatan) pamaréntah féderal anu aya, sarta "**Half-Breeds**", anu hoyong ayana réformasi layanan sipil. Nalika konvénsi dimimitian, Sénator New York [[Roscoe Conkling]], pamingpin faksi Stalwarts anu ngarojong tilas Présidén Ulysses S. Grant, ngusulkeun sangkan para delegasi sumpah pikeun ngarojong saha waé anu engkéna kapilih jadi nomine dina pilihan raya umum.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Nalika tilu delegasi Virginia Kulon nolak kabeungkeut ku sumpah éta, Conkling narékahan pikeun ngaluarkeun maranéhna tina konvénsi. Garfield nangtung pikeun ngabéla éta jalma-jalma, nepikeun pidato anu pinuh ku sumanget pikeun ngabéla hak maranéhna dina nangtukeun pilihan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Massa ahirna malik nentang Conkling, sarta anjeunna narik deui usulanana.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=81–83}} Ieu aksi Garfield matak hélok para pangrojongna, anu beuki yakin yén anjeunna téh hiji-hijina jalma anu bisa narik mayoritas sora delegasi.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=464–465}} Saatos urusan awal konvénsi réngsé, Conkling naék ka panggung pikeun némbongkeun calonna, [[Ulysses S. Grant]], kalayan pidato anu ngagedur sarta sababaraha kali kapegat ku surak massa, anu ngajantenkeun sabagian badag wartawan yakin yén Grant bakal meunang nominasi sacara aklamasi. Garfield salajengna naék ka panggung pikeun nyalonkeun babaturanana urang Ohio, [[John Sherman]], nepikeun pidato anu leuwih tenang anu ngingetkeun para delegasi yén pilihan raya présidén bakal ditangtukeun "dina kotak sora di Républik" dina bulan Novémber, lain "di Chicago dina panasna bulan Juli". Pidato Garfield museur kana hak para delegasi pikeun milih luyu jeung sora haténa, lain dikadali ku pamingpin partéy. Garfield dianggap salaku sosok anu mawa integritas anu dipiharep ku publik di tengah kacapéan politik sarta korupsi anu sumebar. Fokus salajengna pindah ka Garfield, anu ngabalukarkeun saurang delegasi nyarita, "Upami aya jalma luar (outsider) anu dicandak, kuring miharep éta téh Garfield". Dina sora (''ballot'') munggaran, Grant kenging 304 sora, Blaine 284, sarta Sherman jauh di tukang kalayan 93 sora. Sora-sora salajengna tetep macét (deadlock) antara Grant sarta Blaine, dimana duanana teu aya nu kenging 379 sora anu diperlukeun pikeun nominasi.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=96–101}} [[Jeremiah McLain Rusk]], anggota delegasi Wisconsin, sarta [[Benjamin Harrison]], delegasi Indiana, narékahan pikeun mungkas éta kamacétan ku cara mindahkeun sababaraha sora anti-Grant ka calon kuda hideung (**[[dark horse]]**)—nyaéta Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=472–475}} Garfield kenging 50 sora dina sora ka-35, sarta gelombang rojongan mimiti ngagedur. Garfield protés ka delegasi Ohio yén anjeunna teu néang nominasi sarta moal ngahianat ka Sherman, nanging maranéhna teu maliré protésna sarta tetep milih anjeunna.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=475–477}} Dina sora salajengna, ampir sakabéh delegasi Sherman sarta Blaine mindahkeun rojonganana ka Garfield, anu masihan anjeunna 399 sora sarta sah janten nomine. Sabagian badag pangrojong Grant tetep milih Grant nepi ka ahir, anu nyiptakeun minoritas faksi Stalwart anu kuciwa dina jero partéy.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=110–114}} Pikeun kenging rojongan ti éta faksi, [[Chester A. Arthur]], saurang anggota mesin politik Conkling, dicalonkeun janten wakil présidén.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=480–481}} === Kampanye ngalawan Hancock === [[File:Grand national Republican banner 1880 LCCN2001702119.jpg|thumb|200px|Poster pilihan raya Garfield–Arthur]] [[File:ElectoralCollege1880.svg|right|thumb|200px|Hasil sora éléktoral taun 1880]] Sanajan dina posisi calon wakil présidén parantos aya urang Stalwart, mumusuhan antara faksi-faksi Républik sésa konvénsi tetep aya, sahingga Garfield indit ka New York pikeun nepungan para pamingpin partéy.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} Saatos hasil ngayakinkeun faksi Stalwart sangkan miceun bédana pamadegan sarta ngahiji pikeun kampanye, Garfield mulang ka Ohio, masrahkeun kampanye aktip ka batur, sakumaha tradisi harita.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=498–500}} Samentawis éta, urang Démokrat nangtukeun calonna, Mayor Jéndéral [[Winfield Scott Hancock]] ti Pennsylvania, saurang perwira militer karir.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=488–491}} Hancock sarta urang Démokrat ngarep-ngarep bisa nguasaan wilayah [[Solid South]] (Kidul anu kompak), sedengkeun sabagian badag wilayah Kalér dianggap wilayah aman pikeun Garfield sarta urang Républik; lolobana kampanye museur ka sababaraha [[Nagara bagian ayun|nagara bagian anu sora na ketat]] (''swing states''), kalebet New York sarta Indiana.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=501–502}} Béda praktis antara dua calon ieu sabenerna saeutik, nanging urang Républik ngamimitian kampanye ku téma anu geus biasa, nyaéta "[[waving the bloody shirt]]" (ngageberkeun baju getihan). Maranéhna ngingetkeun para pamilih di Kalér yén Partéy Démokrat tanggung jawab kana aksi misahkeun diri (sési) sarta opat taun perang sipil, sarta urang Démokrat bakal ngabatalkeun hasil tina éta perang, ngahinakeun para véteran Uni, sarta mayar pangsiun para véteran Konfédérasi tina kas nagara.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=175–180}} Lima belas taun parantos kaliwat saprak perang réngsé, sarta kalayan jéndéral Uni mingpin di kadua pihak, taktik "baju getihan" ieu beuki kurang mangpaatna pikeun ngahudang sumanget pamilih.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} Sababaraha bulan sateuacan pilihan raya, urang Républik ngarobah taktik ku cara nekenkeun kana masalah [[tarif]]. Ngamangpaatkeun program Démokrat anu hayang "tarif ngan saukur pikeun panghasilan nagara", urang Républik bébéja ka para buruh di Kalér yén upami Hancock jadi présidén, éta bakal ngaleutikan panyalindungan tarif anu ngajaga maranéhna tetep boga pagawéan anu hadé.{{sfn|Clancy|1958|pp=232–233}} Hancock ngajantenkeun kaayaan langkung parah nalika anjeunna nyobian nyandak sikep tengah kalayan nyarita, "Pasualan tarif mah pasualan lokal."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=493–494}} Taktik Républik ieu kabuktian éféktif pikeun ngahijikeun Kalér di tukangeun Garfield.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=511–513}} Ahirna, tina leuwih ti 9,2 juta sora rahayat anu asup, sélisih antara dua calon ieu kurang ti 2.000 sora. Nanging dina [[Kolaéj Éléktoral (Amérika Sarikat)|Kolaéj Éléktoral]], Garfield meunang mutlak luhureun Hancock kalayan 214 sora lawan 155 sora.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=510–511}} Ieu pilihan raya ngajantenkeun Garfield hiji-hijina anggota DPR anu masih ngajabat anu kungsi kapilih jadi présidén. == Kapersidénan (1881) == {{Infobox Kabinét AS |align=right |Name=Garfield |President=James A. Garfield |President date=1881 |Vice President=[[Chester A. Arthur]] |Vice President date=1881 |State=[[James G. Blaine]] |State date=1881 |Treasury=[[William Windom (politikus)|William Windom]] |Treasury date=1881 |War=[[Robert Todd Lincoln]] |War date=1881 |Justice=[[Wayne MacVeagh]] |Justice date=1881 |Post=[[Thomas Lemuel James]] |Post date=1881 |Navy=[[William H. Hunt]] |Navy date=1881 |Interior=[[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] |Interior date=1881 }} === Kabinét sarta pelantikan === {{Utama|Pelantikan James A. Garfield}} [[File:Garfield inauguration.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Présidén Garfield dina panggung tinjauan, nuju ningali upacara pelantikan dina 4 Maret 1881]] [[File:GARFIELD, James A-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|thumb|200px|Ukiran garis Garfield, dijieun sakitar taun 1902 ku Bureau of Engraving and Printing]] Sateuacan pelantikanana, Garfield disibukkeun ku nyusun kabinét anu bisa mawa katengtreman antara faksi Conkling (Stalwart) sarta faksi Blaine (Half-Breed) dina internal partéy. Delegasi Blaine parantos masihan seueur rojongan pikeun nominasi Garfield, janten sénator ti Maine éta kenging posisi kahormatan salaku Menteri Luar Negeri.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=519–521}} Blaine lain saukur panaséhat pangdeukeutna présidén, nanging anjeunna ogé kacida panasaranana kana sagala hal anu lumangsung di Gedong Bodas, malah konon nempatkeun mata-mata di dinya nalika anjeunna nuju teu aya.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=554–555}} Garfield nunjuk [[William Windom (politikus)|William Windom]] ti Minnesota salaku Menteri Kauangan, [[William H. Hunt]] ti Louisiana salaku Menteri Angkatan Laut, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] salaku Menteri Perang, sarta [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] ti Iowa salaku Menteri Jero Nagara. New York diwakilan ku [[Thomas Lemuel James]] salaku Diréktur Jéndéral Pos. Garfield ogé nunjuk urang Pennsylvania, [[Wayne MacVeagh]], anu mangrupikeun lawan Blaine, janten [[Jaksa Agung Amérika Sarikat]].{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=33–36}} Blaine nyobian ngagagalkeun ieu janjian ku cara ngayakinkeun Garfield sangkan nunjuk lawan MacVeagh, [[William E. Chandler]], janten [[Solistur Jéndéral Amérika Sarikat]] di handapeun MacVeagh. Ngan saukur panolakan Sénat ka Chandler anu hasil nyegah MacVeagh ngundurkeun diri alatan éta pasualan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=555–561}} Lantaran Garfield kaganggu ku urusan tawar-menawar kabinét, pidato pelantikanana dianggap sakadar "kumpulan omongan anu ilahar" sarta teu luyu jeung harepan publik.{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=330}}{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}} Nanging, dina salah sahiji bagian penting, Garfield nekenkeun hak-hak sipil [[Afrika-Amérika]], nyarita yén "Kabébasan moal bisa méré berkah anu sampurna salami hukum atanapi administrasina masih nunda halangan leutik dina jalan unggal warga nagara anu mulya."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=538–540}} Saatos ngabahas standar emas, kabutuhan pendidikan, sarta kecaman anu teu disangka-sangka ka [[poligami Mormon]], éta pidato réngsé. Massa méré keprok, nanging nurutkeun Peskin, éta pidato "sanajan ditepikeun kalayan tulus, némbongkeun prosés panyusunan anu rurusuhan alatan nada anu datar sarta téma anu geus ilahar."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=539}} Janjian James ku Garfield matak ngambekkeun Conkling, lawan faksi Diréktur Jéndéral Pos éta, anu salajengna nungtut janjian kompensasi pikeun faksina, sapertos posisi Menteri Kauangan. Pasulayan anu dihasilkeun méakkeun seueur waktos dina mangsa kapersidénan Garfield anu pondok. Mumusuhan jeung Conkling nepi ka puncagna nalika présidén, alatan pangaruh Blaine, nunjuk musuh Conkling, Hakim [[William H. Robertson]], janten [[Koléktor Palabuhan New York]]. Ieu mangrupikeun salah sahiji posisi "basah" (patronase) di handapeun tingkat kabinét anu harita dicekel ku [[Edwin Atkins Merritt|Edwin A. Merritt]]. Conkling ngagunakeun prinsip [[sopan santun sénatorial]] (''senatorial courtesy'') pikeun nyobian ngagagalkeun éta janjian, nanging teu hasil. Garfield, anu percaya yén éta prakték téh korup sarta nolak ngan saukur jadi "tukang stempel" pikeun pilihan para sénator anu kawasa, teu daék mundur. Anjeunna ngancam bakal narik sakabéh nominasi iwal upami Robertson disahkeun, kalayan maksud pikeun "nangtukeun naha présidén téh ngan saukur juru tulis pendaptaran Sénat atanapi lulugu Éksekutif Amérika Sarikat".{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=38}} Ahirna, Conkling sarta baturna ti New York, Sénator [[Thomas C. Platt]], ngundurkeun diri tina korsi Sénat pikeun néang pangrojong balik ti nagara bagianana, nanging kalah manggihan kahinaan nalika législatif New York kalah milih jalma séjén pikeun ngagentos maranéhna. Robertson disahkeun janten Koléktor sarta kameunangan Garfield katingal jéntré. Sanajan Blaine rada tugenah, Garfield balik deui kana tujuanana pikeun nyaimbangkeun kapentingan faksi-faksi partéy sarta nunjuk sababaraha babaturan Conkling ti faksi Stalwart pikeun ngeusian rupa-rupa jabatan.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=273}} Kalayan kabinét anu parantos lengkep, Garfield kudu nyanghareupan rébu-rébu jalma anu néang jabatan (office seekers). Anjeunna ngagorowok, "Gusti! Naon anu aya di ieu tempat nepi ka saurang lalaki hayang pisan asup ka dieu." Kulawarga Garfield sabenerna betah cicing di Gedong Bodas, nanging anjeunna ngarasa tugas-tugas kapersidénan téh kacida matak jéngkélna.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=272}} === Waragad deui hutang nasional === Garfield maréntahkeun Menteri Kauangan William Windom pikeun ngawaragad deui (''refinance'') hutang nasional ku cara narik deui beungkeut (''bond'') AS anu mayar bunga 6%. Para panyekel beungkeut dipasihan pilihan: nampi artos tunai atanapi nampi beungkeut énggal kalayan bunga 3%, anu langkung luyu sareng tingkat bunga harita. Ieu léngkah hasil nyalametkeun artos pembayar pajak sakitar $10 juta. Salaku babandingan, total pengeluaran féderal dina taun 1881 téh di handapeun $261 juta.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=273}} === Nominasi Pangadilan Agung === Dina taun 1880, Présidén Hayes parantos nyalonkeun [[Stanley Matthews (hakim)|Stanley Matthews]] ka Pangadilan Agung, nanging Sénat nolak pikeun méré putusan. Dina Maret 1881, Garfield nyalonkeun deui Matthews, sarta Sénat ahirna nyahkeun Matthews ku sora 24–23. Nurutkeun ''The New York Times'', oposisi kana janjian Matthews téh asalna tina sajarah anjeunna dina taun 1859 nalika nungtut saurang éditor koran anu mantuan dua budak lumpat. Lantaran Matthews téh saurang "abolisionis" (nu nentang perbudakan) harita, ieu pasualan dianggap salaku kameunangan kapentingan politik praktis luhureun prinsip moral. Matthews ngabakti di Pangadilan nepi ka pupusna dina taun 1889. === Réformasi === {{Utama|Skandal Star Route}} [[File:Left Puck.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Kartun Garfield mendakan orok.|Kartun ''[[Puck (majalah)|Puck]]'' taun 1881 némbongkeun Garfield mendakan orok di hareupeun pantuna kalayan labél "Réformasi Layanan Sipil, salam ti [[Rutherford B. Hayes|R.B. Hayes]]". Hayes katingali di tukangeunana dandan jiga awéwé bari mawa kantong tabungan.]] Grant sarta Hayes duanana parantos ngajurung ayana réformasi layanan sipil (''civil service reform''), sarta dina taun 1881 asosiasi réformasi sapertos kitu parantos dikelompokeun kalayan énergi énggal di sakuliah nagara. Garfield miboga rasa simpati ka maranéhna, percaya yén [[sistem jarahan]] (''spoils system'') téh ngarusak kapersidénan sarta sering nutupan pasualan-pasualan anu langkung penting.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}} Sababaraha urang réformis rada kuciwa nalika Garfield ngan méré batasan jabatan ka para néang jabatan tingkat handap sarta masih méré janjian ka babaturan lila na.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=39–41}} Korupsi di kantor pos ogé kacida merlukeun réformasi. Dina April 1880, parantos aya panalungtikan kongrés ngeunaan korupsi di Departemén Kantor Pos AS, dimana aya sindikat anu konon maok jutaan dolar ku cara meunangkeun kontrak pangiriman surat palsu dina rute-rute anu disebut [[rute béntang]] (''star routes'').{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} Saatos meunangkeun kontrak kalayan tawaran harga panghandapna, biaya operasional rute surat éta bakal dionjatkeun sacara palsu sarta kauntunganana dibagikeun ka anggota sindikat. Teu lami saatos ngajabat, Garfield nampi laporan ngeunaan korupsi pos ku salah saurang lulugu sindikat, nyaéta Asistén Diréktur Jéndéral Pos [[Thomas J. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=580}} Garfield nungtut Brady sangkan ngundurkeun diri sarta maréntahkeun pangadilan anu réngsé dina sidang konspirasi. Nalika dibéjaan yén partéyna sorangan, kalebet manajer kampanyena, [[Stephen W. Dorsey]], kalibet di jerona, Garfield maréntahkeun sangkan korupsi di Kantor Pos éta dibongkar nepi ka "akar-akarna" (''to the bone''), teu paduli ka mana baé éta bakal nuju.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=578}} Brady ngundurkeun diri sarta didakwa ngalakukeun konspirasi, sanajan dina sidang juri taun 1882 sarta 1883, anjeunna dinyatakeun teu bersalah.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=94–95}} === Hak sipil sarta atikan === [[File:Jgarfield.jpeg|thumb|200px|alt=Potrét resmi kapersidénan James Garfield dina taun 1881]] Garfield percaya yén konci pikeun ngaronjatkeun kaayaan hak-hak sipil urang Afrika-Amérika nyaéta atikan anu dirojong ku pamaréntah.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=48}} Salila mangsa Rékonstruksi, [[freedman|jalma anu kakara leupas tina perbudakan]] parantos kenging hak kawarganagaraan sarta hak pilih, anu ngamungkinkeun maranéhna milu aub dina pamaréntahan. Nanging, Garfield hariwang yén hak-hak maranéhna keur dileyurkeun ku lalawanan urang bodas di Kidul sarta tingkat buta huruf anu luhur. Anjeunna sieun urang kulit hideung bakal janten golongan "[[peasantry|pabéasan]]" permanén di Amérika.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} Anjeunna ngusulkeun sistem atikan "universal" anu dibiayaan ku pamaréntah féderal. Salaku anggota kongrés ti Ohio dina Pébruari 1866, Garfield sarta Komisaris Sakola Ohio, Emerson Edward White, parantos nyusun rancangan undang-undang pikeun Departemén Atikan Nasional. Maranéhna percaya yén ngaliwatan data statistik, maranéhna bisa nyorong Kongrés AS pikeun ngadegkeun lembaga féderal pikeun réformasi sakola. Statistik harita némbongkeun yén tingkat buta huruf di kalangan urang kulit hideung di nagara bagian tilas Konfédérasi kacida luhurna, sakitar 80-90% dina awal mangsa Rékonstruksi. Nanging, dina mangsa kapersidénan Garfield, Kongrés sarta publik kulit bodas di Kalér parantos kaleungitan minat kana hak-hak Afrika-Amérika, sahingga Kongrés teu ngasahkeun waragad féderal pikeun atikan universal salila mangsa jabatanna.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=48–49}} Garfield ogé narékahan pikeun nunjuk sababaraha urang Afrika-Amérika dina posisi penting: [[Frederick Douglass]], pangrékam akta di Washington; [[Robert B. Elliott|Robert Elliot]], agén husus pikeun Departemén Kauangan; [[John M. Langston]], menteri pikeun [[Haiti]]; sarta [[Blanche Bruce|Blanche K. Bruce]], pangrégistrasi di Departemén Kauangan. Garfield percaya yén rojongan Kidul pikeun Partéy Républik bisa kenging ngaliwatan kapentingan "komersial sarta industri" tinimbang pasualan ras, sarta anjeunna mimiti ngarobah kawijakan Hayes anu dianggap leuleuh teuing ka urang Démokrat Kidul. Anjeunna nunjuk [[William H. Hunt]], saurang Républik ti Louisiana, salaku Menteri Angkatan Laut.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=49–50}} === Kawijakan luar nagri sarta réformasi angkatan laut === {{Tempo ogé|Sajarah kawijakan luar nagri AS, 1861–1897}} [[File:James G. Blaine - Brady-Handy.jpg|thumb |upright|left|[[James G. Blaine]], Menteri Luar Negeri Garfield]] Lantaran Garfield kurang miboga pangalaman dina kawijakan luar nagri, anjeunna kacida gumantungna ka Blaine. Maranéhna sapuk ngeunaan perluna ngamajukeun perdagangan bébas, hususna di wilayah [[Bahan Dunya Kulon]].{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield sarta Blaine percaya yén ngaronjatkeun perdagangan jeung [[Amérika Latin]] mangrupikeun cara panghadéna pikeun nyegah [[Karajaan Ngahiji Britania Raya sarta Irlandia]] nguasaan éta wilayah. Ku cara ngadorong ékspor, maranéhna percaya bisa ningkatkeun karaharjaan Amérika.{{sfn|Crapol|2000|pp=62–64}} Garfield méré wewenang ka Blaine pikeun ngayakeun konférénsi Pan-Amérika dina taun 1882 pikeun nengahkeun sengketa di antara nagara-nagara Amérika Latin sarta janten forum diskusi pikeun ningkatkeun perdagangan.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}} Dina waktos anu sasarengan, maranéhna miharep bisa nengahkeun perdamaian dina [[Perang Pasifik]] anu harita keur lumangsung antara [[Bolivia]], [[Chili]], sarta [[Peru]].{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=65–66|Doenecke|1981|2pp=55–57}} Blaine leuwih condong kana solusi dimana Peru teu kudu masrahkeun wilayahna, nanging dina taun 1881 Chili parantos nguasaan ibu kota Peru, [[Lima]], sarta nolak sagala perjangjian anu balik deui kana kaayaan sateuacan perang (''status quo'').{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1p=70|Doenecke|1981|2pp=57–58}} Garfield ogé narékahan pikeun ngalegaan pangaruh Amérika di wilayah séjén, nyungkeun badami deui ngeunaan [[Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer]] sangkan Amérika Sarikat bisa ngawangun [[Terusan Panama|hiji terusan ngaliwatan Panama]] tanpa campur tangan Inggris, sarta nyobian ngurangan pangaruh Inggris di [[Karajaan Hawaii]] anu strategis. Rencana Garfield sarta Blaine malah ngalegaan dugi ka luar Amérika, sakumaha maranéhna néang perjangjian komersial jeung [[Dinasti Joseon|Koréa]] sarta [[Karajaan Merina]] di Madagaskar.{{sfnm|Crapol|2000|1pp=74–80|Peskin|1978|2pp=576–577}} Garfield ogé mikirkeun pikeun ningkatkeun kakuatan militer AS di luar nagri, maréntahkeun Menteri Angkatan Laut Hunt pikeun nalungtik kaayaan angkatan laut kalayan tujuan pikeun ékspansi sarta modernisasi.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=145–147}} Nanging, sakabéh rencana ambisius ieu ahirna bolay saatos Garfield tiwas ditembak. Salapan nagara sabenerna parantos nampi ondangan pikeun konférénsi Pan-Amérika, nanging éta ondangan ditarik deui dina April 1882 saatos Blaine mundur tina kabinét sarta Arthur, gaganti Garfield, ngabolaykeun éta konférénsi. Réformasi angkatan laut tetep diteruskeun dina mangsa Arthur, sanajan dina skala anu leuwih leutik batan anu dibayangkeun ku Garfield sarta Hunt.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=148–149}} === Sawangan politik === Salaku présidén, Garfield nentang serikat buruh sarta mihak ka faksi "hard-money" (duit teuas/standar emas) dina Partéy Républik. Anjeunna ogé curiga ka program pertanian koperasi anu dirojong ku Grange, hiji organisasi patani anu ku anjeunna disebut salaku "komunisme anu nyamur". Nanging, Garfield ogé nentang monopoli korporasi sarta ngajurung ayana departemén atikan féderal bareng jeung ningkatkeun rojongan féderal pikeun atikan urang Afrika-Amérika di nagara-nagara bagian Kidul. Panalungtikan séjén nyebutkeun ngeunaan Garfield: <blockquote>Teu aya saurang ogé anu bisa lila aya dina dunya politik sakumaha Garfield tanpa boga sawangan ngeunaan sipat kapamingpinan présidén, sarta sawanganana, sacara gurat badag, nyaéta négatif. Sacara filosofis, sakumaha anu parantos dicatet, anjeunna mangrupikeun panyekel teguh ajaran laissez-faire (pasar bébas), sarta anjeunna parantos curiga kana kakawasaan présidén ti saprak anjeunna bajoang nentang Andrew Johnson.</blockquote> Gaganti Garfield salaku présidén, [[Chester A. Arthur]], miboga sawangan laissez-faire anu sarua. == Assassination (Sempalan maot) == === Guiteau sarta panémbakan === {{Utama|Assassination of James A. Garfield}} [[Charles J. Guiteau]] parantos ngalaman rupa-rupa profési dina hirupna, nanging dina taun 1880 anjeunna nekad hayang kenging jabatan féderal ku cara ngarojong naon anu ku anjeunna dianggap bakal jadi partéy pamenang, nyaéta Républik.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=114}} Anjeunna nyusun pidato, "Garfield vs. Hancock", sarta dicitak ku Komite Nasional Républik. Salah sahiji cara pikeun ngayakinkeun pamilih harita nyaéta ngaliwatan orator anu ngajelaskeun kahadéan calon, nanging lantaran urang Républik leuwih milih jalma anu leuwih kawentar, Guiteau saeutik pisan kenging kasempetan pikeun nyarita.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=151–152}} Guiteau, anu nganggap dirina saurang [[Stalwart (politik)|Stalwart]], ngarasa yén kontribusina pikeun kameunangan Garfield téh cekap pikeun janten alesan anjeunna diangkat janten konsul di Paris, sanajan kanyataanana anjeunna teu bisa basa Perancis, atawa basa asing séjénna.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=189–190, 237}} Ahli médis saatosna ngajelaskeun Guiteau salaku jalma anu kamungkinan katarajang skizofrenia narsistik; neuroscientist Kent Kiehl meunteun anjeunna salaku psikopat klinis. [[File:B&PStation1908.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Wangunan stasion karéta api.|[[Stasion Karéta Api Baltimore and Potomac]] di Washington, D.C., tempat Garfield ditémbak dina 2 Juli 1881.]] [[File:Garfield assassination engraving cropped.jpg|thumb|200px|Garfield, ditémbak ku [[Charles J. Guiteau]], rubuh nalika Menteri Luar Negeri Blaine ménta tulung. Ukiran tina ''Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper''.]] Salah sahiji tugas Garfield anu paling matak capé nyaéta narima para nu néang jabatan (office-seekers), sarta anjeunna pendak sareng Guiteau sahenteuna sakali. Pajabat Gedong Bodas nyarankeun sangkan Guiteau nepungan Blaine, lantaran jabatan konsul aya di handapeun Departemén Luar Negeri.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=237–238}} Blaine ogé narima publik sacara rutin, sarta Guiteau janten langganan dina éta sési. Blaine, anu teu miboga niat pikeun méré jabatan ka Guiteau anu teu mampuh sarta teu miboga jasa, ngan saukur nyarita yén kamacétan di Sénat ngeunaan nominasi Robertson ngajantenkeun pamikiran ngeunaan jabatan konsul di Paris moal bisa dilaksanakeun.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=278–279}} Saatos para sénator New York mundur, sarta Robertson disahkeun janten Koléktor, Guiteau terus-terusan nungtut hakna, nepi ka Blaine sacara teges nyarita yén anjeunna moal kenging éta jabatan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=299}} Guiteau ahirna percaya yén anjeunna kaleungitan éta jabatan lantaran anjeunna saurang Stalwart. Anjeunna mutuskeun yén hiji-hijina cara pikeun mungkas perang sadulur di jero Partéy Républik nyaéta ku cara Garfield kudu maot—sanajan anjeunna teu boga dendam pribadi ka présidén. Anjeunna ngarasa yén naékna Arthur bakal mulangkeun katengtreman, sarta mawa ganjaran pikeun sasama urang Stalwart, kalebet Guiteau sorangan.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=305–308}} Ti saprak [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|pamaténan Abraham Lincoln]], kajadian sapertos kitu dianggap salaku kabeneran anu langka alatan Perang Sipil, sarta Garfield, sakumaha kalolobaan jalma harita, ngarasa taya alesan naha saurang présidén kudu dijaga ketat; gerak-gerik sarta rencanana sering dicitak dina koran. Guiteau terang yén Garfield bakal ninggalkeun Washington pikeun néang hawa anu leuwih tiis dina 2 Juli 1881, sarta nyusun rencana pikeun maéhanana sateuacan harita. Anjeunna meuli pestol anu ku anjeunna dianggap bakal katingali alus lamun diasupkeun ka musium.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=313–316}} Guiteau nyumput di deukeut ruang nunggu awéwé di [[Stasion Karéta Api Baltimore and Potomac]] di Sixth Street, tempat Garfield dijadwalkeun indit. Blaine, anu bakal tetep di Washington, sumping ka stasion pikeun nganterkeunana. Dua lalaki éta nuju jongjon ngawangkong sarta teu nyadar aya Guiteau anu kaluar bari mawa révolverna, salajengna némbak Garfield dua kali. Guiteau gancang ditéwak.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=596}} Nalika Blaine mikawanoh anjeunna, Guiteau dibawa indit bari nyarita, "Kuring nu ngalakukeunana. Kuring bakal asup panjara kusabab ieu. Kuring saurang Stalwart sarta Arthur bakal jadi Présidén." Warta ngeunaan motivasina pikeun nguntungkeun faksi Stalwart sumebar bareng jeung béja panémbakanana, anu ngabalukarkeun amarah masarakat ka éta faksi.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=335–340}} === Pangobatan sarta maotna === Saatos Garfield pupus dina poé saterusna, [[Chester A. Arthur]] ngucapkeun sumpah jabatan présidén anu dipingpin ku Hakim Pangadilan Agung New York, [[John R. Brady]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=608}} Nurutkeun sababaraha sejarawan sarta ahli médis, Garfield sabenerna bisa salamet tina tatu-tatuna upami para dokter anu nanganan anjeunna parantos miboga pangaweruh, téknik, sarta alat médis jaman ayeuna.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Prakték médis standar harita ngawajibkeun prioritas dipasrahkeun pikeun maluruh jalanna pélor dina jero awak. Sababaraha dokterna ngasupkeun ramo anu [[Asepsis|teu distérilkeun]] kana tatuna pikeun mariksa pélor, hiji kabiasaan anu umum dina taun 1880-an.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Para sejarawan sapuk yén inféksi masif mangrupikeun faktor utama dina tilar dunyana Garfield.{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Biografer Peskin nyebatkeun yén malaprakték médis sabenerna teu boga kontribusi langsung kana maotna Garfield; inféksi sarta karacunan getih (sepsis) anu teu bisa di nyingkahan tina tatu pélor anu jero ngabalukarkeun karuksakan kana sababaraha organ sarta fragméntasi tulang tonggong.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=607}} Nanging, Rutkow, saurang profésor bedah, boga pamadegan yén kalaparan ogé milu mawa pangaruh. Rutkow nyarankeun, "Garfield miboga tatu anu teu pati maotkeun. Dina dunya ayeuna, anjeunna bakal bisa mulang ka bumi dina waktu dua atawa tilu poé."{{sfn|Schaffer|2006}} Narasi konvénsional ngeunaan kaayaan médis Garfield saatos ditémbak ditantang ku Theodore Pappas sarta Shahrzad Joharifard dina artikel taun 2013 dina ''The American Journal of Surgery''. Maranéhna boga pamadegan yén Garfield pupus alatan peupeusna (rupture) [[pseudoaneurysm]] arteri limpa, anu mekar alatan jalur pélor anu deukeut jeung arteri limpa. Maranéhna ogé boga pamadegan yén sepsis anu dialamanana sabenerna disababkeun ku ''acalculous cholecystitis'' akut pasca-trauma. Dumasar kana laporan [[autopsi]], panulis nyangka yén hamperuna peupeus, anu ngabalukarkeun ayana absés badag anu ngandung empedu di gigireun hamperu. Nurutkeun maranéhna, ieu nu nyababkeun turunna kaayaan kaséhatan Garfield mimiti tanggal 23 Juli 1881. === Sidang sarta éksékusi Guiteau === Guiteau didakwa dina 14 Oktober 1881, pikeun pamaténan présidén. Salila sidangna, Guiteau nyatakeun yén anjeunna henteu tanggung jawab kana maotna Garfield; anjeunna ngaku némbak, nanging henteu maéhan. Dina pembélaanana, Guiteau nyerat: "Jéndéral Garfield pupus alatan malaprakték. Nurutkeun dokterna sorangan, anjeunna teu ditémbak nepi ka maot. Para dokter anu salah nanganan anjeunna anu kudu nanggung dosa maotna, sanés kuring. Maranéhna anu kudu didakwa maéhan James A. Garfield, lain kuring." Saatos sidang anu kacau dimana Guiteau sering motong omongan sarta adu argumén, sarta ku ayana pembélaan nganggo alesan "gangguan jiwa" (insanity defense), juri nyatakeun anjeunna bersalah dina 25 Januari 1882, sarta anjeunna dihukum gantung. Guiteau kamungkinan katarajang ''neurosyphilis'', hiji panyakit anu nyababkeun karuksakan méntal fisiologis. Anjeunna diéksékusi dina 30 Juni 1882.{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|pp=444–446}} == Pamakaman, monumén, sarta pangéling-ngéling == [[File:Garfield-casket.jpg|thumb|200px|Peti mati Garfield nalika [[lying in state|disemahkeun]] di [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda Capitol]]]] Kajadian pupusna Garfield matak ngareureuwas sakuliah nagara. Karéta pamakamanana mangkat ti Long Branch ngaliwatan jalur husus anu dipinuhan ku kembang sarta imah-imah anu dipasangan bandéra satengah tihang. Layonana dibawa ka Capitol sarta saterusna diteruskeun ka Cleveland pikeun dikureubkeun.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}} Pamingpin [[United States Marine Band|Marine Band]], [[John Philip Sousa]], nyiptakeun lagu mart "[[In Memoriam: President Garfield's Funeral March|In Memoriam]]" pikeun ngahormat anjeunna. Leuwih ti 70.000 warga ngantri nepi ka tilu jam pikeun méré panghurmatan terakhir nalika layonana [[lying in state|disemahkeun]] di [[United States Capitol rotunda|Rotunda Capitol]] ti tanggal 21 nepi ka 23 Séptémber 1881. Dina tanggal 25 Séptémber di Cleveland, peti mati Garfield diarak di sapanjang Euclid Avenue, dihadiran ku tilas présidén Grant sarta Hayes, sarta jéndéral-jéndéral kawentar saperti [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William Sherman]].{{sfn|Peskin|1978|pp=608–609}} Monumén pikeun Garfield diadegkeun di sakuliah nagara. Dina April 1882, Departemén Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun perangko pikeun ngahormat anjeunna.{{sfn|Smithsonian 2006}} Sababaraha monumén penting séjénna diadegkeun di San Francisco (1884), Washington (1887), sarta Philadelphia (1896). Malah di [[Victoria, Australia]], wewengkon Cannibal Creek diganti ngaranna jadi Garfield pikeun ngahormat présidén Amérika ieu. [[File:The Garfield Obsequies at Cleveland, Schofield vault, temporary resting place of the remains, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|thumb|200px|Gambar [[Stéréoskopi|stéréoskopik]] gudang kulawarga Schofield, tempat samentawis layon Garfield sateuacan monumén permanénna réngsé]] Dina 19 Méi 1890, layon Garfield sacara permanén dikureubkeun dina hiji [[James A. Garfield Memorial|mausoléum]] di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland. Upacara ieu dihadiran ku Présidén Benjamin Harrison anu nyarita yén hirup sarta maotna Garfield bakal "terus jadi kajadian anu méré pangajaran sarta inspirasi dina sajarah Amérika".{{sfn|Memorial 1890|p=51}} Monumén éta nembékeun lima panel anu ngagambarkeun peran Garfield salaku guru, mayor jéndéral Uni, [[orator]], nalika ngucapkeun sumpah présidén, sarta nalika disemahkeun di Capitol. Pamaténan Garfield ku saurang néang jabatan (office-seeker) anu kaganggu jiwana ngahudangkeun kasadaran publik ngeunaan perluna réformasi layanan sipil. Sénator [[George H. Pendleton]] ngamimitian tarékah réformasi anu ngalahirkeun **[[Pendleton Act]]** dina Januari 1883.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=100–102}} Ieu undang-undang ngarobah "**[[spoils system]]**" (sistem jarahan) dimana jabatan féderal dileler dumasar kana préstasi sarta ujian kalapa, lain dumasar kana kasatiaan politik atawa pamayaran ka partéy.{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|pp=102–103}} Sanajan dina mimitina ngan nyakup 10% pagawé féderal, ieu dianggap salaku salah sahiji prestasi pangbadagna dina mangsa kapersidénan Arthur.{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=610}} Patung marmer Garfield karya Charles Niehaus ditambahan kana [[National Statuary Hall Collection]] di Capitol, Washington, D.C., salaku kado ti nagara bagian Ohio dina taun 1886. Loba kota sarta sakola di AS, Kanada, sarta Australia anu dingaranan Garfield pikeun ngéling-ngéling jasana. <gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:Garf 07-04-2008 02;10;53PM.JPG|[[James A. Garfield National Historic Site|Lawnfield]], tempat lumangsungna "**[[front porch campaign]]**" File:James A. Garfield Monument 01 (cropped).jpg|[[James A. Garfield Memorial|Mausoléum Garfield]] di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland File:James A. Garfield Monument (general view) - Washington, DC.jpg|[[James A. Garfield Monument]] di Washington, D.C. File:James Garfield2 1882 Issue-5c.jpg|Perangko munggaran Garfield, 1882 File:Garfield, NJ city hall front view, Jan. 2025.jpg|[[Garfield, New Jersey]], salah sahiji kota anu dingaranan tina nami présidén </gallery> == Warisan sarta sawangan sajarah == Salila sababaraha taun saatos pamaténanana, carita hirup Garfield dianggap salaku conto nyata tina "American success story"—yén budak anu paling miskin ogé hiji waktu bisa jadi Présidén Amérika Sarikat. Peskin nyerat: "Dina mangsa duka pikeun Garfield, urang Amérika sanés ngan saukur ngahormat saurang présidén; maranéhna méré pangajén ka saurang lalaki anu carita hirupna ngawujudkeun aspirasi maranéhna anu paling luhur."{{sfn|Peskin|2000}} Nanging, nalika mumusuhan antara faksi Stalwarts sarta [[Half-Breeds (politik)|Half-Breeds]] mimiti sirna dina ahir taun 1880-an, kitu ogé mémori ngeunaan Garfield. Dina taun 1890-an, urang Amérika mimiti kuciwa ka para politikus sarta néang inspirasi ti pihak séjén, sapertos industrialis, pamingpin buruh, sarta élmuwan. Beuki lila, mangsa kapersidénan Garfield anu singget téh beuki poho.{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}} Abad ka-20 teu némbongkeun ayana kabangkitan mémori pikeun Garfield. Panulis [[Thomas Wolfe]] nyebut para présidén dina jaman **[[Gilded Age]]**, kalebet Garfield, salaku "urang Amérika anu leungit" anu beungeutna "campur aduk, leyur, sarta ngahiji".{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}} Para politikus dina jaman éta kasilih ku tokoh-tokoh anu mangaruhan Amérika di luar kantor politik, sapertos para **[[Robber baron (industrialis)|robber baron]]**, para nu manggihan (inventor), sarta para réformis sosial. Nurutkeun Ackerman, "Abad ka-20 anu sibuk parantos ngajantenkeun jaman Garfield katingali jauh sarta teu rélevan."{{sfn|Ackerman|2003|p=399}} Para biografer Garfield condong miboga sawangan anu hadé ka anjeunna, sarta nganggap yén kapersidénanana némbongkeun awal anu ngajangjikeun sateuacan lekasan sacara tragis. Sejarawan [[Justus D. Doenecke]] nyatet préstasi Garfield: "ku cara meunangkeun kameunangan luhureun faksi Stalwarts, anjeunna ningkatkeun kakuatan sarta wibawa jabatanna. Salaku manusa, anjeunna calakan, sénsitip, sarta waspada, sarta pangaweruhna ngeunaan kumaha jalanna pamaréntahan téh taya tandingna."{{sfn|Doenecke|1981|p=182}} Dina taun 1931, Caldwell nyerat: "Upami Garfield tetep hirup dina sajarah, éta téh sabagian alatan pesona kapribadianana—nanging ogé kusabab dina hirup sarta maotna, anjeunna méré neunggeul munggaran anu telat kana sistem kakawasaan 'bos' anu bahaya."{{sfn|Caldwell|1965|p=363}} Rutkow nyerat yén kapersidénan James Abram Garfield ahirna ngan saukur jadi hiji patanya badag "kumaha lamun (what if)".{{sfn|Rutkow|2006|p=136}} Peskin percaya yén Garfield pantes kenging pangajén anu leuwih luhur pikeun karir politikna: "Sanajan préstasina henteu katingali wani atawa heroik, nanging jaman anjeunna memang sanés jaman anu merlukeun kapahlawanan. Kapersidénanana anu pinuh ku polémik memang singget, nanging anjeunna ninggalkeun éta jabatan dina kaayaan anu leuwih kuat batan nalika anjeunna nampa. Salaku inohong publik, anjeunna milu aub dina ampir unggal pasualan penting nasional salila dua dékade."{{sfn|Peskin|1978|p=611}} Minat publik ka Garfield hudang deui alatan miniseri taun 2025 anu judulna ''[[Death by Lightning]]'', dimana anjeunna diperankeun ku aktor [[Michael Shannon]]. Salian ti éta, peran Garfield ogé kungsi némbongan dina film ''The Night Riders'' (1939) sarta episode American Experience "Murder of a President" (2016) anu diperankeun ku [[Shuler Hensley]]. == Tempo ogé == * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat dumasar pangalaman sateuacanna]] * [[Daptar usaha pamaténan présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * [[Kekerasan politik di Amérika Sarikat]] == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|24em}} == Karya anu dicutat == {{refbegin}} === Buku === * {{cite book|last=Ackerman|first= Kenneth D. |title=Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of James A. Garfield|url=https://archive.org/details/darkhorsesurpris0000acke|publisher= Avalon Publishing|location=New York, New York|year= 2003|isbn=978-0-7867-1396-7}} * {{cite book |last=Bach |first=Penny Balkin |title=Public Art in Philadelphia |url=https://archive.org/details/publicartinphila0000bach |publisher=Temple University Press| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | year=1992| isbn=978-0-87722-822-6}} * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Emma Elizabeth |author-link=Emma Elizabeth Brown |title=The Life and Public Services of James A. Garfield / Twentieth President of the United States |publisher=D. Lothrop Company |location=Boston, Massachusetts |year=1881 |oclc=3037198 }} * {{cite book |last=Caldwell |first=Robert Granville |year=1965 |orig-year=1931 |title=James A. Garfield: Party Chieftain |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Co |location=New York, New York |oclc=833793627 }} * {{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Charles W. |title=The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofulys0000calh |author-link=Charles W. Calhoun |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-7006-2484-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Clancy |first=Herbert J. |year=1958 |title=The Presidential Election of 1880 |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialelec0000unse_x5q2 |publisher=Loyola University Press |location=Chicago, Illinois |isbn=978-1-258-19190-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Crapol |first=Edward P. |year=2000 |title=James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire |publisher=Scholarly Resources |location=Wilmington, Delaware |series=Biographies in American Foreign Policy |volume=4 |isbn=978-0-8420-2604-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Doenecke |first=Justus D. |author-link=Justus Drew Doenecke |title=The Presidencies of James A. Garfield & Chester A. Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofja00doen |year=1981 |publisher=The Regents Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0208-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Foner |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Foner |title=Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution 1863–1877 Updated Version |url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructionam0000fone_q8w6 |publisher=Harper Perennial |location=New York |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-06-235451-8 }} * {{cite book |author=Garfield National Memorial Association |title=The Man and the Mausoleum |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028849077 |publisher=Cleveland Print and Publishing Company |location=Cleveland, Ohio |year=1890 |ref={{sfnRef|Memorial 1890}} |oclc=1656783 }} * {{cite book |last=Howe |first=George F. |title=Chester A. Arthur, A Quarter-Century of Machine Politics |year=1966 |orig-year=1935 |publisher=F. Ungar Pub. Co |location=New York |isbn=978-1499999402}} * Millard, Candice, ''Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a President'', 2012 Knopf Doubleday. * {{cite book |last=McFeely |first=William S. |author-link=William S. McFeely |title=Grant: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/grant00will |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc |location=New York, New York |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-393-32394-8 }} * {{Cite book |last=Peskin |first=Allan |title=Garfield: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/garfieldbiograph0000pesk |publisher=Kent State University Press |location=Kent, Ohio |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-87338-210-6 }} * Pletcher, David M. ''The Awkward Years: American Foreign Relations under Garfield and Arthur'' (U of Missouri Press, 1962). * {{cite book |last1=Radford |first1=Warren |last2=Radford |first2=Georgia |title=Outdoor Sculpture in San Francisco: a Heritage of Public Art |url=https://archive.org/details/outdoorsculpture0000radf |location=Gualala, California |publisher=Helsham Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-9717607-1-4 }} * {{Cite book |first=Ira |last=Rutkow |title=James A. Garfield |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesagarfield0000rutk |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |year=2006 |location=New York, New York |oclc=255885600 |isbn=978-0-8050-6950-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jean Edward |author-link=Jean Edward Smith |title=Grant |url=https://archive.org/details/grant0000unse_g8a3 |publisher=Simon & Schuster Paperback |location=New York, New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-84927-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Weisberger|first=Bernard A.|title=The Presidents A Reference History James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur|publisher=Charles Scribners's Sons|editor=Henry F. Graff|date=2002}} {{refend}} === Majalah sarta périodik === * {{Cite news |first=Amanda |last=Schaffer |title=A President Felled by an Assassin and 1880s Medical Care |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/25/health/25garf.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |location=New York, New York |date=July 25, 2006}} * {{cite book|title=The Magazine of American History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdA2AQAAMAAJ|volume=25|year=1891|publisher=A.S. Barnes & Company|location=The University of California|format=digital|ref=The Magazine of American History}} === Online === * {{cite web|last=Peskin|first=Allan|title=Garfield, James Abram|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/05/05-00264.html|work=American National Biography Online|date=February 2000}} * {{cite web |title=5 cent Garfield |date=May 16, 2006 |publisher=Smithsonian National Postal Museum |url=http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2032596 |ref={{sfnRef|Smithsonian 2006}} }} * {{cite web |title=Garfield, James Abram 1831–1881|url=https://history.house.gov/People/Listing/G/GARFIELD,-James-Abram-(G000063)/|ref=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives|website=history.house.gov|publisher=History, Arts, & Archives United States House of Representatives}} {{refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|first=Corydon E.|last=Fuller|title=Reminiscences of James A. Garfield|publisher=Hansebooks|isbn=978-3-34807-944-0|year=2022|orig-date=1887}} * Goodyear, C. W. (2023). ''[[President Garfield: From Radical to Unifier]]''. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. * Graff Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed. 2002). * {{cite journal |title=The Surgical Treatment of President Garfield |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_north-american-review_1881-12_133_301/page/578 |first1=William A. |last1=Hammond |first2=John |last2=Ashhurst, Jr. |first3=J. Marion |last3=Sims |first4=John T. |last4=Hodgen |journal=[[The North American Review]] |volume=133 |number=301 |date=Dec 1881 |pages=578–610}} * {{cite book |last=Millard |first=Candice |author-link=Candice Millard |title=[[Destiny of the Republic|Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President]] |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7679-2971-4 }} * Vermilya, Daniel J. ''James Garfield and the Civil War: For Ohio and the Union'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015). == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|first=Corydon E.|last=Fuller|title=Reminiscences of James A. Garfield|publisher=Hansebooks|isbn=978-3-34807-944-0|year=2022|orig-date=1887}} * Goodyear, C. W. (2023). ''[[President Garfield: From Radical to Unifier]]''. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. * Graff Henry F., ed. ''The Presidents: A Reference History'' (3rd ed. 2002). * {{cite journal |title=The Surgical Treatment of President Garfield |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_north-american-review_1881-12_133_301/page/578 |first1=William A. |last1=Hammond |first2=John |last2=Ashhurst, Jr. |first3=J. Marion |last3=Sims |first4=John T. |last4=Hodgen |journal=[[The North American Review]] |volume=133 |number=301 |date=Dec 1881 |pages=578–610}} * Houdek, John Thomas. "James A. Garfield and Rutherford B. Hayes: A Study in State and National Politics" (Disertasi PhD, Michigan State University, 1970). * Menke, Richard. "Media in America, 1881: Garfield, Guiteau, Bell, Whitman." ''Critical Inquiry'' 31.3 (2005): 638–664. * {{cite book |last=Millard |first=Candice |author-link=Candice Millard |title=[[Destiny of the Republic|Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of Madness, Medicine and the Murder of a President]] |publisher=Anchor Books |location=New York, New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-7679-2971-4 }} * North, Ira Lutts. "A rhetorical criticism of the speaking of James Abram Garfield, 1876-1880" (Disertasi PhD, Louisiana State University, 1953). * Rushford, Jerry Bryant. "Political Disciple: The Relationship Between James A. Garfield And The Disciples Of Christ" (Disertasi PhD, University of California, Santa Barbara, 1977). * Skidmore, Max J. "James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur." dina ''Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century'' (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2014) pp. 63–79. * Sutton, Thomas C. "James A. Garfield." dina ''The Presidents and the Constitution'' (Volume One. New York University Press, 2020) pp. 266–275. * Uhler, Kevin A. "The demise of patronage: Garfield, the midterm election, and the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Act" (Disertasi PhD, Florida State University, 2011). * Vermilya, Daniel J. ''James Garfield and the Civil War: For Ohio and the Union'' (Arcadia Publishing, 2015). == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=James A. Garfield|q=James A. Garfield|s=Author:James Abram Garfield|v=no|n=no|b=no|d=Q34597|mw=no|m=no|species=no}} * [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=G000063 Biografi Kongrés James Abram Garfield (1831–1881)] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/garfield/index.html James Garfield: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti Perpustakaan Kongrés (Library of Congress) * [http://millercenter.org/president/garfield Ésai ringkes ngeunaan James A. Garfield sarta pamaréntahanana] ti Miller Center of Public Affairs * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151093-1/life-portrait-james-garfield "Life Portrait of James Garfield"], ti C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', 26 Juli 1999 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200121211413/https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-2933066R-root Buletin médis resmi patali jeung kaséhatan Présidén AS James Garfield] ti Perpustakaan Kadokteran Nasional AS (U.S. National Library of Medicine). {{James A. Garfield}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-oh-sen}} {{s-bef|before=George P. Ashmun}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Sénat Ohio]]<br>ti [[Distrik sénatorial ka-26 Ohio|distrik ka-26]]|years=1860–1861}} {{s-aft|after=[[Lucius V. Bierce]]}} {{s-par|us-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[Albert G. Riddle]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[Daptar Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat ti Ohio|Déwan Perwakilan AS]]<br>ti [[Distrik kongrés ka-19 Ohio]]|years=1863–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ezra B. Taylor]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Robert C. Schenck]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Urusan Militer Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1867–1869}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. Logan]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Theodore M. Pomeroy]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Jasa Kauangan Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1869–1871}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel Hooper]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry L. Dawes]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Ketua [[Komite Apronasi Déwan Perwakilan AS]]|years=1871–1875}} {{s-aft|after=[[Samuel J. Randall]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Rutherford B. Hayes]]}} {{s-ttl|title={{nowrap|[[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Daptar tikét présidén Partéy Républik AS|nomine]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat}}|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat, 1880|1880]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James G. Blaine]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=Rutherford Hayes}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[Chester A. Arthur]]}} {{s-hon}} {{s-bef|before=[[Henry Wilson]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Jalma anu [[Lying in state|disemahkeun sacara kanagaraan]] di [[Rotunda Capitol Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. Logan]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Portal bar|Perang Sipil Amérika|Biografi|Kristen|Hukum|Matematika|Ohio|Politik|Amérika Sarikat}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Garfield, James A.}} [[Category:James A. Garfield| ]] [[Category:Nu babar taun 1831]] [[Category:Nu pupus taun 1881]] [[Category:Matematikawan Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Category:Ahli hukum Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Category:Anggota Majelis Umum Ohio abad ka-19]] [[Category:Orator]] [[Category:Perwakilan Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat abad ka-19]] [[Category:Abolisionis ti Ohio]] [[Category:Aktivis hak sipil Afrika-Amérika]] [[Category:Matematikawan amatir]] [[Category:Urang Amérika turunan Inggris]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat anu ditémbak]] [[Category:Makam di Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland]] [[Category:Calon dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1880]] [[Category:Abolisionis Kristen]] [[Category:Réformasi layanan sipil di Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Nu pupus di New Jersey]] [[Category:Nu pupus alatan sepsis di Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Alumni Hiram College]] [[Category:Alumni Williams College]] [[Category:Jéndéral tentara Uni]] [[Category:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Category:Gilded Age]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} c4qpdel8m1ysld1pltqhmtvug50l5sm Chester A. Arthur 0 107911 712374 711682 2026-08-28T22:09:54Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = Chester A. Arthur | image = Chester A. Arthur by Abraham Bogardus (cropped) (2).jpg | caption = Arthur, {{circa|1880}} | order = Présidén Amérika Serikat ka-21 | office = Présidén Amérika Serikat | term_start = 19 Séptémber 1881 | term_end = 4 Maret 1885 | vicepresident = Kosong{{Efn|Arthur téh asalna Wakil Présidén James A. Garfield, naék tahta sanggeus [[Assassination of James A. Garfield|Garfield perlaya ditémbak]]. Harita mah can aya aturan ngeusian korsi wakil présidén nu kosong nepi ka panyilihan tahta saterusna.}} | predecessor = [[James A. Garfield]] | successor = [[Grover Cleveland]] | order1 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat ka-20 | office1 = Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat | president1 = James A. Garfield | term_start1 = 4 Maret 1881 | term_end1 = 19 Séptémber 1881 | predecessor1 = [[William A. Wheeler]] | successor1 = [[Thomas A. Hendricks]] | order2 = Pupuhu [[New York Republican State Committee|Partéy Républik New York]] | term_start2 = 11 Séptémber 1879 | term_end2 = 11 Oktober 1881 | predecessor2 = John F. Smyth | successor2 = [[B. Platt Carpenter]] | order3 = Nagara ka-21 | office3 = Collector of the Port of New York | term_start3 = 1 Désémber 1871 | term_end3 = 11 Juli 1878 | appointer3 = [[Ulysses S. Grant]] | predecessor3 = [[Thomas Murphy (Collector)|Thomas Murphy]] | successor3 = [[Edwin Atkins Merritt]] | birth_name = Chester Alan Arthur | birth_date = {{birth date|1829|10|5}} | birth_place = [[Fairfield, Vermont]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1886|11|18|1829|10|5}} | death_place = New York City, U.S. | resting_place = [[Albany Rural Cemetery]], Menands, New York | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] (1854–1886) | otherparty = [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] (saméméh 1854) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Nell Arthur|Ellen Herndon]]|25 Oktober 1859|12 Januari 1880|reason=tilar dunya}} | children = {{hlist|William|[[Chester Alan Arthur II|Chester II]]|Ellen}} | parents = {{ubl|[[William Arthur (clergyman)|William Arthur]]|Malvina Stone}} | profession = {{hlist|Ahli Hukum|Pagawé Nagara}} | education = {{plainlist| *[[Union College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) *[[State and National Law School]] }} | signature = Chester Alan Arthur Signature.svg | branch = [[New York Army National Guard|Milisi New York]] | serviceyears = 1857–1863 | unit = {{plainlist| * Brigadé Kadua, Milisi New York * Staf Gubernur [[Edwin D. Morgan]] }} | rank = [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadir Jéndral]] | battles = [[American Civil War]] }} '''Chester Alan Arthur''' (gumelar 5 Oktober 1829{{efn|Aya sawatara rujukan heubeul anu nyebutkeun manéhna gumelar taun 1830,{{sfn|Howe|p=5}} tapi nu nulis riwayatna, [[Thomas C. Reeves]], negeskeun yén éta téh salah: Arthur ngahaja ngora-ngorakeun umur sataun "ukur kusabab hayang katingal kénéh jagat" (gengsi).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}}} – pupus 18 Nopémber 1886) téya Présidén Amérika Serikat anu ka-21, nyepeng kakawasaan ti taun 1881 nepi ka 1885. Manéhna téé urang Partéy [[Republican Party (United States)|Républik]] ti New York anu saméméhna jadi Wakil Présidén ka-20 marengan Présidén [[James A. Garfield]]. Sanggeus Garfield perlaya tilar dunya ditémbak ku musuhna ([[Assassination of James A. Garfield|dipaténi]]), Arthur naék tahta jadi présidén. Dina mangsa pamaréntahanana, angkatan laut Amérika Serikat dijieun nepi ka tohaga, aturan milih pagawé nagara dilereskeun (ngaleungitkeun sistem [[spoils system|balales budi]]), sarta aturan keur urang deungeun anu asup ka nagrina dijieun leuwih lekeut. Arthur gumelar di [[Fairfield, Vermont]], sarta sapopoéna jadi ahli hukum di kota New York. Nalika aya [[American Civil War|Perang Sadulur Amérika]], manéhna téh jadi jéndral logistik (quartermaster general) di [[New York Army National Guard|Milisi New York]]. Réngsé perang, manéhna ancrub kana dunya pulitik sarta gancang naék darajatna dina organisasi Senator [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Présidén [[Ulysses S. Grant]] ngangkat manéhna jadi [[Collector of the Port of New York]] dina taun 1871. Di dinya, Arthur jadi kakuatan utama faksi [[Stalwart (politics)|Stalwart]] dina Partéy Républik. Nanging, dina taun 1878, alatan aya papaséaan rongkah antara Conkling jeung Présidén [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] ngeunaan kakawasaan ngangkat pagawé, Hayes miceun Arthur tina jabatanna pikeun meresihan sistem birokrasi féderal. Dina [[1880 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1880]], nalika aya perang campuh parebut sora antara Grant (faksi Stalwart) jeung [[James G. Blaine]] (faksi [[Half-Breeds (politics)|Half-Breed]]), James Garfield ahirna dipilih jadi jalan tengah (kompromi). Arthur tuluy dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén pikeun ngalindeukkeun haté urang Stalwart anu kuciwa alatan Grant éléh. Garfield jeung Arthur ahirna unggul dina [[1880 United States presidential election|pamilihan umum taun 1880]] sarta mimiti marentah dina bulan Maret 1881. Opat bulan ti harita, Garfield ditémbak; sarta sanggeus 11 minggu nahan kanyeri, Garfield pupus, tuluy Arthur naék jadi présidén. Nalika jadi présidén, Arthur mingpin dunya pawayangan pulitik kalayan ngahirupkeun deui angkatan laut Amérika, sanajan manéhna ogé loba dikritik alatan teu bisa ngatur kaleuwihan duit nagara (surplus) sésa Perang Sadulur. Arthur kungsi nolak (veto) aturan [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] taun 1882 anu nyaram urang Cina asup ka Amérika salila dua puluh taun, sabab dianggap ngarempak perjangjian [[Burlingame Treaty]]. Nanging, manéhna ahirna satuju nalika aturanana dirobah jadi sapuluh taun.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sturgis |first=Amy H. |date=2003 |title=Presidents from Hayes Through McKinley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fNPuBbSKUkC&pg=PA83 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=83–84 |isbn=978-0-3133-1712-5}}</ref> Manéhna ogé ngangkat [[Horace Gray]] jeung [[Samuel Blatchford]] jadi hakim agung. Salah sahiji jasa Arthur anu paling matak hookeun nyaéta nalika manéhna nandatanganan aturan [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] taun 1883, anu ngajadikeun sistim pagawé nagara leuwih beresih, padahal loba nu nyangka manéhna téh moal wani ngalakukeun éta sabab asalna ti faksi Conkling anu korup. Kusabab panyakitna anu parna, Arthur teu pati sumanget nalika hayang dicalonkeun deui dina taun 1884, sarta milih reureuh sanggeus jabatanna bérés. Nepi ka ayeuna, manéhna téh présidén pamungkas anu teu kungsi milu deui pamilihan umum sanggeus jadi présidén ganti. Sanajan kaayaan awakna tuluy nyirorot sarta pamaréntahanana katingal "anteng" (teu pati loba polah cara présidén modéren), Arthur meunang pamuji ti jalma-jalma sajamanana alatan bisa ngajaga martabat nagara kalayan hadé. == Mangsa Leutik == === Gumelar sarta Kulawarga === [[File:Fairfield ChesterArthur Nov2007.JPG|thumb|left|Imah tempat gumelar Arthur di [[Fairfield, Vermont]]]] {{Chester A. Arthur series}} Chester Alan Arthur gumelar di [[Fairfield, Vermont]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Indungna, Malvina Stone, babar di [[Berkshire, Vermont]], putri ti George Washington Stone jeung Judith Stevens.{{sfn|Hambley|page=103}} Kulawarga indungna mah teureuh urang [[English Americans|Inggris]] jeung [[Welsh Americans|Wales]]. Aki ti pihak bapana, Uriah Stone, kungsi bajoang di [[Continental Army]] nalika jaman [[American Revolution|Révolusi Amérika]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Bapa Arthur, [[William Arthur (clergyman)|William Arthur]], babar taun 1796 di Dreen, [[Cullybackey]], County Antrim, Irlandia, ti kulawarga [[Presbyterianism|Présbitérian]]. Indungna William (nini Arthur) ngaranna Eliza McHarg anu nikah ka Alan Arthur.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=4}} William lulus kuliah di [[Belfast]] tuluy hijrah ka [[Lower Canada|Propinsi Kanada Hilir]] dina taun 1819 atawa 1820.{{sfn|Reeves|July 1, 1970|p=179}} Malvina Stone panggih jeung William Arthur nalika William keur ngajar di [[Dunham, Quebec]], deukeut wates Vermont.{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=294}} Maranehna nikah di Dunham dina kaping 12 April 1821.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} Kulawarga Arthur pindah ka Vermont sanggeus anak munggaranna, Regina, babar.{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=294}} Maranehna pindah-pindah ti [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]] ka [[Jericho, Vermont|Jericho]], nepi ka ahirna matuh di [[Waterville, Vermont|Waterville]], marengan William anu meunang pancén ngajar di sakola-sakola anu béda.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} William Arthur ogé kungsi sakedap neuleuman élmu hukum, tapi nalika di Waterville, manéhna ninggalkeun dunya hukum sarta kapercayaan Présbitérianana tuluy asup ka [[Free Will Baptist]]s; sésa hirupna dipaké pikeun jadi pandita di éta aliran.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=4|Howe||2p=4}} William Arthur téh saurang anu kacida teugeugna dina ngalawan perbudakan ([[abolitionist]]), nu matak manéhna mindeng teu dipikaresep ku sawatara anggotana sarta jadi sabab kulawargana sering pindah-pindah tempat.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=7|Reeves|1975|2p=6}} Dina taun 1828, kulawargana pindah deui ka Fairfield, tempat Chester Alan Arthur babar dina taun saterusna; manéhna téh anak kalima ti salapan duduluran.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}{{sfn|Howe|pp=5, 25, 28—29}} Ngaran "Chester" dicokot tina ngaran Chester Abell,{{sfn|Vermont Bureau of Publicity|page=84}} saurang dokter sarta sobat bapana anu mantuan babarna, ari "Alan" mah dicokot tina ngaran akina ti pihak bapa.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=436}}{{efn|Arthur ngucapkeun ngaran tengahna kalayan tekenan dina suku kata kadua (A-lan).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=5}}}} Kulawargana matuh di Fairfield nepi ka taun 1832, tuluy pindah-pindah deui nuturkeun pancén bapana ka sawatara kota di Vermont jeung New York. Ahirna maranéhna matuh di [[Schenectady, New York]], dina taun 1844.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Arthur miboga adi lalaki, George (1836–1838), anu pupus nalika masih kénéh budak leutik,{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|p=295}} sarta tujuh urang duduluran anu hirup nepi ka sawawa:{{sfn|Hudson|p=246}} * Regina (1822–1910), pamajikan William G. Caw, saurang padagang, bankir, sarta inohong di [[Cohoes, New York]]. * Jane (1824–1842). * Almeda (1825–1899), pamajikan James H. Masten anu jadi kapala kantor pos di Cohoes. * Ann (1828–1915), saurang guru anu ngajar di New York sarta South Carolina. * Malvina (1832–1920), pamajikan Henry J. Haynesworth, pajabat di pamaréntahan Konfédérasi sarta perwira di Angkatan Darat AS nalika Arthur jadi présidén. * William (1834–1915), lulusan sakola médis sarta perwira militer anu kungsi tatu nalika Perang Sadulur. * [[Mary Arthur McElroy|Mary]] (1841–1917), pamajikan John E. McElroy, anu jadi "ibu nagara" samentara nalika Arthur nyepeng kalungguhan présidén. Kulawargana anu mindeng pindah-pindah tempat jadi sabab ayana tuduhan yén Arthur téh sanés asli urang Amérika Serikat. Nalika dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén taun 1880, saurang ahli hukum ti New York, Arthur P. Hinman, nyebarkeun gosip yén Arthur babar di Irlandia sarta karék asup ka Amérika nalika umur 14 taun. Upami éta bener, Arthur moal bisa jadi présidén dumasar kana aturan [[natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|konstitusi Amérika]].{{sfn|Karabell|pp=53–54}}{{sfn|Fisher|page=28}}{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=202–203}}{{efn|Amandemén ka-12 nyebutkeun yén syarat jadi wakil présidén téh sarua jeung syarat jadi présidén.}} Nalika éta berita teu loba nu percaya, Hinman nyebarkeun deui béja yén Arthur babar di Kanada. Nanging, sakabéh tuduhan éta teu kabuktian sabab dina catetan sénsus sarta Alkitab kulawarga, jelas disebutkeun yén Arthur babar di Vermont.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=202–203}}{{sfn|Reeves (Autumn 1970)|pp=292–293}} === Atikan === Arthur méakkeun mangsa leutikna matuh di sababaraha kota di New York saperti [[York, New York|York]], [[Perry, New York|Perry]], [[Greenwich (town), New York|Greenwich]], [[Lansingburgh, New York|Lansingburgh]], [[Schenectady, New York|Schenectady]], jeung [[Hoosick, New York|Hoosick]].{{sfn|Ferris|1999|p=127}} Salah saurang guruna nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh budak anu "jujur, taya kacangcaya, sarta soméah pisan".{{sfn|Howe|p=7}} Nalika sakola, manéhna mimiti mikaresep dunya pulitik sarta mihak ka [[Whig Party (United States)|Partéy Whig]]. Manéhna milu jeung barudak ngora Whig séjénna ngarojong [[Henry Clay]], malah kungsi milu campuh (gelut) ngalawan murid-murid anu ngarojong [[James K. Polk]] nalika [[1844 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1844]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Arthur ogé ngarojong [[Fenian Brotherhood]], hiji organisasi républikan Irlandia anu diadegkeun di Amérika; manéhna némbongkeun rojonganana ku cara maké jaspati (coat) warna héjo.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Sanggeus bérés nyiapkeun diri di Lyceum Union Village (ayeuna [[Greenwich (village), New York|Greenwich]]) jeung sakola tatabasa di Schenectady, Arthur asup ka [[Union College]] dina taun 1845. Di dinya, manéhna neuleuman kurikulum klasik tradisional.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=7–8}} Manéhna jadi anggota [[Psi Upsilon]] [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://psiu.org/alumni/distinguished-alumni/ |title=Notable Alumni, Chester A. Arthur |website=Distinguished Alumni |date=September 11, 2019 |publisher=Psi Upsilon Fraternity |location=Indianapolis, IN |access-date=August 18, 2022}}</ref> sarta nalika tingkat ahir, manéhna kapilih jadi présidén pakumpulan debat sarta asup ka [[Phi Beta Kappa]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Nalika libur usum tiis, manéhna sok ngajar di sakola di [[Schaghticoke (town), New York|Schaghticoke]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=9}} Sanggeus lulus dina taun 1848, Arthur balik deui ka Schaghticoke jadi guru tetep, sarta teu lila ti harita mimiti neuleuman élmu hukum.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=10}} Sambil diajar hukum, manéhna tetep ngajar, pindah deukeut ka imahna ku cara narima gawé di sakola di [[North Pownal, Vermont]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=10}} Aya hiji kajadian anu kabeneran, Présidén [[James A. Garfield]] dina mangsa nu bakal datang kungsi ngajar nulis (penmanship) di sakola anu sarua tilu taun ti harita, nanging maranéhna duanana teu kungsi patepung nalika jadi guru.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=11}} Dina taun 1852, Arthur pindah deui ka [[Cohoes, New York]], jadi kapala sakola (principal) di tempat adina, Malvina, ngajar.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=11}} Dina taun 1853, sanggeus sakola di [[State and National Law School]] di [[Ballston Spa, New York]], sarta geus boga cukup duit keur pindah, Arthur indit ka kota New York pikeun magang hukum ([[Reading law]]) di kantor [[Erastus D. Culver]], saurang ahli hukum anu teugeug ngalawan perbudakan sarta sobat kulawargana.{{sfn|Karabell|p=12}} Nalika Arthur resmi jadi ahli hukum New York dina taun 1854, manéhna asup ka firma hukum Culver, anu tuluy robah ngaranna jadi Culver, Parker, jeung Arthur.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=14}} == Karir Awal == === Ahli Hukum New York === [[File:Chester A. Arthur 1858 lawyer (3x4 cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Poto hideung bodas Arthur keur ngora miboga kumis|Arthur nalika jadi ahli hukum ngora]] Nalika Arthur asup ka firma hukum Culver, Culver jeung saurang ahli hukum New York, [[John Jay (lawyer)|John Jay]] (incuna [[John Jay|inohong nu ngadegkeun Amérika]]), keur ngajalankeun gugatan ''[[habeas corpus]]'' ngalawan Jonathan Lemmon, saurang nu boga budak ti Virginia anu keur ngaliwat ka New York mawa dalapan urang budakna.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Dina kasus ''[[Lemmon v. New York]]'', Culver nandeskeun yén dumasar hukum New York anu teu méré idin ayana perbudakan, sakabéh budak anu nincak New York otomatis jadi jalma merdéka.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Gugatan éta unggul, sarta sanggeus ngaliwatan sababaraha banding, ahirna dikukuhkeun ku [[New York Court of Appeals]] dina taun 1860.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=14–15}} Tukang nulis riwayatna jaga bakal nyebutkeun yén Arthur boga jasa gedé dina éta kameunangan; padahal sabenerna mah peranna teu sabaraha, sanajan manéhna mémang milu ancrub dina éta perkara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Dina kasus hak sipil séjénna dina taun 1854, Arthur jadi lulugu ahli hukum anu ngawakilan [[Elizabeth Jennings Graham]] sanggeus konduktor miceun manéhna sacara kasar tina jero karéta (streetcar) ukur kulantaran manéhna urang kulit hideung.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Arthur unggul dina éta perkara, sarta hasilna jadi cukang lantaran leungitna [[Desegregation in the United States|ségrégasi]] (pangbédaan warna kulit) dina jalur karéta di kota New York.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Dina taun 1856, Arthur mimiti mikacinta [[Nell Arthur|Ellen Herndon]], putri ti [[William Lewis Herndon]], saurang perwira angkatan laut ti Virginia.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=19–20}} Teu lila ti harita maranéhna papacangan.{{sfn|Karabell|p=14}} Dina taun anu sarua, manéhna nyieun firma hukum anyar jeung sobatna, Henry D. Gardiner, tuluy ngalalana ka Kansas pikeun nempo lahan sarta rencana muka praktek hukum di ditu.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=16}} Harita, éta nagara bagian keur campuh ku [[Bleeding Kansas|papaséaan rongkah]] antara [[Border ruffian|nu pro-perbudakan]] jeung [[Free-Stater (Kansas)|nu anti-perbudakan]]; Arthur mah nancebkeun pihakna ka nu anti-perbudakan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=17–18}} Nanging, hirup di daérah "koboy" (frontier) anu kasar téh teu cocog jeung urang New York anu biasa hirup lemes; sanggeus tilu atawa opat bulan, éta dua ahli hukum téh balik deui ka kota New York. Di dinya Arthur ngupahan tunanganana anu keur kasedihan alatan bapana palid di sagara nalika kapal [[SS Central America|SS ''Central America'']] karérem.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=17–18}} Dina taun 1859, maranéhna nikah di [[Calvary Church (Manhattan)|Gréja Épiskopal Calvary]] di Manhattan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=21}} Ieu pasangan téh dipaparin tilu urang putra: * William Lewis Arthur (10 Désémber 1860 – 7 Juli 1863), pupus alatan "[[convulsions|ayan]]" (step). * [[Chester Alan Arthur II]] (25 Juli 1864 – 18 Juli 1937), nikah ka Myra Townsend, tuluy ka Rowena Graves, ramana [[Gavin Arthur]]. * Ellen Hansbrough Herndon "Nell" Arthur Pinkerton (21 Nopémber 1871 – 6 Séptémber 1915), nikah ka Charles Pinkerton. Sanggeus nikah, Arthur museurkeun tanagana pikeun ngawangun firma hukumna, tapi tetep boga waktu keur ancrub kana dunya pulitik Partéy Républik. Salian ti éta, manéhna ogé nyalurkeun karesepna kana dunya militer ku cara jadi [[Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army|Jaksa Militer]] (Judge Advocate General) keur Brigadé Kadua tina Milisi New York.{{sfn|Howe|pp=18–19}} == Perang Sadulur == Dina taun 1861, Arthur diangkat jadi staf militer Gubernur [[Edwin D. Morgan]] minangka lulugu insinyur (engineer-in-chief).{{sfn|Howe|pp=18–19}} Mimitina ieu jabatan téh dianggap teu sabaraha pentingna, nanging nalika [[American Civil War|Perang Sadulur]] bitu dina April 1861, New York sarta nagara-nagara bagian kalér séjénna kudu sasadayaan nyiapkeun sarta pakarang keur balatentara anu jumlahna kacida lobana.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=20–21|Reeves|1975|2pp=22–23}} Arthur tuluy diangkat jadi [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadir jéndral]] sarta ditugaskeun di bagian logistik ([[quartermaster]]) milisi nagara bagian.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=20–21|Reeves|1975|2pp=22–23}} Manéhna kacida parigelna dina ngatur panyicingan sarta dangdanan keur para prajurit anu datang ka kota New York, nepi ka manéhna naék pangkat jadi inspektur jéndral milisi dina Maret 1862, tuluy jadi jéndral logistik (quartermaster general) dina bulan Juli taun éta kénéh.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=24–25}} Arthur sabenerna boga lolongkrang keur maju ka médan perang nalika resimén [[9th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment]] milih manéhna jadi komandan kalayan pangkat [[colonel]], nanging ku pamenta Gubernur Morgan, manéhna nolak éta kalungguhan sabab tanagana leuwih dibutuhkeun di New York.{{sfn|Howe|p=25}} Manéhna ogé nolak mingpin opat resimén Brigadé Métropolitan kusabab pamenta Morgan deui waé.{{sfn|Howe|p=25}} Pangdeukeutna Arthur ka garis hareup pangperangan nyaéta nalika manéhna miang ka kidul pikeun mariksa pasukan New York deukeut [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]], dina Méi 1862.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=26–27|Reeves|1975|2pp=28–29}} Dina usum panas harita, manéhna jeung utusan gubernur séjénna manggihan Sekretaris Nagara [[William H. Seward]] pikeun badami ngeunaan tambahan pasukan; Arthur méakkeun waktu sababaraha bulan pikeun ngumpulkeun 120.000 urang prajurit ti New York.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=26–27|Reeves|1975|2pp=28–29}} Sanajan meunang loba pamuji, jabatan Arthur téh mangrupa jabatan pulitik, nu matak manéhna dieureunkeun tina tugas milisi dina Januari 1863 nalika Gubernur [[Horatio Seymour]] ti Partéy [[Democratic Party (United States)|Démokrat]] naék tahta.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=30}} Arthur balik deui jadi ahli hukum, sarta ku ayana kenalan-kenalan anyar ti dunya militer, firma hukum Arthur & Gardiner jadi kacida majuna.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=30–31|Reeves|1975|2pp=33–34}} Nanging, sajeroning hirupna beuki ginding, Arthur jeung pamajikanana meunang cocoba anu kacida beuratna: anakna nu ngan hiji-hijina, William, pupus dadak-sakala dina umur dua taun.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=29–30|Reeves|1975|2pp=34–35}} Ieu pasangan téh kacida kasedihanana, nu matak nalika dipaparin deui putra, Chester Alan Jr., dina taun 1864, maranéhna kacida deudeuhna sarta ngageugeut éta budak.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=35}} Maranéhna ogé boga putri, Ellen, dina taun 1871.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=84}} Duanana hirup nepi ka sawawa.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=84}} Lalakon pulitik Arthur beuki moncorong nalika pelindungna, urut Gubernur Morgan, kapilih jadi anggota [[United States Senate|Sénat AS]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=37}} Manéhna digawekeun ku [[Thomas Murphy (Collector)|Thomas Murphy]], saurang pulitikeun Républik anu ogé sobatna [[William M. Tweed]], kokolot Démokrat ti [[Tammany Hall]]. Murphy téh saurang tukang laken (hatter) anu ngajual barang ka Angkatan Darat Uni, sarta Arthur jadi wakilna di Washington. Duanana jadi akrab dina bunderan Partéy Républik New York, nepi ka naék darajatna dina faksi konservatif anu dipingpin ku [[Thurlow Weed]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=37}} Dina [[1864 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1864]], Arthur jeung Murphy ngumpulkeun dana ti urang Républik di New York, sarta maranéhna milu hadir dina acara [[second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln|pelantikan kadua Abraham Lincoln]] dina taun 1865.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=38}} == Pulitikeun New York == === Mesin Pulitik Conkling === [[File:NYCustomHouseMerchantsExchange.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=Wangunan jangkung miboga pilar jeung kubah|[[New York Custom House]] (baheulana wangunan Merchants' Exchange di [[55 Wall Street]]) anu jadi kantor Arthur salila tujuh taun.]] Réngséna Perang Sadulur méré lolongkrang anyar pikeun jalma-jalma dina "mesin pulitik" Républik nu dipingpin ku Morgan, kaasup Arthur.{{sfn|Karabell|p=17}} Morgan milih faksi konservatif dina Partéy Républik New York, kitu ogé jalma-jalma nu digawe jeung manéhna, saperti Weed, Seward, sarta [[Roscoe Conkling]] (urang [[Utica, New York|Utica]] anu pinter nyarita sarta jadi béntang anyar di partéy).{{sfn|Karabell|p=17}} Harita, Arthur jarang pisan midangkeun pamikiran pulitikna sorangan; sakumaha ilaharna jaman harita, kasatiaan sarta gawé rancagé pikeun kapentingan "mesin" leuwih utama batan sikep pulitik pribadi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=39|Howe||2p=37}} Jaman harita, kantor [[custom house]] (pabéan) AS diurus ku jalma-jalma lulugu anu diangkat dumasar pulitik. Dina taun 1866, Arthur kungsi nyobaan ngalamar jadi Perwira Laut (Naval Officer) di [[New York Custom House]], hiji jabatan anu kacida basana (nguntungkeun), nanging teu hasil.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=40–41}} Manéhna tuluy neruskeun deui praktek hukumna sarta jadi anggota pakumpulan luhur [[Century Association|Century Club]] dina taun 1867.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=40–41}} Conkling, anu kapilih jadi Sénat AS dina [[United States Senate election in New York, 1867|taun 1867]], merhatikeun Arthur sarta mantuan manéhna naék darajat di partéy; nepi ka Arthur jadi pupuhu komite éksékutip Républik kota New York dina taun 1868.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=42–45}} Ieu kasibukan téh matak Arthur mindeng balik peuting, nepi ka pamajikanana ngarasa kuciwa alatan Arthur jarang aya di imah keur kulawarga.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=71–73}} Dina taun 1868, Conkling jadi pamingpin faksi konservatif Républik New York. Mesin pulitik Conkling kacida ngarojongna ka Jéndral [[Ulysses S. Grant]] dina pamilihan présidén, sarta Arthur milu ngumpulkeun dana keur kameunangan Grant dina [[1868 United States presidential election|taun 1868]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=48}} Sanajan Grant unggul di tingkat nasional, di nagara bagian New York mah éléh ku Horatio Seymour ti Démokrat. Arthur mimiti leuwih loba méakkeun waktu dina dunya pulitik batan dunya hukum, sarta dina taun 1869 manéhna diangkat jadi panaséhat hukum Komisi Pajak Kota New York kalayan gajih $10.000 sataun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=49–50|Howe||2p=42}}{{efn|$10.000 dina taun 1870 téh sarua jeung kira-kira ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|10000|1870}}}} duit ayeuna.}} Arthur mundur tina éta jabatan sanggeus urang [[Tammany Hall]] (Démokrat) anu dipingpin ku William M. Tweed ngawasa deui parlemén.{{sfn|Howe|p=42}} Dina taun 1871, Grant nawarkeun jabatan Komisioner Pajak Intern (Commissioner of Internal Revenue) ka Arthur, nanging Arthur nolak.{{sfn|''The Tribune''|1871|page=2}} Dina taun 1870, Présidén Grant méré kawenang ka Conkling pikeun ngatur jabatan-jabatan stratégis ([[Spoils system|patronage]]) di New York, kaasup di Custom House. Grant ngangkat Thomas Murphy jadi lulugu di dinya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=51–53|Howe||2pp=44–45}} Murphy loba nu teu mikaresep, nepi ka ahirna mundur dina Désémber 1871.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=57–58}} Grant tuluy nawarkeun éta jabatan ka jalma séjén, tapi maranéhna nolak sarta kalah nyarankeun nami Arthur.{{sfn|Doyle & Swaney|p=188}} Nalika Arthur dicalonkeun, koran ''New York Times'' nulis yén sanajan ngaranna jarang mucunghul, Arthur téh sabenerna jalma anu paling loba ngatur jalanna Partéy Républik di New York salila 10 taun panungtung.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=60|Howe||2pp=46–47}} Arthur resmi jadi lulugu Custom House (Collector) sarta ngatur ampir sarébu pagawé kalayan panghasilan anu kacida gedéna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=61–67|Schwartz||2p=182}} Sajaba ti gajih tetep, manéhna meunang tambahan tina sistem "moiety", nyaéta perséntase tina barang nu disita sarta denda ti para importir anu curaling.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=59, 63, 85–86}} Total pangasilanna nepi ka leuwih ti $50.000—leuwih gedé batan gajih présidén harita, cukup pikeun hirup méwah sarta maké papakéan anu ginding.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=59, 63, 85–86}}{{efn|$50,000 dina taun 1871 téh sarua jeung kira-kira ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US|50000|1871}}}} duit ayeuna.}} Arthur kaasup lulugu anu dipikaresep ku bawahanna sarta ku Partéy Républik, sabab manéhna pinter ngatur setoran dana kampanye ti para pagawé.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=71–73}} Nanging, para palulugu anu hayang ayana perobahan (reformis) tetep nyawad yén sistem ieu téh korup. Dina taun 1874, sanggeus ayana skandal denda anu teu merenah, Kongrés ngahapus sistem moiety sarta ngarobah gajih Arthur jadi gajih tetep $12.000 sataun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=79–84|Howe||2p=49}} Sanajan turun drastis, éta gajih téh masih kénéh leuwih luhur batan gajih dunyana, nyaéta Sekretaris Kaunangan AS.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=79–84|Howe||2p=49}} === Pasalia jeung Hayes === [[File:Arthur NYcustoms house cartoon.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Gambar kartun saurang lalaki najong lalaki séjén ka jalan|Kartun anu ngagambarkeun Présidén [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] najong Arthur kaluar tina New York Custom House]] Waktos jabatan opat taun Arthur minangka lulugu pabéan (Collector) bérés dina 10 Désémber 1875. Conkling, anu harita jadi salah sahiji pulitikeun pangkuatna di Washington, hasil ngatur sangkan Présidén Grant ngangkat deui anak emasna éta.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=87–89}} Conkling sabenerna hayang jadi calon présidén dina [[1876 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1876]], nanging anu unggul kalah ka [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], saurang inohong anu hayang ngaropéa birokrasi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=95–96|Karabell||2pp=26–27}} Sanajan Arthur jeung mesin pulitikna soson-soson ngumpulkeun dana kampanye, Conkling mah katingalna rada "tiis" dina ngarojong Hayes.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=100–105}} Sanggeus ngaliwatan sababaraha bulan [[Electoral Commission (United States)|papaséaan sora]] anu kacida raména, Hayes ahirna dinyatakeun unggul.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=106–107}} Hayes mimiti maréntah kalayan jangji hayang meresihan sistem birokrasi tina pangaruh pulitik ([[spoils system]]). Dina taun 1877, manéhna jeung Sekretaris Kaunangan [[John Sherman]] ngajadikeun mesin pulitik Conkling salaku udagan utama.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=100–105}} Sherman nitah hiji komisi anu dipingpin ku John Jay pikeun nalungtik New York Custom House.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|pp=318–319}} Jay (anu baheula kungsi bareng jeung Arthur dina kasus ''Lemmon'') nyebutkeun yén éta kantor pabéan téh pinuh teuing ku pagawé titipan pulitik, malah 20% pagawéna mah sabenerna mah teu diperlukeun.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=322–325|Reeves|1975|2pp=118–119|Howe||3pp=68–69}} Sanajan Arthur milu nurut kana sawatara paréntah ngurangan pagawé, Komisi Jay tetep nyawad Arthur sarta ménta sangkan éta kantor dibombardir (dirombak total).{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=121–122}} Hayes tuluy ngaluarkeun [[executive order]] anu nyaram para pajabat féderal milu campur dina urusan organisasi pulitik atawa kampanye.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=322–325|Reeves|1975|2p=121}} Arthur jeung baladna, [[Alonzo B. Cornell]] sarta [[George H. Sharpe]], mugen (nolak) nurut kana éta paréntah. Sherman nawarkeun sangkan Arthur mundur sacara lemes kalayan diiming-imingan jabatan jadi [[United States Ambassador to France|Duta Besar di Paris]], tapi Arthur tetep nancebkeun pamadeganana: nolak!{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=121–123}} Dina Séptémber 1877, Hayes ménta maranéhna mundur, tapi tetep ditolak. Hayes tuluy nyoba ngangkat jalma-jalma séjén (kaasup [[Theodore Roosevelt Sr.]]) pikeun ngaganti Arthur, tapi ku kakuatan Conkling di Sénat, sakabéh calon ti Hayes téh ditalikung sarta ditolak ku Sénat.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=353–355|Reeves|1975|2pp=126–131}} Nanging, Arthur ahirna teu bisa mumpang deui nalika dina bulan Juli 1878, Hayes ngamangpaatkeun mangsa resés Kongrés pikeun mecat Arthur sarta Cornell sacara sapihak.{{sfnm|Hoogenboom||1pp=370–371|Reeves|1975|2pp=136–137}} Hayes nawarkeun deui jabatan Konsul Jéndral di Paris pikeun "ngajaga pameunteu" (ngoméan gengsi) Arthur, tapi sakali deui Arthur nolak.{{sfn|Hoogenboom|p=354}} Saenggeus meunang loba waktu lowong, Arthur tuluy museurkeun tanaga dina urusan pulitik di New York. Dina taun 1879, manéhna kapilih jadi pupuhu Komite Éksékutip Républik Nagara Bagian New York.{{sfn|"The Sun"}} Manéhna jeung Conkling hasil nyatakeun kakuatanana ku cara ngunggulkeun faksi maranéhna anu disebut **[[Stalwart (politics)|Stalwart]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=153–155|Peskin||2p=704}} Sanajan meunang, Arthur ngan ukur sakedap bisa ngarasakeun kabungahna; dina 12 Januari 1880, pamajikanana, Nell, pupus dadak-sakala nalika Arthur keur di Albany.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=158–159|Karabell||2pp=38–39}} Arthur kacida kasedihanana, ngarasa dosa, sarta nepi ka tilar dunya manéhna teu kungsi nikah deui.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=98–99|Karabell||2pp=38–39}} == Pamilihan Taun 1880 == {{utama|1880 United States presidential election}} [[File:Grand national Republican banner 1880 LCCN2001702119.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Poster kampanye Garfield–Arthur]] Conkling sarta baladna di faksi Stalwart, kaasup Arthur, boga harepan hayang neruskeun kameunangan taun 1879 dina [[1880 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik taun 1880]]. Maranéhna hayang ngunggulkeun deui sobatna, urut Présidén Grant.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=160–165}} Sabalikna, faksi [[Half-Breed (politics)|Half-Breeds]] mah ngarojong [[James G. Blaine]], saurang sénator ti Maine anu leuwih satuju kana perobahan birokrasi.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=160–165}} Kadua calon éta taya nu meunang sora mayoritas, nepi ka dina voting ka-36, muktamar milih jalan tengah ku cara ngangkat "kuda hideung" ([[dark horse]]), nyaéta James A. Garfield, saurang anggota parlemén ti Ohio sarta jéndral Perang Sadulur anu teu milih ka faksi Stalwart atawa Half-Breed.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=177–178|Howe||2pp=107–108|Karabell||3pp=39–40}} Garfield sarta nu ngarojongna sadar yén maranéhna bakal bangga unggul dina pamilihan lamun teu dibantuan ku urang Stalwart ti New York. Maranéhna tuluy nawarkeun korsi wakil présidén ka faksi éta.{{sfnm|Karabell||1p=41|Reeves|1975|2p=178}} Mimitina ditaunkeun ka [[Levi P. Morton]], nanging Conkling nyaram manéhna narima.{{sfn|Howe|pp=107–108}} Tuluy maranéhna ngadeukeutan Arthur. Conkling nyaram deui waé, sabab yakin yén Partéy Républik bakal éléh.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=179–181}} Nanging, Arthur mah béda pamadegan. Manéhna narima éta tawaran. Ceuk béja ti saurang wartawan, William C. Hudson, Arthur nyarita ka Conkling: "Jabatan Wakil Présidén téh hiji kahormatan anu leuwih luhur batan nu kungsi dicipaneun ku kuring."{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=179–181}}{{efn|Nulis riwayat George Howe yakin kana ieu carita, nanging nulis riwayat sanggeusna mah curiga yén ieu téh ngan saukur carita rékaan (apokrif).}} Conkling ahirna léléh sarta milu kampanye keur éta pasangan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=190–194}} Sakumaha nu geus dikira-kira, pamilihan téh kacida raména. Calon ti Démokrat, Jéndral [[Winfield Scott Hancock]], kacida dipikaresepna ku balaréa.{{sfn|Jordan|pp=292–305}} Urang Républik mimitina ngagunakeun taktik "[[bloody shirt]]"—nyaéta ngingetkeun deui kakeueung Perang Sadulur sarta nyebutkeun yén milih Démokrat hartina méré angin ka urang kidul nu hayang misahkeun diri ([[Secession in the United States|séksési]]).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=194–196|Jordan||2pp=294–295}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1880.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral taun 1880]] Nanging, ku sabab perang geus liwat lima belas taun sarta kadua calon présidénna sarua jéndral Uni, éta taktik téh teu pati ampuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=194–196|Jordan||2pp=294–295}} Maranéhna tuluy ganti taktik ku cara nyebarkeun béja yén Démokrat bakal nurunkeun [[tariff|pajak impor]], anu matak barang-barang ti Éropa bakal banjir sarta rébuan pagawé pabrik di Amérika bakal kaleungitan pagawéan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=196–197|Jordan||2pp=297–302}} Ieu taktik téh hasil pisan di New York jeung Indiana. Hancock kalah beuki ti késeman nalika nyebutkeun yén urusan pajak téh "urusan lokal", anu matak manéhna katingal teu ngarti kana masalah nagara anu utama.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=196|Jordan||2p=301}} Salaku pupuhu Républik di New York, Arthur parigel pisan dina ngatur kampanye sarta ngumpulkeun dana.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=198–202}} Hasilna, Républik unggul di New York ku selisih 20.000 sora. Dina pamilihan anu pangkacida raména dina sajarah (78,4% sora asup), maranéhna unggul di tingkat nasional ku selisih anu kacida saeutikna: ngan 7.018 sora.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=203–204}} Nanging, dina [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] mah unggulna atra pisan, nyaéta 214 ka 155. Garfield jeung Arthur ahirna kapilih jadi pamingpin nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=203–204}} == Wakil Présidén (1881) == [[File:CAArthur-oathofoffice (edit).jpg|thumb|Arthur nampi sumpah jabatan présidén anu dipingpin ku Hakim [[John R. Brady]] di [[Chester A. Arthur Home|bumi Arthur]] di kota New York, 20 Séptémber 1881.]] Sanggeus pamilihan, Arthur nyoba mangaruhan Garfield sangkan ngeusi sawatara jabatan ku baladna ti faksi Stalwart New York, utamana korsi Sekretaris Kaunangan; nanging Garfield kalah ka milih James G. Blaine, musuh buyutna Conkling, jadi Sekretaris Nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=205–207}} Hubungan antara Présidén jeung Wakil Présidén beuki rengat nalika Garfield terus ngasingkeun faksi Stalwart tina kakawasaan. Darajat Arthur di pamaréntahan beuki nyirorot nalika manéhna biantara di hareupeun wartawan sarta nyebutkeun yén kameunangan di Indiana téh hasil tina kacurangan pulitik.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=213–216|Karabell||2pp=52–53}} Garfield ahirna ngangkat urang Stalwart, [[Thomas Lemuel James]], jadi Postmaster General, nanging papaséaan kabinét sarta biantara Arthur anu salah mangsa matak kaduana jadi "tiis" nalika resmi ngamimitian pancén dina 4 Maret 1881.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=216–219|Karabell||2pp=54–56}} Sénat AS harita keur saimbang pisan sorana antara Républik jeung Démokrat. Arthur, salaku Wakil Présidén, ngagunakeun hak sora panangtu ([[tie-breaking vote]]) pikeun mastikeun yén Partéy Républik bisa mingpin sakabéh komite di Sénat.{{sfn|Bycoffe}}{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=220–223}} Nanging, nalika Conkling sarta Sénator Thomas C. Platt mundur ti Sénat pikeun protés ka Garfield, Arthur milih mulang ka kota New York sabab euweuh deui pancén di Washington.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=233–237|Howe||2pp=147–149}} Nalika keur di Albany dina kaping 2 Juli, Arthur meunang béja yén Garfield ditémbak ku musuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=233–237|Howe||2pp=147–149}} Jalma anu némbakna, [[Charles J. Guiteau]], téh jalma anu kurang ingetan (gélo) anu hayang meunang jabatan. Manéhna ngagorowok ka jalma-jalma: "Kuring urang Stalwart, sarta Arthur bakal jadi Présidén!"{{sfnm|Karabell||1p=59|Reeves|1975|2p=237}} Sanajan Guiteau ngaku-ngaku balad Arthur, sabenerna hubungan maranéhna mah kacida jauhna. Guiteau ogé salah nganggap yén Arthur bakal méré hampura ka manéhna sanggeus Garfield perlaya. Nu leuwih matak hariwang nyaéta euweuh aturan hukum anu jelas ngeunaan [[United States presidential line of succession|panyilihan tahta présidén]]: nalika Garfield keur sakarat nahan kanyeri, taya nu nyaho saha anu sabenerna boga kawenang mingpin nagara.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=241–243|Howe||2pp=152–154}} Arthur ogé hoream katembat nyokot kakawasaan présidén salila Garfield masih kénéh hirup. Salila usum panas, nagara kawas anu kaleungitan pamingpin sabab Garfield beuki lungse sarta Arthur embung migawé pancén présidén.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=244–248|Karabell||2pp=61–63}} Dina peuting kaping 19 Séptémber, Arthur meunang béja yén Garfield ahirna tilar dunya. Hakim [[John R. Brady]] nyumpah Arthur jadi présidén di bumina di New York dina jam 2:15 subuh, 20 Séptémber. Isukna, manéhna miang ka Long Branch pikeun nepungan kulawarga Garfield, tuluy ka Washington.{{sfn|McCabe|page=764}} Saacanna, Arthur parantos mastikeun yén aturan panyilihan tahta tetep jalan ku cara ménta Sénat ngayakeun sidang husus. Sakali nepi ka Washington, manéhna resmi jadi pamingpin Amérika Serikat dina kaayaan anu kacida sedihna.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=247–248}} == Mangsa Jabatan Présidén (1881–1885) == {{Utama|Presidency of Chester A. Arthur}} === Mimiti Ngajabat === {{Tempo ogé|Inauguration of Chester A. Arthur}} Arthur nepi ka [[Washington, D.C.]], dina kaping 21 Séptémber.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|1881}} Dina poé saterusna, manéhna ngalakukeun sumpah jabatan deui, harita mah di hareupeun Lulugu Hakim [[Morrison R. Waite]]. Arthur nyokot ieu léngkah pikeun mastikeun yén sagalana luyu jeung aturan hukum; sabab harita aya kacangcaya naha hakim nagara bagian (Brady) boga kawenang pikeun nyumpah pajabat féderal.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=53–54|Reeves|1975|2p=248}} Mimitina, manéhna matuh di imah Sénator [[John Percival Jones|John P. Jones]], bari nungguan Gedong Bodas ([[White House]]) dirénovasi dumasar pamentana, kaasup nambahan hiasan kaca sapanjang lima belas méter jieunan [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=252–253, 268–269}} [[File:Arthur-cabinet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=Gambar sakelompok lalaki neuteup lalaki séjénna|''Dina bangbarung jabatan, naon anu bisa diarepkeun ti manéhna?'' Dina kartun ''[[Puck (magazine)|Puck]]'' taun 1881, Arthur pahareup-hareup jeung [[James A. Garfield#Cabinet and inauguration|kabinét]] sanggeus Présidén Garfield ditémbak.]] Kulantaran geus duda, adina Arthur, [[Mary Arthur McElroy]], jadi "ibu nagara" samentara anu ngurus sagala rupa jamuan di Gedong Bodas.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=252–253, 268–269}} Arthur jadi duda anu paling dipikaresep di Washington nepi ka loba béja ngeunaan hubungan asmarana, nanging sabenerna manéhna tetep satia mikacinta ka pamajikanana anu parantos tilar dunya.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=275–276}} Putrana, Chester Jr., harita keur kuliah tingkat mimiti di [[Princeton University]], ari putrina, Nell, tetep di New York bareng jeung guru pribadina ([[governess]]) nepi ka taun 1882. Nalika Nell datang ka Washington, Arthur kacida ngajagana sangkan budakna teu kaganggu ku wartawan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=275–276}} Teu lila ti harita, Arthur mimiti pasalia jeung kabinét titinggal Garfield, anu lolobana mah faksi lawan di partéyna. Manéhna ménta sangkan anggota kabinét tetep ngajabat nepi ka bulan Désémber, nanging Sekretaris Kaunangan [[William Windom (politician)|William Windom]] mundur leuwih ti heula dina bulan Oktober.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=160|Reeves|1975|2p=254}} Arthur tuluy milih [[Charles J. Folger]], sobatna ti faksi Stalwart New York, pikeun ngaganti Windom.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=160|Reeves|1975|2p=254}} Jaksa Agung [[Wayne MacVeagh]] ogé mundur sabab ngarasa salaku reformis manéhna moal cocog aya di kabinét Arthur.{{sfnm|Howe||1p=161|Reeves|1975|2pp=254–255}} Sanajan Arthur ménta manéhna tetep cicing, MacVeagh tetep mundur sarta diganti ku [[Benjamin H. Brewster]].{{sfnm|Howe||1p=161|Reeves|1975|2pp=254–255}} Blaine, musuh buyut faksi Stalwart, tetep jadi Sekretaris Nagara nepi ka Kongrés ngayakeun sidang deui, tuluy langsung mundur.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=160–161|Reeves|1975|2pp=255–257}} Conkling ngarep-ngarep Arthur bakal ngangkat manéhna ngaganti Blaine, nanging Présidén kalah milih [[Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen|Frederick T. Frelinghuysen]] ti New Jersey dumasar saran urut Présidén Grant.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=160–161|Reeves|1975|2pp=255–257}} Tina sakabéh anggota kabinét anu diwariskeun ti Garfield, ngan saukur Sekretaris Perang [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] (putra Abraham Lincoln) anu tetep ngajabat nepi ka mangsa jabatan Arthur bérés.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=162–163|Reeves|1975|2pp=257–258}} Harita, Arthur teu bisa ngangkat wakil présidén anyar pikeun ngeusi korsi anu kosong, sabab aturanana (Amandemén ka-25) can aya dina mangsa éta. === Reformasi Birokrasi === [[File:Chester Alan Arthur (cropped).jpg|thumb|276x276px|Arthur dina taun 1882]] Dina taun 1870-an, kabongkar ayana [[star route scandal|hiji skandal]] "ruteu béntang" (star route), di mana para kontraktor kiriman pos dibayar kaleuleuwihi ku ayana "uucingan" (konspirasi) jeung pajabat pamaréntah.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=93–95|Reeves|1975|2pp=297–298}} Para reformis hariwang yén Arthur, salaku urut nu ngarojong sistem setoran pulitik ([[spoils system]]), moal neruskeun pamariksaan éta skandal.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=93–95|Reeves|1975|2pp=297–298}} Nanging, Jaksa Agung pilihan Arthur, Brewster, kalah terus méré lolongkrang pikeun nalungtik éta perkara, malah nyéwa ahli hukum ti Partéy Démokrat pikeun nguatkeun tim jaksa sarta nyingkahan kacurigaan masarakat.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=299–300|Howe||2p=182}} Sanajan Arthur kungsi akrab jeung salah sahiji palakuna méméh jadi présidén, sanggeus ngajabat mah manéhna tegas ngarojong pamariksaan sarta mecat pajabat-pajabat anu kacepet ku éta skandal.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=299–300|Howe||2p=182}} Sanajan dina ahirna taya vonis nu beurat pikeun para palaku utama, Arthur hasil ngeureunkeun éta prakték curaling (fraud).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=303–305|Howe||2pp=189–193}} Kajadian perlaya na Garfield ku jalma nu gélo hayang jabatan beuki ngagedékeun pamenta masarakat pikeun ayana reformasi birokrasi.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Dina taun 1880, Sénator Démokrat [[George H. Pendleton]] ngasongkeun aturan sangkan pagawé nagara dipilih dumasar kana pangabisa (merit) ngaliwatan [[Civil service examination|ujian]], lain dumasar kadituna-kadieuna (koneksi pulitik).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Dina biantara taunanana taun 1881, Arthur ménta sangkan undang-undang reformasi birokrasi geuwat dijieun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=320–324|Doenecke||2pp=96–97}} Sanggeus Partéy Républik kaleungitan loba korsi dina pamilihan parlemén 1882, Kongrés ahirna léléh sarta nyatujuan éta aturan. Arthur nandatanganan **[[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]]** jadi undang-undang dina 16 Januari 1883.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=324|Doenecke||2pp=101–102}} Dina waktu ngan dua taun, saurang inohong Stalwart anu teugeug geus robah jadi présidén anu muka jalan pikeun reformasi birokrasi anu geus lila dianti-anti.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=324|Doenecke||2pp=101–102}} Mimitina, ieu undang-undang ngan lumaku pikeun 10% jabatan féderal. Lamun présidénna teu daria, ieu aturan téh moal jalan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=325–327|Doenecke||2pp=102–104}} Loba jalma nu sangsi kana kasatiaan Arthur. Nanging, manéhna kalah gerak gancang ku cara ngangkat anggota [[United States Civil Service Commission|Komisi Birokrasi]] anu jujur.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=325–327|Doenecke||2pp=102–104}} Lulugu pamariksa nu diangkatna, [[Silas W. Burt]], malah baheulana mah musuh Arthur nalika di New York Custom House.{{sfn|Howe|pp=209–210}} Dina taun 1884, Arthur ngarasa sugema ku ieu sistem anyar, sarta nyebutkeun yén ieu aturan hasil ngajaga para pajabat ti "tekenan kapentingan pribadi" sarta ngajaga kualitas pagawé nagara.<ref name="Arthur 1884" /> === Kaleuwihan Anggaran sarta Pajeg Impor === {{CSS image crop|Image=ARTHUR, Chester A-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|bSize=310|cWidth=230|cHeight=270|oTop=48|oLeft=38|Location=left|Description=Poto ukiran Présidén Arthur ti [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]}} Kulantaran pajeg jaman perang masih kénéh lumaku, pamaréntah féderal ngumpulkeun duit leuwih loba batan nu dikaluarkeun saprak taun 1866; nepi ka taun 1882, kaleuwihan anggaran (surplus) nepi ka $145 juta.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=328–329|Doenecke||2p=168}} Aya rupa-rupa pamadegan ngeunaan cara [[Balanced budget|nyaruakeun anggaran]]; urang Démokrat hayang nurunkeun [[tariff|pajeg impor (tarif)]] sanggeusna harga barang impor jadi leuwih murah, sedengkeun urang Républik yakin yén pajeg impor nu luhur téh penting pikeun ngajaga gajih para pagawé pabrik jeung tambang di jero nagara. Maranéhna leuwih satuju lamun éta duit surplus dipaké pikeun [[internal improvements|pangwangunan infrastruktur]] sarta ngurangan pajeg cukai (excise).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=328–329|Doenecke||2p=168}} Arthur sapamadegan jeung partéyna. Dina taun 1882, manéhna ménta sangkan pajeg cukai dihapus (iwal ti keur inuman keras) sarta ménta aturan pajeg impor anu leuwih basajan.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=330–333|Doenecke||2pp=169–171}} Dina bulan Méi taun éta, ditépakeun hiji komisi pajeg impor; Arthur ngangkat jalma-jalma anu lolobana mah [[Protectionism|protéksionis]] (nu ngabela pajeg luhur) kana éta komite. Nanging, dina Désémber 1882, éta komite kalah ngasongkeun laporan anu ménta pajeg impor diturunkeun antara 20 nepi ka 25%. Kongrés teu maliré kana éta saran, sarta dina ahirna [[Tariff of 1883|Undang-Undang taun 1883]] ngan saukur nurunkeun pajeg impor rata-rata 1,47%. Arthur nandatanganan éta aturan, tapi euweuh pangaruhna kana kaleuwihan anggaran nagara.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=334–335}} Kongrés ogé nyoba nyaruakeun anggaran ku cara méakkeun duit dina [[Rivers and Harbors Act]] taun 1882 kalayan jumlah anu kacida badagna, nyaéta $19 juta.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=280–282|Doenecke||2p=81}} Sanajan Arthur satuju kana pangwangunan, manéhna ngarasa beurat ku badagna éta anggaran sarta kusabab éta proyék ngan saukur nguntungkeun "daérah-daérah nu tangtu" wungkul, lain pikeun kapentingan nasional.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=280–282|Doenecke||2p=81}} Dina 1 Agustus 1882, Arthur ngagunakeun hak **[[Veto]]** (nolak) kana éta undang-undang; manéhna nyebutkeun yén éta anggaran téh lain pikeun "pertahanan babarengan atawa karaharjaan umum."{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=281}} Nanging, poé isukna, Kongrés [[Veto override|ngabatalkeun veto]] présidén (override), sarta éta aturan tetep jalan, ngurangan surplus nagara ku $19 juta.<ref name="Kim-Dwor"/> Urang Républik harita ngarasa éta téh hiji kameunangan, nanging jaga mah katingal yén éta léngkah téh kalah matak maranéhna kaleungitan korsi dina pamilihan parlemén 1882.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=196–197|Reeves|1975|2pp=281–282|Karabell|3p=90}} === Urusan Luar Nagri sarta Imigrasi === [[File:The only one barred out cph.3b48680.jpg|thumb|alt=Saurang lalaki Cina diuk di luar pager nu dikonci|Kartun pulitik taun 1882, anu nyawad kawijakan [[Chinese exclusion|panghalangan urang Cina]]]] Nalika mangsa Garfield, Sekretaris Nagara James G. Blaine nyoba ngahirupkeun deui hubungan diplomatik jeung nagara-nagara Amérika Latin. Manéhna hayang ayana perjangjian dagang sarta jadi panengah dina papaséaan antar nagara di dinya.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=55–57|Reeves|1975|2pp=284–289}} Blaine malah ngasongkeun ide konferensi Pan-Amérika dina taun 1882 pikeun ngeureunkeun [[War of the Pacific|Perang Pasifik]] antara [[Bolivia]], Chili, jeung [[Peru]].{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=55–57|Reeves|1975|2pp=284–289}} Nanging, nalika Frelinghuysen ngaganti Blaine dina ahir taun 1881, éta rencana téh jadi [[wikt:dead letter|surat paéh]] (teu jalan). Frelinghuysen hoream neruskeun usaha perdamaian Blaine sabab sieun Amérika Serikat kalah kacepet asup kana éta konflik.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=129–132|Reeves|1975|2pp=289–293|Bastert||3pp=653–671}} Kongrés ka-47 ogé loba méakkeun waktu pikeun nguruskeun imigrasi. Dina Juli 1882, Kongrés nyieun aturan ngeunaan kapal uap anu mawa imigran ka Amérika. Teu sangka, Arthur ngagunakeun hak [[Veto]]-na sarta ménta sangkan éta aturan diropéa deui; sanggeus dibenerkeun, kakara ku Arthur disatujuan.{{sfnm|Howe||1pp=168–169|Doenecke||2p=81}} Manéhna ogé nandatanganan [[Immigration Act of 1882]], anu nerapkeun pajeg 50 sén pikeun unggal imigran sarta ngalarang asupna jalma anu boga gangguan jiwa, jalma nu kurang ingetan, kriminal, atawa sing saha waé anu dianggap bakal jadi bangbaluh nagara.{{sfnm|Hutchinson||1p=162|Howe||2p=169}} Papaséaan anu pangpanasna mah lumangsung ngeunaan urang imigran ti Cina. Saacanna, dina taun 1868, Amérika boga perjangjian ([[Burlingame Treaty]]) anu ngamajukeun urang Cina asup sacara bébas. Nanging, nalika ékonomi keur siméte (Panic of 1873), urang Cina dianggap jadi cukang lantaran turunna gajih pagawé lokal.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=277–278|Hoogenboom||2pp=387–389}} Dina taun 1882, Kongrés nyoba ngaluarkeun aturan anu ngalarang pagawé Cina asup salila 20 taun.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=278–279|Doenecke||2pp=81–84}} Arthur deui-deui ngagunakeun hak **[[Veto]]**-na. Manéhna ngarasa yén larangan salila 20 taun téh méngpar tina perjangjian internasional anu ngan meunangkeun "panghalangan anu wajar." Koran-koran di bagian Wétan muji kana kawani Arthur, sedengkeun urang bagian Kulon mah katingalna bendu pisan. Ahirna, Kongrés ngasongkeun deui aturan anyar anu ngalarang imigrasi Cina salila 10 taun. Sanajan sabenerna masih kénéh kurang sapuk, Arthur ahirna nandatanganan [[Chinese Exclusion Act]] dina 6 Méi 1882 salaku jalan tengah.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=278–279|Doenecke||2pp=81–84}} Ieu undang-undang ngahalangan sakabéh urang Cina asup ka Amérika, iwal ti diplomat, guru, murid, padagang, sarta nu keur pelesir. === Ngawangum Angkatan Laut === [[File:Chicago. Leading the Squadron of Evolution, 1889 - NARA - 512952.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Poto opat kapal perang|Barisan kapal "Squadron of Evolution" keur balabuh dina taun 1889: ''Chicago'', ''Yorktown'', ''Boston'', sarta ''Atlanta''.]] Sanggeus Perang Sadulur bérés, kakuatan [[United States Navy|Angkatan Laut Amérika]] nyirorot pisan. Kapal anu tadina ampir 700 siki, kari 52 deui, malah lolobana mah geus tinggaleun jaman.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1p=337|Doenecke||2p=145}} Salami lima belas taun saacanna, pamaréntah leuwih museurkeun tanaga kana [[American Indian Wars|perang jeung urang Indian]] di daratan Kulon batan nguruskeun lautan. Nanging, nalika kaayaan di darat geus mimiti aman, Kongrés mimiti melang ningali kaayaan kapal perangna anu geus bobo.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=338–341||Doenecke|2pp=145–147}} Dina biantara taunanana taun 1881, Arthur ménta sangkan Angkatan Laut dikuatkeun deui.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Manéhna méré kawenang sapinuhna ka Sekretaris Angkatan Laut anyar, [[William E. Chandler]]. Chandler, saurang pamingpin anu tegas, langsung "meresihan" para pajabat anu masih kénéh milih kapal kai sarta ngadegkeun [[Naval War College]].{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Chandler ngabentuk tim ahli pikeun ngaropéa Angkatan Laut sangkan bisa ngajaga Amérika nepi ka rébuan mil jauhna, lain ngan saukur ngajaga basisir wungkul.{{sfnm|Weisberger|2002|1p=277||Doenecke|2pp=147–149}} Dumasar saran éta tim, Kongrés méré anggaran pikeun nyieun tilu kapal perang baja (''[[USS Atlanta (1884)|Atlanta]]'', ''[[USS Boston (1884)|Boston]]'', sarta ''[[USS Chicago (1885)|Chicago]]'') jeung hiji kapal panganteur (''[[USS Dolphin (PG-24)|Dolphin]]''). Ieu kapal téh katelah "Kapal ABCD" atawa ''[[Squadron of Evolution]]''.{{sfnm|Weisberger|2002|1p=277|Reeves|1975|2pp=342–343}} Kontrakna dibikeun ka [[John Roach & Sons]], pausahaan anu nawarkeun harga pangmurahna, sanajan Roach baheulana kungsi jadi dunungan Chandler.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=343–345|Doenecke||2pp=149–151}} Sanajan urang Démokrat di Kongrés ka-48 nyoba ngahalangan anggaran pikeun kapal baja saterusna, kaayaan Angkatan Laut tetep beuki maju. Kapal-kapal anyar éta ahirna resmi dioperasikeun dina taun 1889.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=349–350|Doenecke|2pp=152–153}} Chandler sorangan ngarasa reueus sabab geus hasil "ngancurkeun angkatan laut kolot" sarta ngagantina ku nu modérn.{{sfn|Weisberger|2002|p=277}} Dina mangsa jabatan Arthur, Amérika ogé ngayakeun ékspédisi ilmiah ka kutub kalér (Lady Franklin Bay Expedition). Sanajan aya anggota anu hasil nyieun catetan pangjauhna ka kalér ([[Farthest North]]), nanging tina 25 urang anggota ékspédisi, ngan saukur tujuh urang anu hasil salamet nepi ka balik deui. === Hak Sipil sarta Urusan Masarakat === [[File:Mahone, Hon. Senator of Virginia, Brig. Gen. in Civil War Crop.jpg|thumb|Pamingpin Partéy Readjuster [[William Mahone]] anu bajoang pikeun hak sipil di Virginia]] Saperti para présidén ti Partéy Républik méméhna, Arthur ngarasa beurat nyanghareupan pasalian kumaha cara nangtang kakuatan Partéy Démokrat di wilayah Kidul sarta kumaha cara ngajaga hak-hak sipil urang kulit hideung di dinya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=306–308|Doenecke||2pp=105–108}} Sanggeus mangsa [[Reconstruction Era|Rekonstruksi]] bérés, urang kulit bodas ti Partéy Démokrat (nu sok disebut "[[Bourbon Democrat]]s") miboga kakuatan deui, sarta Partéy Républik beuki léléh sabab nu ngarojong utamana, nyaéta urang kulit hideung, [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|hak sorana ditalikung]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=306–308|Doenecke||2pp=105–108}} Aya hiji lolongkrang di wilayah Kidul nalika mecenghul partéy anyar di Virginia, nyaéta **[[Readjuster Party]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=307–309|Ayers||2pp=46–47}} Ieu partéy mawa janji hayang ngaronjatkeun anggaran pendidikan (boh keur sakola kulit hideung atawa bodas) sarta ngahapus [[Poll tax (United States)|pajeg sora]] nu matak hésé ka rahayat leutik. Arthur satuju pikeun gawé bareng jeung ieu faksi sarta méré jabatan-jabatan féderal ka urang Readjuster batan ka urang Républik asli di dinya. Sanajan loba urang Républik kulit hideung anu ngarasa "dihianatan" ku ieu taktik, nanging inohong kawas [[Frederick Douglass]] mah ngarojong sabab kawijakan urang Readjuster dianggap leuwih adil batan urang Démokrat.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=310–313}} Nanging, usaha séjénna pikeun ngabéla urang kulit hideung téh kurang hasilna. Nalika Mahkamah Agung ngabatalkeun [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]] dina kasus ''[[Civil Rights Cases]]'' (1883), Arthur nyatakeun teu sapuk kana éta kaputusan dina biantarana ka Kongrés, tapi manéhna teu hasil mangaruhan Kongrés pikeun nyieun aturan anyar salaku gagantina.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=112–114}} Dina hiji hal mah Arthur hasil campur tangan, nyaéta nalika ngabatalkeun hukuman ka saurang kadét kulit hideung di [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], [[Johnson Chesnut Whittaker]], sanggeus dipaluruh yén éta kasus téh pinuh ku kacua dumasar kana warna kulit (rasial).{{sfn|Marszalek|loc=''[[passim]]''}} Di wilayah Kulon, Arthur ogé nyanghareupan masalah ngeunaan prakték [[polygamy|poligami]] ku kelompok [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormon]] di Utah. Arthur sapamadegan jeung Garfield yén poligami téh hiji tindak kajahatan anu ngaruksak ajén kulawarga.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=84–85}} Dina taun 1882, manéhna nandatanganan **[[Edmunds Act]]** anu ngajadikeun poligami salaku kajahatan féderal sarta ngalarang palakuna pikeun nyepeng jabatan publik atawa milu milih dina pamilihan.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=84–85}} === Kawijakan Urang Indian === Pamaréntahan Arthur nyanghareupan tangtangan tina parobahan hubungan jeung sélér-sélér [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] di wilayah Kulon.{{sfn|Doenecke|pp=85–89}} [[American Indian Wars|Perang Indian]] geus mimiti réngsé, sarta sikep masarakat mimiti robah jadi leuwih hadé ka urang Indian. Arthur ménta ka Kongrés sangkan nambahan anggaran pikeun pendidikan urang Indian, anu ahirna disatujuan dina taun 1884, sanajan jumlahna teu saluyu jeung kahayang manéhna.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–92|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Manéhna ogé satuju kana parobahan sistem lahan jadi [[Allotment Era|sistem jatah (allotment)]], di mana urang Indian sacara pribadi—lain dumasar sélér—boga hak milik kana tanah. Arthur teu hasil ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngajalankeun ieu ide salila manéhna ngajabat, nanging dina taun 1887, [[Dawes Act]] ahirna ngarobah hukum sangkan saluyu jeung éta sistem.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–92|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Ieu sistem jatah téh harita mah dipuji ku para reformis, nanging tétéla jaga mah kalah matak rugi ka urang Indian sabab tanah maranéhna loba nu dijual deui kalayan harga murah ka para [[Speculation|tukang spekulasi]] kulit bodas.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1p=91|Stuart||2pp=452–454}} Salami mangsa présidén Arthur, para nu bubuara (settlers) sarta nu boga ingon-ingon terus-terusan asup sarta ngarebut wilayah urang Indian.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Mimitina mah Arthur nolak kana éta peta, nanging sanggeus Sekretaris Jero Nagri [[Henry M. Teller]] ngayakinkeun yén éta lahan téh teu ditangtayungan ku hukum, Arthur ahirna muka wilayah [[Crow Creek Reservation]] di [[Dakota Territory]] pikeun para nu bubuara ngaliwatan paréntah éksékutip dina taun 1885.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} Présidén saterusna, [[Grover Cleveland]], manggihan yén éta tanah téh sabenerna hak milik urang Indian, sarta langsung ngabolaykeun paréntah Arthur sababaraha bulan ti harita.{{sfnm|Doenecke||1pp=89–90|Reeves|1975|2pp=362–363}} === Kaséhatan sarta Lalampahan === [[File:President Chester A. Arthur Yellowstone National Park Expedition 1883.jpg|upright=1.15|alt=Sakelompok lalaki diuk di leuweung|thumb|left|Arthur dina hiji ékspédisi di [[Yellowstone National Park]] bareng jeung [[Philip Sheridan]] sarta [[Robert Todd Lincoln]].]] Teu lila sanggeus jadi présidén, Arthur didiagnosa kakeunaan ku panyakit **[[Bright's disease]]**, nyaéta gangguan [[kidney|ginjal]] anu ayeuna disebut **[[nephritis]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=317–318|Howe||2pp=243–244}} Manéhna nyoba nyumputkeun éta kaayaan sangkan teu kanyahoan ku balaréa, nanging dina taun 1883, béja ngeunaan panyakitna mimiti sumebar. Awakna beuki lila beuki begang sarta pameunteuna katingal beuki sepuh, malah manéhna ogé mimiti "ngos-ngosan" (hésé) nuturkeun wirahma gawé présidén anu kacida padetna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=317–318|Howe||2pp=243–244}} Pikeun mulikkeun deui kaséhatanana, dina bulan April 1883, Arthur sarta sawatara sobat pulitikna indit ka Florida.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=355–359|Howe||2pp=244–246}} Nanging, éta pakansi téh kalah matak sabalikna; Arthur kalah katarajang kanyeri anu kacida méméh balik deui ka Washington.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=355–359|Howe||2pp=244–246}} Dina ahir taun éta, dumasar saran ti Sénator Missouri [[George Graham Vest]], manéhna nganjang ka **[[Yellowstone National Park]]**.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=364–367|Howe||2pp=247–248}} Loba wartawan anu milu dina éta rombongan présidén, anu ahirna milu ngawanohkeun sistem [[History of the National Park Service|Taman Nasional]] anyar ka masarakat luas.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=364–367|Howe||2pp=247–248}} Lalampahan ka Yellowstone katingalna leuwih mangpaat pikeun kaséhatan Arthur batan pakansi ka Florida. Manéhna balik ka Washington dina kaayaan anu leuwih jagrag sanggeus dua bulan lalampahan.{{sfnm|Karabell||1pp=124–125|Reeves|1975|2pp=366–367}} === Pamilihan Présidén 1884 === Nalika [[1884 United States presidential election|pamilihan présidén taun 1884]] geus deukeut, James G. Blaine dianggap salaku calon pangkuatna ti Partéy Républik. Nanging, Arthur ogé kungsi boga niat hayang nyalonkeun deui pikeun hiji mangsa jabatan pinuh.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Tapi, sababaraha bulan méméh [[1884 Republican National Convention|Muktamar Nasional Républik]], Arthur mimiti sadar yén taya hiji faksi ogé di partéyna anu bener-bener daék ngarojong manéhna sapinuhna. Faksi Half-Breed tetep satia ka Blaine, sedengkeun faksi Stalwart masih kénéh bingung; aya nu ngadukung Arthur, aya ogé nu milih Sénator [[John A. Logan]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Urang Républik anu mikacinta reformasi birokrasi memang geus mimiti resep ka Arthur sanggeus manéhna nandatanganan UU Pendleton, tapi maranéhna masih kénéh cangcaya naha Arthur téh bener-bener "beresih" atawa henteu. Maranéhna kalah leuwih milih Sénator [[George F. Edmunds]] ti Vermont.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=368–371|Howe||2pp=254–257}} Sanajan para pangusaha sarta urang Républik di wilayah Kidul ngadukung manéhna, Arthur ahirna mutuskeun pikeun teu milu campur sacara daria dina rebutan korsi calon présidén.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=373–375|Doenecke||2pp=181–182}} Manéhna tetep milu "étalaseu" (token effort) hungkul, sabab lamun manéhna mundur kitu waé, urang bakal curiga kana kaséhatanana sarta bakal cangcaya kana naon anu geus dipigawé ku manéhna salila ngajabat. Nalika muktamar dimimitian dina bulan Juni, geus katingal yén Arthur bakal éléh. Dina voting kaopat, Blaine meunang 541 sora, sedengkeun Arthur ngan meunang 207 sora.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=380–381|Howe||2pp=264–265}} Arthur tuluy ngirim telegram ucapan salamet ka Blaine sarta narima éta kaéléhan kalayan tenang ([[equanimity]]).{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=380–381|Howe||2pp=264–265}} Manéhna teu milu dina kampanye taun 1884, anu engkéna ku Blaine dianggap salaku cukang lantaran éléhna ku calon ti Démokrat, Gubernur New York [[Grover Cleveland]].{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=387–389|Howe||2pp=265–266}} === Pangangkatan Hakim === {{utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Chester A. Arthur}} Arthur ngangkat dua urang hakim pikeun ngeusi korsi kosong di [[United States Supreme Court|Mahkamah Agung AS]]. Anu kahiji nyaéta dina Juli 1881 nalika Hakim [[Nathan Clifford]] tilar dunya.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Arthur milih [[Horace Gray]], saurang ahli hukum ti Massachusetts, sarta pamilihan ieu gampang disatujuaun ku Sénat.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Gray ngabdikeun dirina di Mahkamah Agung salila leuwih ti 20 taun. Korsi kosong kadua mecenghul nalika Hakim [[Ward Hunt]] pangsiun dina Januari 1882. Arthur mimitina milih urut dununganana, [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Sabenerna Arthur rada cangcaya naha Conkling bakal narima atawa henteu, nanging manéhna ngarasa kudu méré pangajén ka jalma anu kungsi ngangkat karirna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Sénat nyatujuan, nanging luyu jeung sangkaan, Conkling nolak.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} Ieu mangrupakeun kajadian pamungkas di mana saurang calon anu geus disatujuaun ku Sénat kalah nolak jabatanana. Salaku gantina, Arthur ngangkat [[Samuel Blatchford]], saurang hakim ti Pangadilan Banding Federal anu kacida dipikahormatna.{{sfnm|Reeves|1975|1pp=260–261|Howe||2p=195}} == Saatos Jadi Présidén (1885–1886) == Arthur bérés ngajabat dina taun 1885 sarta mulang ka bumina di kota New York. Sababaraha urang Stalwart New York ménta manéhna pikeun nyalonkeun jadi Sénator, nanging Arthur nolak. Manéhna leuwih milih balik deui jadi pokrol (pengacara) di firma hukumna, Arthur, Knevals & Ransom.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=412–414}} Nanging, kaséhatanana beuki nyirorot nepi ka manéhna jarang bisa kaluar imah.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} === Tilar Dunya === [[File:Chester Arthur grave.jpg|thumb|Makam Arthur di [[Albany Rural Cemetery]] di Menands, New York]] Sanggeus méakkeun usum panas taun 1886 di Connecticut, Arthur balik deui ka bumina dina kaayaan anu beuki parna. Dina kaping 16 Nopémber, manéhna méré paréntah sangkan sakabéh dokumén pribadina sarta dokumén resmina diduruk nepi ka béak.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Isukna, Arthur katarajang stroke ([[cerebral hemorrhage]]) sarta teu éling deui. Manéhna tilar dunya dina poé saterusna, 18 Nopémber, dina umur 57 taun.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Dina kaping 22 Nopémber, hiji upacara pamakaman dilaksanakeun di New York anu dihadiran ku Présidén Cleveland sarta urut Présidén Hayes. Arthur dimakamkeun di gigireun pamajikanana dina hiji [[sarcophagus]] (peti batu) anu megah di [[Albany Rural Cemetery]], [[Menands, New York]].{{sfn|Reeves|1975|pp=416–418}} Dina taun 1889, hiji monumén patung malaikat tina perunggu ditepakeun di luhureun makamna salaku tanda pangajén pikeun jasa-jasana ka nagara.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|1894}} Mangsa hirup Arthur sanggeus jadi présidén téh mangrupakeun anu kadua pangpondokna dina sajarah AS (ngan sataun dalapan bulan), sanggeus James K. Polk. == Sawangan Pulitik == Salaku saurang konservatif,{{sfn|Nelson|2015|p=370}} Arthur kabeungkeut kana faksi Stalwart dina Partéy Républik salila taun 1860-an jeung 1870-an, anu ngarojong [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sarta kawijakan-kawijakan konservatif pamaréntahanana.{{sfn|Whalen|2007|p=58}} == Warisan Sajarah == [[File:Carthur.jpeg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén Arthur]] Sawatara pos [[Grand Army of the Republic]] dingaranan dumasar kana ngaran Arthur, kaasup di [[Goff, Kansas]], [[Lawrence, Nebraska]], [[Medford, Oregon]], sarta [[Ogdensburg, Wisconsin]]. Dina 5 April 1882, Arthur kapilih jadi anggota kahormatan [[Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States]] (MOLLUS) salaku tanda pangajén kana kontribusina dina mangsa perang.{{sfn|"The Loyal Legion"|page=1}} Union College méré gelar [[Legum Doctor|LL.D.]] (Doktor Kahormatan dina widang Hukum) ka Arthur dina taun 1883.{{sfn|University of the State of New York|pages=21–22}} Dina taun 1898, hiji patung parunggu Arthur saluhur 4,5 méter anu dijieun ku George Edwin Bissell ditepakeun di [[Madison Square]], Kota New York.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=419}} Nalika upacara panyingkapan éta patung, Sekretaris Perang [[Elihu Root]] nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh saurang pamingpin anu "wijaksana dina nagara sarta teguh dina pamaréntahan," sanajan manéhna ngarasa kasingkur sarta kurang dipikanyaah ku partéyna sorangan.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=419}} Dina taun 1938, Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun prangko husus pikeun ngahormatan manéhna. Dina taun 2012, gambar Arthur ogé dipaké dina koin saméméh hiji dollar AS. <gallery class="center"> File:Chet Arthur Mad Sq jeh.JPG|[[Statue of Chester A. Arthur|Patung Arthur]] di [[Madison Square Park]], Kota New York, dijieun taun 1898. File:Chester A Arthur, 21c, 1938 issue.jpg|Prangko Arthur, kaluaran taun 1938. File:Chester A. Arthur, Presidential Dollar.jpg|Koin dollar AS gambar Arthur, dicitak taun 2012. File:Arthur Avenue Streetsign (36769067783).jpg|[[Arthur Avenue]] di [[the Bronx]] dingaranan dumasar kana ngaran Présidén Arthur. </gallery> Ngaran Arthur mimitina kurang dipikawanoh ku para ahli sajarah sanggeus manéhna bérés ngajabat.{{sfn|Karabell|p=139}} Dina taun 1935, sejarawan George F. Howe nyebutkeun yén Arthur téh "nepi ka poék (henteu kawentar), kontras pisan jeung peranna anu kacida pentingna dina sajarah Amérika."{{sfn|Howe|p=288}} Nanging, dina taun 1975, [[Thomas C. Reeves]] nulis yén pangangkatan pajabat ku Arthur téh kacida hadéna, sarta skandal korupsi anu ramé harita mah teu nempel ka pamaréntahanana.{{sfn|Reeves|1975|p=420}} Wartawan [[Alexander McClure]] nulis, "Taya jalma anu asup jadi Présidén kalayan rasa teu percaya anu kacida gedéna saperti Chester Alan Arthur, sarta taya jalma anu bérés ngajabat... kalayan rasa hormat anu leuwih luhur, boh ti sobat pulitikna atawa ti musuhna." [[Mark Twain]] ogé nulis, "Hésé pisan néangan pamaréntahan anu leuwih hadé batan pamaréntahan Présidén Arthur."{{sfn|Feldman|p=95}} Dina sawangan sejarawan modérn, Arthur umumna dianggap présidén anu "rata-rata" atawa biasa waé, malah mindeng disebut présidén anu paling gampang dipopohokeun. Imah Arthur di New York saterusna dijual ka [[William Randolph Hearst]]. Saprak taun 1944, éta tempat dipaké jadi toko samara (spice emporium) **[[Kalustyan's]]** anu kasohor nepi ka ayeuna. === Dina Média === Sosok Arthur diperankeun ku [[Nick Offerman]] dina miniseri [[historical drama]] [[Netflix]] taun 2025 anu judulna ''[[Death by Lightning]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Death By Lightning' Gives Nick Offerman the Role of a Lifetime in Chester A. Arthur|last=O'Keefe| first=Meghan|date=7 November 2025|website=Decider.com|url=https://decider.com/2025/11/07/death-by-lightning-nick-offerman-chester-a-arthur-muttonchops/|access-date=Dec 17, 2025}}</ref> == Tempo Ogé == {{Portal|American Civil War|Biography|United States|Politics|New York City|New York (state)|Law}} * Arthur Cottage, imah karuhun Arthur di [[Cullybackey]], [[County Antrim]], Irlandia Kalér. * [[Julia Sand]], awéwé anu surat-suratan sarta méré saran ka Arthur. * [[List of presidents of the United States|Daptar Présidén Amérika Serikat]]. * [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience|Daptar Présidén Amérika Serikat dumasar pangalaman méméhna]]. {{clear}} == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == <references> <ref name="Arthur 1884"> {{cite web | url = http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur%27s_Fourth_State_of_the_Union_Address | title = Fourth State of the Union Address | first = Chester A. | last = Arthur | year = 1884 | publisher = Wikisource, The Free Library | access-date = July 15, 2011 }} </ref> <ref name="Kim-Dwor"> Lewis A. Kimmel, ''Federal-Budget and Fiscal Policy 1789–1958'', (Washington, D. C.: The Brooking Institute, 1959). Dicutat dina Dworsky: "The temptation to squander money was overwhelming; the Rivers and Harbors Act passed over (President) Arthur's veto in 1882 demonstrated how strongly it lay upon the Congress." </ref> {{sfn|"Supreme Court Nominations"}} </references> == Bibliografi == === Buku === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | title = The Naval History of the United States | volume = 2 | last = Abbot | first = Willis J. | author-link = Willis J. Abbot | publisher = Peter Fenelon Collier | year = 1896 | oclc = 3453791 | url = https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26416 | ref = {{sfnRef|Abbot}} }} * {{cite book | title = The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction | url = https://archive.org/details/promiseofnewsout0000edwa | last = Ayers | first = Edward L. | author-link = Edward L. Ayers | year = 2007 | orig-year = 1992 | publisher = Oxford University Press, US| location = New York | isbn = 978-0-19-532688-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Ayers}} }} * {{cite book | last1 = Doyle | first1 = Burton T. | last2 = Swaney | first2 = Homer H. | date = 1881 | title = Lives of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur | url = https://archive.org/details/livesofjamesa00doyle | location = Washington, D.C. | publisher = Rufus H. Darby | ref = {{sfnRef|Doyle & Swaney}} }} * {{cite book | title = The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur | last = Doenecke | first = Justus D. | year = 1981 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence | isbn = 978-0-7006-0208-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Doenecke}} | url = https://archive.org/details/presidenciesofja00doen }} * {{cite book | last = Feldman | first = Ruth Tenzer | year = 2006 | title = Chester A. Arthur | publisher = Twenty-First Century Books | isbn = 978-0-8225-1512-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Feldman}} | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/chesteraarthur0000feld }} * {{cite book |last=Ferris |first=Gary W. |date=1999 |title=Presidential Places: A Guide to the Historic Sites of U.S. Presidents |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVvOyszUlpEC&pg=PA127 |location=Chicago |publisher=R. R. Donnelly and Sons |isbn=978-0-89587-176-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Louis |date=2014 |title=The Law of the Executive Branch: Presidential Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmDwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985621-3 |ref={{sfnRef|Fisher}} }} * {{cite book |last=Hambley |first=Del |date=2008 |title=Presidential Footprints |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3lxZHZFTp4C&pg=PA103 |location=Indianapolis, IN |publisher=Dog ear Publishing |isbn=978-159858-800-2 |ref={{sfnRef|Hambley}} }} * {{cite book | last = Hoogenboom | first = Ari | author-link = Ari Hoogenboom | title = Rutherford Hayes: Warrior and President | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700606412 | year = 1995 | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence | isbn = 978-0-7006-0641-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Hoogenboom}} }} * {{cite book | title = Chester A. Arthur, A Quarter-Century of Machine Politics | last = Howe | first = George F. | year = 1966 | orig-year = 1935 | publisher = F. Ungar Pub. Co | location = New York | asin = B00089DVIG | ref = {{sfnRef|Howe}} }} * {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=David L. |date=2012 |title=The Handy Presidents Answer Book |url=https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000huds |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000huds/page/246 246] |location=Canton, MI |publisher=Visible Ink Press |ref={{sfnRef|Hudson}} |isbn=978-1-57859-317-0 }} * {{cite book | title = Winfield Scott Hancock: A Soldier's Life | url = https://archive.org/details/winfieldscotthan0000jord_g7v7 | last = Jordan | first = David M. | year = 1988 | publisher = Indiana University Press | location = Bloomfield | isbn = 978-0-253-36580-4 | ref = {{sfnRef|Jordan}} }} * {{cite book | title = Chester Alan Arthur | last = Karabell | first = Zachary | author-link = Zachary Karabell | year = 2004 | publisher = Henry Holt & Co | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6951-8 | ref = {{sfnRef|Karabell}} | url = https://archive.org/details/chesteralanarthu00kara }} * {{cite book|last1=McCabe|first1=James D.|title=Our Martyred President&nbsp;... : The Life and Public Services of Gen. James A. Garfield|url=https://archive.org/details/ourmartyredpresi0000mcca|date=1881|publisher=National Publishing Company|ref={{sfnRef|McCabe}}}} * {{cite book | title = Gentleman Boss: The Life of Chester A. Arthur | url = https://archive.org/details/gentlemanbosslif00reev | url-access = registration | last = Reeves | first = Thomas C. | author-link = Thomas C. Reeves | year = 1975 | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-394-46095-6 }} * Rhodes, James Ford. ''History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877–1896'' (1919) [https://archive.org/details/historyunitedst04rhodgoog online lengkep]; buku klasik, faktual, sarta museur kana pulitik, karya pameunang Hadiah Pulitzer. * {{cite book |last=University of the State of New York |date=1883 |title=Annual Report of the Board of Regents |volume=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx0tAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21 |location=Albany, NY |publisher=Weed, Parsons & Company |ref={{sfnRef|University of the State of New York}} }} * {{cite book |last=Vermont Bureau of Publicity |date=1913 |title=Vermont: The Land of Green Mountains |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fo0UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA84 |location=Montpelier |publisher=Vermont Secretary of State |ref={{sfnRef|Vermont Bureau of Publicity}} }} * {{cite book |last=Weisberger|first=Bernard A.|title=The Presidents A Reference History James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|editor=Henry F. Graff|date=2002}} {{refend}} === Artikel === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |title=Diplomatic Reversal: Frelinghuysen's Opposition to Blaine's Pan-American Policy in 1882 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |first=Russell H. |last=Bastert |volume=42 |issue=4 |date=March 1956 |jstor=1889232 |ref={{sfnRef|Bastert}} |pages=653–671 |doi=10.2307/1889232}} * {{cite web |ref=Chester A. Arthur |title=Chester A. Arthur |url=http://newyorkcitystatues.com/chester-a-arthur/ |publisher=New York City Statues |access-date=October 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013092658/http://newyorkcitystatues.com/chester-a-arthur/ |archive-date=October 13, 2012}} * {{cite web |last=Easley-Walsh |first=Megan |url=https://praguepapers.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/16/2024/04/Megan_Easley-Walsh_36-52.pdf |title=Chester Alan Arthur: The forgotten American President who Changed the World through two Conferences (the International Meridian Conference of 1884 and the Berlin Africa Conference of 1884–1885) |date=February 2022 |website=Prague Papers on the History of International Relations}} * {{cite journal |title=The Present Status of Our Immigration Laws and Policies |journal=The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly |first=C.P. |last=Hutchinson |volume=25 |issue=2 |date=April 1947 |jstor=3348178 |ref={{sfnRef|Hutchinson}} |pages=161–173 |doi=10.2307/3348178}} * {{cite magazine |last=Jampoler |first=Andrew C.A. |title=Disaster at Lady Franklin Bay |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2010/august/disaster-lady-franklin-bay |date=August 2010 |magazine=Naval History Magazine |volume=24 |number=4 |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |ref=Jampoler (August 2010) |accessdate=December 25, 2022}} * {{cite BDA1906 |wstitle= Arthur, Chester Alan |volume= 1 |pages= 146-151 |short=|ref=none}} * {{cite journal |title=A Black Cadet At West Point |journal=American Heritage |first=John F. Jr. |last=Marszalek |author-link=John F. Marszalek |volume=22 |issue=5 |date=August 1971 |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/content/black-cadet-west-point?page=show |ref={{sfnRef|Marszalek}} |access-date=September 1, 2018}} * {{cite journal |title=Who Were the Stalwarts? Who Were Their Rivals? Republican Factions in the Gilded Age |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_winter-1984-1985_99_4/page/703 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |first=Allan |last=Peskin |volume=99 |issue=4 |date=Winter 1984 |jstor=2150708 |ref={{sfnRef|Peskin}} |pages=703–716 |doi=10.2307/2150708}} * {{cite journal |title=The Search for the Chester Alan Arthur Papers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_wisconsin-magazine-of-history_summer-1972_55_4/page/310 |journal=The Wisconsin Magazine of History |first=Thomas C. |last=Reeves |volume=55 |issue=4 |date=Summer 1972 |jstor=4634741 |pages=310–319}} * {{cite journal |last=Reeves |first=Thomas C. |date=July 1, 1970 |title=The Diaries of Malvina Arthur: Windows Into The Past of Our 21st President |url=https://vermonthistory.org/journal/misc/DiariesOfMalvinaArthur.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the Vermont Historical Society |location=Montpelier |publisher=Vermont Historical Society |access-date=September 1, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|Reeves|July 1, 1970}}}} * {{cite journal |title=The Mystery of Chester Alan Arthur's Birthplace |journal=Vermont History |first=Thomas C. |last=Reeves |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=Autumn 1970 |url=https://vermonthistory.org/journal/misc/MysteryOfChester.pdf |access-date=September 1, 2018 |ref={{sfnRef|Reeves (Autumn 1970)}}}} * {{cite journal |title=In Defense of Chester Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_wilson-quarterly_autumn-1978_2_4/page/180 |journal=The Wilson Quarterly |first=Sybil |last=Schwartz |volume=2 |issue=4 |date=Autumn 1978 |jstor=40255548 |ref={{sfnRef|Schwartz}} |pages=180–184}} * {{cite journal |title=United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-service-review_1977-09_51_3/page/451 |journal=Social Service Review |first=Paul |last=Stuart |volume=51 |issue=3 |date=September 1977 |jstor=30015511 |ref={{sfnRef|Stuart}} |pages=451–463 |doi=10.1086/643524 |s2cid=143506388}} * {{cite journal |title=Patronage, the Pendleton Act, and the Power of the People |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-politics_2003-02_65_1/page/50 |journal=The Journal of Politics |first=Sean M. |last=Theriault |volume=65 |issue=1 |date=February 2003 |jstor=3449855 |ref={{sfnRef|Theriault}} |pages=50–68 |doi=10.1111/1468-2508.t01-1-00003 |s2cid=153890814}} * {{cite magazine |last=Todd |first=A. L. |date=June 1960 |volume=11 |issue=4 |title=Ordeal In The Arctic |url=https://www.americanheritage.com/ordeal-arctic |magazine=American Heritage |ref=Todd (June 1960) |accessdate=December 27, 2022}} {{refend}} === Surat Kabar === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite news |title=Afternoon Dispatches: Pleasanton |work=The Tribune |location=Lawrence, KS |date=July 9, 1871 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-kansas-tribune-afternoon-dispa/185199734/ |page=2 |ref={{sfnRef|''The Tribune''|1871}}}} * {{cite news |title=Republican State Committee: Gen. Chester A. Arthur Elected Chairman – Campaign Plans |work=The Sun |location=New York |page=2 |date=September 12, 1879 |url-access=limited |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/new-york-herald-republican-state-committ/186244751/ |ref={{sfnRef|"The Sun"}}}} * {{cite news |title=Organization of the Republican State Committee |work=Boston Post |location=Boston, MA |page=1 |date=October 12, 1881 |url-access=limited |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/boston-post-organization-of-the-republic/186244844/ |ref={{sfnRef|"Boston Post"}}}} * {{cite news |title=The New Administration; President Arthur Formally Inaugurated |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1881/09/23/98566684.pdf |access-date=January 14, 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=September 22, 1881 |ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1881}}}} *{{cite news |date=April 6, 1882 |title=The Loyal Legion: Meeting Last Night; President Arthur Elected to Membership |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/national-republican-meeting-last-night/186244933/ |work=National Republican |location=Washington, DC |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"The Loyal Legion"}}}} *{{cite news |date=August 30, 1891 |title=Leading Officials: The Three Principal Officers in the Nebraska Posts |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/omaha-daily-bee-the-three-principal-offi/186245007/ |work=Omaha Daily Bee |location=Omaha, NE |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"Leading Officials"}}}} *{{cite news |date=September 23, 1892 |title=In the Encampment at the Reunion at Ashland |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-medford-mail-in-the-encampment-at-th/186245093/ |work=[[Mail Tribune|Medford Mail]] |location=Medford, OR |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"In the Encampment at the Reunion at Ashland"}}}} *{{cite news |date=January 26, 1893 |title=Meeting of C. A. Arthur Post, No. 411 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-goffs-advance-c-a-arthur-post-no/186245245/ |work=The Goffs Advocate |location=Goff, KS |url-access=limited |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |ref={{sfnRef|"Meeting of C. A. Arthur Post, No. 411"}}}} * {{cite news |title=Monuments At Albany |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/07/104104464.pdf |date=January 7, 1894 |ref={{sfnRef|''The New York Times''|1894}}}} * {{cite news |date=November 17, 1910 |title=Sister of Arthur Dead: Mrs. Regina M. Caw Was Born In Dunham, Canada in 1822 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-washington-post-sister-of-arthur-dea/186245293/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |location=Washington, DC |page=3 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Sister of Arthur Dead"}}}} * {{cite news |date=April 12, 1915 |title=Sister of Late President Arthur Dies at Age of 87 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-burlington-free-press-sister-of-late/186245623/ |work=Burlington Free Press |location=Burlington, VT |page=1 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Burlington Free Press"}}}} * {{cite news |last=Jenks |first=J. E. |date=March 6, 1915 |title=Obituary, Major William Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVE-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA310 |work=Army and Navy Register |location=Washington, DC |ref={{sfnRef|Jenks}}}} * {{cite news |date=January 9, 1917 |title=Mrs. John E. McElroy Dead: Sister of Late President Arthur Succumbs in Atlantic City |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/times-herald-mrs-john-e-mcelroy-dead/186245652/ |work=Washington Times |location=Washington, DC |page=9 |url-access=limited |ref={{sfnRef|"Mrs. John E. McElroy Dead"}}}} {{refend}} === Situs Wéb Séjénna === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web |url=http://greenwichhistory.blogspot.com/2013/07/another-sister-for-chester-almeda.html |title=Another Sister for Chester: Almeda Arthur Masten |last=Dolton |first=Trisha |date=July 12, 2013 |website=Greenwich History |publisher=Greenwich Town Historian |location=Greenwich, NY |ref={{sfnRef|Dolton}} }} * {{Cite news |last=Bycoffe |first=Aaron |date=February 7, 2017 |title=Pence Has Already Done Something Biden Never Did: Break A Senate Tie |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/pence-has-already-done-something-biden-never-did-break-a-senate-tie/ |access-date=June 4, 2025 |work=[[FiveThirtyEight]] |ref={{sfnRef|Bycoffe}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210103082937/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/pence-has-already-done-something-biden-never-did-break-a-senate-tie/ |date=January 3, 2021 }} * {{Cite web |title=A Dramatic Tie-Breaker |url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/A_Dramatic_Tie-Breaker.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210121228/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/A_Dramatic_Tie-Breaker.htm |archive-date=December 10, 2020 |access-date=June 4, 2025 |website=[[United States Senate]] |ref={{sfnRef|"A Dramatic Tie-Breaker"}} }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm |title=Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789 |publisher=[[United States Senate]] |access-date=February 11, 2012 |ref={{sfnRef|"Supreme Court Nominations"}} }} *{{cite web |url=http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |title=Historical Summary of Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) Posts by State: Wisconsin |date=2005 |last=National GAR Records Program |website=garrecords.org |publisher=Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War |ref={{sfnRef|"GAR Posts by State: Wisconsin"}} |access-date=March 26, 2019 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205328/http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205328/http://www.suvcw.org/garrecords/garposts/wi.pdf |date=July 27, 2020 }} *{{cite web |url=http://rimollus.tripod.com/ |title=From the Headquarters Desk |last=Rhode Island Commandery |date=2009 |website=Original Civil War Officer Members of MOLLUS |publisher=Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States |ref={{sfnRef|"Original Civil War Officer Members of MOLLUS"}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727205120/http://rimollus.tripod.com/ |date=2020-07-27 }} * {{cite web |title=Chester A. Arthur Fourth Annual Message |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/fourth-annual-message-12 |publisher=The American Presidency Project |date=December 1, 1884 |accessdate=January 25, 2023 |ref=Chester A. Arthur Fourth Annual Message (December 1, 1884) }} {{refend}} == Bacaan Salajengna == * {{cite book |last=Aubin |first=J. Harris |date=1906 |title=Register of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MoXlAAAAMAAJ |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MoXlAAAAMAAJ/page/n27 20] |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Commandery of Massachusetts}} * {{cite book |last=Department of Oregon, Grand Army of the Republic |date=1919 |title=Journal of the Annual Encampment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bIPB0S4iegC&pg=PA83 |location=Salem, OR |publisher=State Publishing Department }} * {{cite book |last=Greenberger |first=Scott S. |date=2017 |title=The Unexpected President: The Life and Times of Chester A. Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/unexpectedpresid0000gree |publisher=Da Capo |page=xii |isbn=978-0-30-682389-3}} * {{cite book |last= McCrory |first=Thomas J. |date=2005 |title=Department of Wisconsin, Grand Army of the Republic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JeuBye82K0EC&pg=PA100 |location=Black Earth, WI |publisher=Trails Books |isbn=1-931599-28-9}} * {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Edgar A. |date=1889 |title=The New-York Civil List |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXM1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA170 |location=Albany |publisher=Weed, Parsons & Co. |pages=170–171}} * {{cite magazine |last=Waxman |first=Olivia B. |date=February 16, 2018 |title=Chester A. Arthur Is the Most Forgotten President in U.S. History, According to Science |url=http://www.time.com/5160978/presidents-day-history-memory/ |magazine=Time |access-date=September 1, 2018 |archive-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730140929/https://time.com/5160978/presidents-day-history-memory/ |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.fjc.gov/servlet/nGetInfo?jid=192&cid=999&ctype=na&instate=na | title = Blatchford, Samuel M. | work = Biographical Directory of Federal Judges | publisher = Federal Judicial Center | access-date = July 27, 2011}} == Tumbu Luar == {{sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Chester A. Arthur|q=Chester A. Arthur|v=no|n=no|s=Author:Chester Alan Arthur|b=no}} * {{CongBio|A000303}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1653}} *{{Librivox author |id=11292}} * [http://millercenter.org/president/arthur Ésai ngeunaan Chester Arthur sarta ésai pondok ngeunaan unggal anggota kabinétna], ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/arthur/index.html Chester Arthur: Pituduh Sumber Daya] ti [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151431-1/life-portrait-chester-arthur "Life Portrait of Chester A. Arthur"], ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 6 Agustus 1999 * [https://www.c-span.org/video/?306347-1/life-career-chester-arthur "Life and Career of Chester A. Arthur"], presentasi ku [[Zachary Karabell]] di [[Kansas City Public Library]], 23 Mei 2012 * [http://www.history.com/topics/chester-a-arthur/videos#president-chester-a-arthur ''Pamaréntahan Chester A. Arthur''], vidéo ku [[History (U.S. TV channel)|History.com]] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wdq0ADd91zI ''Biantara di Makam Chester Alan Arthur, Albany Rural Cemetery, 5 Oktober 2019''] ku sejarawan [[David Pietrusza]] * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Presidents/Arthur-Chester-A Manuskrip Pribadi Chester A. Arthur] ti [http://www.shapell.org/ Shapell.org] * {{YouTube|id=7S47gxS3wPo|Adegan tina épisode ''Futurama'' "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid"}} {{Chester A. Arthur}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan jeung pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=John Smyth}} {{s-ttl|title=Pupuhu [[New York Republican State Committee|Partéy Républik New York]]|years=1879–1881}} {{s-aft|after=[[B. Platt Carpenter]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William A. Wheeler]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Republican Party (United States)|Calon ti Républik]] pikeun Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat|years=[[1880 United States presidential election|1880]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[John A. 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Arthur| ]] [[Kategori:Gumelar taun 1829]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Serikat 1880]] [[Kategori:Tilar dunya taun 1886]] [[Kategori:Episkopalian Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Aktivis anti-korupsi Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pangacara Amérika]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika katurunan Skotlandia-Irlandia]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Arthur|Chester A.]] [[Kategori:Makam di Albany Rural Cemetery]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884]] [[Kategori:Anggota kabinét pamaréntahan Garfield]] [[Kategori:Urang Républik New York]] [[Kategori:Urang Whig New York]] [[Kategori:Urang Fairfield, Vermont]] [[Kategori:Urang Schaghticoke, New York]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Alumni Union College (New York)]] [[Kategori:Jénderal angkatan darat Uni]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] [[Kategori:Inohong dunya]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} qfb9tu0dqw3py5syyzzdnhm37wttunz Monotréma 0 107923 712366 711762 2026-08-28T21:54:20Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Monotréma<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=1–2|id=10300001}}</ref> | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Barremian|Recent|[[Kapur Awal]] ([[Barremian]]) – Ayeuna}} | image = <imagemap> File:Monotreme collage.jpg|300px rect 0 510 820 950 [[Platipus]] rect 0 950 820 1560 [[Ékhidna monyong panjang kulon]] rect 1520 510 820 950 [[Ékhidna monyong pondok]] rect 1520 950 820 1560 [[Ékhidna monyong panjang wétan]] </imagemap> | regnum = [[Amal|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | subclassis = [[Prototheria]] | ordo = '''Monotremata''' | authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|C.L. Bonaparte]], 1837<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonaparte |first1=C.L. |title=A New Systematic Arrangement of Vertebrated Animals |journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London |date=1837 |volume=18 |issue=3 |page=258 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1838.tb00177.x |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32952956}}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Sub-grup | subdivision = *{{extinct}}[[Kollikodontidae]] *{{extinct}}[[Steropodontidae]] *{{extinct}}[[Teinolophidae]] *'''[[Ornithorhynchoidea]]'''<ref name="Flannery2024">{{Cite journal |last1=Flannery |first1=Timothy F. |author-link1=Tim Flannery |last2=McCurry |first2=Matthew R. |last3=Rich |first3=Thomas H. |author-link3=Tom Rich |last4=Vickers-Rich |first4=Patricia |author-link4=Patricia Vickers-Rich |last5=Smith |first5=Elizabeth T. |last6=Helgen |first6=Kristofer M. |date=2024-05-26 |title=A diverse assemblage of monotremes (Monotremata) from the Cenomanian Lightning Ridge fauna of New South Wales, Australia |journal=[[Alcheringa (journal)|Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology]] |volume=48 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=319–337 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2024.2348753 |issn=0311-5518|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024Alch...48..319F }}</ref> **{{extinct}}[[Opalionidae]] **[[Ornithorhynchidae]] **[[Ékhidna|Tachyglossidae]] | range_map = Ornithorhynchoids map.jpg }} '''Monotréma''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|n|ə|t|r|iː|m|z}}) nyaéta golongan [[mamalia]] tina ordo '''Monotremata'''. Ieu sato téh hiji-hijina mamalia anu masih kénéh kumelendang kalayan baranahanana ku cara [[Oviparity|ngendog]], batan ngajuru kawas mamalia séjénna. Lima spésiés monotréma anu masih aya nepi ka kiwari nyaéta [[platypus]] sarta opat rupa [[echidna]]. Monotréma diciriikeun ku béda struktur dina uteuk, careeéham, saluran panyernaan/peujit, saluran réproduksi, sarta bagian awak séjénna upama dibandingkeun jeung mamalia saumumna. Sanajan béda jeung mamalia lian kusabab ng endog, monotréma bikang téh tetep kawas mamalia séjén dina perkara nyusuan anakna ku [[milk|susu]]. Monotréma geus dianggap ku sawatara ahli minangka anggota [[Australosphenida]], nyaéta hiji [[clade|''clade'']] anu ngawengku mamalia tumpur ti jaman [[Jurassic]] sarta [[Cretaceous]] di Madagaskar, Amérika Kidul, jeung Australia, tapi ieu papasingan téh masih jadi padu sarta [[#Taxonomy|taksonomina]] masih dipaluruh kénéh. Sakumna spésiés monotréma anu masih aya téh asalna ti [[Australia]] sarta [[New Guinea]], sanajan baheulana kungsi aya dina mangsa ''Late Cretaceous'' sarta ''Paleocene'' di bagian kidul Amérika Kidul, anu ngandung harti yén ieu sato ogé kungsi aya di Antartika sanajan sésa-sésana can kapanggih di dinya. Nami ''monotreme'' asalna tina basa Yunani {{wikt-lang|grc|μονός}} ({{Transliteration|grc|monós}} 'tunggal') sarta {{wikt-lang|grc|τρῆma}} ({{Transliteration|grc|trêma}} 'liang'), anu nujul kana [[cloaca]]. == Ciri-ciri Umum == Kawas mamalia séjénna, monotréma téh kaasup [[endotherm|''endotherm'']]ic kalayan laju métabolismé anu luhur, sanajan teu saluhur mamalia séjén; mibanda [[hair|bulu]] dina awakna; ngahasilkeun susu ngaliwatan kelenjar susu pikeun nyusuan anakna; mibanda hiji tulang dina rahang handapna; sarta mibanda tilu tulang [[middle ear|ceuli tengah]]. Sami jeung [[marsupial]], monotréma teu mibanda struktur panyambung ([[corpus callosum]]) anu dina golongan [[Placentalia|plaséntal]] mah mangrupa jalur komunikasi utama antara belahan uteuk katuhu jeung kénca.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/monotremata/order.htm |series=Animal Bytes |title=Order Monotremata |access-date=2009-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223230609/http://seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/monotremata/order.htm |archive-date=2010-12-23 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Nanging, [[anterior commissure|''anterior commissure'']] nyadiakeun jalur komunikasi séjén, sarta dina monotréma jeung marsupial mah ieu bagian mawa sakumna [[commissural fiber|''commissural fiber''s]] anu asalna tina [[neocortex|''neocortex'']], sedengkeun dina mamalia plaséntal mah ''anterior commissure'' ngan mawa sabagian tina éta sérat.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ann B. |last1=Butler |first2=William |last2=Hodos |title=Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kGARvykJKMC&pg=PA361 |date=2005 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-73383-6 |page=361}}</ref> Monotréma anu hirup kiwari teu mibanda huntu nalika geus sawawa. Wangun fosil sarta anak platypus mibanda huntu [[molar (tooth)|molar]] wangun ''"tribosphenic"'' (kalayan luhuran [[Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry|occlusal]] anu diwangun ku tilu [[cusp (dentistry)|tonjolan]] anu nyusun segitiga), anu mangrupa salasahiji ciri mandiri mamalia kiwari. Sababaraha panalungtikan anyar nétépkeun yén monotréma meunangkeun ieu wangun huntu sacara mandiri tina plaséntal sarta marsupial,<ref name=Luo01/> sanajan ieu hipotésis masih dipaluruh kénéh.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weil, A. |journal=Nature |title=Mammalian evolution: Relationships to chew over |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-01-04_409_6816/page/28 |volume=409 |issue=6816 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.1038/35051199 |date=4 January 2001 |pmid=11343097|bibcode=2001Natur.409...28W |s2cid=37912232 }}</ref> Leungitna huntu dina monotréma modéren meureun aya patalina jeung mekarna kamampuh [[electrolocation|''electrolocation'']].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Masakazu Asahara |author2=Masahiro Koizumi |first3=Thomas E. |last3=Macrini |first4=Suzanne J. |last4=Hand |first5=Michael |last5=Archer |title=Comparative cranial morphology in living and extinct platypuses: Feeding behavior, electroreception, and loss of teeth |journal=Science Advances |volume=2 |issue=10 |article-number=e1601329 |year=2016 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1601329 |pmid=27757425 |pmc=5061491|bibcode=2016SciA....2E1329A }}</ref> Rahang monotréma diwangun rada béda ti mamalia séjén, sarta otot anu mukakeun rahangna ogé béda. Kawas sakumna mamalia sajati, tulang-tulang leutik anu nganteurkeun sora ka ceuli tengah geus ngahiji sagemblengna kana tangkorak, batan aya dina rahang kawas dina [[cynodont]] non-mamalia sarta [[synapsida|synapsid]] lianna; ieu ciri ogé disebutkeun mekar sacara mandiri dina monotréma sarta [[theria|''theria'']]ns,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=T.H. |last2=Hopson |first2=J.A. |last3=Musser |first3=A.M. |last4=Flannery |first4=T.F. |last5=Vickers-Rich |first5=P. |date=2005 |title=Independent origins of middle ear bones in monotremes and therians&nbsp;(I) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2005-02-11_307_5711/page/910 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.1105717 |pmid=15705848 |volume=307 |issue=5711 |pages=910–914 |bibcode=2005Sci...307..910R|s2cid=3048437 }}</ref> sanajan kitu, ieu hipotésis ogé masih dipadungdengkeun.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comment on "Independent Origins of Middle Ear Bones in Monotremes and Therians" (I) |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5740 |pages=1492a |doi=10.1126/science.1112248 |pmid=16141050 |year=2005 |last1=Bever |first1=G.S. |last2=Rowe |first2=T. |last3=Ekdale |first3=E.G. |last4=MacRini |first4=T.E. |last5=Colbert |first5=M.W. |last6=Balanoff |first6=A.M. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Comment on "Independent Origins of Middle Ear Bones in Monotremes and Therians"&nbsp;(II) |journal=Science |volume=309 |issue=5740 |page=1492b |doi=10.1126/science.1111294 |pmid=16141051 |year=2005 |last1=Rougier |first1=G.W. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nanging, pamanggih dina spésiés tumpur ''[[Teinolophos]]'' mastikeun yén tulang ceuli anu ngagantung téh mekar sacara mandiri di antara monotréma sarta ''therians''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Rich, Thomas H. |author2=Hopson, James A. |author3=Gill, Pamela G. |author4=Trusler, Peter |author5=Rogers-Davidson, Sally |author6=Morton, Steve |author7=Cifelli, Richard L. |author8=Pickering, David |author9=Kool, Lesley |author10=Siu, Karen |author11=Burgmann, Flame A. |author12=Senden, Tim |author13=Evans, Alistair R. |author14=Wagstaff, Barbara E. |author15=Seegets-Villiers, Doris |author16=Corfe, Ian J. |author17=Flannery, Timothy F. |author18=Walker, Ken |author19=Musser, Anne M. |author20=Archer, Michael |author21=Pian, Rebecca |author22=Vickers-Rich, Patricia |display-authors=6 |title=The mandible and dentition of the Early Cretaceous monotreme ''Teinolophos trusleri'' |journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=475–501 |year=2016 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2016.1180034|bibcode=2016Alch...40..475R |s2cid=89034974 }}</ref> Liang ceuli luar masih kénéh perenahna dina dasar rahang. Hasil panyusunan urutan ''genome'' platypus ogé geus méré panitén ngeunaan evolusi sawatara sipat monotréma, saperti racun sarta [[electroreception|''electroreception'']], sarta némbongkeun sababaraha ciri unik anyar, nyaéta monotréma mibanda lima pasang kromosom séks anu sacara koléktif boga polah salaku sistem panangtu séks [[XY sex-determination system|XY]] tunggal — salila ''spermatogenesis'', sapuluh kromosom séks jaluna ngabentuk ranté anu piligenti antara kromosom X sarta Y, sarta sakumna X atanapi sakumna Y bakal diwariskeun bareng. Salasahiji kromosom X nyaruaan [[Z chromosome|kromosom Z]] dina manuk,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080507131453.htm |title=Platypus genome explains animal's peculiar features; holds clues to evolution of mammals |website=Sciencedaily.com |date=2008-05-07 |access-date=2011-06-09 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> anu nuduhkeun yén dua kromosom séks dina marsupial sarta plaséntal mekar sanggeus pamisahan tina garis katurunan monotréma.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Veyrunes |display-authors=etal |title=Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes |journal=Genome Res. |date=June 2008 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=965–973|doi=10.1101/gr.7101908 |pmid=18463302 |pmc=2413164 }}</ref> Rekonstruksi tambahan ngaliwatan gén anu sarua dina kromosom séks ngarojong ieu hipotésis ngeunaan evolusi mandiri.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cortez |first1=Diego |last2=Marin |first2=Ray |last3=Toledo-Flores |first3=Deborah |last4=Froidevaux |first4=Laure |last5=Liechti |first5=Angélica |last6=Waters |first6=Paul D. |last7=Grützner |first7=Frank |last8=Kaessmann |first8=Henrik |title=Origins and functional evolution of Y&nbsp;chromosomes across mammals |journal=Nature |date=24 April 2014 |volume=508 |issue=7497 |pages=488–493 |doi=10.1038/nature13151 |pmid=24759410 |bibcode=2014Natur.508..488C|s2cid=4462870 }}</ref> Ieu sipat, bareng jeung sasaruaan genetik lianna jeung manuk, saperti gén anu patali jeung nendog, dianggap méré panitén ngeunaan [[most recent common ancestor|karuhun babarengan panganyarna]] tina garis katurunan [[synapsid]] anu nuju ka mamalia sarta garis katurunan [[Sauropsida|sauropsid]] anu nuju ka manuk jeung réptil modéren, anu dipercaya misah sakitar 315 juta taun ka tukang salila jaman [[Carboniferous]].<ref name="Myers 2008"/><ref>{{cite journal|title=Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution |volume=453 |issue=7192 |doi=10.1038/nature06936 |pmid=18464734 |pmc=2803040 |journal=Nature |pages=175–183 |year=2008 |last1=Warren |first1=W. C. |last2=Hillier |first2=L. W. |last3=Marshall Graves |first3=J. A. |last4=Birney |first4=E. |last5=Ponting |first5=C. P. |last6=Grützner |first6=F. |last7=Belov |first7=K. |last8=Miller |first8=W. |last9=Clarke |first9=L. |last10=Chinwalla |first10=A. T. |last11=Yang |first11=S. P. |last12=Heger |first12=A. |last13=Locke |first13=D. P. |last14=Miethke |first14=P. |last15=Waters |first15=P. D. |last16=Veyrunes |first16=F. |last17=Fulton |first17=L. |last18=Fulton |first18=B. |last19=Graves |first19=T. |last20=Wallis |first20=J. |last21=Puente |first21=X. S. |last22=López-Otín |first22=C. |last23=Ordóñez |first23=G.R. |last24=Eichler |first24=E.E. |last25=Chen |first25=L. |last26=Cheng |first26=Z. |last27=Deakin |first27=J.E. |last28=Alsop |first28=A. |last29=Thompson |first29=K. |last30=Kirby |first30=P. |bibcode=2008Natur.453..175W |display-authors=6}}</ref> Ayana gén [[vitellogenin]] (protéin anu diperlukeun pikeun ngabentuk konéng endog) sarua jeung anu aya dina manuk; ayana ieu [[symplesiomorphy]] nuduhkeun yén karuhun babarengan monotréma, marsupial, sarta plaséntal téh mémang [[Oviparity|oviparous]] (nendog), sarta sipat ieu tetep dijaga dina monotréma tapi leungit dina sakumna golongan mamalia lianna. Analisis DNA nuduhkeun yén sanajan sipat nendog ieu sarua jeung manuk, platypus tetep mamalia sarta karuhun mamalia téh mémang geus nyusuan.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Brawand D, Wahli W, Kaessmann H |title=Loss of egg yolk genes in mammals and the origin of lactation and placentation |journal=PLOS Biol. |volume=6 |issue=3 |article-number=e63 |year=2008 |pmid=18351802 |pmc=2267819 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060063 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Monotréma ogé mibanda tulang tambahan dina bagian taktak ([[shoulder girdle]]), kaasup [[interclavicle]] sarta [[coracoid]], anu teu kapanggih dina mamalia séjén. Monotréma ngajaga cara leumpang (''gait'') anu jiga réptil, kalayan suku di gigireun awak, sanés di handapeun awak. Suku monotréma mibanda [[Spur (zoology)|taji]] dina bagian mumuncangan; taji ieu teu boga fungsi dina echidna, tapi ngandung [[platypus venom|racun]] anu kuat dina platypus jalu. Racun ieu asalna tina [[Beta defensin|β-defensins]], protéin anu aya dina mamalia pikeun ngalawan virus sarta baktéri. Sawatara racun réptil ogé diwangun ku rupa-rupa β-defensins, salasahiji sipat séjén anu sarua jeung réptil.<ref name="Myers 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Myers |first1=PZ |title=Interpreting Shared Characteristics: The Platypus Genome |journal=Nature Education |date=2008 |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=46 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/interpreting-shared-characteristics-the-platypus-genome-44568/ }}</ref> Hal ieu dianggap mangrupa ciri mamalia kuna, lantaran loba golongan mamalia purba ogé mibanda [[venomous mammal|taji racun]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jørn H. |last1=Hurum |author2=Zhe-Xi Luo |first3=Zofia |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |title=Were mammals originally venomous? |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |year=2006}}</ref> === Sistem Réproduksi === {{Further|Echidna#Reproduction|Platypus#Reproduction}} Béda utama anatomi antara monotréma sarta mamalia séjén nyaéta salasahiji alesan naha maranéhna dingaranan kieu; ''monotreme'' hartina "liang tunggal" dina basa Yunani, nujul kana saluran tunggal ([[cloaca]]) pikeun sistem kemih, miceun kokotor, sarta réproduksi. Kawas manuk sarta réptil, monotréma mibanda hiji cloaca.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Withers |first1=Philip C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcNjDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA275 |title=Ecological and Environmental Physiology of Mammals |last2=Cooper |first2=Christine E. |last3=Maloney |first3=Shane K. |last4=Bozinovic |first4=Francisco |last5=Neto |first5=Ariovaldo P. Cruz |date=2016-10-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-109267-1 |language=en}}</ref> Marsupial mibanda [[Marsupial#Reproductive system|saluran séks anu misah]], sedengkeun lolobana plaséntal bikang mibanda liang anu misah pikeun réproduksi ([[vagina]]), kemih ([[urethra]]), sarta miceun kokotor ([[anus]]). Dina monotréma, ngan ukur mani anu ngaliwatan sirit (''penis'') sedengkeun cikiih dikaluarkeun ngaliwatan cloaca jalu.<ref name="Griffiths2012">{{cite book |author=Griffiths, Mervyn |title=The Biology of the Monotremes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7nu16_DkTgC |date=2 December 2012 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-323-15331-7}}</ref> Sirit monotréma nyaruaan sirit kuya sarta dibungkus ku kantong ''preputial''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Grützner, F. |author2=Nixon, B. |author3=Jones, R.C. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23233860 |title=Reproductive biology in egg-laying mammals |journal=Sexual Development |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=2008 |pages=115–127|doi=10.1159/000143429 |pmid=18769071 |s2cid=536033 }}</ref><ref name="Lombardi2012">{{cite book |author=Lombardi, Julian |title=Comparative Vertebrate Reproduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXvjBwAAQBAJ |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4615-4937-6}}</ref> Monotréma jalu teu mibanda [[prostate]] atanapi [[seminal vesicles]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vogelnest |first1=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4d6VDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |title=Current Therapy in Medicine of Australian Mammals |last2=Portas |first2=Timothy |date=2019-05-01 |publisher=Csiro Publishing |isbn=978-1-4863-0752-4 |language=en}}</ref> Endog [[egg (biology)|endog]] monotréma dijaga sawatara waktu di jero awak indungna sarta meunangkeun nutrisi langsung ti indungna, sarta ilaharna netes dina waktu sapuluh poé sanggeus diténdogkeun – jauh leuwih gancang batan mangsa inkubasi endog [[sauropsida]].<ref>{{cite report |author=Cromer, Erica |date=14 April 2004 |title=Monotreme Reproductive Biology and Behavior |publisher=Iowa State University }} {{full citation needed|date=April 2020}}</ref><ref name=arkiveTGA>{{cite web |url=http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |title=Short-beaked echidna (''Tachyglossus aculeatus'') |publisher=Arkive.org |access-date=2016-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813121709/http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |archive-date=2009-08-13 |df=dmy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090813121709/http://www.arkive.org/short-beaked-echidna/tachyglossus-aculeatus/biology.html |date=2009-08-13 }}</ref> Pisan kawas bayi marsupial, bayi monotréma anu kakara lahir, disebut "puggles", wangunna kawas larva atawa fétus sarta mibanda suku hareup anu kawilang geus mekar sangkan bisa ngarayap. Monotréma teu mibanda [[teat|pentil susu]], jadi para ''puggles'' kudu leuwih sering ngarayap dibanding anak marsupial pikeun néangan susu. Batan ngaliwatan pentil, monotréma ngaluarkeun susu tina [[mammary gland|kelenjar susu]]na ngaliwatan pori-pori dina kulitna. Sakumna lima spésiés némbongkeun parawatan indung ka anak anu lila, kalayan laju réproduksi anu rendah sarta umur anu kawilang panjang. Monotréma ogé kasohor dina mekarna ''zygote'': lolobana [[zygote]] mamalia ngalaman ''holoblastic'' [[cleavage (embryo)|''cleavage'']] (pambelahan sagemblengna). Sabalikna, zygote monotréma, kawas dina manuk sarta réptil, ngalaman pambelahan [[meroblastic]] (sabagian). Ieu ngandung harti yén sél-sél dina sisian konéng endog mibanda ''cytoplasm'' anu nyambung jeung sél endog, sangkan konéng endog sarta émbryo bisa silih tukeur kokotor jeung nutrisi.<ref name="Myers 2008"/> == Taksonomi == Hipotésis "[[Theria]]" anu geus jadi pakem nétépkeun yén pamisahan garis katurunan monotréma tina [[Metatheria]] ([[marsupial]]) sarta [[Eutheria]] ([[Placentalia|plaséntal]]) lumangsung saméméh misahna ''marsupial'' jeung plaséntal. Hal ieu anu nerangkeun naha monotréma masih kénéh ngajaga rupa-rupa sipat [[Primitive (phylogenetics)|purba]] anu dianggap geus aya di karuhun [[synapsid]] mamalia sanggeusna, salasahijina nyaéta nendog.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Terry A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LD1nDlzXYicC&pg=PA80 |title=Mammalogy |last2=Ryan |first2=James M. |last3=Czaplewski |first3=Nicholas J. |date=2011 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-0-7637-6299-5 |edition=5th |page=80}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction to the Monotremata |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotreme.html |access-date=2011-06-09 |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Jacks |title=Lecture&nbsp;3 |url=http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~jacks/Lecture3.pdf |publisher=University of Idaho |place=Moscow, ID}}</ref> Lolobana bukti morfologis ngarojong kana hipotésis ''Theria'' ieu, tapi aya hiji pengecualian nyaéta pola ganti huntu anu sarua antara monotréma jeung ''marsupial'', anu asalna jadi dasar pikeun hipotésis tandingan "[[Marsupionta]]". Dina éta hipotésis, pamisahan antara monotréma jeung ''marsupial'' disebutkeun lumangsung leuwih pandeur batan pamisahan jeung golongan plaséntal. Nanging, Van&nbsp;Rheede (2005) nyimpulkeun yén bukti genetik leuwih condong kana hipotésis ''Theria'',<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van&nbsp;Rheede |first1=Teun |year=2005 |title=The platypus is in its place: Nuclear genes and indels confirm the sister group relation of monotremes and therians |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msj064 |pmid=16291999 |doi-access=free}}</ref> sarta ieu pamanggih téh jadi anu pangilaharna ditarima nepi ka kiwari.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Janke |first1=A. |last2=Xu |first2=X. |last3=Arnason |first3=U. |year=1997 |title=Monotremes |url=http://tolweb.org/treehouses/?treehouse_id=4430 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1276–1281 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.4.1276 |pmc=19781 |pmid=9037043 |access-date=2011-06-09 |doi-access=free |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Monotréma ilaharna dianggap ngawengku hiji ordo tunggal ''Monotremata''. Sakumna papasingan ieu sacara tradisional diasupkeun kana sub-kelas [[Prototheria]], anu ogé ngawengku sababaraha ordo [[fossil|fosil]], sanajan ayeuna éta ordo fosil téh geus teu dianggap deui boga patali langsung jeung karuhun monotréma. Hiji hipotésis anu kontrovérsial ayeuna ngaitkeun monotréma jeung kumpulan mamalia fosil séjén dina hiji [[clade|''clade'']] anu disebut [[Australosphenida]], nyaéta golongan mamalia ti jaman ''Jurassic'' sarta ''Cretaceous'' di Madagaskar, Amérika Kidul, jeung Australia, anu sarua mibanda huntu [[tribosphenic molar|''tribosphenic molar'']].<ref name="Luo01">{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Cifelli |first2=R.L. |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |first3=Z. |year=2001 |title=Dual origin of tribosphenic mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-01-04_409_6816/page/53 |journal=Nature |volume=409 |issue=6816 |pages=53–57 |doi=10.1038/35051023 |pmid=11343108|bibcode=2001Natur.409...53L |s2cid=4342585 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Z.-X. |last2=Cifelli |first2=R.L. |last3=Kielan-Jaworowska |first3=Z. |year=2002 |title=In quest for a phylogeny of Mesozoic mammals |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |volume=47 |pages=1–78}}</ref> Nanging, dina hiji tinjauan taun 2022 ngeunaan evolusi monotréma, dicaritakeun yén ''[[Teinolophos]]'', anu mangrupa monotréma pangkolotna ([[Barremian]] ~ 125 juta taun ka tukang) sarta pangpurbana, mibanda béda anu kacida badag jeung golongan ''australosphenidan'' sanésna; nyaéta mibanda lima huntu ''molar'', béda jeung ''australosphenidan'' séjén anu ngan mibanda tilu. Monotréma ti jaman ''Aptian'' sarta ''Cenomanian'' tina kulawarga ''Kollikodontidae'' (113–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) mibanda opat huntu ''molar''. Hal ieu nuduhkeun yén monotréma téh jigana mah teu mibanda patali jeung ''tribosphenid australosphenidan''.<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> Waktu nalika garis monotréma misah tina garis mamalia séjénna téh can pasti, tapi salasahiji panalungtikan genetik méré kira-kira sakitar 220 juta taun ka tukang,<ref name=Masden2009>{{cite book |last=Madsen |first=Ole |editor1-first=S. Blair |editor1-last=Hedges |editor2-first=Sudhir |editor2-last=Kumar |title=The Timetree of Life |year=2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/timetreelife00hedg |url-access=limited |chapter=chapter&nbsp;68 – Mammals (Mamalia) |pages=[https://archive.org/details/timetreelife00hedg/page/n481 459]–461 |website=timetree.org |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-953503-3 }}</ref> sedengkeun anu séjénna nyebutkeun leuwih ngora nyaéta 163 nepi ka 186 juta taun ka tukang (sanajan ''[[Juramaia]]'' anu geus jadi plaséntal asalna tina jaman 161–160 juta taun ka tukang). ''Teinolophos'', kawas monotréma modéren, némbongkeun adaptasi mangrupa rahang anu ngulur sarta mekarna indra pangrasa dina rahangna, anu patali jeung [[mechanoreception|''mechanoreception'']] atanapi [[electroreception|''electroreception'']].<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> [[File:French Island Echidna.ogg|thumb|Hiji ékhidna keur ngali liang pertahanan di [[French Island National Park|Taman Nasional Pulo French]]]] Pangitungan mangsa dumasar [[Molecular clock|''molecular clock'']] sarta titimangsa fosil méré rupa-rupa tanggal pikeun misahna ''echidna'' jeung ''platypus''; salasahiji panitén nétépkeun pamisahanana dina 19–48 juta taun ka tukang,<ref name="Phillips">{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=M.J. |last2=Bennett |first2=T.H. |last3=Lee |first3=M.S. |year=2009 |title=Molecules, morphology, and ecology indicate a recent, amphibious ancestry for echidnas |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=40 |pages=17089–17094 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0904649106 |pmid=19805098 |pmc=2761324|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617089P |doi-access=free }}</ref> tapi anu séjénna nyebutkeun antara 17–89 juta taun ka tukang.<ref name="Springer2009">{{cite book |first1=Mark S. |last1=Springer |first2=Carey W. |last2=Krajewski |editor1-first=S. Blair |editor1-last=Hedges |editor2-first=Sudhir |editor2-last=Kumar |title=The Timetree of Life |chapter=chapter&nbsp;69 – Monotremes (Prototheria) |pages=462–465 |chapter-url=http://timetree.org/public/data/pdf/Springer2009Chap69.pdf |website=timetree.org |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009}}</ref> Aya ogé pamanggih yén boh spésiés ''echidna'' monyong pondok atawa monyong panjang téh asalna tina karuhun anu jiga ''platypus''.<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> Hubungan anu pasti di antara golongan mamalia anu geus tumpur sarta golongan modéren saperti monotréma téh mémang can pati tétéla, tapi analisis [[cladistics|kladistik]] ilaharna neundeun [[Most recent common ancestor#MRCA of different species|karuhun babarengan panganyarna]] (LCA) antara plaséntal jeung monotréma deukeut jeung LCA plaséntal sarta [[Multituberculata|''multituberculates'']], sedengkeun anu séjénna boga pamanggih yén LCA plaséntal jeung ''multituberculates'' téh leuwih anyar batan LCA plaséntal jeung monotréma.<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael J. |last=Benton |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1LkOL1CijEC&pg=PA300 |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-632-05637-8 |page=300}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Matthew T. |last1=Carrano |first2=Richard W. |last2=Blob |first3=Timothy J. |last3=Gaudin |first4=John R. |last4=Wible |title=Amniote Paleobiology: Perspectives on the Evolution of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4uNMCqSRQ9gC&pg=PA358 |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-09478-6 |page=358}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |+ Status Konservasi sarta Populasi Monotréma ! Spésiés !! Nami Ilmiah !! Kira-kira Populasi !! [[IUCN Red List|Status IUCN]] !! Trén Populasi !! Catetan !! Gambar |- | '''[[Platypus]]''' | ''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'' | '''30,000–300,000''' | {{IUCN-NT}}<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN">{{Cite IUCN|title=''Ornithorhynchus anatinus''|article-number=e.T15391A21970662|last=Woinarski, J.|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T15391A21970662.en|last2=Burbidge, A.A.}}</ref> | align="center" | {{decreasing}}<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN"/> | Kira-kira pangalusna pikeun jumlah sato sawawa nyaéta 50,000.<ref name="O.anatinus IUCN"/> | [[File:Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) Scottsdale 4.jpg|175px]] |- | '''[[Short-beaked echidna]]''' | ''Tachyglossus aculeatus'' | '''5,000,000–50,000,000'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance Library |title=Short-beaked Echidna (''Tachyglossus aculeatus'') Fact Sheet: Population & Conservation Status |url=https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/short-beaked-echidna |access-date=2026-01-24 |website=International Environment Library Collection}}</ref> | {{IUCN-LC}}<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN"/> | align="center" | {{steady}}<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN"/> | Penilaian IUCN teu ngalaporkeun kira-kira populasi sacara pasti.<ref name="T.aculeatus IUCN">{{Cite IUCN|title=''Tachyglossus aculeatus''|article-number=e.T41312A21964662|last=Aplin, K.|year=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-2.RLTS.T41312A21964662.en|last2=Dickman, C.|last3=Salas, L.|last4=Helgen, K.}}</ref> | [[File:Echidna short beaked.jpg|175px]] |} == Monotréma Fosil == {{See also|Evolution of mammals}} [[File:Steropodon model aus.jpg|thumb|Modél sato monotréma anu geus [[Extinction|tumpur]], ''[[Steropodon]]'', di [[Australian Museum]]]] Monotréma jaman [[Mesozoic]] munggaran anu kapanggih nyaéta ''Steropodon galmani'' tina jaman [[Cenomanian]] (100–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) ti Lightning Ridge, New South Wales.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Ashwell, K. |year=2013 |title=Neurobiology of Monotremes |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-643-10311-5}}</ref> Bukti biokimia sarta anatomi nuduhkeun yén monotréma téh misah tina garis katurunan mamalia méméh mekar na ''marsupial'' sarta plaséntal. Monotréma séjénna ti jaman Mesozoic nyaéta ''[[Teinolophos]]'' (Barremian, 126 juta taun ka tukang), ''[[Sundrius]]'' sarta ''[[Kryoryctes]]'' (Albian, 113–108 juta taun ka tukang), sarta ''[[Dharragarra]]'', ''[[Kollikodon]]'', ''[[Opalios]]'', ''[[Parvopalus]]'', ''[[Steropodon]]'', jeung ''[[Stirtodon]]'' (kabéhanana ti jaman Cenomanian, 100.2–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) ti sédimén Australia. Aya ogé ''[[Patagorhynchus]]'' (Maastrichtian) ti sédimén [[Patagonia]] dina jaman [[Cretaceous]], anu ngabuktikeun yén monotréma téh geus mimiti baranahan sarta rupa-rupa (''diversifying'') ti mimiti jaman ''Late Cretaceous''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/monotremefr.html |title=Fossil Record of the Monotremata |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |access-date=2011-06-09 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Fosil monotréma ogé kapanggih dina ahir jaman Cretaceous sarta Paleocene di bagian kidul Amérika Kidul, nepi ka aya hiji hipotésis yén monotréma téh asalna ti Australia dina jaman [[Late Jurassic]] atanapi [[Early Cretaceous]], tuluy sawatara di antarana hijrah meuntas [[Antarctic land bridge|sasak daratan Antartika]] nuju ka [[South America|Amérika Kidul]], anu harita mah mémang masih kénéh ngahiji jeung Australia.<ref name=VertPal>{{cite book |first=Michael J. |last=Benton |title=Vertebrate Palaeontology |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GDxXb_ZPJEC&pg=PA303 |date=1997 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-632-05614-9 |pages=303–304}}</ref><ref name="Chimento2023" /> Ieu arah hijrah téh kabalikan tina hipotésis hijrahna golongan mamalia utama Australia séjénna, nyaéta [[marsupial]], anu jigana mah hijrahna téh ti Amérika Kidul meuntas Antartika nuju ka Australia.<ref name="Nilsson">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nilsson MA, Churakov G, Sommer M, Tran NV, Zemann A, Brosius J, Schmitz J |date=July 2010 |title=Tracking marsupial evolution using archaic genomic retroposon insertions |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=8 |issue=7 |article-number=e1000436 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1000436 |pmc=2910653 |pmid=20668664 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dina taun 2024, kumpulan monotréma purba anu penting dicaritakeun tina sédimén Cenomanian (100–96.6 juta taun ka tukang) di [[Griman Creek Formation]], Lightning Ridge, New South Wales. Salah sahijina nyaéta fragmén rahang fosil ''[[Dharragarra]]'', anu mangrupa fosil pangkolotna anu mibanda ciri jiga platypus.<ref name="Flannery-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Flannery |first1=Timothy F. |last2=Rich |first2=Thomas H. |last3=Vickers-Rich |first3=Patricia |last4=Ziegler |first4=Tim |last5=Veatch |first5=E. Grace |last6=Helgen |first6=Kristofer M. |date=2022-01-02 |title=A review of monotreme (Monotremata) evolution |journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1080/03115518.2022.2025900 |s2cid=247542433 |issn=0311-5518|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Alch...46....3F }}</ref><ref name="Flannery2024"/><ref name="Press1">{{Cite web |last=de Kruijff |first=Peter |date=2024-05-26 |title='Echidnapus' fossil of potential echidna and platypus ancestor may point to Australian 'age of monotremes' |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-05-27/meet-the-echidnapus-from-an-age-of-monotremes-in-australia/103849096 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527085342/https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-05-27/meet-the-echidnapus-from-an-age-of-monotremes-in-australia/103849096 |archive-date=2024-05-27 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> Sato ''durophagous'' ''[[Kollikodon]]'', ''pseudotribosphenic'' ''[[Steropodon]]'', sarta ''[[Stirtodon]]'', ''[[Dharragarra]]'', ''[[Opalios]]'', jeung ''[[Parvopalus]]'' kabéhanana aya dina sédimén Cenomanian anu sarua. Fosil platypus anu mibanda huntu tina jaman Oligo-Miocene, nyaéta ''[[Obdurodon]]'', ogé geus kapanggih di Australia, sarta fosil baraya platypus anu umurna 63 juta taun kapanggih di bagian kidul Argéntina (''Monotrematum''). Genus platypus anu masih aya, ''Ornithorhynchus'', ogé geus dipikawanoh tina sédimén Pliocene, sedengkeun fosil ''tachyglossid'' (ékhidna) pangkolotna asalna tina jaman Pleistocene (1.7 juta taun ka tukang).<ref name="Flannery-2022" /> === Spésiés Fosil === [[Image:Steropodon jaw.jpg|thumb|400px|Rahang ''[[Steropodon]]'' anu umurna 100 juta taun dipajang di American Museum of Natural History, New York City, AS]] [[File:Ornithorhynchus anatinus -Sydney Aquarium, Sydney, Australia -swimming-6a.ogv|thumb|Platypus keur ngojay di [[Sydney Aquarium]]]] Iwal ti ''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'', sakumna sato anu didaptarkeun dina ieu bagian téh ngan dipikawanoh tina fosilna wungkul. Sababaraha panetepan kulawarga (''family'') masih kénéh dianggap samentara (''hesitant''), lantaran kaayaan spésiménna anu mangrupa fragmén-fragmén wungkul.<ref name="Flannery2024"/> * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Kollikodontidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Kollikodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Kollikodon ritchiei]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Kryoryctes]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Kryoryctes cadburyi]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Sundrius]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Sundrius ziegleri]]'' * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Steropodontidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Parvopalus]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Parvopalus clytiei]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Steropodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Steropodon galmani]]'' * Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Teinolophidae]] ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Stirtodon]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Stirtodon elizabethae]]'' ** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Teinolophos]]'' *** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Teinolophos trusleri]]'' – 123 Ma (juta taun ka tukang), spésimén monotréma pangkolotna * Superfamilia [[Ornithorhynchoidea]] ** Kulawarga {{extinct}}[[Opalionidae]] *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Opalios]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Opalios splendens]]'' ** Kulawarga [[Ornithorhynchidae]] *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Dharragarra]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Dharragarra aurora]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Monotrematum]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Monotrematum|Monotrematum sudamericanum]]'' – 61 Ma, bagian kidul Amérika Kidul *** Genus ''[[Ornithorhynchus]]'' – spésimén ''Ornithorhynchus'' pangkolotna asalna ti 9 Ma **** Spésiés ''[[Ornithorhynchus anatinus]]'' (platypus) – spésimén pangkolotna umurna 10.000 taun *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon]]'' – ngawengku sababaraha platypus Riversleigh ti jaman [[Miocene]] (24–5 Ma) **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon dicksoni]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon insignis]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Obdurodon tharalkooschild]]'' – [[Middle Miocene]] sarta [[Upper Miocene]] (15–5 Ma) *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Patagorhynchus]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Patagorhynchus|Patagorhynchus pascuali]]'' - [[Maastrichtian]], monotréma Amérika Kidul pangmunggarana anu kanyahoan<ref name="Chimento2023">{{cite journal |last1= Chimento |first1= N.R. |last2= Agnolín|first2= F.L. |display-authors=etal |date= 16 February 2023|title= First monotreme from the Late Cretaceous of South America |journal= Communications Biology |volume= 6 |issue= 1 |page= 146 |doi= 10.1038/s42003-023-04498-7|pmid= 36797304 |pmc= 9935847 }}</ref> ** Kulawarga [[Tachyglossidae]] *** Genus ''[[Zaglossus]]'' – [[Upper Pleistocene]] (1.8–0.1 Ma) **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Zaglossus robustus]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Murrayglossus]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''[[Murrayglossus|Murrayglossus hacketti]]'' *** Genus {{extinct}}''[[Megalibgwilia]]'' **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''Megalibgwilia ramsayi'' – [[Late Pleistocene]] **** Spésiés {{extinct}}''Megalibgwilia robusta'' – [[Miocene]] == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Bahan Bacaan Salajengna == * {{cite book |first=Ronald M. |last=Nowak |title=Walker's Mammals of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa_d2q4 |isbn=978-0-8018-5789-8 |year=1999 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |edition=6th |lccn=98023686 |language = en}} [[Kategori:Mamalia]] a6i0lgwvjdnohsxsxet15elut5zk6h2 William McKinley 0 107977 712339 711847 2026-08-28T21:09:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712339 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | name = William McKinley | image = McKinley (cropped).jpg | order = Présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-25 | office = Pangagung luhur di Amérika Sarikat | vicepresident = {{plainlist| * [[Garret Hobart]] (1897–1899) * Lowong (1899–1901) * Theodore Roosevelt (Mar–Sept 1901) }} | term_start = 4 Maret 1897 | term_end = 14 Séptémber 1901 | predecessor = [[Grover Cleveland]] | successor = [[Theodore Roosevelt]] | order1 = [[Gubernur Ohio]] ka-39 | lieutenant1 = [[Andrew L. Harris]] | term_start1 = 11 Januari 1892 | term_end1 = 13 Januari 1896 | predecessor1 = [[James E. Campbell]] | successor1 = [[Asa S. Bushnell]] | office2 = Utusan rahayat (Kongrés)<br />ti [[Ohio]] | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1885 | term_end2 = 3 Maret 1891 | birth_name = William McKinley Jr. | birth_date = {{birth date|1843|1|29}} | birth_place = [[Niles, Ohio]], AS | death_date = {{death date and age|1901|9|14|1843|1|29}} | death_place = [[Buffalo, New York]], AS | death_cause = Dirogahala (Ditémbak) | resting_place = Pamakaman McKinley,<br />[[Canton, Ohio]] | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Parté Républik]] | father = [[William McKinley Sr.]] | mother = [[Nancy Allison]] | spouse = [[Ida Saxton McKinley|Ida Saxton]] | children = 2 | education = [[Albany Law School]] | profession = [[Janggaléman]] pulitik, ahli hukum | branch = [[Balad campuh]] (Angkatan Darat) | rank = Mayor (Brevet) | unit = [[23rd Ohio Infantry]] | battles = [[Perang Sadulur Amérika]] (Campuh Bull Run II, Antietam, jsté.) | caption = McKinley kira-kira taun 1900 }} '''William McKinley''' (29 Januari 1843 – 14 Séptémber 1901) téh mangrupa [[présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-25, anu ngawula ti taun 1897 nepi ka manéhna tilar dunya alatan dirogahala dina taun 1901.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. American Presidency Series. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Salaku inohong ti Parté Républik, manéhna mingpin parobahan pulitik anu ngajadikeun parténa ngagegedénan sarta dominan pisan di nagara-nagara bagian industri ogé di sakuliah nagara salila mangpuluh-puluh taun.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> McKinley hasil mawa Amérika unggul dina Perang Spanyol-Amérika sarta ngatur mangsa ékspansi wilayah, ku jalan nyangking Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Filipina, jeung Samoa Amérika.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> McKinley téh présidén pamungkas anu kungsi aub jadi prajurit dina Perang Sadulur Amérika; manéhna hiji-hijina présidén anu ngamimitian lalakon jadi prajurit biasa nepi ka boga pangkat mayor brevet.<ref>Armstrong, William H. (2000). Major McKinley: William McKinley and the Civil War. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-657-9.</ref> Sabada perang réngsé, manéhna matuh di Canton, Ohio, pikeun muka prakték hukum sarta kawin ka Ida Saxton.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> Dina taun 1876, McKinley kapilih jadi anggota Déwan (Kongrés), di dinya manéhna jadi ahli ti pihak Républik dina urusan pajeg (tarif) panyalindungan, sabab yakin yén kawijakan proteksionisme bakal mawa kamakmuran.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Aturan "McKinley Tariff" taun 1890 anu dijieun ku manéhna loba anu nyawad sarta, ditambahan deui ku ayana parobahan wewengkon pamilihan ku Parté Démokrat anu maksudna pikeun nyingkirkeun manéhna, ngabalukarkeun manéhna éléh dina pamilihan lulugu Déwan taun 1890.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Manéhna tuluy kapilih jadi gubernur Ohio dina taun 1891 jeung 1893, bari nyoba nyokot jalan tengah antara kapentingan nu boga modal jeung kaum buruh.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> McKinley hasil meunangkeun pencalonan présidén ti Parté Républik dina taun 1896 nalika nagarana keur katarajang kasisitan ékonomi anu parna, sarta ngéléhkeun lawanna, William Jennings Bryan, sabada ngayakeun kampanye "front porch" (di buruan imah) bari ngadukung kawijakan "duit anu séhat" (standar emas) jeung jangji yén pajeg luhur bakal mulikkeun deui kajayaan ékonomi.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> Mangsa jabatanana diwarnaan ku kamekaran ékonomi anu gancang pisan.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> Manéhna nolak pamakéan pérak sacara bébas sarta leuwih milih nahan standar emas, ogé naékeun pajeg panyalindungan ku jalan nandatanganan "Dingley Tariff" taun 1897 pikeun nangtayungan pabrik jeung buruh tina saingan luar nagara, sarta ngasahkeun "Gold Standard Act" dina taun 1900.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Kawijakan luar nagri McKinley nyonto kana jaman impérialisme kakuatan-kakuatan gedé dunya di wilayah Osiania, Asia, jeung Laut Karibia.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Amérika Sarikat nyangking Républik Hawaii anu merdéka dina taun 1898, anu tuluy robah jadi Téritori Hawaii dina taun 1900.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> McKinley mimitina mah hayang ngolo Spanyol sangkan méré kamerdékaan ka Kuba tanpa aya campuh perang.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Sanajan kitu, nalika badami éta gagal, manéhna ménta sarta nandatanganan deklarasi perang ti Déwan pikeun ngamimitian Perang Spanyol-Amérika taun 1898, anu di éta perang Amérika hasil meunang mutlak kalayan gancang.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> Dina perjanjian daméy éta, Spanyol masrahkeun jajahan utamana kawas Puerto Rico, Guam, jeung Filipina ka Amérika, samentara Kuba dijangjikeun merdéka tapi angget aya dina pangawasan Amérika nepi ka sabada McKinley tilar dunya dina taun 1902.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Di Filipina, aya pemberontakan anu hayang merdéka, tapi ahirna mah bisa ditalukkeun.<ref>Miller, Stuart Creighton (1982). "Benevolent Assimilation": The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03081-5.</ref> McKinley ogé hasil nyangking wewengkon anu ayeuna disebut Samoa Amérika nalika pamaréntahanana ngabagi Kapuloan Samoa jeung karajaan Inggris sarta Jérman dina Konvénsi Tripartite.<ref>Leech, Margaret (1959). In the Days of McKinley. New York: Harper and Brothers. OCLC 456809.</ref> McKinley ngéléhkeun Bryan deui dina pamilihan présidén taun 1900 dina kampanye anu museur kana urusan impérialisme, proteksionisme, jeung pérak bébas.<ref>Williams, R. Hal (2010). Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan, and the Remarkable Election of 1896. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1721-0.</ref> Jabatan kaduana lekasan leuwih tiheula nalika manéhna ditémbak dina 6 Séptémber 1901 ku saurang anarkis, Leon Czolgosz.<ref>Rauchway, Eric (2004). Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt's America. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-1638-9.</ref> McKinley tilar dunya dalapan poé sanggeusna sarta diganti ku Wakil Présidén Theodore Roosevelt, anu kawéntarna ngaleuwihan McKinley sorangan.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> Ahli sajarah nganggep kameunangan McKinley taun 1896 téh minangka pamilihan anu ngarobah tatanan pulitik ti mangsa pasca-Perang Sadulur ka jaman anu didominasi ku Parté Républik.<ref>Phillips, Kevin (2003). William McKinley. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6953-2.</ref> Amérika Sarikat angget ngawasa wilayah-wilayah anu dicaning ku McKinley, iwal ti Filipina anu ahirna merdéka dina taun 1946.<ref>Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). William McKinley and His America (revised ed.). Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87338-765-1.</ref> McKinley umumna ditempatkeun dina jajaran tengah dina daptar peringkat présidén-présidén Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Gould, Lewis L. (1980). The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0206-3.</ref> ==Mangsa leutik jeung kulawarga== [[File:McKinley boy.png|left|thumb|upright|McKinley, yuswa 15 taun]] William McKinley Jr. dibabarkeun dina taun 1843 di [[Niles, Ohio]], mangrupa anak katujuh tina salapan duduluran pasangan [[William McKinley Sr.]] jeung Nancy (née Allison) McKinley.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Kulawarga McKinley téh turunan Inggris jeung Skotlandia-Irlandia anu geus matuh di wilayah kulon Pennsylvania ti abad ka-18.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Karuhun maranéhna anu mimiti datang (imigran) téh nyaéta David McKinley, anu dibabarkeun di [[Dervock]], County Antrim, di wilayah anu ayeuna jadi [[Irlandia Kalér]]. William McKinley Sr. sorangan dibabarkeun di Pennsylvania, perenahna di [[Pine Township, Mercer County, Pennsylvania|Pine Township, Mercer County]].{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Ieu kulawarga tuluy pindah ka Ohio nalika McKinley senior masih budak, sarta matuh di New Lisbon (ayeuna [[Lisbon, Ohio|Lisbon]]). Di dinya manéhna panggih jeung Nancy Allison, anu saterusna dikawin.{{sfnm|Leech||1p=4|Morgan||2p=2}} Kulawarga Allison lolobana turunan Inggris sarta kaasup salah sahiji kulawarga anu mimiti matuh di Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Morgan|p=3}} Pacabakan kulawarga ti dua pihakna téh nyaéta tukang nyieun beusi. McKinley senior ngokolakeun [[Foundry|pabrik citakan beusi]] di sakuliah Ohio, mimiti di New Lisbon, Niles, [[Poland, Ohio|Poland]], nepi ka ahirna di [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]].{{sfnm|Armstrong||1pp=4–6|Morgan||2pp=2–3|Phillips||3p=13}} Kaayaan rumah tangga McKinley, sakumaha ilaharna kulawarga ti wilayah Western Reserve di Ohio, kandel pisan ku pamadegan pulitik Whig sarta sumanget [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolisionis]] (anti-perbudakan), anu dumasar kana kayakinan agama maranéhna salaku panyekel ajaran [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Metodis]] anu pengkuh.{{sfnm|Phillips||1pp=17–18|Armstrong||2p=8|Morgan||3pp=10–11}} William anu ngora ogé nuturkeun tatapakan agamana, manéhna mimiti aktif di [[First Methodist Episcopal Church (Canton, Ohio)|gréja Metodis lokal]] dina yuswa genep belas taun.{{sfnm|Phillips||1p=16|Leech||2pp=4–5}} Manéhna jadi saurang Metodis anu taat saumur hirupna.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=9–10}} Dina taun 1852, ieu kulawarga pindah ti Niles ka Poland, Ohio, sangkan barudakna bisa sakola di tempat anu leuwih hadé. Sabada lulus ti [[Poland Seminary]] dina taun 1859, McKinley nuluykeun sakola ka [[Allegheny College]] di [[Meadville, Pennsylvania]] dina taun saterusna. Manéhna jadi anggota kahormatan di paguyuban [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity, Volume 2|last=Levere|first=William|publisher=Lakeside Press|year=1911|location=Chicago|pages=204–19}}</ref> Manéhna ngan kuat sataun di Allegheny, tuluy mulang ka imah dina taun 1860 alatan teu damang sarta ngarasa depressed (teu sumanget). Manéhna ogé kungsi sakola di Mount Union College, ayeuna [[University of Mount Union]], di [[Alliance, Ohio]], dimana manéhna saterusna jadi anggota dewan pangurus di dinya.{{sfnm|Phillips||1p=20|Armstrong||2p=5}} Sanajan kaséhatanana geus jagjag deui, kaayaan ékonomi kulawargana keur nyirorot (kasisitan), sahingga McKinley teu bisa balik deui ka Allegheny. Manéhna mimiti digawé jadi tanaga administrasi di kantor pos sarta sanggeusna jadi guru di hiji sakola deukeut Poland, Ohio.{{sfnm|Armstrong||1p=6|Morgan||2pp=11–12}} Pasukan tuluy nuju ka [[Lynchburg, Virginia|Lynchburg]], bari ngaruksak jalur karéta api salila maranéhna maju.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=166–68|2a=Armstrong|2pp=66–69}} Sanajan kitu, Hunter boga kayakinan yén balad musuh di Lynchburg kuat teuing, sahingga pasukanana mulang deui ka West Virginia.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=166–68|2a=Armstrong|2pp=66–69}} Saméméh pasukan bisa ngayakeun panarajang deui, serangan ti Jenderal Konféderasi [[Jubal Early]] ka Maryland maksa maranéhna ditarik deui ka kalér.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=70–71}} Pasukan Early nyerang dadakan di [[Second Battle of Kernstown|Kernstown]] dina 24 Juli, dimana McKinley katarajang hujan pélor sarta pasukanana kasoran (éléh).{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom|1pp=168–69|2a=Armstrong|2pp=72–73}} Nalika mundur ka Maryland, pasukan disusun deui: Mayor Jenderal [[Philip Sheridan]] ngaganti Hunter, sarta McKinley, anu naék pangkat jadi [[Captain (United States O-3)|kaptén]] sabada campuh éta, dipindahkeun jadi staf Jenderal Crook.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom||1pp=170–71|2a=Armstrong||2pp=75–77}} Dina bulan Agustus, Early mundur ka kidul, diburu ku pasukan Sheridan.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=78–80}} Maranéhna hasil nahan panarajang Konféderasi di [[Battle of Berryville|Berryville]], dimana kuda anu ditumpakan ku McKinley ditémbak nepi ka tiwasna, tuluy pasukan maju ka [[Battle of Opequon|Opequon Creek]], dimana maranéhna hasil ngabobol pertahanan musuh sarta ngudag maranéhna leuwih jauh ka kidul.{{sfnm|1a=Hoogenboom||1pp=172–73|2a=Armstrong||2pp=80–82}} Kameunangan éta dituluykeun ku kameunangan séjénna di [[Battle of Fisher's Hill|Fisher's Hill]] dina 22 Séptémber sarta campuh deui di [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]] dina 19 Oktober.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Sanajan mimitina mundur alatan panarajang Konféderasi, McKinley milu ngagedurkeun deui sumanget baladna sarta hasil malikkeun kaayaan dina éta perang.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Sabada perang di Cedar Creek, pasukan tetep matuh di sabudeureun dinya nepi ka poéan pamilihan, nalika McKinley méré sora munggaranana pikeun calon présidén ti Parté Républik, [[Abraham Lincoln]].{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Poé saterusna, maranéhna pindah ka kalér nuju ka tempat pamatuhan usum tiris deukeut Kernstown.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=84–91}} Dina bulan Pébruari 1865, Crook ditéwak ku pasukan panyerang Konféderasi.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=95–96}} Kajadian ditéwakna Crook nambahan kabingung nalika pasukan keur disusun deui pikeun kampanye usum semi, sarta McKinley ngabantu staf opat jenderal anu béda dina waktu lima belas poé—Crook, [[John Dunlap Stevenson|John D. Stevenson]], [[Samuel S. Carroll]], jeung [[Winfield Scott Hancock|Winfield S. Hancock]].{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=95–96}} Ahirna ditépakeun deui jadi staf Carroll, McKinley purah jadi hiji-hijina [[adjutant|ajudan]] éta jenderal.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Jenderal Lee jeung pasukanana [[Battle of Appomattox Court House#Surrender|nyerah]] ka Jenderal [[Ulysses S. Grant]] sababaraha poé sanggeusna, anu jadi tanda réngséna peperangan. McKinley asup kana pakumpulan [[Freemasonry|Freemason]] (anu jagana dingaranan maké ngaran manéhna) di [[Winchester, Virginia]], méméh manéhna jeung Carroll dipindahkeun ka Korps Hanock di Washington.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Sakedap méméh perang bérés, McKinley nampi undak pangkat pamungkas, nyaéta pangkat mayor brevet.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} Dina bulan Juli, unitna dibubarkeun sarta McKinley dibébaskeun tina pancénna.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} Carroll jeung Hancock ngajurung McKinley sangkan asup jadi tantara tetep dina mangsa daméy, tapi manéhna nolak sarta milih mulang deui ka Ohio dina bulan saterusna.{{sfn|Armstrong|pp=103–05}} McKinley, bareng jeung Samuel M. Taylor sarta James C. Howe, milu nyusun sarta medarkeun karya dua belas jilid, ''Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1866'', anu dipedarkeun dina taun 1886.<ref>[[#roster|McKinley, Taylor, Howe, 1886]]</ref> ==Karir hukum jeung kawin== [[File:ISMcKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ida Saxton McKinley]] [[File:Katherine McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Katherine McKinley]] Sabada perang réngsé dina taun 1865, McKinley milih pikeun nyuprih élmu dina widang hukum sarta mimiti dialajar di kantor saurang ahli hukum di [[Poland, Ohio]].{{sfn|Morgan|pp=28–30}} Taun saterusna, manéhna nuluykeun sakolana ka [[Albany Law School]] di nagara bagian New York.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Sabada sakola di dinya kurang ti sataun, McKinley mulang deui ka lemburna sarta dina Maret 1867 resmi diaku jadi ahli hukum (admitted to the bar) di [[Warren, Ohio]].{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Dina taun éta kénéh, manéhna pindah ka Canton, puseur dayeuh [[Stark County, Ohio]], sarta muka kantor leutik.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=30–31}} Teu lila, manéhna gawé bareng jeung George W. Belden, saurang ahli hukum anu geus jembar ku pangalaman sarta urut hakim.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=31–33|2a=Leech||2pp=12, 21}} Usahana hasil pisan nepi ka manéhna bisa meuli wangunan di Main Street, Canton, anu méré pangasilan tambahan tina séwa salila mangpuluh-puluh taun.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=31–33|2a=Leech||2pp=12, 21}}</ref> Nalika sobatna di tantara, Rutherford B. Hayes, dicalonkeun jadi gubernur dina taun 1867, McKinley mimiti ancrub ka dunya pulitik ku jalan biantara pikeun ngadukung Hayes di Stark County.{{sfn|Leech|pp=11–12}} Sanajan kaayaan sora rahayat di dinya ampir saimbang antara Parté Démokrat jeung Républik, Hayes hasil unggul di éta wilayah.{{sfn|Leech|pp=11–12}} Dina taun 1869, McKinley nyalonkeun diri jadi jaksa wilayah (prosecuting attorney) Stark County, kalungguhan anu biasana dicepeng ku urang Démokrat, tapi manéhna hasil kapilih kalayan teu disangka-sangka.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}} Nalika manéhna nyalonkeun deui dina taun 1871, urang Démokrat nyalonkeun [[William A. Lynch]], saurang ahli hukum kasohor, sarta McKinley kasoran ku sela 143 sora.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}} Sajalan jeung karirna anu maju, lalakon asihna ogé mimiti kembangan: manéhna meungkeut asih ka [[Ida Saxton McKinley|Ida Saxton]], putri ti kulawarga jegud di Canton.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=34–35}}Maranéhna kawin dina 25 Januari 1871 di Grja Presbiterian Munggaran Canton anu anyar diwangun. Ida tuluy milu pindah agama jadi Metodis nuturkeun salakina.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Anak munggaranana, Katherine, dibabarkeun dina poé Natal taun 1871.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37|2a=Leech||2p=16}} Anak kadua, Ida, lahir dina taun 1873 tapi tilar dunya dina taun éta kénéh.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Pamajikan McKinley ngarasa dunya poék (depresi parna) alatan tilar dunya anakna, sarta kaséhatanana mimiti nyirorot.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Dua taun ti harita, Katherine tilar dunya alatan tipus. Ida henteu kungsi jagjag deui tina kasedihna, sarta kulawarga McKinley teu gaduh deui katurunan.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Ida ogé mimiti katarajang kasakit ayan (epilepsi) sarta gumantung pisan ka salakina. McKinley jadi salaki anu kacida tulaténna sarta terus ngajaga pamajikanana kalayan pinuh ku kaasih saumur hirupna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=37–39|2a=Leech||2pp=16–20}} Ida ngajurung sangkan salakina terus maju dina karir hukum jeung pulitikna.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=39–40}} McKinley milu dina konvénsi nagara bagian Républik taun 1875 sarta mantuan kampanye Hayes pikeun jadi gubernur deui.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=39–40}} Taun saterusna, McKinley nyepeng pasualaan hukum anu jadi perhatian balaréa nalika ngabéla sakelompok buruh tambang batu bara anu ditéwak alatan karusuhan jeung pameupeus mogok (strikebreakers).{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Lynch, lawan McKinley dina pamilihan 1871, jadi jaksa lawanna, sarta salah sahiji nu boga tambangna téa nyaéta [[Mark Hanna]], pangusaha ti Cleveland.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Ku jalan méré bantuan hukum haratis (''pro bono''), McKinley hasil ngabébaskeun ampir sakabéh buruh tambang éta.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Ieu hal ngangkat ngaran McKinley di mata kaum buruh, sakaligus jadi awal wawuhna manéhna jeung Hanna, anu jagana bakal jadi pangrojong panguatna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan||1pp=40–41|2a=Weisenburger||2pp=78–80}} Kaharéman McKinley di mata kaum buruh mangpaat pisan nalika manéhna nyalonkeun diri pikeun Kongrés ti wilayah ka-17 Ohio.{{sfn|Morgan|p=42}} Para utusan yakin manéhna bisa narik sora ti kaum "kerah biru" (buruh), sarta dina Agustus 1876, McKinley resmi dicalonkeun.{{sfn|Morgan|p=42}} Harita, Hayes geus dicalonkeun jadi présidén, sarta McKinley milu mantuan kampanye Hayes bari ngajalankeun kampanyena sorangan.{{sfn|Morgan|p=43}} Duanana hasil unggul. McKinley ngéléhkeun utusan Démokrat, Levi L. Lamborn, ku sela 3.300 sora kalayan ngusung téma pajeg panyalindungan. Hayes ogé hasil jadi présidén sabada pamilihan anu pinuh ku perdebatan.{sfn|Morgan|p=43}} Kameunangan McKinley ieu miboga konsékuansi pribadi: bayaranana salaku anggota Kongrés ngan satengahna tina naon anu ditarima nalika jadi ahli hukum.{{sfn|McElroy|p=31}} ==Inohong anu keur nanjung (1877–1895)== ===Juru biantara panyalindungan pajeg=== {{quote box | align = right | width = 24em | salign = right | quote = Dina kaayaan dagang bébas, tukang dagang téh jadi dunungan sarta nu nyieun barang (produsén) jadi badéga. Panyalindungan pajeg (proteksi) mah taya lian iwal ti hukum alam, hukum keur ngajaga diri, hukum kamekaran diri, sarta pikeun mastikeun darajat nu pangluhurna jeung panghadéna keur umat manusa. [Aya nu nyebut] yén proteksi téh teu boga moral... Naha, lamun proteksi bisa ngawangun jeung ngangkat darajat 63.000.000 [jumlah padumuk AS harita] jalma, pangaruh ti éta 63.000.000 jalma téh bakal ngangkat sakuliah dunya. Urang moal bisa ngaléngkah dina jalan kamajuan tanpa méré mangpaat ka umat manusa di mana waé. Heug, maranéhna nyebut, "Meuli mah di mana waé nu pangmurahna"... Tangtu, éta lumaku pikeun tanaga gawé sakumaha lumaku pikeun nu séjénna. Hayu kuring méré papatah (maksim) anu rébu kali leuwih hadé batan éta, nyaéta maksim proteksi: "Meuli mah di mana waé anjeun bisa mayar kalayan pang-enténgna." Sarta éta tempat di bumi téh nyaéta di mana tanaga gawé meunang ganjaran nu pangluhurna. | source = William McKinley, biantara dina 4 Oktober 1892, Boston, Massachusetts}} McKinley mimiti diuk dina korsé Kongrés dina Oktober 1877, nalika Présidén Hayes manggil Kongrés pikeun sidang istiméwa.{{sfn|Leech|p=20}} Kusabab urang Républik jadi minoritas, McKinley dipasihan pancén dina komisi-komisi anu dianggap kurang penting, anu ku manéhna dipidamel kalayan rancagé.{{sfn|Leech|p=20}} Sosobatan McKinley jeung Hayes teu pati méré kauntungan pikeun McKinley di [[Capitol Hill]], sabab éta présidén téh kurang dipihormat ku loba pamingpin di dinya.{{sfn|Leech|p=37}} Éta anggota Kongrés ngora téh béda pamadegan jeung Hayes dina urusan mata uang, tapi hal éta teu mangaruhan kana sosobatan maranéhna.{{sfn|Morgan|p=47}} Amérika Sarikat geus sacara éféktif maké standar emas dumasar kana Undang-Undang Mata Uang 1873; nalika harga pérak turun drastis, loba jalma hayang ngajadikeun pérak minangka alat mayar nu sah deui, saimbang jeung emas.{{sfn|Horner|pp=180–81}} McKinley milih ngadukung Undang-Undang Bland-Allison 1878 anu marentahkeun pamaréntah meuli pérak dina jumlah gedé pikeun dijadikeun duit, sarta manéhna ogé milu jeung sora mayoritas di unggal déwan pikeun ngabatalkeun véto (panolakan) Hayes kana éta aturan.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan|1pp=46–47|2a=Horner|2pp=181–82}} Dina peta éta, McKinley milih jalan anu béda jeung pamingpin Républik di Déwan, James Garfield, anu ogé urang Ohio sakaligus sobatna.{{sfnm|1a=Morgan|1pp=46–47|2a=Horner|2pp=181–82}} [[File:Mckin.jpg|thumb|left|McKinley salaku utusan rahayat (Kongrés) kira-kira taun 1870-an]] Ti mimiti jabatanana di Kongrés, McKinley geus jadi pangrojong panguatna pikeun pajeg panyalindungan (tarif proteksi). Maksud utama tina éta pajeg téh lain keur néangan pangasilan nagara, tapi sangkan industri manufaktur Amérika bisa mekar ku jalan méré kauntungan harga di pasar jero nagri batan saingan ti luar nagri.{{sfnm|1a=Leech||1pp=36–37|2a=Phillips||2pp=42–44}} Panulis biografi McKinley, Margaret Leech, nyatet yén kota Canton geus jadi maju minangka puseur manufaktur alat-alat tatanén alatan ayana panyalindungan pajeg, sarta hal ieu pisan anu mangaruhan pamadegan pulitikna.{{sfnm|1a=Leech||1pp=36–37|2a=Phillips||2pp=42–44}} Garfield anu kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1880 nyésakeun lowongan dina Komisi Urusan Keuangan (Ways and Means Committee); McKinley kapilih pikeun ngeusian éta tempat, meunang posisi dina komisi pangkuatna ngan dina waktu dua mangsa jabatan.{{sfn|Morgan|p=55}} McKinley beuki lila beuki jadi inohong penting dina pulitik nasional. Dina taun 1884, manéhna kapilih jadi utusan dina konvénsi Républik, dimana manéhna jadi ketua Komisi Resolusi sarta meunang pangalem alatan tapis dina mingpin jalanna konvénsi.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=60–61}} Dina taun 1886, McKinley, Sénator John Sherman, jeung Gubernur Joseph B. Foraker dianggap minangka pamingpin Parté Républik di Ohio.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=60–61}} Saenggeus konvénsi taun 1888 anu pinuh ku pacogrégan, Mark Hanna mimiti mikareueus McKinley sarta jadi sobat sakaligus panaséhat deukeutna.{{sfn|Horner|pp=80–81}} Sanajan Hanna tetep aktip dina dunya bisnis, dina taun-taun sabada 1888, manéhna méakkeun beuki loba waktu pikeun ngangkat karir pulitik McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|pp=80–81}} Dina taun 1889, nalika urang Républik jadi mayoritas, McKinley nyoba nyalonkeun jadi Ketua Déwan (Speaker). Manéhna teu hasil nempatan éta posisi, anu ahirna dicepeng ku Thomas B. Reed ti Maine; sanajan kitu, Ketua Reed nunjuk McKinley jadi ketua Komisi Urusan Keuangan.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=27, 42–43}} Urang Ohio ieu tuluy mingpin panyusunan "McKinley Tariff" taun 1890 dina Kongrés; sanajan hasil gawéna loba dirobah alatan pangaruh kapentingan husus di Sénat, éta aturan hasil netepkeun sajumlah pajeg panyalindungan pikeun barang-barang ti luar nagri.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=27, 42–43}} ===Gerrymandering sarta kasoran dina pamilihan=== [[File:Judge cover September 1890 - On to Ohio.png|thumb|Gambar tina majalah ''Judge'' taun 1890, nembongkeun McKinley (kenca) keur rurusuhan nuju ka wilayahna di Ohio anu geus diacak-acak watesna (gerrymandered).]] Kusabab urang Demokrat nempo aya kakuatan gede dina diri McKinley, unggal maranehna ngawasa legislatif di Ohio, maranehna sok nyoba ngalakukeun [[Gerrymandering|gerrymander]] atawa ngarobah wates wilayah pamilihan sangkan McKinley tumpas tina jabatanna.{{sfn|Phillips|p=27}} Dina taun 1878, wilayah McKinley dipindahkeun ka distrik ka-16; tapi manehna angget unggul, nepi ka Hayes nyebut kalayan bungah, "Wah, untung pisan McKinley mah! Manehna diacak-acak wilayahna tapi angget bisa ngéléhkeun gerrymander eta! Urang sarerea milu bungah."{{sfn|Morgan|p=54}} Sanggeus pamilihan taun 1882, McKinley kungsi kaleungitan korsi alatan ayana sengketa pamilihan dina sora di Dewan.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=59–60}} Sanajan kungsi ngarasa dunya poék alatan eta kasoran, manehna jangji bakal nyalonkeun deui. Urang Demokrat ngarobah deui wates wilayah Stark County pikeun pamilihan taun 1884; tapi McKinley tetep bisa mulang deui ka Kongrés.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=60–62}} Dina taun 1890, urang Demokrat ngalakukeun gerrymander pamungkas ka McKinley, ku jalan ngahijikeun Stark County jeung wilayah Holmes County anu pangeusina teh urang [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] anu fanatik ka Demokrat. Dumasar itungan harita, Demokrat yakin wates anyar eta bakal méré kauntungan 2.000 nepi ka 3.000 sora keur maranehna. Urang Républik teu bisa ngalawan eta aturan, tapi maranehna ngerahkeun sagala kakuatan ka eta wilayah. Aturan pajeg "McKinley Tariff" jadi jejer utama kampanye Demokrat di sakuliah nagara, sarta loba jalma anu merhatikeun nasib McKinley. Parté Républik ngirimkeun juru biantara panghadena ka Canton, kaasup Blaine, Ketua Reed, sarta Présidén Harrison. McKinley sorangan teu aya kacape ngurilingan wilayahna pikeun nerangkeun ka 40.000 pamilih yén pajegna teh: {{blockquote | dijieun pikeun rahayat... salaku taméng keur industri maranehna, salaku panyalindungan pikeun tanaga gawena, salaku pangjaga pikeun imah-imah kaum buruh Amérika anu bagja, sarta salaku jaminan pikeun pendidikan, gajih, jeung investasi maranehna... Ieu hal bakal mawa kamakmuran anu taya tandingna dina sajarah urang sarta dunya."{{sfn|McKinley|p=464}} }} Demokrat nyalonkeun urut wakil gubernur [[John G. Warwick]] anu kacida kuatna. Pikeun ngahasut rahayat, maranehna nyewa budak ngora pikeun pura-pura jadi tukang dagang anu nawarkeun parabot tina kaleng harga 25 sen jadi 50 sen ka ibu-ibu rumah tangga, bari nerangkeun yen naekna harga teh alatan "McKinley Tariff". Ahirna, McKinley eleh ku sela 300 sora, tapi urang Républik unggul sacara nasional sarta ngarasa eta teh mangrupa "kameunangan moral".{{sfn|Jensen|pp=151–53}} ===Gubernur Ohio (1892–1896)=== Méméh jabatanana di Kongrés lekasan, McKinley geus didatangan ku utusan ti Ohio anu ngajurung manehna nyalonkeun jadi gubernur. Gubernur harita, James E. Campbell ti Demokrat, bakal nyalonkeun deui dina taun 1891. Parté Républik di Ohio harita keur peupeus, tapi McKinley hasil ngatur sangkan Foraker (lawan partena) nyalonkeun manehna dina konvénsi, sarta McKinley kapilih kalayan sora buleud. Manehna meunangkeun pamilihan taun 1891 ku sela 20,000 sora.{{sfn|Williams|p=50}} [[File:Blaine breaks out.png|right|thumb|James G. Blaine (tengah) masih dianggap saingan kuat pikeun McKinley jeung Reed dina kartun taun 1890.]] Gubernur Ohio sabenerna teu boga kakuatan gede—contona, manehna teu bisa ngabatalkeun (veto) undang-undang—tapi kusabab Ohio teh nagara bagian anu penting (swing state), gubernurna jadi inohong gede dina pulitik nasional.{{sfn|Williams|p=117}} Sanajan McKinley yakin yen kamajuan nagara gumantung kana dunya usaha, manehna tetep adil ka kaum buruh.{{sfn|Gould|p=7}} Manehna nyieun aturan pikeun nyeleseikeun pacogregan gawé sarta ngaluarkeun hukum anu ngadenda dunungan lamun macatkeun buruh alatan milu union (serikat buruh).{{sfn|Williams|p=122}} Nalika ékonomi Amérika ambruk alatan [[Panic of 1893]], McKinley ampir bae bangkrut sabab kungsi nanggung hutang sobatna, Robert Walker, anu jumlahna leuwih ti $100,000 (sarua jeung loba pisan juta dollar jaman ayeuna).{{sfn|Morgan|pp=129–30}} McKinley sempet mikir hayang mundur jadi gubernur sangkan bisa neangan duit jadi pengacara deui.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=130–34}} Tapi, para pangrojongna anu baleunghar, kaasup Hanna, ngumpulkeun duit pikeun malayar eta hutang. Rahayat loba anu karunya sarta simpati ka McKinley, sahingga popularitasna kalahka beuki naek.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=130–34}} Manehna hasil kapilih deui jadi gubernur dina taun 1893 kalayan sora anu panglobana saprak jaman Perang Sadulur.{{sfn|Phillips|p=67}} Sabada hasil ngahijikeun kakuatan Républik di Ohio, McKinley mimiti museurkeun paneuteupna kana korsi présidén nasional.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=69–70}} ==Pamilihan taun 1896== ===Meunangkeun pencalonan=== [[File:Mark Hanna by WJ Root, 1896 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright|Mark Hanna, sobat sarta panaséhat deukeut McKinley]] Henteu pati tétéla iraha William McKinley mimiti bener-bener nyiapkeun diri pikeun nyalonkeun présidén. Sakumaha anu dicatet ku panulis biografi McKinley, Kevin Phillips, "Taya dokumén, taya buku poéan, taya surat rusiah ka Mark Hanna (atawa ka sasaha waé) anu eusina mangrupa harepan rusiah atawa siasat anu nyamuni."{{sfn|Phillips|p=61}} Ti mimiti pisan, sagala persiapan McKinley téh dibantuan ku Hanna; panulis biografi Hanna, William T. Horner, nyatet yén, "Anu geus pasti bener nyaéta dina taun 1888, éta dua lalaki téh mimiti ngawangun hubungan gawé anu raket anu jagana mawa McKinley ka Gedong Bodas."{{sfn|Horner|p=81}} Kusabab Sherman teu nyalonkeun deui présidén sabada taun 1888, Hanna bisa bener-bener museurkeun pangrojongna kana ambisi McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|p=92}} Ku modal duit jeung katapisan Hanna dina ngatur organisasi, McKinley lalaunan ngumpulkeun pangrojong sapanjang taun 1895 nepi ka awal 1896. Nalika calon séjén kawas Ketua Reed jeung Sénator William B. Allison ngirimkeun utusan ka luar nagara bagianana pikeun ngumpulkeun sora urang Républik, maranéhna manggihan yén utusan Hanna geus ti heula aya di dinya. Dumasar kana panalungtikan ahli sajarah Stanley Jones ngeunaan pamilihan 1896: {{blockquote|Hal séjén anu sarua tina kampanye Reed jeung Allison nyaéta kagagalan maranéhna nahan arus anu nuju ka McKinley. Sabenerna, duanana kampanye éta geus mundur ti mimiti pisan digubragkeun. Kayakinan anu tenang ti unggal calon yén maranéhna bakal meunang pangrojong ti wilayahna sorangan, geuwat robah jadi... tuduhan pait yén Hanna geus ngalanggar aturan maén ku jalan meunangkeun pangrojong keur McKinley di wilayah maranéhna.{{sfn|Jones|p=103}}}} Hanna, atas ngaran McKinley, ngayakeun riungan jeung para "bandar" (political bosses) Républik di wilayah wétan, kawas Thomas Platt ti New York jeung Sénator Matthew Quay ti Pennsylvania, anu sanggup ngajamin pencalonan McKinley asal aya imbalan mangrupa jangji jabatan. Sanajan kitu, McKinley geus panceg dina pamadeganana hayang meunangkeun pencalonan tanpa aya transaksi (dagang sapi), sarta Hanna narima kana éta putusan.{{sfn|Jones|p=105}} Kalolobaan usaha awal maranéhna difokuskeun ka wilayah Kidul; Hanna nepi ka meuli imah keur pelesir di Georgia kidul dimana McKinley sering datang sarta tepung jeung para inohong Républik di éta wilayah. McKinley butuh 453½ sora utusan (delegasi) pikeun meunangkeun pencalonan; manéhna hasil meunangkeun ampir satengahna ti wilayah Kidul jeung wilayah wates. Platt ngangluh dina catetanana, "[Hanna] geus miboga sora Kidul anu solid méméh urang hudang tina saré."{{sfn|Williams|p=57}} [[File:Coronation of McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Kartun tina majalah ''Puck'' taun 1896, nembongkeun McKinley keur masangkeun makuta pencalonan ka dirina sorangan.]] Quay jeung Platt masih boga harepan pikeun ngahalangan McKinley meunangkeun sora mayoritas dina konvénsi ku jalan ngangkat calon-calon "favorite son" (tokoh lokal) kawas Quay sorangan, Gubernur New York Levi P. Morton, jeung Sénator Illinois Shelby Cullom. Nagara bagian Illinois anu loba sorana jadi médan campuh anu penting, dimana pangrojong McKinley kawas Charles G. Dawes bajoang sangkan para delegasi milih McKinley dina konvénsi nasional di St. Louis. Cullom tétéla teu mampuh nahan kakuatan McKinley; dina konvénsi nagara bagian dina tungtung April, McKinley hasil nyapu bersih sora delegasi Illinois.{{sfn|Jones|pp=119–25}} Urut présidén Harrison ogé dianggap saingan kuat, tapi nalika Harrison méré béja yén manéhna moal nyalonkeun deui, organisasi McKinley geuwat ngawasa Indiana kalayan gancang pisan. Sénator Wyoming, Francis Warren, nulis, "Para pulitikus keur bajoang kacida kuatna ngalawan manéhna, tapi lamun rahayat leutik anu nyarita, McKinley téh mangrupa pilihan ti saeutikna 75% sakabéh pamilih Républik di Amérika".{{sfn|Phillips|pp=71–72}} Nalika konvénsi nasional dimimitian di St. Louis dina 16 Juni 1896, McKinley geus miboga sora mayoritas anu cukup. Éta urut gubernur, anu angget matuh di Canton, nuturkeun jalanna konvénsi tina telepon, sarta hasil ngadéngé sapalih tina biantara Foraker anu nyalonkeun manéhna. Nalika nepi ka gilirannana sora nagara bagian Ohio, éta sora téh langsung ngajadikeun McKinley resmi dicalonkeun. Manéhna ngarayakeunana ku cara nangkeup pamajikan jeung indungna, samentara babaturanana kalaluar ti imah pikeun nyanghareupan balaréa anu geus mimiti kumpul. Peuting éta, rébu-rébu jalma datang ti Canton jeung sabudeureunana pikeun ngadéngékeun McKinley biantara ti buruan imahna. Konvénsi ogé milih Garret Hobart ti New Jersey salaku calon wakil présidén, pilihan anu saenyana mah ditangtukeun ku Hanna. Hobart téh saurang ahli hukum sarta pangusaha jegud anu teu pati kasohor, tapi sakumaha ceuk Herbert Croly, "sanajan manéhna teu pati méré kakuatan tambahan kana éta pasangan, manéhna ogé henteu ngaleutikan kakuatanana".{{sfn|Horner|pp=159–62}}{{sfn|Williams|p=59}} ===Kampanye pamilihan umum=== [[File:McKinley straddle.jpg|thumb|left|Méméh konvénsi 1896, McKinley nyoba nyokot jalan tengah dina urusan mata uang. Kartun William Allen Rogers nembongkeun McKinley keur "tumpak pager" (bingung milih) antara emas jeung pérak.]] Méméh konvénsi Républik, McKinley téh siga "straddle bug" (jalma nu cangcaya) dina urusan mata uang, leuwih milih posisi tengah saperti bimetalismeu (maké emas jeung pérak) dumasar perjangjian internasional. Dina poéan pamungkas méméh konvénsi, McKinley mutuskeun—sanggeus ngadéngé masukan ti para pulitikus jeung pangusaha—yén parténa kudu ngadukung standar emas, sanajan tetep muka lolongkrang pikeun bimetalismeu mun aya gawé bareng jeung nagara séjén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=52, 81–82}} Ieu putusan ngabalukarkeun sababaraha utusan ti wilayah kulon, anu dipingpin ku Sénator Henry M. Teller, milih kaluar (walk out) tina konvénsi. Sanajan kitu, pacogrégan di jero Républik mah leutik kénéh dibandingkeun jeung Parté Démokrat.{{sfn|Cherny|pp=55–56}}{{sfn|Jones|p=177}} Kaayaan ékonomi anu keur werit nambahan kakuatan pikeun pihak anu ngadukung pérak bébas (free silver). Ieu pasualan misahkeun Parté Démokrat kalayan pait pisan; Présidén Cleveland panceg ngadukung standar emas, tapi beuki loba urang Démokrat di pilemburan, utamana di Kidul jeung Kulon, anu mikahayang pérak.{{sfn|Gould|pp=10–11}} Kaum pérak hasil ngawasa konvénsi Démokrat sarta milih [[William Jennings Bryan]] jadi calon présidén; manéhna hasil ngahudang sumanget utusan ku biantara "Cross of Gold". Radikalna pamadegan ékonomi Bryan ngajadikeun para bankir reuwas—maranéhna nyangka program Bryan bakal ngabangkrutkeun pausahaan karéta api sarta ngaruksak ékonomi. Hanna tuluy ménta pangrojong ti para pangusaha pikeun stratégi kameunanganana, sarta maranéhna méré bantuan $3,5 juta pikeun nyéwa juru biantara sarta nyitak leuwih ti 200 juta pamflét anu ngadukung posisi Républik.{{sfn|Leech|pp=85–87}} {{listen | filename = William McKinley campaign speech 1896.ogg | title = McKinley biantara ti buruan imahna | description = Rekaman sajarah William McKinley. Bagian pamungkas (ti menit 5:40) eusina cuplikan biantara kampanye taun 1896. }} Kampanye Bryan mah diukur ngan miboga modal paling loba $500,000. Ku modal kamonésan biantara sarta tanaga anu ngora kénéh, Bryan mutuskeun pikeun ngayakeun tur kampanye maké karéta api ka sakuliah nagara kalayan skala anu can aya tandingna.{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} Hanna ngajurung McKinley sangkan nandingan éta tur, tapi McKinley nolak alatan ngarasa Bryan leuwih tapis dina biantara panggung: "Kuring mah mending masang trapeze (parabot sirkus) di buruan hareup sarta tanding jeung atlit profésional batan kudu indit biantara nandingan Bryan. Kuring mah kudu ''mikir'' heula mun biantara."{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} Tibatan manéhna anu datang ka rahayat, McKinley milih cicing di imahna di Canton sarta ngantep rahayat anu datang ka manéhna. Strategi "Front Porch Campaign" (Kampanye Buruan Imah) ieu jagana jadi legenda dina sajarah pulitik Amérika.{{sfn|Williams|pp=130–31}} [[File:Flower delegation.jpg|thumb|left|William jeung Ida McKinley poto bareng jeung rombongan "Flower Delegation" ti Oil City, Pennsylvania, di hareupeun imahna.]] McKinley narima datangna rahayat unggal poé iwal poé Minggu, narima rombongan delegasi tina téras (buruan) hareup imahna.{{sfn|Leech|pp=88–89}} Pausahaan karéta api méré potongan harga murah pikeun para pangunjung—nepi ka koran anu pro-pérak, ''Cleveland Plain Dealer'', nyawad yén indit ka Canton téh geus dijadikeun "leuwih murah batan cicing di imah".{{sfn|Harpine|p=52}} Delegasi marawai ti stasion karéta api nuju ka imah McKinley di North Market Street. Di dinya, maranéhna kumpul hareupeun téras—malah aya anu rerencepan nyeték kai téras keur kenang-kenangan—nalika McKinley biantara. Kabéh biantara McKinley disusun kalayan taliti pisan sangkan teu aya omongan anu salah; malah omongan delegasi ogé kudu disatujuan heula ku McKinley.{{sfn|Williams|pp=131, 226}} [[File:Man of Mark.png|thumb|right|upright|Kartun Homer Davenport taun 1896 anu nembongkeun McKinley salaku "bonéka" Mark Hanna.]] Koran-koran Démokrat lolobana nolak ngadukung Bryan, iwal ''New York Journal'' milik William Randolph Hearst. Dina laporan anu beurat sabeulah sarta kartun seukeut ti Homer Davenport, Hanna digambarkeun jahat salaku inohong "plutokrat" anu nincak kaum buruh.{{sfn|Jones|pp=176–77}} McKinley sorangan digambarkeun salaku budak leutik anu gampang diatur ku pangusaha gedé. Nepi ka ayeuna, ieu gambaran masih mangaruhan pandangan jalma ka Hanna jeung McKinley.{{sfn|Horner|pp=272, 318}} McKinley mimitina nyangka yén pasualaan pajeg bakal jadi pangbeuratna, tapi tétéla pasualaan pérak jeung emas anu ngawasa kampanye.{{sfn|Morgan|p=170}} Médan perang utama aya di Midwest—sabab wilayah Kidul jeung Kulon geus pasti milih Bryan.{{sfn|Kazin|p=68}} Nalika nagara bagian Maine jeung Vermont ngadukung McKinley dina Séptémber, geus kaciri yén pangrojong pikeun pérak mimiti nyirorot. Dina 3 Nopémber 1896, McKinley unggul mutlak di wilayah Northeast sarta Midwest kalayan sora 51%.{{sfn|Kazin|pp=76–77}} Bryan ngan fokus kana pasualaan pérak sarta teu bisa narik ati kaum buruh di kota-kota gedé; ampir sakabéh kota gedé (populasi luhureun 100.000) milih McKinley, iwal ti Denver, Colorado.{{sfn|Kazin|pp=76–77}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1896.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora Electoral College 1896]] Dina Januari 1898, Spanyol jangji bakal méré sababaraha kalongsoran (konsési) ka para pamberontak, tapi nalika konsul Amérika [[Fitzhugh Lee]] ngalaporkeun ayana karusuhan di [[Havana]], McKinley sapuk pikeun ngirimkeun kapal perang [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|USS ''Maine'']].{{sfn|Gould|pp=71–72}} Dina 15 Pébruari, kapal ''Maine'' bitu sarta tilelep nepi ka niwaskeun 266 urang prajurit.{{sfn|Gould|p=74}} Perhatian masarakat langsung museur kana éta krisis sarta miboga kacindekan yén saha waé anu masang bomna, Spanyol geus kaleungitan kadali ka Kuba. McKinley keukeuh yén pangadilan militer ([[Naval Board of Inquiry]]) kudu nangtukeun heula naha éta bitu téh alatan kacilakaan atawa lain.{{sfn|Leech|pp=171–72}} Badami jeung Spanyol terus lumaku nalika pangadilan mariksa bukti-bukti, tapi dina 20 Maret, pangadilan mutuskeun yén ''Maine'' téh dibitukeun ku ranjau jero cai.{{sfnm|1a=Leech|1p=173|2a=Gould|2pp=78–79}} Nalika desekan perang beuki kuat di Kongrés, McKinley terus nyoba badami pikeun kamerdékaan Kuba.{{sfn|Gould|pp=79–81}} Spanyol nolak usulan McKinley, sarta dina 11 April, McKinley masrahkeun ieu pasualan ka Kongrés. Manéhna teu ménta perang, tapi Kongrés nyokot putusan sarta ngumumkeun perang dina 20 April, kalayan tambahan [[Teller Amendment]] anu negeskeun yén Amérika teu boga niat pikeun nyangking (aneksasi) Kuba.{{sfn|Gould|pp=86–87}} Ahli sajarah Nick Kapur boga pamanggih yén léngkah McKinley téh dumasar kana ajén-inajén badami, sipat pasifis, kamanusaan, sarta kadali diri anu jalu (manly), lain alatan desekan ti luar.<ref>Nick Kapur, "William McKinley's Values and the Origins of the Spanish‐American War: A Reinterpretation." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 41.1 (2011): 18–38.</ref> Mekarna telegraf jeung telepon méré lolongkrang keur McKinley pikeun leuwih jero ngatur jalanna perang poé demi poé batan présidén-présidén saméméhna, sarta manéhna ngagunakeun éta téknologi anyar pikeun ngarahkeun gerakan angkatan darat jeung laut sakumaha mampuhna.{{sfn|Gould|pp=91–93}} McKinley ngarasa Alger kurang mampuh jadi Sekretaris Perang, sarta manéhna ogé kurang cocog jeung panglima luhur Angkatan Darat, [[Nelson A. Miles]].{{sfn|Gould|pp=102–03}} Ku jalan naliwangkeun maranéhna, manéhna ménta nasehat stratégi ti Jenderal John Schofield sarta Adjudan Jenderal Henry Clarke Corbin.{{sfn|Gould|pp=102–03}} Ieu perang ogé mawa parobahan dina kabinét McKinley, nalika présidén narima pangunduran diri Sherman salaku Sekretaris Nagara. [[William R. Day]] satuju pikeun ngagentos samentara nepi ka perang réngsé.{{sfnm|1a=Gould|1p=94|2a=Leech|2p=191}} Dina waktu dua minggu, angkatan laut meunangkeun kameunangan munggaranana nalika Komodor [[George Dewey]] ngancurkeun armada Spanyol dina [[Battle of Manila Bay]] di Filipina.{{sfn|Leech|pp=203–07}} Kameunangan mutlak Dewey ieu ngalegaan wengkuan perang anu tadina museur di Karibia jadi nangtukeun nasib sakabéh jajahan Spanyol di Pasifik.{{sfn|Gould|p=96}} Bulan saterusna, McKinley nambahan jumlah [[Eighth Army Corps (Spanish-American War)|pasukan anu dikirim ka Filipina]] sarta méré kawenang ka Komandan Mayor Jenderal Wesley Merritt pikeun nyusun sistem hukum jeung pajeg—kabutuhan pikeun penjajahan jangka panjang.{{sfn|Gould|pp=97–98}} Nalika pasukan nepi di Filipina dina tungtung Juni 1898, McKinley geus mutuskeun yén Spanyol kudu masrahkeun éta kapuloan ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Gould|p=101}} Sanajan manéhna ngaku kabuka kana sagala pamadegan, manéhna yakin yén sajalan jeung majuna perang, masarakat bakal nungtut sangkan éta kapuloan dicepeng salaku hadiah perang.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=467–68}} Samentara éta, di médan perang Karibia, pasukan badag anu diwangun ku tantara tetep jeung sukarelawan kumpul deukeut Tampa, Florida, pikeun nyerang Kuba.{{sfn|Leech|pp=214–15}} Sabada sababaraha kali nyangsang, angkatan darat anu dipingpin ku Mayor Jenderal William Rufus Shafter badarat deukeut [[Santiago de Cuba]] dina 22 Juni.{{sfn|Gould|pp=107–09}} Pasukan Shafter campuh jeung kakuatan Spanyol dina 2 Juli dina [[Battle of San Juan Hill]].{{sfn|Leech|pp=249–52}} Dina perang anu ragot sapoé jeput, pasukan Amérika hasil unggul, sanajan dua pihakna kudu kaleungitan loba korban.{{sfn|Gould|pp=109–110}} Poé saterusna, armada Karibia Spanyol anu nyumput di palabuan Santiago nyoba kabur ka laut leupas tapi diancurkeun ku Armada Atlantik Kalér dina [[Battle of Santiago de Cuba|perang laut pangbadagna di éta mangsa]].{{sfn|Leech|pp=253–58}} Shafter ngepung kota Santiago, anu ahirna nyerah dina 17 Juli, ngajadikeun Kuba sacara éféktif aya dina kadali Amérika.{{sfn|Gould|pp=110–12}} McKinley jeung Miles ogé maréntahkeun serangan ka [[Puerto Rico]], anu ampir taya perlawanan nalika pasukan badarat dina bulan Juli.{{sfn|Gould|pp=110–12}} Jauh na jarak ti nagara asal sarta hancurna angkatan laut Spanyol ngajadikeun maranéhna teu bisa ngirim deui bantuan, sahingga pamaréntah Spanyol mimiti néangan jalan pikeun mungkas peperangan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=112–13}} ===Daméy sarta nambahanana wilayah=== [[File:Jules Cambon signs Treaty of Paris, 1899.JPG|thumb|left|Nandatanganan [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Perjangjian Paris]]]] Kabinét McKinley sapuk jeung manéhna yén Spanyol kudu miang ti Kuba jeung Puerto Rico, tapi maranéhna béda pamadegan ngeunaan Filipina, aya anu hayang nyangking (aneksasi) sakabéh éta kapuloan sarta aya ogé anu ngan hayang miboga pangkalan angkatan laut di éta wilayah.{{sfn|Gould|p=117}} Sanajan sora rahayat kacirina leuwih condong kana nyangking Filipina, sababaraha inohong pulitik kasohor—kaasup urang Démokrat kawas Bryan jeung Cleveland, sarta Liga Anti-Impérialis Amérika anu anyar dibentuk—nembongkeun panolakanana.{{sfn|Gould|p=116}} McKinley ngusulkeun pikeun muka badami jeung Spanyol dumasar kana dibébaskeunana Kuba sarta dicangkingna Puerto Rico, samentara status pamungkas Filipina bakal dibadamikeun deui saterusna.{{sfn|Gould|pp=118–19}} Manéhna panceg dina éta tungtutan sanajan kaayaan militer di Kuba mimiti nyirorot nalika tantara Amérika ditarajang ku kasakit [[yellow fever]] (muriang konéng).{{sfn|Gould|pp=118–19}} Spanyol ahirna satuju kana gencatan senjata dumasar kana éta pasaratan dina 12 Agustus, sarta badami perjangjian dimimitian di Paris dina bulan Séptémber 1898.{{sfn|Gould|pp=120–21}} Éta sawala lumangsung nepi ka 18 Désémber, nalika [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Perjangjian Paris]] ditandatanganan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=142–43}} Amérika Sarikat meunangkeun Puerto Rico, Filipina, sarta pulo [[Guam]], samentara Spanyol masrahkeun hakna kana Kuba; salaku imbalanana, Amérika Sarikat sapuk pikeun mayar $20 juta ka Spanyol.{{sfn|Gould|pp=142–43}} McKinley rada hésé ngayakinkeun Sénat sangkan nyaluyuan éta perjangjian ku dua per tilu sora, tapi ku jalan lobi-lobi manéhna jeung Wakil Présidén Hobart, ahirna hasil, sarta Sénat méré sora satuju dina 6 Pébruari 1899 kalayan babandingan sora 57 lawan 27.{{sfnm|1a=Gould|1pp=144–50|2a=Morgan|2p=320}} ====Hawaii==== [[File:Annexation Here to Stay (edit).jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|[[Newlands Resolution|Panyangkingan]] [[Republic of Hawaii]] dina taun 1898]] Nalika perang lumangsung, McKinley ogé narékahan pikeun nyangking [[Republic of Hawaii]]. Éta républik anyar, anu dikawasa ku kapentingan bisnis, geus [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|ngaléngsérkeun Ratu]] dina taun 1893 nalika sang Ratu nyoba mulikkeun deui kakawasaan monarki ku jalan ngabatalkeun konstitusi bayonét.{{sfn|Gould|p=48}} Aya rojongan kuat ti Amérika pikeun nyangking éta wilayah, sarta kabutuhan pangkalan di Pasifik dina mangsa perang jadi beuki tétéla sabada Perang Manila.{{sfn|Gould|pp=49–50}} McKinley mimiti ngajabat salaku pangrojong panyangkingan Hawaii, sarta ngalobi Kongrés sangkan gura-giru meta, bari méré gorowok pangéling yén lamun cicing baé bakal nimbulkeun révolusi ti pihak karajaan atawa dicangking ku Jepang.{{sfn|Gould|pp=49–50}} Kusabab geus neguh bakal hésé meunangkeun dua per tilu sora Sénat pikeun nyatujuan perjangjian panyangkingan, McKinley malah ngarojong tarekah utusan Démokrat [[Francis G. Newlands]] ti Nevada pikeun ngahontal éta hasil ku jalan [[joint resolution]] (résolusi babarengan) ti dua déwan di Kongrés.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Hasilna, [[Newlands Resolution]] ditarima ku sora mayoritas di dua déwan, sarta McKinley nandatanganan éta aturan dina 8 Juli 1898.{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Panulis biografi McKinley, H. Wayne Morgan, nyatet, "McKinley téh mangrupa sumanget anu ngarahkeun panyangkingan Hawaii, nembongkeun... kapancegan dina narékahanana"; présidén nyarita ka Cortelyou, "Urang butuh Hawaii sakumaha butuhna, malah leuwih butuh batan urang butuh California. Ieu téh mangrupa [[manifest destiny]] (takdir anu nyata)."{{sfn|Morgan|pp=223, 225}} ===Ngalegaan pangaruh ka mancanagara=== ====Panto kabuka di Cina==== Méméh badami daméy jeung Spanyol dimimitian, McKinley ménta Kongrés pikeun ngawangun komisi anu mariksa lolongkrang dagang di Asia sarta ngusung kabijakan "[[Open Door Policy]]" (Kawijakan Panto Kabuka), dimana sakabéh nagara bisa kalayan bébas dagang jeung Cina sarta taya sahiji nagara anu meunang ngarempak kadaulatan wilayah éta nagara.{{sfn|Gould|p=201}} [[File:Siege of Peking, Boxer Rebellion.jpg|thumb|left|Prajurit Amérika naék kana témbok Beijing pikeun méré bantuan nalika dikepungna utusan internasional, Agustus 1900]] Para misionaris Amérika kaancam pati nalika [[Boxer Rebellion]] ngancam urang deungeun di Cina.{{sfn|Gould|pp=220–22}} Urang Amérika jeung urang kulon séjénna di [[Peking]] dikepung, sarta ku jalan gawé bareng jeung kakuatan kulon séjénna, McKinley maréntahkeun 5.000 pasukan ka éta kota dina Juni 1900 dina misi [[China Relief Expedition]].{{sfn|Lafeber|p=714}} Urang kulon hasil disalametkeun dina bulan saterusna, tapi sababaraha urang Démokrat di Kongrés protés kana tindakan McKinley anu ngirimkeun pasukan tanpa badami heula jeung legislatif.{{sfn|Gould|pp=220–22}} Tindakan McKinley ieu jadi conto (présidén) anu dituturkeun ku lolobana panerusna dina ngagunakeun kakawasaan mandiri pikeun ngatur militer.{{sfn|Lafeber|p=714}} Sabada éta pemberontakan réngsé, Amérika Sarikat negeskeun deui komitmenna kana kawijakan Panto Kabuka, anu jadi dadasar kawijakan Amérika ka Cina.{{sfn|Gould|p=233}} ====Terusan Panama==== McKinley sareng [[John Hay|Hay]] ngayakeun badami sareng Inggris ngeunaan rencana pangwangunan terusan motong Amérika Tengah. Perjangjian Clayton–Bulwer taun 1850 ngalarang kadua nagara miboga kadali éksklusif kana éta terusan. Perang nu geus liwat nembongkeun héséna ngatur angkatan laut di dua samudra nalika kapal-kapal kudu ngurilingan Amérika Kidul pikeun nepi ka Pasifik.{{sfn|Gould|pp=196–98}} Ayeuna, kalayan kapentingan bisnis jeung militer Amérika anu beuki kuat di Asia, éta terusan téh karasa beuki penting, sarta McKinley ngadesek sangkan éta perjangjian dirobah.{{sfn|Gould|pp=196–98}} Hay jeung duta badag Inggris, [[Julian Pauncefote, 1st Baron Pauncefote|Julian Pauncefote]], sapuk yén Amérika Sarikat bisa ngatur éta terusan asal dibuka pikeun sakabéh kapal jeung teu dijadikeun bénténg militer.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} McKinley satuju, tapi Sénat nolak sarta nungtut sangkan Amérika diidinan ngawangun bénténg di dinya.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Hay ngarasa éra ku éta panolakan sarta ménta mundur, tapi McKinley nolak sarta maréntahkeun manéhna pikeun neruskeun badami nepi ka tujuanna kahontal.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Usahana hasil, perjangjian anyar disusun sarta disatujuan, tapi éta kajadian sabada McKinley dimaotkeun dina taun 1901.{{sfn|McCullough|pp=256–59}} Hasilna di mangsa Roosevelt nyaéta [[Panama Canal|Terusan Panama]]. ===Pajeg jeung bimetalismeu=== [[File:McKinley Prosperity.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster pamilihan taun 1900 kalayan téma McKinley geus mulikkeun kamakmuran Amérika]] McKinley geus kakoncara di Kongrés alatan ngadukung pajeg (tarif) luhur pikeun ngajaga bisnis Amérika sarta buruh pabrik. Kalayan kontrol Républik di Kongrés, disahkeun [[Dingley Act]] anu naékeun tarif keur wol, gula, jeung barang méwah.{{sfn|Gould|pp=44–45}} McKinley nandatanganan éta aturan dina 24 Juli 1897.<ref name="ucsb">{{cite web | title=William McKinley Event Timeline | website=The American Presidency Project | url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/william-mckinley-event-timeline | access-date=May 24, 2024}}</ref> Amérika ogé nyoba badami jeung Inggris ngeunaan [[bimetallism|bimetalismeu]] (pamakéan emas jeung pérak). Perdana Menteri Inggris [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] mimitina némbokeun minat, tapi pamaréntahan India (jajahan Inggris) nolak éta usulan.{{sfn|Gould|pp=45–46}} Alatan éta usaha gagal, McKinley ahirna ninggalkeun pérak sarta milih standar emas.{{sfn|Morgan|pp=217–18}} Sumanget rahayat pikeun "pérak bébas" ogé ngurangan sabab ékonomi mimiti maju sarta lobana papanggihan emas anyar di Klondike sarta Australia.{{sfnm|1a=Nichols||1p=586|2a=Gould||2p=46}} Dina 14 Maret 1900, McKinley nandatanganan [[Gold Standard Act]] (Undang-Undang Standar Emas) maké pulpén emas.{{sfn|Gould|pp=169–71}} ===Hak sipil=== [[File:McKinley at Atlanta.jpg|thumb|right|McKinley (katuhu tengah) bareng jeung Gubernur Georgia Allen D. Candler sarta Jenderal Shafter dina parade di Atlanta, 15 Désémber 1898]] Sabada McKinley kapilih dina 1896, urang kulit hideung miboga harepan aya kamajuan dina kasaruaan hak. McKinley kungsi nyarita ngalawan tindakan [[lynching]] (hakiman massa) nalika jadi gubernur.{{sfn|Gould|pp=153–54}} Sanajan kitu, McKinley leuwih mentingkeun ngahijikeun deui wilayah-wilayah Amérika (rekonsiliasi), sahingga kawijakanana dianggap nguciwakeun pikeun urang kulit hideung.{{sfn|Gould|pp=153–54}} Tindakan McKinley kana kekerasan rasial dianggap minim pisan. Nalika aya pajabat pos kulit hideung di Georgia (1897) jeung South Carolina (1898) anu diserang, McKinley teu ngaluarkeun pernyataan nanaon.{{sfn|Gould|p=155}} Kitu ogé nalika kajadian [[Wilmington insurrection of 1898|pemberontakan Wilmington]], dimana sakelompok jalma anu percaya kaunggulan kulit bodas (white supremacists) ngaléngsérkeun pamaréntahan anu sah, McKinley nolak ngirimkeun pasukan pikeun ngajaga warga kulit hideung.<ref name=Time>{{cite news|title=The 1898 Wilmington Massacre Is an Essential Lesson in How State Violence Has Targeted Black Americans|url=https://time.com/5861644/1898-wilmington-massacre-essential-lesson-state-violence/|date=July 1, 2020|newspaper=Time Magazine}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916115308/https://time.com/5861644/1898-wilmington-massacre-essential-lesson-state-violence/ |date=September 16, 2021 }}</ref> Nurutkeun ahli sajarah Clarence A. Bacote, méméh Perang Amérika-Spanyol, urang kulit hideung nganggap McKinley salaku "sobat panghadéna".{{sfn|Bacote|p=234}} McKinley kungsi ngadatangan [[Tuskegee Institute]] sarta tokoh pendidikan kulit hideung [[Booker T. Washington]].{{sfn|Phillips|pp=156–57}} Sanajan kitu, dina tur ka wilayah Kidul, manéhna teu nyinggung pisan ngeunaan kakerasan ras. Ahli sajarah Gould nyimpulkeun yén McKinley kurang miboga tetempoan (visi) pikeun ngaluhuran prasangka dina zamanna pikeun masa depan Amérika anu leuwih hadé.{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=159–60|2a=Phillips||2p=149}} ===Pamilihan 1900=== {{Main|1900 United States presidential election}} [[File:The Administration's Promises Have Been Kept.jpg|thumb|McKinley kampanye dumasar kana catetan kasuksésan ékonomi sarta kameunangan perang dina taun 1900, sahingga gampang kapilih deui ngéléhkeun William Jennings Bryan.]] Urang Républik umumna suksés dina pamilihan nagara bagian jeung lokal di sakuliah nagara dina taun 1899, sarta McKinley ngarasa optimis ngeunaan lolongkrangna pikeun kapilih deui dina taun 1900.{{sfn|Gould|pp=207–08}} Popularitas McKinley dina mangsa jabatan kahiji ngajamin manéhna dicalonkeun deui pikeun kadua kalina.{{sfn|Gould|pp=213–14}} Hiji-hijina pananya pikeun pasangan Républik nyaéta ngeunaan calon wakil présidén; McKinley butuh batur sapaan anyar sabab Hobart tilar dunya dina tungtung taun 1899.{{sfn|Gould|pp=215–17}} McKinley mimitina milih [[Elihu Root]], tapi manéhna ngarasa Root téh keur migawé pancén anu kacida hadéna di Departemén Perang sahingga lebar lamun kudu dipindahkeun.{{sfn|Gould|pp=215–17}} Manéhna mertimbangkeun calon séjén kawas Allison, tapi taya nu bisa nandingan kakuatan béntang anyar Parté Républik, [[Theodore Roosevelt]].<ref>{{sfn|Phillips|pp=120–22}}</ref> Roosevelt, saurang pahlawan Perang Kuba anu keur ngajabat Gubernur New York, dipikaresep ku réa jalma pikeun jadi wakil présidén, sanajan Mark Hanna kurang satuju sabab nganggap Roosevelt téh jalma anu gurunggusuh (impulsif).{{sfn|Horner|pp=260–66}} Nalika konvénsi Républik dimimitian di Philadelphia dina bulan Juni, McKinley negeskeun yén pilihan wakil présidén téh dipasrahkeun sagemblengna ka konvénsi.{{sfn|Gould|p=218}} Dina 21 Juni, McKinley dicalonkeun deui kalayan sora buleud, sarta kalayan rasa beurat ti Hanna, Roosevelt dicalonkeun jadi wakil présidén dina sora kahiji.{{sfn|Leech|pp=540–42}} Démokrat, dina konvénsina di Kansas City, nyalonkeun deui William Jennings Bryan, sahingga jadi tanding ulang ti kajadian taun 1896.{{sfn|Gould|pp=219–20}} Sarat calon mah angget sarua, tapi pasualaan kampanye geus robah: "pérak bébas" masih jadi bahan sawala, tapi urang Républik leuwih museur kana kameunangan perang sarta kamakmuran ékonomi di jero nagri.{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=226–27|2a=Leech||2pp=543–44}} Urang Démokrat nyoba nyerang McKinley ku jalan ngagambarkeun manéhna salaku badéga modal jeung pausahaan badag (trusts).{{sfnm|1a=Gould||1pp=227–28|2a=Leech||2pp=544–46}} Bryan ngayakeun tur biantara ka sakuliah nagara, samentara McKinley angget matuh di imah sarta ngan sakali biantara pikeun narima pencalonanana.{{sfn|Leech|pp=549–57}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1900, McKinley hasil meunangkeun kameunangan pangbadagna pikeun urang Républik saprak taun 1872, malah manéhna unggul di nagara bagian asal Bryan, Nebraska.{{sfn|Leech|p=559}} ===Mangsa jabatan kadua=== [[File:President William McKinley Taking The Oath (1901) by Thomas A. Edison.webm|thumb|Pelantikan kadua McKinley anu dirékam ku Thomas Edison. Ieu téh sumpah jabatan présidén munggaran anu dirékam dina sajarah AS.]] Teu lila sabada pelantikan kaduana dina 4 Maret 1901, William jeung Ida McKinley ngayakeun tur genep minggu ka sakuliah nagara. Maranéhna sakuduna indit ka wilayah Kidul nepi ka basisir Pasifik, sarta ditungtungan ku kunjungan ka [[Pan-American Exposition]] di Buffalo, New York, dina 13 Juni 1901.{{sfn|Miller|pp=289–90}} Sanajan kitu, Sang Ibu Nagara (Ida) gering di California, sahingga McKinley kudu ngabatalkeun sababaraha acara biantara sarta nunda kunjungan ka paméran di Buffalo nepi ka bulan Séptémber.{{sfn|Gould|pp=247–49}} Manéhna méakkeun sabulan di Washington sarta dua bulan di Canton méméh indit ka Buffalo.{sfn|Gould|pp=247–49}} ==Dirogahala== {{Main|Assassination of William McKinley}} [[File:McKinley last photo.jpg|thumb|McKinley nuju ka [[Temple of Music]] dina 6 Séptémber 1901, sakedap méméh kajadian némbak.]] Sanajan McKinley resep tepung jeung rahayat, Cortelyou (sekretarisna) ngarasa hariwang ku kaamanan présidén alatan loba kajadian rajapati ku kaum anarkis di Éropa.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=294}}</ref> Dina 5 Séptémber, McKinley méré biantara di hareupeun 50.000 jalma di tempat paméran, anu eusina ngajurung kana perjangjian dagang mancanagara. Ieu biantara téh sabenerna jadi dadasar rancana manéhna pikeun mangsa jabatan kadua.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=298–300}}{{sfn|Gould|pp=250–51}}</ref> Saurang lalaki dina éta balaréa, [[Leon Czolgosz]], boga niat jahat hayang maéhan McKinley. Czolgosz, anu kabaud ku paham anarkismeu, nunggu kasempetan di wangunan [[Temple of Music]] dina poé saterusna nalika présidén keur narima rahayat. Czolgosz nyumputkeun pestolna dina saputangan, sarta nalika gilirannana salaman, manéhna némbak McKinley dua kali dina bagian beuteung tina jarak deukeut.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=300–01}}</ref> Dina kaayaan kitu, McKinley masih kénéh ménta ka ajudanna sangkan méré nyaho éta béja kalayan ati-ati ka pamajikanana, sarta ménta sangkan balaréa ulah neunggeulan Czolgosz.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=301–02}}</ref> McKinley dibawa ka imah John G. Milburn. Dina sababaraha poé awal, kaayaan McKinley kacirina mimiti hadé sahingga para menteri sarta Wakil Présidén Roosevelt bubar ti Buffalo.{{sfnm|1a=Miller||1pp=315–17|2a=Morgan||2pp=401–02}} Nanging, dina isuk-isuk 13 Séptémber, kaayaanana ngadadak drop. Anu teu kanyahoan ku dokter harita, jaringan sakuliah tatu beuteungna geus ruksak sarta jadi racun kana getihna (gangrene).<ref>{{sfn|Leech|p=600}}</ref> Nalika peuting, McKinley geus sadar yén ajjalna geus deukeut, manéhna ngomong, "Geus taya gunana, Juragan. Jigana urang kudu ngadoa."<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=318–319}}</ref> Pamajikanana, Ida, ceurik bari ngomong hayang milu maot, tapi McKinley ngajawab kalayan tenang, "Urang kabéh ogé bakal indit. Kersaning Gusti anu bakal kajadian, lain kahayang urang."<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=320}}</ref> Dina jam 02:15 subuh, 14 Séptémber 1901, McKinley tilar dunya. Theodore Roosevelt rurusuhan mulang ka Buffalo sarta disumpah jadi présidén. Czolgosz ahirna dihukum pati maké korsi listrik dina 29 Oktober 1901.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|pp=321–30}}</ref> ==Pamakaman, tugu peringatan, sarta warisan== ===Pamakaman sarta tempat reureuh pamungkas=== [[File:President McKinley's funeral, 1901.webm|thumb|Iring-iringan layon McKinley dina 17 Séptémber 1901.]] Nurutkeun Gould, "Sakuliah nagara ngarasa sedih anu kacida nalika ngadéngé béja pupusna McKinley."<ref>{{sfn|Gould|p=252}}</ref> Layon McKinley mimitina disimpen di East Room di Gedong Bodas, tuluy dibawa ka Capitol méméh dibawa ka Canton maké karéta api. Kira-kira 100.000 urang ngantri dina hujan pikeun méré panghurmatan pamungkas ka présidénna.<ref>{{sfn|Morgan|pp=402–03}}</ref> Loba nu nyangka Ida McKinley moal kuat lila ditinggal maot ku salaki anu dipikacintana. Ida mémang teu milu kana upacara di Washington alatan teu kiat, tapi manéhna matuh di Canton sapanjang sésa hirupna bari terus nganjang ka tempat neundeun layon McKinley.<ref>{{sfn|Leech|p=602}}</ref> Ida tilar dunya dina umur 59 taun, 26 Méi 1907, ngan sababaraha bulan méméh tugu peringatan [[McKinley National Memorial]] réngsé diwangun.<ref>{{sfn|Miller|p=348}}</ref> William jeung Ida McKinley ayeuna dimakamkeun babarengan jeung dua putri maranéhna dina tugu marmer anu agréng di luhur pasir di kota Canton.{{sfnm|1a=McElroy||1pp=189–93|2a=Morgan||2p=406}} ===Tugu peringatan séjénna=== Salian ti makamna di Canton, loba kénéh tugu séjén pikeun ngahormat McKinley. Tugu William McKinley nangtung di hareupeun Gedong Nagara Ohio di Columbus, sarta patung marmer McKinley anu badag aya di tempat weton (gumelarna) di Niles. Aya dua puluh sakola di Ohio sarta loba deui sakola di sakuliah Amérika anu maké ngaran McKinley.<ref>{{sfn|McElroy|p=189}}</ref> Kurang leuwih sajuta dollar dikumpulkeun ti masarakat sarta dana publik pikeun ngawangun tugu-tugu peringatan dina taun mimitina sabada manéhna pupus.<ref>{{sfn|Olcott|p=388}}</ref> Kevin Phillips, nu nulis biografina, nyebutkeun yén lobana tugu peringatan di Ohio nembongkeun harepan urang Ohio harita yén McKinley bakal dijajarkeun jeung présidén-présidén agung Amérika.{{sfn|Phillips|p=161}} Patung McKinley bisa kapanggih di leuwih ti dua belas nagara bagian. Dina taun 1896, saurang tukang neangan emas méré ngaran "Mount McKinley" pikeun [[Denali]], gunung pangluhurna di Amérika Kalér. Ngaran éta gunung dibalikkeun deui jadi Denali ku pamaréntah dina taun 1975 sarta 2015.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Hirschfeld Davis|first1=Julie|title=Mount McKinley Will Be Renamed Denali|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/31/us/mount-mckinley-will-be-renamed-denali.html?smid=fb-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0|website=The New York Times |date=August 30, 2015}}</ref> Nanging, dina 20 Januari 2025, Présidén Donald Trump ngaluarkeun paréntah éksékutif pikeun mulikkeun deui ngaran McKinley kana éta gunung.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Restoring names that honor American greatness|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/restoring-names-that-honor-american-greatness/ |website=White House}}</ref> ===Warisan sarta citra sajarah=== [[File:Harriet Anderson Stubbs Murphy - William McKinley - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi Présidén William McKinley.]] Phillips yakin yén bagian tina warisan McKinley nyaéta jalma-jalma anu aya dina pamaréntahanana anu jagana ngawasaan Parté Républik salila saparapat abad sabada manéhna tilar dunya. Para pajabat ieu kaasup Cortelyou, anu ngajabat dina tilu posisi Kabinét di handapeun Roosevelt, sarta Dawes, anu jadi wakil présidén di handapeun Coolidge. Jalma-jalma anu diangkat ku McKinley séjénna anu jagana jadi inohong utama nyaéta Day, anu diangkat ku Roosevelt ka Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat, sarta William Howard Taft, anu dijadikeun Gubernur Jenderal Filipina ku McKinley sarta saterusna ngagantikeun Roosevelt jadi présidén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=163–64}} H. Wayne Morgan nyatet yén McKinley pupus salaku présidén anu paling dipikaasih dina sajarah.{{sfn|Morgan|p=404}} Nanging, sosok Roosevelt anu ngora sarta pinuh sumanget geuwat narik perhatian masarakat sarta nyieun kenangan ngeunaan McKinley lalaunan laleur. Nepi ka taun 1920, pamaréntahan McKinley ngan dianggap salaku "bubuka anu biasa-biasa baé méméh jagana datang Theodore Roosevelt anu pinuh énergi."{{sfn|Gould|p=252}} Ti mimiti taun 1950-an, McKinley mimiti meunang peunteun anu leuwih hadé, sanajan dina survéy-survéy présidén, manéhna biasana aya di tengah-tengah.{{sfn|Gould|p=252}} Aya kasapukan di antara para ahli sajarah yén kapilihna McKinley nandaan parobahan jaman pulitik Amérika kana mangsa anu leuwih modern sarta pro-industri.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth F. Warren|title=Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior|year=2008|publisher=SAGE|page=211}}</ref> Kevin Phillips boga pamanggih yén peunteun rendah pikeun McKinley téh sabenerna teu pantes, sarta manéhna kudu dijajarkeun sanggeus présidén hébat kawas Washington jeung Lincoln.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=156–57}} Salah sahiji warisan McKinley anu nyata nyaéta jalma-jalma anu diangkat ku manéhna di pamaréntahan jagana jadi inohong penting, kawas William Howard Taft anu ahirna jadi présidén.{{sfn|Phillips|pp=163–64}} Salian ti éta, alatan kajadian rajapati McKinley, Kongrés ahirna mutuskeun yén nangtayungan kasalametan présidén kudu jadi tugas resmi Secret Service Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/how-president-william-mckinleys-assassination-led-modern-secret-service-180964868/|title=How President William McKinley's Assassination Led to the Modern Secret Service|website=Smithsonianmag.com}}</ref> Pasualan anu masih kontrovérsial nyaéta ngeunaan panyalapan wilayah (imperialismeu); iwal ti Filipina anu dibéré kamerdikaan dina taun 1946, Amérika Sarikat masih kénéh nyekel wilayah-wilayah anu dicangking di jaman McKinley.{{sfn|Phillips|p=154}} Ékspansi wilayah taun 1898 mindeng dianggap ku ahli sajarah salaku mimitina "Emperium Amérika".{{sfn|Phillips|p=99}} Morgan ningali yén sawala sajarah ieu mangrupa bagian tina perdebatan ngeunaan naékna Amérika salaku kakuatan dunya; manéhna ngarepkeun yén perdebatan ngeunaan tindakan McKinley bakal terus lumangsung salawasna tanpa aya kacindekan, sarta nyatet yén naon baé penilaian batur, salah sahiji motivasi McKinley téh nyaéta hayang ngarobah kahirupan rahayat Filipina jeung Kuba sangkan leuwih hadé.{{sfn|Morgan|p=468}} Salaku saurang anu boga faham pulitik konservatif,<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Presidential_Performance/EmLZb6uoo78C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Cleveland+saw+conservative+Republican+William+McKinley%E2%80%99s+success+as+a+victory+for+his+own+policies.&pg=PA170&printsec=frontcover Presidential Performance A Comprehensive Review By Max J. Skidmore, 2014, P.170]</ref> McKinley mingpin pamaréntahan anu ngajalankeun kawijakan konservatif boh dina urusan luar nagri, hak sipil, ogé ékonomi. Ngeunaan ékonomi, salah saurang ahli sajarah nyebutkeun yén, "Ngeunaan pipilueun pamaréntah dina ékonomi di jaman McKinley, pendekatanna angget kana faham ''laissez-faire'' (pasar bébas)."<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/American_Conservatism/2dymBgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Concerning+government+intervention+in+the+economy+under+McKinley,+the+approach+remained+decidedly+laissez-faire&pg=PA189&printsec=frontcover American Conservatism History, Theory and Practice By Brian Farmer, 2005, P.189]</ref> Morgan nyindekkeun yén naékna minat masarakat ka McKinley téh mangrupa bagian tina sawala ngeunaan kawijakan luar nagri Amérika anu beuki teges dina sababaraha dékade pamungkas: {{blockquote|McKinley téh inohong utama dina sababaraha kajadian pangpentingna dina sajarah Amérika. Putusan-putusanana mangaruhan kawijakan sarta sikep publik di mangsa hareup. Peunteun para sarjana ka manéhna biasana beuki hadé nalika maranéhna nalungtik lalakon hirupna sacara jero. Malah jalma anu teu sapuk kana kawijakanana ogé ningali McKinley salaku pamingpin anu aktip, tanggung jawab, sarta weruh kana sagala putusan anu dicokotna. Sikepna anu tenang sarta cara gawéna anu rancingeus ngajadikeun manéhna rada jauh tina tetempoan publik. Tapi ayeuna, manéhna geus balik deui ka puseur kajadian, tempat dimana manéhna ngamimitian sagalana.{{sfn|Morgan|p=473}}}} === Galéri tugu peringatan === <gallery widths="200px" heights="200px"> File:McKinley Birthplace Memorial uncirculated dollar (common obverse).jpg |Duit koin emas "McKinley Birthplace Memorial" anu dicitak dina taun 1916 sarta 1917. File:William McKinley Presidential Library & Museum.jpg|[[McKinley National Memorial|Makam McKinley]] di [[Canton, Ohio]]. File:McKinley Memorial Ohio Statehouse.JPG|''[[William McKinley Monument]]'' karya Hermon MacNeil di hareupeun Gedong Nagara Ohio, Columbus. File:McKinley Monument, Buffalo, NY - IMG 3693.JPG|''[[McKinley Monument]]'' karya Alexander Phimister Proctor di hareupeun Balai Kota Buffalo. File:McKinley Monument, Toledo, O. - DPLA - a6478c0228d574a7add483ba5b86bfb8 (page 1) (cropped).jpg|Tugu McKinley di hareupeun Pangadilan Lucas County, [[Toledo, Ohio]]. </gallery> {| style="margin:auto" | [[File:Mckinley stamp issues.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Perangko William McKinley tina citakan taun 1901 sarta 1927.]] | [[File:500 USD note; series of 1934; obverse.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Gambar McKinley dina [[Large denominations of United States currency|duit kertas $500]].]] |} ==Tempo ogé== * [[List of heads of state and government who were assassinated or executed|Daptar kapala nagara anu dimaotkeun]] * [[List of presidents of the United States|Daptar présidén Amérika Sarikat]] * ''[[McKinley at Home, Canton, Ohio]]'' (film taun 1896) == Catetan == {{notelist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} * {{cite book | last = Leech | first = Margaret | year = 1959 | title = In the Days of McKinley | url = https://archive.org/details/indaysofmckinley00leec | url-access = registration | publisher = Harper and Brothers | location = New York | oclc = 456809 | ref = {{sfnRef|Leech}} }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book | last = McCullough | first = David | author-link = David McCullough | year = 1977 | title = The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 | publisher = Touchstone | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-671-24409-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|McCullough}} | title-link = The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914 }} * {{cite book | last = McElroy | first = Richard L. | year = 1996 | title = William McKinley and Our America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyo0000mcel | publisher = Stark County Historical Society | location = Canton, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-9634712-1-5 | ref = {{sfnRef|McElroy}} }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book |title=President McKinley: Architect of the American Century |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentmckinle0000merr |first=Robert W. |last=Merry |author-link=Robert W. Merry |place=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2017 |isbn=9781451625448 }} sajarah populer. * {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Scott | year = 2011 | title = The President and the Assassin | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = 978-1-4000-6752-7 | ref = {{sfnRef|Miller}} | url = https://archive.org/details/presidentassassi00mill }} * {{cite book | last = Morgan | first = H. Wayne | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley and His America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyh0000morg |edition=revised | publisher = The Kent State University Press | location = Kent, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-87338-765-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Morgan}} }} * Morgan, H. Wayne (1969). ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896'', panalungtikan akademis. * Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson (1937). ''A History of the United States since the Civil War''. Volume V: ''1888–1901''. Macmillan. 791 pp. * {{cite book | last = Olcott | first = Charles | author-link = Charles S. Olcott | year = 1916 | title = The Life of William McKinley, 2 vol. | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley02olcogoog | quote = the life of william mckinley olcutt. | access-date = March 23, 2012 | ref = {{sfnRef|Olcott}} }} sumber heubeul tapi detil pisan. * {{cite book | last = Phillips | first = Kevin | author-link = Kevin Phillips (political commentator) | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6953-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Phillips}} | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley00phil }} museur kana sisi pamilih. * {{cite book | last = Pratt | first = Walter F. | year = 1999 | title = The Supreme Court under Edward Douglass White, 1910–1921 | publisher = University of South Carolina Press | location = Columbia, South Carolina | url = https://archive.org/details/supremecourtunde00prat_0 | url-access = registration | isbn = 978-1-57003-309-4 | ref = {{sfnRef|Pratt}} }} * {{cite book |title=The Triumph of William McKinley: Why the Election of 1896 Still Matters |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofwilliam0000rove |first=Karl |last=Rove |author-link=Karl Rove |ref={{sfnRef|Rove}} |place=New York |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781476752952 }} museur kana sisi pamilih. * {{cite book | last = Williams | first = R. Hal | year = 2010 | title = Realigning America: McKinley, Bryan and the Remarkable Election of 1896 | url = https://archive.org/details/realigningameric00unse | publisher = University Press of Kansas | location = Lawrence, Kansas | isbn = 978-0-7006-1721-0 | ref = {{sfnRef|Williams}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Nice | first = David C. |date=September 1984 | title = The Influence of War and Party System Aging on the Ranking of Presidents | journal = The Western Political Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 443–55 | jstor = 448445 | doi = 10.2307/448445 | ref = {{sfnRef|Nice}} }} * {{cite journal | last = Nichols | first = Jeannette P. |date=December 1933 | title = Silver Diplomacy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_1933-12_48_4/page/565 | journal = Political Science Quarterly | volume = 48 | issue = 4 | pages = 565–88 | jstor = 2142930 | doi = 10.2307/2142930 | ref = {{sfnRef|Nichols}} }} * Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish‐American War." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34.1 (2004): 50-61. [https://cooperative-individualism.org/offner-john_mckinley-and-the-spanish-american-war-2004-mar.pdf online] * {{cite journal | last = Rauchway | first = Eric | author-link = Eric Rauchway |date=July 2005 | title = William McKinley and Us | journal = The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 235–53 | jstor = 25144402 | ref = {{sfnRef|Rauchway}} | doi = 10.1017/S1537781400002644 | s2cid = 162552066 }} * {{cite journal | last = Weisenburger | first = Francis P. | date=June 1934 | title = The Time of Mark Hanna's First Acquaintance with McKinley | journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–80 | jstor = 1896406 | doi = 10.2307/1896406 | ref = {{sfnRef|Weisenburger}} }} * {{cite book | last = Phillips | first = Kevin | author-link = Kevin Phillips (political commentator) | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley | publisher = Times Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-8050-6953-2 | ref = {{sfnRef|Phillips}} | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinley00phil }} * {{cite book | last = Morgan | first = H. Wayne | year = 2003 | title = William McKinley and His America | url = https://archive.org/details/williammckinleyh0000morg |edition=revised | publisher = The Kent State University Press | location = Kent, Ohio | isbn = 978-0-87338-765-1 | ref = {{sfnRef|Morgan}} }} {{refend}} ===Disertasi PhD=== Téks lengkep sayogi sacara online ngalangkungan perpustakaan akademik. * Brady, David William. "A Congressional Response to a Stress Situation: Party Voting in the Mckinley Era" (The University of Iowa; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1970. 7023867). * Damiani, Brian Paul. "Advocates of Empire: William Mckinley, The Senate and American Expansion, 1898-1899" (University of Delaware; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1978. 7816908). * Labinski, Nicholas Winter. "A Transitional Moment: William McKinley's Foreign Policy Rhetoric and America's Outward Turn" (University of Kansas; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2017. 10687965). * Matlosz, Gregory. "The Political Symbiosis of Rutherford B. Hayes & William McKinley" (Drew University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2015. 3700842). * Ofek, Hillel. "A Just Peace: Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, and the Moral Basis of American Foreign Policy" (University of Texas at Austin; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing,  2018. 28166006). * Waksmundski, John. "Mckinley Politics and the Changing Attitudes Toward American Labor, 1870-1900" (The Ohio State University; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1972. 7311599). ==Tumbu luar== {{Sister project links |wikt=no |commons=William McKinley |b=no |n=no |q=William McKinley |s=William McKinley |v=no |species=no |author=yes}} ===Resmi=== * [http://www.mckinleymuseum.org/ Perpustakaan sarta Musieum Présidén William McKinley] * [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/william-mckinley/ Biografi Gedong Bodas] ===Biantara=== * [http://millercenter.org/president/speeches#mckinley Téks sababaraha biantara McKinley], [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] ===Lalampahan média=== * {{NYT topic|people/m/william_mckinley}} ===Séjénna=== {{CongBio|M000522}} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/mckinley/index.html William McKinley: Pituduh Sumber Daya], [[Library of Congress]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120426175456/http://millercenter.org/index.php/academic/americanpresident/mckinley Ésay lengkep ngeunaan William McKinley] sarta ésay pondok ngeunaan unggal anggota kabinétna ti [[Miller Center of Public Affairs]] * [http://mckinleydeath.com/ McKinley Assassination Ink], sajarah dokuménter ngeunaan rajapati William McKinley * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151617-1/life-portrait-william-mckinley "Life Portrait of William McKinley"], ti [[C-SPAN]]'s ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 23 Agustus 1999 * {{Gutenberg author|id=1656}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=William McKinley}} * {{Librivox author |id=11295}} * {{IMDb name}} {{William McKinley}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta panghormatan |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Joseph B. 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Campbell]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of Ohio|Gubernur Ohio]]|years=1892–1896}} {{s-aft|after=[[Asa S. Bushnell (Governor)|Asa Bushnell]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Grover Cleveland]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=1897–1901}} {{s-aft|after=[[Theodore Roosevelt]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] 90u6qidqm1nbvhf1wgwcp1iiihnvco0 Theodore Roosevelt 0 107983 712345 711635 2026-08-28T21:22:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = Theodore Roosevelt by the Pach Bros (4x5 cropped).jpg | caption = Roosevelt dina taun 1904 | order1 = ka-26 | office1 = [[Présidén Amérika Serikat]] | vicepresident1 = {{Plain list| * Kosong (1901–1905){{Efn|Roosevelt téh mimitina Wakil Présidén McKinley, tuluy jadi présidén saatos McKinley ditelasan (diasesinasi) dina taun 1901. Hal ieu kajantenan sateuacan diadopsina [[Amandemén ka-25 Konstitusi Amérika Serikat]] dina taun 1967, ku kituna kakosongan korsi wakil présidén teu tiasa dieusi dugi ka pamilihan sareng pelantikan salajengna.}} * {{longitem|[[Charles W. Fairbanks]] (1905–1909)}} }} | term_start1 = 14 Séptémber 1901 | term_end1 = 4 Maret 1909 | predecessor1 = [[William McKinley]] | successor1 = [[William Howard Taft]] | order2 = ka-25 | office2 = [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] | president2 = William McKinley | term_start2 = 4 Maret 1901 | term_end2 = 14 Séptémber 1901 | predecessor2 = [[Garret Hobart]] | successor2 = Charles W. Fairbanks | order3 = ka-33 | office3 = [[Daptar gubernur New York|Gubernur New York]] | lieutenant3 = [[Timothy L. Woodruff]] | term_start3 = 1 Januari 1899 | term_end3 = 31 Désémber 1900 | predecessor3 = [[Frank S. Black]] | successor3 = [[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.]] | order4 = ka-5 | office4 = Asistén Sékrétaris Angkatan Laut | president4 = William McKinley | term_start4 = 19 April 1897 | term_end4 = 10 Méi 1898 | predecessor4 = [[William McAdoo (New Jersey politician)|William McAdoo]] | successor4 = [[Charles Herbert Allen]] | office5 = [[Présidén Déwan Komisaris Polisi Kota New York]] | appointer5 = [[William Lafayette Strong]] | term_start5 = 6 Méi 1895 | term_end5 = 19 April 1897 | predecessor5 = James J. Martin | successor5 = [[Frank Moss (lawyer)|Frank Moss]] | state_assembly6 = New York | district6 = [[Distrik Majelis Nagara Bagian New York ka-21|ka-21]] | term_start6 = 1 Januari 1883 | term_end6 = 31 Désémber 1884 | predecessor6 = William J. Trimble | successor6 = [[Henry A. Barnum]] | birth_date = {{birth date|1858|10|27}} | birth_name = Theodore Roosevelt{{nbsp}}Jr. | birth_place = Kota New York, A.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1919|1|6|1858|10|27}} | death_place = [[Oyster Bay, New York]], A.S. | resting_place = [[Youngs Memorial Cemetery]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Républik]] (1880–1912, 1916–1919) | otherparty = [[Partéy Bull Moose]] (1912–1916) | spouse = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|[[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt|Alice Lee]]|27 Oktober 1880|14 Pébruari 1884|end=pupus}}|{{marriage|[[Edith Carow]]|2 Désémber 1886}}}} | children = 6 | relatives = [[Kulawarga Roosevelt]] | alma_mater = {{unbulleted list|[[Universitas Harvard]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]])|[[Sakola Hukum Columbia|Universitas Columbia]]}} | occupation = {{flatlist| * Panulis * konservasionis * pangjalajah * sajarawan * naturalis * [[komisaris polisi]] * politikus * prajurit }} | signature = Theodore Roosevelt Signature-2.svg | awards = [[Hadiah Nobél Perdamaian]] (1906) | allegiance = Amérika Serikat | branch = [[Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] | serviceyears = {{unbulleted list|1882–1886 (gardu)|1898}} | rank = [[Kolonél (Amérika Serikat)|Kolonél]] | unit = [[Garda Nasional Angkatan Darat New York]] | mawards = [[Medal of Honor]] {{avoid wrap|([[Anugerah anumerta|anumerta]], 2001)}} | commands = [[Kavaleri Sukarelawan ka-1 A.S.]] | battles = {{tree list}} * [[Perang Spanyol–Amérika]] ** [[Patempuran Las Guasimas]] ** [[Patempuran Pasir San Juan]] {{tree list/end}} | module = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Right of the People.ogg|title=Sora Theodore Roosevelt|type=biantara|description=Roosevelt nuju biantara nalika [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912|kampanyé présidén kaduana]]<br />Dirékam taun 1912}} }} '''Theodore Roosevelt Jr.'''{{efn|Dilafalkeun {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|oʊ|z|ə|v|ɛ|l|t}} {{respell|ROH|zə|velt}}}} (27 Oktober 1858 – 6 Januari 1919), ogé kawentar ku landihan '''Teddy''' atanapi '''T.{{nbsp}}R.''', nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-26, anu ngajabat ti taun 1901 dugi ka 1909. Roosevelt sateuacanna aktip dina dunya politik [[New York (state)|New York]], kalebet ngajabat janten [[Daptar gubernur New York|gubernur ka-33]] salami dua taun. Anjeunna ngajabat salaku [[Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]] ka-25 dina mangsa Présidén [[William McKinley]] salami genep sasih dina taun 1901, sarta naék janten présidén saatos kajantenan [[Aksidén William McKinley|McKinley ditelasan]]. Nalika janten présidén, Roosevelt mucunghul salaku pamingpin [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Républik]] sarta janten kakuatan utama pikeun kawijakan [[Hukum antiamanh (antitrust) Amérika Serikat|anti-amanah]] sarta kawijakan-kawijakan [[Era Progrésif]]. Nalika budak, Roosevelt téh budak anu geringan alatan kasakit [[asma]], nanging anjeunna tiasa ngungkulan masalah kaséhatanana ku cara hirup anu tapis atanapi [[The Strenuous Life|hirup anu pinuh ku sumanget]]. Anjeunna dididik ku cara [[sakola di imah]] sarta mimiti mikaresep dunya naturalis sateuacan kuliah di [[Universitas Harvard]]. Bukuna anu judulna ''[[The Naval War of 1812]]'' ngukuhkeun reputasina salaku sajarawan sarta panulis populér. Roosevelt janten pamingpin faksi réformasi ti Partéy Républik di [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York]]. Pamajikan kahijina, [[Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt]], sareng ibuna, [[Martha Bulloch Roosevelt]], pupus dina wengi anu sami, anu matak ngajantenkeun anjeunna kacida duka sacara psikologis. Anjeunna cageur deui saatos mésér sareng ngurus peternakan sapi di [[Dakotas]]. Roosevelt kantos ngajabat janten [[asistén sékrétaris Angkatan Laut]] dina mangsa McKinley, sarta dina taun 1898 ngabantu ngarencanakeun [[Perang Spanyol–Amérika|perang laut ngalawan Spanyol anu hasilna jaya]]. Anjeunna mundur pikeun ngabantu ngadegkeun sarta mingpin [[Rough Riders]], hiji unit anu merangan [[Tentara Spanyol]] di [[Kuba]] anu kawentar pisan. Saatos mulang salaku pahlawan perang, Roosevelt [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1898|kapilih janten gubernur New York dina taun 1898]]. Alatan pamingpin partéy di New York teu resep kana agénda nagara bagianana anu ambisius, maranéhna ngayakinkeun McKinley pikeun milih Roosevelt salaku pasanganana dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1900]]. Pasangan McKinley–Roosevelt meunang mutlak. Roosevelt [[Pelantikan kahiji Theodore Roosevelt|ngamimitian janten présidén]] dina umur 42 taun nalika [[Aksidén William McKinley|McKinley ditelasan]]. Ku kituna, anjeunna janten (sareng tetep dugi ka ayeuna) jalmi pangora-ngorana anu nyekel jabatan éta. Salaku pamingpin [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Serikat|gerakan progrésif]], anjeunna ngusung kawijakan domestik "[[Square Deal]]", anu nekenkeun kaadilan pikeun sakumna warga nagara, ngabubarkeun [[Trust (bisnis)|amanah (trust)]] anu jahat, ngatur karéta api, sarta [[Undang-undang Kadaharan sareng Ubar Murni|kadaharan sareng ubar anu murni]]. Roosevelt ngutamakeun [[Gerakan konservasi|konservasi]] sarta ngadegkeun [[Daptar taman nasional Amérika Serikat|taman nasional]], [[Daptar leuweung nasional Amérika Serikat|leuweung]], sarta [[Daptar monumén nasional Amérika Serikat|monumén]] pikeun ngajaga sumber daya alam A.S. Dina [[Kawijakan luar nagri administrasi Theodore Roosevelt|kawijakan luar nagri]], anjeunna [[Roosevelt Corollary|fokus ka Amérika Tengah]], kalayan ngamimitian pangwangunan [[Terusan Panama]]. Roosevelt ngalegaan Angkatan Laut A.S. sarta ngirimkeun [[Great White Fleet]] pikeun kuriling dunya pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan lautna. [[Perjangjian Portsmouth|Usahana anu hasil]] dina mungkasan [[Perang Rusia-Jepang]] ngajantenkeun anjeunna kenging [[Hadiah Nobél Perdamaian]] taun 1906, jalmi non-Éropa munggaran anu kenging [[Hadiah Nobél]]. Roosevelt [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1904|kapilih deui pikeun masa jabatan pinuh dina taun 1904]] sarta ngayakinkeun [[William Howard Taft]] pikeun ngagentos anjeunna dina taun 1908. Roosevelt lami-lami ngarasa kuciwa ku gaya konservatisme Taft, nanging gagal kéngingkeun [[Primér présidén Partéy Républik 1912|nominasi présidén ti Partéy Républik taun 1912]]. Anjeunna ngadegkeun [[Partéy Bull Moose]] sarta nyalonkeun deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912|taun 1912]]; ayana dua calon ieu nyababkeun sora partéyna pecah sahingga tokoh [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Serikat)|Démokrat]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] anu meunang. Roosevelt mingpin [[Ékspédisi Ilmiah Roosevelt–Rondon ka lembah Amazon|ékspédisi opat sasih ka lembah Amazon]], di mana anjeunna ampir-ampiran pupus alatan [[panyakit tropis]]. Nalika Perang Dunya I, anjeunna ngritik Wilson anu henteu ngiringkeun A.S. kana perang; tawaranana pikeun mingpin sukarelawan ka Perancis ditolak. Kaséhatan Roosevelt beuki nyirorot sarta anjeunna pupus dina taun 1919. [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Serikat|Hasil survéi para sajarawan sareng ilmuwan politik]] nempatkeun anjeunna salaku salah sahiji présidén Amérika anu panghébatna. ==Kahirupan awal== [[File:TR Age 11 Paris.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.75|Roosevelt nalika umur 11 taun]] Theodore Roosevelt Jr. dibabarkeun dina 27 Oktober 1858, di [[Tempat Babar Theodore Roosevelt|28 East 20th Street]] di [[Manhattan]].{{sfn|Morris|1979|p=3}} Kolotna nyaéta [[Martha Bulloch Roosevelt|Martha Stewart Bulloch]] sarta saurang pangusaha [[Theodore Roosevelt Sr.]] Anjeunna gaduh lanceuk awéwé jenenganana Anna (biasa digeroan [[Bamie Roosevelt|Bamie]]), adi lalaki [[Elliott Roosevelt (socialite)|Elliott]], sarta adi awéwé [[Corinne Roosevelt Robinson|Corinne]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Anna Roosevelt – Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)|url=https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm|access-date=April 4, 2021|publisher=National Park Service|archive-date=May 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517084507/https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/annaroosevelt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mangsa ngora Roosevelt kapangaruhan ku kaayaan kaséhatanana anu ringkih sarta serangan kasakit [[asma]] anu parah, anu matak ngahariwangkeun anjeunna jeung kolotna. Harita, para dokter teu acan mendakan ubarna.{{Sfn|McCullough|1981|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nuzmvrqPvdIC&pg=PA93 93–108]}} Sanajan kitu, anjeunna téh budak anu pinuh ku tanaga sarta miboga rasa panasaran (kuriositas) anu kacida gedéna.{{Sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=23–27}} Karesepna kana widang [[zoologi]] anu lumangsung saumur hirup dimimitian nalika umur tujuh taun, nalika anjeunna ningali bangké [[Pinniped|anjing laut]] di pasar; saatos kenging sirah anjing laut éta, Roosevelt sareng dulur-dulur misanana ngadegkeun "Museum Sajarah Alam Roosevelt". Saatos diajar dasar-dasar [[taksidermi]] (ngawétkeun sato), anjeunna ngeusian museum basajanna ku sato-sato anu dipaéhan atanapi ditéwak ku anjeunna sorangan. Nalika umur salapan taun, anjeunna nyatet hasil observasina dina tulisan anu judulna "Sajarah Alam Serangga".<ref name="environment">{{Cite web | publisher = PBS | url = https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html | title = TR's Legacy — The Environment | access-date = March 6, 2006 | archive-date = December 24, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081224215129/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224215129/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/tr/envir.html |date=December 24, 2008 }}</ref> Lalampahan kulawarga, kalebet wisata ka Éropa dina taun 1869 sareng 1870, sarta ka [[Khedivate Mesir|Mesir]] dina taun 1872, ngawangun sawanganana anu kosmopolitan.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1913|p=13}} Nalika nuju nanjak gunung (hiking) sareng kulawargana di pagunungan [[Alpen]] taun 1869, Roosevelt mendakan mangpaat tina kagiatan fisik pikeun ngurangan serangan asmana sarta ngagedékeun sumangetna.{{Sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=63–70}} Ti saprak éta, Roosevelt mimiti ngalakukeun latihan fisik anu beurat. Saatos dikerjakeun ku budak-budak anu langkung kolot nalika nuju angkat kémping, anjeunna milari palatih tinju pikeun ngalatih dirina sangkan tiasa béla diri.{{Sfn|Testi|1995|pp=1516–1517}}{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1913|pp=32–33}} ===Pangatikan=== Roosevelt dididik ku cara [[sakola di imah]] (''homeschooled''). Panulis biografi [[H. W. Brands]] nyerat yén, "Kakurangan anu paling nyata... nyaéta hanteu rata cakupanana... dina rupa-rupa widang... pangaweruh."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|page=49}} Anjeunna jembar dina widang géografi sarta calakan dina sajarah, biologi, basa Perancis, jeung basa Jérman; nanging, anjeunna rada hésé dina matematika jeung basa-basa klasik. Dina bulan Séptémber 1876, anjeunna asup ka [[Universitas Harvard]]. Ramana mapatahan anjeunna, "jaga ahlak anjeun pangheulana, tuluy kaséhatan, sarta pamungkas nyaéta pangajaran anjeun."<ref>{{cite book|first=Edward P.|last=Kohn|title=Heir to the Empire City: New York and the Making of Theodore Roosevelt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|year=2013|page=26|publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-06975-0|access-date=April 15, 2017|archive-date=April 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415213639/https://books.google.com/books?id=EcZWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26|url-status=live}}</ref> Pupusna ramana anu ngadadak dina taun 1878 kacida matak sedihna pikeun Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=80–82}} Anjeunna nampi warisan sagedé US$60,000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|60,000|1878|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}), anu cukup pikeun anjeunna hirup senang saumur hirupna.<ref name=NYT14>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/|title=First Glimpses: 1878: Theodore Roosevelt Inherits a Fortune|date=July 18, 2014|first=Mark|last=Bulik|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222113116/https://www.nytimes.com/times-insider/2014/07/18/1878-theodore-roosevelt-inherits-a-fortune/|access-date=December 22, 2020|archive-date=December 22, 2020}}</ref> Ramana, saurang panganut [[Présbitérianisme|Présbitérian]] anu taat, rutin mingpin kulawarga dina doa. Nalika di Harvard, Theodore anu tos sawawa nulad ramana ku cara ngajar sakola minggu salami langkung ti tilu taun di Épiskopal [[Christ Church (Cambridge, Massachusetts)|Christ Church]] di [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. Nalika pandita di Christ Church maksa anjeunna kedah janten saurang Épiskopalian upami hoyong teras ngajar, Roosevelt nolak, sarta milih ngajar kelas misi di lingkungan miskin di Cambridge.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |author-link=David McCullough |title=[[Mornings on Horseback]]: The Story of an Extraordinary Family, a Vanished Way of Life and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-6714-4754-0 }}</ref> Roosevelt unggul dina kursus sains, filsafat, sareng rétorika, nanging rada beurat dina basa Latin sareng Yunani. Anjeunna tos janten naturalis anu mahér sareng saurang [[Ornitologi|ornitologis]] anu karyana tos diterbitkeun, sarta neuleuman biologi kalayan daria. Anjeunna rajin maca sarta miboga daya ingetan anu ampir fotografis.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=62}} Roosevelt miluan kagiatan dayung sareng [[Klub Tinju Harvard|tinju]], sarta janten anggota masarakat sastra [[Alpha Delta Phi]], babaturan sakelas [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]], sareng [[Porcellian Club]] anu gengsi. Dina taun 1880, Roosevelt lulus [[Phi Beta Kappa]] (réngking 22 ti 177 urang) kalayan gelar [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] ''[[magna cum laude]]''. [[Henry F. Pringle]] nyerat: {{blockquote|Roosevelt, nalika nyobian nganalisis karir kuliahna sareng nimbang mangpaat anu katarima, ngarasa yén anjeunna meunang sakedik pisan ti Harvard. Anjeunna ngarasa kuciwa ku cara pangajaran anu formalistik dina seueur subjék, ku kakakuan, sarta perhatian kana hal-hal leutik anu sabenerna penting, tapi ku hiji cara henteu kantos dikaitkeun sareng gambaran anu gembleng (utuh).{{sfn|Pringle|1931|p=27}}}} Roosevelt ngabatalkeun rencanana pikeun neuleuman élmu alam sarta milih asup ka [[Sakola Hukum Columbia]], pindah deui ka bumi kulawargana di New York. Sanajan Roosevelt téh murid anu sanggup, anjeunna ngarasa yén hukum téh henteu rasional.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=110–112, 123–133. quote p. 126}} Kalayan tékad hoyong lebet ka dunya politik, Roosevelt mimiti ngiringan rapat-rapat di Morton Hall, markas Asosiasi Républik Distrik ka-21 New York. Sanajan ramana téh anggota nonjol di [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Serikat)|Partéy Républik]], pilihan karir Roosevelt ieu dianggap teu ilahar pikeun jalma tina golonganna, sabab kalolobaan batur sapantanna mah nyingkahan pikeun kalibet teuing jero dina dunya politik. Roosevelt mendakan sakutu di Partéy Républik lokal sarta hasil ngéléhkeun saurang anggota majelis nagara bagian ti Républik anu aya patalina rapet sareng mesin politik Sénator [[Roscoe Conkling]]. Saatos kameunanganana dina pamilihan, Roosevelt kaluar ti sakola hukum, anu engkéna anjeunna nyarios, "Kuring boga niat pikeun janten salah sahiji golongan anu maréntah."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=110–112, 123–133. quote p. 126}} ==Karier politik awal== ===Anggota Majelis Nagara Bagian=== Dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1881|pamilihan 1881]], Roosevelt kenging korsi di [[Majelis Nagara Bagian New York]], ngawakilan [[Distrik Majelis Nagara Bagian New York ka-21|distrik ka-21]], anu puseurna di "Distrik Silk Stocking" di [[Upper East Side]] County New York. Anjeunna ngajabat dina sési législatif taun [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-105|1882]], [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-106|1883]], sareng [[Législatur Nagara Bagian New York ka-107|1884]]. Roosevelt mimiti némbongkeun taringna kalayan sakaligus. Anjeunna ngahalangan usaha korup ti saurang panyepeng modal (finansiér) [[Jay Gould]] anu hoyong nurunkeun pajegna. Roosevelt ngungkab ayana kolusi antara Gould sareng Hakim [[Theodoric R. Westbrook|Theodore Westbrook]] sarta hasil ngadesek ngayakeun panalungtikan (investigasi) kalayan tujuan sangkan éta hakim di-''impeach'' (dipecat sacara hukum). Sanajan komite panalungtikan nolak pamécatan éta, Roosevelt parantos hasil ngungkab korupsi di [[Albany, New York|Albany]] sarta kenging citra anu saé tur nonjol dina rupa-rupa publikasi di New York.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=134–140}} Usaha anti-korupsi Roosevelt ngabantu anjeunna kenging deui sora dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1882|pamilihan 1882]] kalayan kaunggulan sora dua kali lipat langkung seueur, hiji préstasi anu dianggap luar biasa margi calon gubernur ti Partéy Démokrat, [[Grover Cleveland]], sabenerna unggul di distrik Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=138–139}} Nalika faksi [[Stalwart (politik)|Stalwart]] ti Partéy Républik pimpinan Sénator Conkling nuju paburancat saatos [[Assasinasi Présidén James Garfield|kajantenan ditelasanna Présidén James Garfield]], Roosevelt kapilih janten pamingpin partéy di majelis nagara bagian. Anjeunna gawé bareng sareng Gubernur Cleveland pikeun ngaluluskeun rancangan undang-undang réformasi layanan sipil.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=140–142}} Roosevelt kapilih deui sarta nyobian ngudag jabatan [[Ketua Majelis Nagara Bagian New York|Ketua Majelis]], nanging [[Titus Sheard]] anu kenging éta jabatan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 1, 1884 |title=Mr Sheard to be Speaker |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073137/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1884/01/01/106134466.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=June 13, 2018 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=153}} Roosevelt ngajabat janten Ketua Komite Urusan Kota, di mana salami mangsa éta anjeunna nyerat langkung seueur rancangan undang-undang dibandingkeun législator sanésna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Edward P. |date=2009 |title='A Most Revolting State of Affairs': Theodore Roosevelt's Aldermanic Bill and the New York Assembly City Investigating Committee of 1884 |journal=American Nineteenth Century History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=71–92|doi=10.1080/14664650802299909 |hdl=11693/48381 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ===Pamilihan présidén 1884=== {{See also|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884}} Nalika seueur tokoh anu nyalonkeun présidén, Roosevelt ngarojong Sénator [[George F. Edmunds]] ti Vermont. Partéy Républik tingkat nagara bagian langkung milih présidén anu nuju ngajabat, [[Chester Arthur]], anu kawentar alatan ngaluarkeun [[Undang-undang Réformasi Layanan Sipil Pendleton]]. Roosevelt hasil mangaruhan delegasi Manhattan dina konvénsi nagara bagian. Anjeunna tuluy nyepeng kadali konvénsi, ngayakeun tawar-menawar sapeupeuting sarta hasil ngéléhkeun taktik para pangrojong Arthur jeung [[James G. Blaine]]; ku kituna, anjeunna kénging reputasi nasional salaku politikus konci di nagara bagianana.{{sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=413–424}} Roosevelt ngahadiran [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1884]] di [[Chicago]], di dinya anjeunna biantara pikeun ngayakinkeun para delegasi sangkan milih tokoh Afrika-Amérika [[John R. Lynch]], saurang pangrojong Edmunds, janten ketua samentara. Roosevelt berjuang bareng jeung para réformis [[Mugwump]] ngalawan Blaine. Nanging, Blaine kenging rojongan ti delegasi Arthur jeung Edmunds, sarta hasil kenging nominasi. Dina momen krusial dina karirna anu nuju mekar, Roosevelt nolak paménta batur-baturna di Mugwump pikeun misahkeun diri ti Blaine. Anjeunna agul: "Urang kenging kameunangan ku cara ngawangun kombinasi pikeun ngéléhkeun calon Blaine janten ketua samentara... ieu merlukeun... kaparigelan, kawani, jeung tanaga... sangkan rupa-rupa faksi kersa gabung... pikeun ngéléhkeun musuh babarengan."{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=171}} Anjeunna ngarasa reueus nalika diondang biantara di payuneun sapuluh rébu urang, jumlah panongton panglobana anu kantos disanghareupan ku anjeunna harita. Saatos ngarasaan dunya politik nasional, Roosevelt ngarasa kirang gairah pikeun bajoang di tingkat nagara bagian; anjeunna milih pensiun ka "Chimney Butte Ranch" anyarna di sisi [[Walungan Little Missouri (North Dakota)|Walungan Little Missouri]].{{sfn|Putnam|1958|pp=445–450}} Roosevelt nolak gabung sareng Mugwump sanésna pikeun ngarojong Cleveland, calon ti [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat Amérika Serikat|Partéy Démokrat]] dina pamilihan umum. Saatos Blaine kenging nominasi, Roosevelt sacara gagabah nyarios yén anjeunna bakal masihan "rojongan sapinuh haté ka saha waé urang Démokrat anu pantes". Anjeunna tuluy ngajauhkeun diri tina jangji éta, nyebatkeun yén omonganana téh sanés "kanggo dipublikasikeun".{{sfn|Pringle|1956|p=61}} Nalika saurang wartawan naros naha anjeunna bakal ngarojong Blaine, Roosevelt ngajawab, "Kuring nolak ngajawab."{{sfn|Putnam|1958|p=445}} Ahirna, anjeunna sadar yén anjeunna kedah ngarojong Blaine pikeun ngajaga kalungguhanana di jero partéy, sarta anjeunna ngalakukeun éta ngaliwatan siaran pers.{{sfn|Putnam|1958|p=467}} Saatos kaleungitan rojongan ti seueur réformis, sarta masih ngarasa duka alatan pupusna pamajikan jeung ibuna, Roosevelt mutuskeun pikeun mundur tina dunya politik sarta pindah ka [[North Dakota]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=161}} ==Tukang ngangon sapi di Dakota== [[File:Theodore Roosevelt with hunting suit and rifle 3a24199u original.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt salaku pamburu di [[Badlands]] dina taun 1885]] Roosevelt munggaran nganjang ka [[Wilayah Dakota]] dina taun 1883 pikeun moro [[bison]]. Ku sabab kacida gumbirana ku [[gaya hirup urang kulon]] sarta ningali bisnis sapi anu nuju maju pisan, Roosevelt investasi $14.000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|14,000|1883|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) kalayan harepan janten pangusaha sapi anu makmur. Salami sababaraha taun, anjeunna bulak-balik antara bumina di New York sareng peternakanana di Dakota.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902213054/https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |archive-date=September 2, 2019 |access-date=November 27, 2019 |publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> Saatos [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1884]], Roosevelt ngawangun [[Elkhorn Ranch]] {{cvt|35|mi|km}} kaléreun kota [[Medora, North Dakota]] anu nuju mekar. Roosevelt diajar numpak kuda gaya kulon, ngagunakeun laso, sarta moro di sisi [[Walungan Little Missouri (North Dakota)|Little Missouri]]. Saurang koboi, ceuk anjeunna, miboga "saeutik sipat lembut anu dipuji ku para pseudo-filantropis; nanging anjeunna miboga sipat tegep sarta maskulin anu kacida luhurna anu peryogi pisan pikeun hiji bangsa".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56 |title=Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail |publisher=Century |others=Illustrated by [[Frederic Remington]] |year=1902 |location=New York |pages=55–56 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |orig-date=1888 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023213/http://books.google.com/books?id=BY4-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56 |archive-date=April 7, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Morrisey |first=Will |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&pg=PA41 |title=The Dilemma of Progressivism: How Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson Reshaped the American Regime of Self-Government |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7425-6618-7 |page=41 |access-date=October 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406172847/http://books.google.com/books?id=oS2Kcqjl-VgC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=April 6, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Anjeunna nyerat ngeunaan kahirupan di wilayah wates (frontier) pikeun majalah nasional sarta medarkeun buku-buku: ''Hunting Trips of a Ranchman'', ''Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail'', sarta ''The Wilderness Hunter''.{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=191}} Roosevelt hasil mingpin usaha pikeun ngatur para peternak dina nungkulan masalah ngangon anu kaleuleuwihi (overgrazing) sarta pasualan babarengan sanésna, anu ngahasilkeun diwangunna Asosiasi Peternak Little Missouri. Anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun [[Klub Boone jeung Crockett]], anu tujuan utamana nyaéta konservasi sato buruan badag sarta habitatna.{{sfn|Brands|1997|p=189}} Dina taun 1886, Roosevelt ngajabat janten [[Sheriff di Amérika Serikat|wakil sheriff]] di [[County Billings, North Dakota]]. Anjeunna sareng para pagawé peternakanana hasil ngudag sarta néwak tilu jalma anu maling parahu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Taman Nasional Theodore Roosevelt]] |title=Roosevelt Pursues the Boat Thieves |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/historyculture/roosevelt-pursues-boat-thieves.htm}}</ref> Kayaan [[usum tiris 1886–1887]] anu kacida parahna méakkeun sato ternakna sarta leuwih ti satengah tina investasi $80.000 (sarua jeung ${{Format price|{{Inflation|US-GDP|80,000|1887|r=-4}}}} dina taun {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}).{{sfn|Morris|1979|p=376}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Theodore Roosevelt the Rancher |url=https://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208112452/http://www.nps.gov/thro/historyculture/theodore-roosevelt-the-rancher.htm |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |access-date=January 13, 2015 |website=nps.gov |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |quote=The blow proved disastrous for Roosevelt, who lost over half of his $80,000 investment, the equivalent of approximately $1.7 million today.}}</ref> Anjeunna mungkasan kahirupanana salaku peternak sarta mulang ka New York, di mana anjeunna hasil leupas tina labél négatif salaku saurang inteléktual anu henteu mampuh dina dunya nyata.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=163–164}} ==Pernikahan kadua== [[File:Smithsonian - NPG - Roosevelt - NPG 81 126.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt sareng anggota [[Kulawarga Roosevelt|kulawargana]]. Ti kenca ka katuhu: [[Ethel Roosevelt Derby|Ethel]], [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]], [[Quentin Roosevelt|Quentin]], [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith]], [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.|Theodore III (Ted)]], Theodore, [[Archibald Roosevelt|Archibald]], [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice]], sareng [[Nicholas Longworth]]]] Dina 2 Désémber 1886, Roosevelt nikah ka réngréngan ti mangsa leutikna, [[Edith Roosevelt|Edith Kermit Carow]], di [[St George's, Hanover Square]], di [[London]], Inggris.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forslund |first=Catherine |title=2016 |pages=298–319 |chapter=Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt: The Victorian Modern First Lady}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring Rice |date=1929 |publisher=Constable & Co |editor-last=Gwynn |editor-first=Stephen |page=121}}</ref> Roosevelt ngarasa rada kaganggu ku pikiran yén pernikahan kaduana ieu lumangsung teu lami saatos pupusna pamajikan kahiji, sarta anjeunna ogé nampi tantangan ti sadérék-sadérék awéwéna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=181–182}} Ieu pasangan dipaparin lima murangkalih: [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr.|Theodore "Ted" III]] dina taun 1887, [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]] dina 1889, [[Ethel Roosevelt Derby|Ethel]] dina 1891, [[Archibald Roosevelt|Archibald]] dina 1894, sareng [[Quentin Roosevelt|Quentin]] dina 1897. Maranéhna ogé ngasuh putra Roosevelt ti pernikahan kahijina, [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice]], anu sering papaséaan sareng indung téréna.{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=193–194}} ==Mulang deui ka dunya publik== Saatos Roosevelt mulang ka New York, para pamingpin Républik ngadeukeutan anjeunna supados nyalonkeun diri janten [[Walikota Kota New York]] dina [[Pamilihan walikota Kota New York 1886|pamilihan 1886]].{{sfn|Kohn|2006}} Roosevelt nampi nominasi éta sanajan miboga harepan anu sakedik pikeun ngéléhkeun calon ti [[Partéy Buruh Serikat (Amérika Serikat, abad ka-19)|Partéy Buruh Serikat]] [[Henry George]] sareng tokoh Démokrat [[Abram Hewitt]]. Roosevelt kampanyé kalayan toh-tohan, nanging Hewitt meunang kalayan sora 41%, kenging sora ti seueur urang Républik anu sieun ku kawijakan radikal George. George kenging 31%, sarta Roosevelt aya di tempat katilu kalayan 27%.<ref name=everything>{{cite book|last=Sharp|first=Arthur G.|title=The Everything Theodore Roosevelt Book: The Extraordinary Life of an American Icon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QSdqR6Wp31wC&pg=PA78|year=2011|publisher=Adams Media|pages=78–79|isbn=978-1-4405-2729-6|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=April 7, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023635/http://books.google.com/books?id=QSdqR6Wp31wC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=183–185}} Ku sabab sieun karir politikna moal jagjag deui, Roosevelt fokus kana nyerat buku ''The Winning of the West'', anu medar ngeunaan gerakan urang Amérika ka wilayah kulon; ieu buku suksés pisan, nampi ulasan anu saé sarta payu pisan nepi ka béak dina citakan munggaranana.{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=197–200}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Utley |first=George B. |date=1944 |title=Theodore Roosevelt's the Winning of the West: Some Unpublished Letters |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1916697 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=495–506 |doi=10.2307/1916697 |issn=0161-391X}}</ref> ===Komisi Layanan Sipil=== Saatos [[Benjamin Harrison]] sacara teu disangka-sangka ngéléhkeun Blaine dina nominasi présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1888]], Roosevelt ngayakeun rupa-rupa [[Kampanyé politik|biantara kampanye]] di wilayah Midwest pikeun ngarojong Harrison.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=201}} Atas bongbolongan ti [[Henry Cabot Lodge]], Présidén Harrison ngangkat Roosevelt janten anggota [[Komisi Layanan Sipil Amérika Serikat]], di mana anjeunna ngajabat dugi ka taun 1895.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=203}} Nalika seueur nu ngajabat sateuacanna nganggap ieu posisi téh ngan saukur [[Jabatan ngeunaah|jabatan formalitas]] anu teu merlukeun gawé beurat,{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=206–207}} Roosevelt malah merangan para palaku [[Sistem spoils|sistem spoils]] sarta nungtut sangkan hukum layanan sipil ditegakkeun kalayan bener.{{Sfn|Thayer|1919|loc=ch. VI|pp=1–2}} Surat kabar ''[[The Sun (New York)|The Sun]]'' ngagambarkeun Roosevelt salaku jalma anu "henteu bisa diredam, resep gelut (wani), sarta pinuh ku sumanget".{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=51}} Roosevelt kungsi paséaa sareng Kepala Pos Umum [[John Wanamaker]], anu sering masihan jabatan ka para pangrojong Harrison; usaha Roosevelt pikeun mecat sababaraha pagawé pos malah matak ngarugikeun Harrison sacara politik.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=216–221}} Sanajan Roosevelt ngarojong Harrison dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1892|pamilihan 1892]], nu meunangna nyaéta Grover Cleveland, anu unikna kalah ngangkat deui Roosevelt dina jabatanana.{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=53}} Sahabat sarta panulis biografina, [[Joseph Bucklin Bishop]], ngagambarkeun kumaha Roosevelt narajang sistem korup éta: {{Blockquote|Bénténg utama politik sistem spoils, bénténg anu sateuacanna teu bisa ditembus sarta geus ajeg ti saprak diwangun luhureun pondasi anu diteundeun ku [[Andrew Jackson]], mimiti doyong sarta rék rugrug alatan narajangna ieu pamuda anu kacida wanina sarta henteu bisa diredam... Kumaha waé ogé parasaan Présidén (Harrison)—sarta taya deui mamang yén anjeunna henteu nyangka nalika ngangkat Roosevelt yén anjeunna bakal jadi saenyana "banténg di jero toko keramik"—anjeunna nolak mecat Roosevelt sarta tetep ngarojongna dugi ka mungkasan mangsa jabatanana.{{Sfn|Bishop|2007|p=51}}}} ===Komisaris Polisi Kota New York=== Dina taun 1894, kelompok Réformis Républik ngadeukeutan Roosevelt supados nyalonkeun deui janten Walikota New York; anjeunna nolak, utamana alatan pamajikanana henteu kersa upami kedah pindah tina lingkungan sosial di Washington. Teu lami ti dinya, anjeunna sadar yén anjeunna parantos kaleungitan kasempetan pikeun ngahirupkeun deui karir politikna anu nuju tiiseun. Anjeunna milih indit ka wilayah Dakota; Edith ngarasa kaduhung ku pangaruhna dina kaputusan éta sarta jangji moal ngulang deui hal sarupa.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=265–268}} [[William Lafayette Strong]] meunang dina pamilihan walikota taun 1884 sarta nawarkeun jabatan ka Roosevelt dina jajaran dewan [[Komisaris Polisi Kota New York]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=201}} Roosevelt janten présidén dewan komisaris sarta sacara radikal ngarobah kakuatan kapolisian: anjeunna ngayakeun inspeksi pakarang sarta pamariksaan fisik sacara rutin, ngangkat anggota dumasar kana kualifikasi fisik jeung méntal tinimbang patalina politik, ngadegkeun [[Medali Jasa Pinunjul]], nutup tempat panyalindungan polisi anu korup, sarta masang telepon di kantor-kantor polisi. Dina taun 1894, Roosevelt patepang sareng [[Jacob Riis]], wartawan ''[[The Sun (New York City)|Evening Sun]]'' anu sok ngungkab kabobrokan (''muckraking''), anu nuju muka panon warga New York ngeunaan kaayaan pikasidieun para imigran ngaliwatan bukuna sapertos ''[[How the Other Half Lives]]''. Riis nyaritakeun kumaha pangaruh bukuna ka Roosevelt: {{Blockquote|Nalika Roosevelt maca buku [kuring], anjeunna sumping... Taya jalma anu kantos ngabantu sapertos anjeunna. Salami dua taun urang parantos sapertos duduluran di [[Mulberry Street (Manhattan)|Mulberry Street]] (daérah anu pinuh ku kajahatan di New York). Nalika anjeunna angkat, kuring parantos nyaksian mangsa kaémasan éta tempat... Saeutik pisan aya katenangan di mana waé Theodore Roosevelt mingpin, sakumaha anu dirasakeun ku urang sadayana. Para palanggar hukum ogé sadar, anu tadina nyapéléké yén anjeunna bakal "tunduk kana politik sakumaha anu sanés", ahirna mah janten hormat ka anjeunna, sanajan bari nyarékan, salaku hiji-hijina jalma anu langkung kuat tinimbang pangaruh "nepotisme" (pull)... éta pisan anu ngajantenkeun éta mangsa janten mangsa kaémasan, yén pikeun munggaranana tujuan moral sumping ka jalanan. Dina cahayana, sagalana robah janten saé.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Riis | first = Jacob A | title = The Making of an American | chapter = XIII | page = 3 | publisher = Bartleby}}</ref>}} Roosevelt miboga kabiasaan leumpang mapay [[Wewengkon patroli|wilayah patroli]] para anggota polisi dina waktu peuting sarta subuh pikeun mastikeun yén maranéhna nuju pancén.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=277}} Anjeunna ogé satekah polah negakkeun hukum panutupan poé Minggu (hukum Raines) di New York sacara tegas; dina hal ieu, anjeunna bentrok sareng [[Thomas C. Platt|Tom Platt]] sarta [[Tammany Hall]]—anjeunna dibéré nyaho yén Komisi Polisi bakal dibubarkeun sacara hukum. Tindakan tegasna nimbulkeun rupa-rupa protés. Nalika diondang ka hiji démonstrasi badag, anjeunna lain ngan saukur sumping, tapi malah ngarasa resep ku rupa-rupa hinaan sarta karikatur anu ditujukeun ka anjeunna, sahingga ahirna kenging simpati ti masarakat. Roosevelt milih pikeun ngalah tinimbang kudu pecah sareng partéyna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=293}} ==Muncul salaku tokoh nasional== ===Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut=== [[File:LC-USZC4-701 (17518506711).jpg|thumb|[[Skuadron Asiatic]] ngancurkeun armada Spanyol dina [[Patempuran Teluk Manila]] dina 1 Méi 1898]] Dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1896|pamilihan présidén 1896]], Roosevelt ngarojong [[Thomas Brackett Reed]] pikeun nominasi Républik, nanging [[William McKinley]] anu kenging nominasi sarta hasil ngéléhkeun [[William Jennings Bryan]] dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=242–243}} Roosevelt kacida nolakna kana platform [[pérak bébas]] Bryan, sarta nganggap seueur pangrojong Bryan salaku fanatik anu bahaya. Anjeunna ngayakeun biantara kampanyé pikeun McKinley.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=243–246}} Atas dorongan ti Sénator Henry Cabot Lodge, Présidén McKinley ngangkat Roosevelt janten [[Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]] dina taun 1897.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=David |last=Lemelin |title=Theodore Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy: Preparing America for the World Stage |journal=History Matters |year=2011 |pages=13–34}}</ref> Sekretaris Angkatan Laut [[John D. Long]] nuju teu damang sarta masrahkeun seueur kaputusan penting ka Roosevelt. Kapangaruhan ku [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], Roosevelt nungtut pangwangunan kakuatan angkatan laut, utamana pangwangunan [[kapal perang]] (battleship).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=253}} Roosevelt ogé mimiti nekenkeun sawangan kaamanan nasionalna ngeunaan Pasifik sareng Karibia ka McKinley, sarta keukeuh yén Spanyol kedah diusir ti Kuba.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=310–212}} Anjeunna ngajelaskeun prioritasna ka salah sahiji nu ngarancang rencana Angkatan Laut dina ahir taun 1897: {{Blockquote|Kuring ningali perang sareng Spanyol tina dua sawangan: kahiji, tina dasar kamanusaan sarta kapentingan diri pikeun milu campur pikeun kapentingan urang Kuba, sarta salaku saléngkah deui pikeun ngabébaskeun Amérika sagemblengna tina kakawasaan Éropa; kadua, mangpaat pikeun rahayat urang ku cara masihan hiji hal anu dipikiran lian ti saukur kauntungan matéri, sarta utamana mangpaat pikeun kakuatan militér urang ku cara nguji Angkatan Laut jeung Angkatan Darat dina prakték nyata.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|2001|pp=157–158}}}} Dina 15 Pébruari 1898, kapal pangawal lapis baja {{USS|Maine|ACR-1|6}} ngabeledug di palabuhan [[Havana, Kuba]], sarta nelasan ratusan awak kapal. Nalika Roosevelt sareng seueur urang Amérika sanésna nyalahkeun Spanyol, McKinley milih jalan diplomasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=267–268}} Tanpa idin ti Long atanapi McKinley, Roosevelt ngirimkeun paréntah ka sababaraha kapal angkatan laut pikeun nyiapkeun perang.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=267–268}}{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=325–326}} [[George Dewey]], anu parantos nampi tugas mingpin [[Skuadron Asiatic]] atas rojongan Roosevelt, engkéna nyebatkeun yén kameunanganana dina [[Patempuran Teluk Manila]] téh alatan paréntah ti Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=261, 268}} Saatos taya harepan deui tina jalan damai, McKinley ménta Kongrés pikeun nyatakeun perang ka Spanyol, anu jadi mimiti [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=271–272}} ===Perang di Kuba=== {{Further|Rough Riders}} [[File:Theodore Rooseveltnewtry.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Kolonél Roosevelt dina taun 1898]] Nalika [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]] dimimitian dina taun 1898, Roosevelt mundur tina jabatanana salaku Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut. Bareng jeung Kolonél Angkatan Darat [[Leonard Wood]], anjeunna ngawangun [[Rough Riders|Réjimén Kavaleri Sukarelawan AS Kahiji]].<ref name="LOC">{{cite web | url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/roughriders.html | title=The World of 1989: The Spanish–American War; Rough Riders | publisher=Library of Congress | access-date=February 7, 2015 | archive-date=February 7, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207100632/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/roughriders.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Pamajikanana sarta seueur rénjangna ménta sangkan Roosevelt tetep cicing di Washington, nanging Roosevelt tos tékad hayong turun langsung ka medan perang. Nalika koran-koran nyebarkeun béja ngeunaan diwangunna réjimén anyar ieu, Roosevelt sareng Wood kabanjiran ku pendaftar.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=272–274}} Disebat ku pers salaku "Rough Riders", ieu téh salah sahiji tina seueur unit samentara anu aktip ngan salami perang.{{Sfn|Samuels|1997|p=148}} Ieu réjimén dilatih salami sababaraha minggu di [[San Antonio, Texas]]; dina otobiografina, Roosevelt nyerat yén pangalamanana dina [[Garda Nasional New York]] ngabantu anjeunna pikeun langsung ngajar dasar-dasar militér.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |date=2014 |title=Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwHCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |publisher=The Floating Press |page=244 |isbn=978-1-77653-337-4 |access-date=February 9, 2015 |archive-date=November 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119023721/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwHCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ieu réjimén diwangun ku rupa-rupa latar tukang, kalebet lulusan [[Ivy League]], atlét, urang wates (frontiersmen), [[Suku Asli Amérika Serikat|Suku Asli Amérika]], pamburu, panambang, tilas prajurit, padagang, sarta sheriff. Rough Riders janten bagian tina divisi kavaleri anu dipingpin ku tilas jénderal Konfédérasi [[Joseph Wheeler]]. Roosevelt sareng anak buahna badarat di [[Daiquirí]], Kuba, dina 23 Juni 1898, sarta maju ka [[Siboney, Kuba|Siboney]]. Wheeler ngirim Rough Riders dina jalan sajajar ka kalér-kulon mapay gawir luhureun basisir. Roosevelt nyepeng komando réjimén; anjeunna ngalaman patempuran munggaran nalika Rough Riders panggih jeung pasukan Spanyol dina hiji ''skirmish'' (patempuran leutik) anu katelah [[Patempuran Las Guasimas]]. Maranéhna hasil nembus pertahanan Spanyol sarta, babarengan jeung pasukan reguler, maksa pasukan Spanyol ninggalkeun posisina.<ref name="The Rough Riders">{{Cite book | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | author-link = Theodore Roosevelt | year = 1898 | chapter-url = http://www.bartleby.com/51/ | title = The Rough Riders | chapter = III | page = 2 | publisher = Bartleby | access-date = August 8, 2008 | archive-date = July 23, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080723190331/http://bartleby.com/51/ | url-status = live }}</ref> [[File:TR San Juan Hill 1898.jpg|thumb|Kolonél Roosevelt sareng [[Rough Riders]] babarengan jeung anggota Sukarelawan ka-3 sarta [[Réjimén Kavaleri ka-10 (Amérika Serikat)|Réjimén Kavaleri ka-10]] saatos ngarebut [[Kettle Hill]] di [[Kuba]] salami [[Perang Amérika–Spanyol]] dina Juli 1898]] Dina 1 Juli, dina hiji serangan gabungan sareng pasukan reguler, handapeun lulugu Roosevelt, Rough Riders janten kawentar alatan aksi narajang ka [[Kettle Hill]] sareng San Juan Hill. Roosevelt mangrupikeun hiji-hijina prajurit anu tumpak kuda, nalika anjeunna bulak-balik di antara parit-parit némbak di garis hareup nalika nanjak ka Kettle Hill, hiji gerakan anu didesek ku anjeunna sanajan euweuh paréntah resmi. Anjeunna kapaksa leumpang dina bagian ahir Kettle Hill sabab kudana kabeulit ku [[kawat leri]] (barbed wire). Ieu serangan engkéna katelah Patempuran San Juan Heights. Kameunangan ieu dibayar mahal ku 200 urang anu palastra sarta 1.000 urang tatu.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=356}} Dina bulan Agustus, Roosevelt sareng perwira sanésna nungtut sangkan para prajurit dipulangkan. Roosevelt nginget mangsa di San Juan Heights salaku "poé pangbadagna dina hirup kuring". Saatos mulang janten warga sipil, Roosevelt langkung resep disebut "Kolonél Roosevelt" atanapi "Sang Kolonél"; nanging landihan "Teddy" tetep langkung populer di masarakat, sanajan Roosevelt sacara terang-terangan teu resep kana éta landihan.<ref name= HandyBook>{{cite book| last= Matuz| first = Roger | title = The Handy Presidents Answer Book | url= https://archive.org/details/handypresidentsa0000matu| url-access= registration| year = 2004 | publisher=Visible Ink Press |page=474 |isbn=978-0-7808-0773-0}}</ref> ===Gubernur New York=== Teu lami saatos Roosevelt mulang, Anggota Kongrés ti Républik [[Lemuel E. Quigg]], bawahan ti bos mesin politik New York [[Thomas C. Platt]], ménta Roosevelt pikeun nyalonkeun diri dina [[Pamilihan nagara bagian New York 1898|pamilihan gubernur 1898]]. Sanajan sacara politik diuntungkeun ku "mesin Platt", naékna kakawasaan Roosevelt dicirian ku kaputusan pragmatis ti Platt, anu sabenerna mah teu pati resep ka Roosevelt. Platt sieun Roosevelt bakal ngalawan kapentinganana nalika ngajabat sarta horéam pikeun nyorong Roosevelt ka tingkat politik nasional, nanging anjeunna merlukeun calon anu kuat lantaran gubernur Républik anu nuju ngajabat harita, [[Frank S. Black]], nuju teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Roosevelt satuju janten nominé sarta nyoba pikeun henteu "ngajak perang" ka lingkungan mapan (establishment) Républik nalika engkéna ngajabat. Roosevelt ngéléhkeun Black dina kaukus Républik, sarta nyanghareupan tokoh Démokrat [[Augustus Van Wyck]], saurang hakim anu dipihormat, dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=309–311, 318}} Roosevelt kampanye ngagunakeun catetan sajarah perangna, sarta meunang tipis kalayan sora ngan béda 1%.{{Sfn|Morris|1979|pp=674–687}} Salaku gubernur, Roosevelt diajar ngeunaan pasualan ékonomi sarta téhnik politik anu engkéna kabuktian kacida berhargana nalika anjeunna janten présidén. Anjeunna neuleuman masalah-masalah kakuatan korporasi (trust), monopoli, hubungan tanaga gawé, sarta konservasi. G. Wallace Chessman nyebutkeun yén program Roosevelt "dumasar kana konsép ''Square Deal'' (kasapukan anu adil) ku nagara anu nétral". Aturan pikeun ''Square Deal'' nyaéta "kajujuran dina urusan publik, babagi hak sarta tanggung jawab anu adil, sarta nempatkeun kapentingan nagara bagian di luhureun kapentingan partéy jeung lokal".{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=6}} Ku cara ngayakeun konferénsi pers dua kali sapoé—hiji hal anu anyar harita—Roosevelt tetep kabeungkeut sareng basis massa kelas menengahna.{{Sfn|Morris|1979|p=693}} Roosevelt hasil ngadesek lolosna rancangan undang-undang Pajeg-Franchise Ford, anu méré pajeg ka waralaba publik (public franchises) anu dibéré ku nagara bagian sarta dikontrol ku korporasi, bari nyatakeun yén "hiji korporasi anu meunang kakawasaan ti Nagara, kudu mayar ka Nagara perséntase anu adil tina panghasilanana salaku balesan pikeun hak husus anu ditarimana".<ref>{{cite book | first = Theodore | last = Roosevelt | title = The Roosevelt Policy: Speeches, Letters and State Papers, Relating to Corporate Wealth and Closely Allied Topics, of Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ8-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2 | year = 1908 | page = 2 | access-date = October 17, 2015 | archive-date = April 6, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150406171230/http://books.google.com/books?id=bJ8-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2 | url-status = live }}</ref> Anjeunna nolak kahaoat Platt yén ieu hal ampir sarua jeung Sosialisme gaya Bryan, kalayan ngajelaskeun yén tanpa aturan ieu, pamilih di New York bisa jadi ambek sarta milih kapamilikan publik pikeun jalur karéta sarta franchise séjénna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=378–379}} Wenang pikeun ngangkat jabatan dina posisi nangtukeun kawijakan mangrupikeun peran konci pikeun gubernur. Platt keukeuh yén anjeunna kedah ditaroskeun ngeunaan pangangkatan jabatan anu penting; Roosevelt katingalina nurut, nanging saenyana mah anjeunna nyieun kaputusan sorangan. Para sejarawan héran kumaha Roosevelt bisa ngangkat sakitu lobana jalma-jalma kelas wahid kalayan persetujuan Platt. Anjeunna malah ménta tulung ka Platt pikeun ngamankeun réformasi, sapertos dina musim semi 1899, nalika Platt neken para sénator nagara bagian pikeun milih undang-undang layanan sipil anu disebut ku sekretaris Asosiasi Réformasi Layanan Sipil salaku "langkung punjul ti batan statute layanan sipil mana waé anu kantos aya di Amérika".{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=79}} Chessman boga pamandangan yén salaku gubernur, Roosevelt mekarkeun prinsip-prinsip anu ngawangun mangsa présidénna, utamana ngeunaan tanggung jawab publik korporasi badag, transparansi salaku ubar munggaran pikeun monopoli, pangaturan tarif karéta api, mediasi konflik modal jeung tanaga gawé, konservasi sumber daya alam, sarta panangtayungan ka jalma miskin.{{Sfn|Chessman|1965|p=6}} Roosevelt nyoba nempatkeun dirina di tengah-tengah, ngalawan kaleuwihan ti korporasi badag sarta gerakan radikal.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=322}} Salaku pamingpin eksekutif ti nagara bagian anu panglobana pangeusina, Roosevelt sacara lega dianggap salaku calon présidén anu poténsial, sarta para pangrojongna sapertos [[William Allen White]] nyorong anjeunna pikeun nyalonkeun diri.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=331–333}} Roosevelt teu boga minat pikeun nangtang McKinley dina nominasi taun 1900 sarta kahayangna pikeun ngajabat [[Sekretaris Perang]] ogé ditolak. Nalika mangsa jabatanana maju, Roosevelt mikirkeun pikeun nyalonkeun diri dina taun 1904, nanging masih cangcaya naha anjeunna kedah nyalonkeun deui janten gubernur dina taun 1900.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=333–334}} ===Wakil Présidén (1901)=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1900}} Dina bulan Nopémber 1899, Wakil Présidén [[Garret Hobart]] pupus, sahingga aya lolongkrang keur posisi wakil dina tikét nasional Républik taun 1900. Sanajan Henry Cabot Lodge sarta nu sanésna ngadesek Roosevelt sangkan nyalonkeun diri janten wakil présidén dina taun 1900, Roosevelt ngaluarkeun pernyataan publik yén anjeunna moal nampi éta nominasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=333–334, 338}} Ku sabab hoyong leupas ti Roosevelt di New York, Platt tetep ngamimitian kampanye ngaliwatan surat kabar pikeun ngarojong nominasi Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=338}} Roosevelt ngahadiran [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1900]] salaku delegasi nagara bagian sarta ngayakeun kasapukan sareng Platt: Roosevelt bakal nampi nominasi upami konvénsi nawarkeun ka anjeunna, nanging upami henteu, anjeunna bakal neraskeun deui janten gubernur. Platt ménta bos partéy Pennsylvania [[Matthew Quay]] pikeun mingpin kampanye nominasi Roosevelt, sarta Quay hasil ngéléhkeun taktik [[Mark Hanna]] dina éta konvénsi pikeun nempatkeun Roosevelt dina tikét pencalonan.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=340–341}} Roosevelt kenging nominasi sacara mufakat (aklamasi).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=342}} Kampanye Roosevelt salaku wakil présidén kabuktian kacida pinuh ku tanaga, nyalip gaya kampanye "barnstorming" (kampanye kaliling) ti calon présidén Démokrat William Jennings Bryan. Dina kampanye kilat anu némbongkeun tanagana ka masarakat, Roosevelt ngayakeun 480 titik panyimpangan di 23 nagara bagian. Anjeunna nyempad radikalisme Bryan, sarta ngabandingkeunana sareng kapahlawanan jalma-jalma anu meunang perang ngalawan Spanyol. Bryan sabenerna ngarojong pisan kana éta perang, nanging anjeunna nyempad anéksasi [[Filipina]] salaku tindakan [[imperialisme]]. Roosevelt ngawaler yén hal anu pangsaéna nyaéta pikeun urang [[Filipina]] miboga stabilitas sarta pikeun urang Amérika miboga tempat anu dipikareueus di dunya. Para pamilih masihan McKinley kameunangan anu langkung ageung dibandingkeun taun 1896.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=388–405}}<ref>John M. Hilpert, ''American Cyclone: Theodore Roosevelt and His 1900 Whistle-Stop Campaign'' (U Press of Mississippi, 2015).</ref> Roosevelt mimiti ngajabat janten wakil présidén dina bulan Maret 1901. Ieu jabatan téh saenyana mah saukur "jabatan ngeunaah" (sinecure) anu teu miboga kakawasaan nyata, sarta henteu cocog sareng watek Roosevelt anu agresif sarta resep gawé.<ref>{{Cite journal | first = G Wallace | last = Chessman | title = Theodore Roosevelt's Campaign Against the Vice-Presidency | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_historian_spring-1952_14_2/page/172 | journal = Historian | year = 1952 | volume = 14 | number = 2 | pages = 173–190 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1952.tb00132.x}}</ref> Genep bulan Roosevelt janten wakil présidén téh tiiseun pisan sarta matak bosen pikeun saurang jalma anu resep kana aksi nyata. Anjeunna teu miboga kakawasaan; anjeunna mingpin sési Sénat ngan ukur opat dinten sateuacan sési éta lekasan (resés).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=346}} Dina 2 Séptémber 1901, Roosevelt munggaran mublikasikeun hiji [[apoftegma]] (paribasa) anu matak reueus para pangrojongna: "**[[Ideologi Big Stick|Ngomong kalayan lembut sarta bawa iteuk anu badag, sarta anjeun bakal hasil (maju jauh).]]**"<ref>{{cite news |last=Woltman |first=Nick |date=August 31, 2015 |title=Roosevelt's 'big stick' line at State Fair stuck...later |url=https://www.twincities.com/2015/08/31/roosevelts-big-stick-line-at-state-fair-stuck-later/ |work=[[Twin Cities Pioneer Press]] |access-date=June 9, 2020 |archive-date=June 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610043645/https://www.twincities.com/2015/08/31/roosevelts-big-stick-line-at-state-fair-stuck-later/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Mangsa Présidén (1901–1909)== {{Main|Mangsa Présidén Theodore Roosevelt}} [[File:Theodore Roosevelt by John Singer Sargent, 1903.jpg|thumb|Potrét resmi [[White House|Imah Bodas]] Roosevelt karya [[John Singer Sargent]] dina taun 1903]] Dina 6 Séptémber 1901, Présidén McKinley nuju ngahadiran [[Pan-American Exposition]] di [[Buffalo, New York]], nalika anjeunna [[Asasinasi William McKinley|ditémbak]] ku saurang anarkis [[Leon Czolgosz]]. Roosevelt, anu nuju pakansi di [[Isle La Motte, Vermont]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=74729|title=Theodore Roosevelt's Visit to Isle la Motte Historical Marker|access-date=February 22, 2022|archive-date=February 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222173837/https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=74729|url-status=live}}</ref> angkat ka Buffalo pikeun ngalongok McKinley di rumah sakit. Nalika McKinley katingalina nuju sakarat (saé deui), Roosevelt neraskeun deui pakansina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trsite.org/learn/the-day-of-the-inauguration|title=The Inauguration|access-date=February 22, 2022|archive-date=February 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222173838/https://www.trsite.org/learn/the-day-of-the-inauguration|url-status=live}}</ref> Nanging nalika kaayaan McKinley beuki parah, Roosevelt rurusuhan mulang deui ka Buffalo. Anjeunna nuju di [[North Creek, New York]] nalika nampi béja ngeunaan pupusna McKinley dina 14 Séptémber. Roosevelt tuluy neraskeun lalampahan ka Buffalo sarta [[Inaugurasi munggaran Theodore Roosevelt|dilantik janten présidén ka-26]] di Ansley Wilcox House (ayeuna [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Inaugurasi Theodore Roosevelt]]).{{sfn|Miller|1992|pp=348–352}} Para pangrojong McKinley ngarasa hariwang ka Roosevelt, utamana Sénator ti Ohio [[Mark Hanna]] anu kacida kuciwana, ngingetkeun kana perlawananana anu kuat dina mangsa konvénsi. Sanajan Roosevelt ngayakinkeun para pamingpin partéy yén anjeunna bakal neraskeun kawijakan McKinley sarta tetep ngagunakeun kabinét anu lami, anjeunna satekah polah netepkeun dirina salaku pamingpin partéy sarta nyiapkeun posisi pikeun pamilihan taun 1904.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=354–356}} Naékna Roosevelt janten présidén dipapag ku kahariwang ti kaom konservatif Républik, sakumaha anu dicatet ku sejarawan [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]]: {{blockquote|Kaom konservatif, anu parantos ngadominasi Partéy Républik salami tilu dékade, sieun yén ieu présidén ngora anu impulsif téh bakal jadi "kuda liar" (bucking bronco), anu bakal ngaruksak aliansi antara dunya usaha jeung pamaréntah anu parantos méré kamakmuran anu taya tandingna dina awal abad éta. Para réformis mah sabalikna, ngaharepkeun kapamingpinan Roosevelt anu motékar bakal ngarobah Partéy Républik janten kakuatan progresif sakumaha jaman Abraham Lincoln, anu narékahan pikeun nyebarkeun kamakmuran saluareun jalma-jalma beunghar ka rahayat biasa.{{Sfn|Goodwin|2013|p=279–280}}}} Nambahan kana hal éta, Kearns ogé nyatet yén: {{Blockquote|Salami karirna, Roosevelt parantos berjuang pikeun ngahijikeun kasatiaan ka partéy sareng dorongan pikeun nungkulan masalah sosial, hiji tindakan saimbang (balancing act) anu janten beuki hésé nalika aspék-aspék industrialisasi anu matak hariwang beuki parah. Sanajan anjeunna nganggap dirina konservatif upami dibandingkeun sareng kaom Populis, anjeunna yakin yén partéyna nuju dicekel ku kaom réaksionér anu sakitu "sieunna ku radikalisme" sahingga maranéhna "teu percaya kana sagala hal anu sipatna progresif." Justru jalma-jalma sapertos kitu anu ngadominasi kadua kamar di Kongrés, ceuk Roosevelt. Anjeunna bakal digawé pikeun "nyorong" maranéhna maju, nanging anjeunna sadar yén kamajuan anu nyata peryogi pangajak langsung ka rahayat, "dunungan urang duaan." Pikeun ngahontal masarakat umum, anjeunna bakal ngagunakeun jinis wartawan indepénden anyar, anu tanpa "rojongan aktip" maranéhna, anjeunna engkéna ngaku yén anjeunna "moal miboga kakuatan naon-naon."{{Sfn|Goodwin|2013|p=281}}}} Teu lami saatos ngajabat, Roosevelt ngondang [[Booker T. Washington]] pikeun tuang wengi di Imah Bodas, anu nimbulkeun réaksi keras ti sakuliah wilayah Kidul anu masih keneh kandel ku segregasi ras.<ref>Dewey W. Grantham, "Dinner at the White House: Theodore Roosevelt, Booker T. Washington, and the South." ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' (1958) 17.2: 112–130 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42621372 online].</ref> Sanajan awalna Roosevelt ngarencanakeun langkung seueur tuang wengi sareng Washington, anjeunna engkéna nyingkahan ondangan salajengna sarta langkung milih rapat-rapat bisnis demi ngajaga rojongan politik di wilayah Kidul (urang bodas).{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=422–423}}{{Sfn|Morris|2001|p=58}} ===Kawijakan domestik: The Square Deal=== {{Further|Square Deal}} ====Trust busting (merangan monopoli) sarta régulasi==== Roosevelt dipuji salaku "trust-buster" (pangancur monopoli) alatan tindakana anu agrésif dina ngagunakeun [[Undang-undang Antitrust Sherman]] taun 1890, upami dibandingkeun sareng para présidén sateuacanna.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Anjeunna nganggap bisnis skala badag téh penting pikeun ékonomi Amérika, nanging anjeunna ngan nungtut "bad trusts" (monopoli jahat) anu ngawatesan perdagangan sarta nangtukeun harga anu teu adil.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=365–366}} Roosevelt ngajukeun 44 tungtutan antitrust, kaasup ngabubarkeun [[Northern Securities Company]], monopoli karéta api pangbadagna, sarta ngatur [[Standard Oil]], pausahaan minyak pangbadagna.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Sabalikna, para présidén sateuacanna sapertos Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, sarta William McKinley, upami digabungkeun ngan saukur nungtut 18 palanggaran antitrust.{{sfn|Ruddy|2016}} Saatos kenging sora mayoritas dina [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1902]], Roosevelt ngusulkeun pangbentukan [[Departemén Perdagangan sareng Tanaga Gawé Amérika Serikat]], anu di jerona kalebet [[Biro Korporasi]]. Kongrés nampi éta departemén, nanging cangcaya kana kawasa antitrust anu dipihoyong ku Roosevelt di jero éta biro. Roosevelt tuluy ménta dukungan langsung ti masarakat pikeun neken Kongrés, sahingga ahirna Kongrés ngaluluskeun éta rancangan undang-undang luyu sareng kahayang Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=378–381}} Ketua Déwan Perwakilan Rakyat (House Speaker) [[Joseph Gurney Cannon]] méré koméntar kana kahayang Roosevelt pikeun ngontrol cabang éksekutif: "Éta jalma di tungtung jalan ditu téh hayang sagalana, ti mimiti lahirna Kristus nepi ka maotna sétan." Panulis biografi Brands nyatet, "Malah babaturanana ogé sakapeung mah héran naha aya kabiasaan atanapi prakték anu sakitu leutikna nepi ka kudu diatur, diropéa, atanapi dironjatkeun ku anjeunna."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=552–553}} Kawani Roosevelt dina ngagunakeun kakawasaan nepi ka nyabak urusan parobahan aturan dina [[Football Amérika]], maksa diteraskeunana kelas béla diri di [[Akademi Angkatan Laut AS]], ngarobah aturan disiplin, ngarobah desain koin anu teu dipikaresep ku anjeunna, sarta maréntahkeun panyederhanaan éjahan pikeun 300 kecap, sanajan anu pamungkas mah dibatalkeun saatosna diheureuykeun ku pers sarta diprotés ku DPR.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=553–556}} ====Mogok tambang batu bara==== {{main|Mogok batu bara 1902}} Dina bulan Méi 1902, para [[United Mine Workers|panambang batu bara antrasit]] ngayakeun aksi mogok, anu ngancam ayana kakurangan énergi nasional. Saatos ngancam para pangusaha batu bara ku pasukan féderal, Roosevelt hasil ngayakinkeun maranéhna sangkan méréskeun pasualanna ngaliwatan arbitrase ku hiji komisi, sahingga aksi mogokna eureun. Kasapukan sareng [[J. P. Morgan]] ngahasilkeun dironjatkeunana gajih panambang sarta jam gawé anu langkung saeutik, nanging serikat buruhna tetep teu diaku sacara resmi.{{Sfn|Harbaugh|1963|pp= 165–179}}{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=450–483}} Roosevelt nyarios, "Tindakan kuring dina urusan tanaga gawé kudu salawasna dianggap aya patalina jeung tindakan kuring dina urusan modal, sarta duanana bisa disimpulkeun kana rumus paporit kuring—kasapukan anu adil (square deal) pikeun unggal jalma."{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=509}} Anjeunna mangrupikeun présidén munggaran anu milu méréskeun pasulayan tanaga gawé.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=376–377}} ====Nindak kalakuan teu bener==== Salami taun kadua Roosevelt ngajabat, korupsi kaungkab di [[Biro Urusan India]], [[Kantor Pertanahan Umum Amérika Serikat]], sarta [[Departemén Kantor Pos Amérika Serikat]]. Anjeunna nungtut para agén India korup anu parantos nipu [[Suku Asli Amérika]] tina lahan-lahanna. Penipuan lahan sarta spékulasi anu ngalibetkeun leuweung kai di Oregon ngabalukarkeun anjeunna sareng [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (Interior)|Ethan A. Hitchcock]] maksa Komisaris Kantor Pertanahan Umum [[Binger Hermann]] turun tina jabatanna dina bulan Nopémber 1902. Jaksa husus [[Francis J. Heney]] kenging 146 dakwaan dina kasus suap di Kantor Pertanahan Oregon.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=207}} Roosevelt ogé nungtut 44 pagawé pos dina kasus suap sarta penipuan.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=208}} Para sejarawan sapuk yén anjeunna parantos méré tindakan "gancang sarta tegas" dina nungkulan kalakuan teu bener di jero pamaréntahanana.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=209}} ====Karéta Api==== {{Main|Hepburn Act}} Para padagang ngangluh yén sababaraha tarif karéta api luhur teuing. Dina [[Undang-undang Hepburn]] 1906, Roosevelt narékahan pikeun méré kakuatan ka [[Komisi Perdagangan Antar-Nagara Bagian]] (ICC) pikeun ngatur tarif, nanging Sénat anu dipingpin ku tokoh konservatif [[Nelson Aldrich]] ngalawan. Roosevelt gawé bareng jeung Sénator Démokrat [[Benjamin Tillman]] pikeun ngaluluskeun éta undang-undang. Maranéhna ahirna nepi ka hiji kompromi anu méré kakuatan ka ICC pikeun ngaganti tarif anu aya ku tarif maksimum anu "adil-jeung-mawa-akal", bari ngidinan pausahaan karéta api pikeun ngajukeun banding ka pangadilan féderal ngeunaan naon anu disebut "mawa akal" (reasonable).{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=453–459}}{{sfn|Blum|1977|pp=89–117}} Undang-undang Hepburn ogé méré kakuatan régulasi ka ICC kana biaya pipa saluran, kontrak gudang, sarta aspék séjén tina operasional karéta api.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=445–448}} ====Kadaharan sarta ubat-ubatan anu murni==== Roosevelt ngaréspon amarah publik ngeunaan prakték curang dina industri pangolahan kadaharan ku cara ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngesahkeun [[Undang-undang Inspeksi Daging]] 1906 sarta [[Undang-undang Kadaharan sarta Ubat Murni]]. Kaom konservatif mimitina nolak, nanging buku ''[[The Jungle]]'' karya [[Upton Sinclair]] anu dipedarkeun taun 1906 hasil ngahudangkeun rojongan pikeun réformasi.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=459–460}} Undang-undang Inspeksi Daging ngalarang labél anu nyasabkeun sarta [[bahan pangawét]] nu miboga bahan kimia bahaya. Undang-undang Kadaharan sarta Ubat Murni ngalarang dijieun, dijual, sarta dikirimna kadaharan jeung ubat-ubatan anu teu murni atanapi anu labélna palsu. Roosevelt ogé ngajabat salaku présidén honorér [[Asosiasi Higiénis Sakola Amérika]] ti 1907 dugi ka 1908 sarta ngayakeun Konferénsi Imah Bodas munggaran ngeunaan Pangurus Budak dina taun 1909. ====Konservasi==== {{Main|Mangsa Présidén Theodore Roosevelt#Konservasi}} [[File:President Theodore Roosevelt Driving Through the Wawona Tunnel Tree, in Yellowstone National Park (14994749857).jpg|thumb|Roosevelt nuju nyupiran ngaliwatan torowongan tangkal [[Sequoia raksasa|sequoia]]]] Roosevelt kacida reueusna ku karyana dina ngajaga (konservasi) sumber daya alam sarta ngalegaan panangtayungan féderal pikeun lahan jeung sato liar.{{sfn|Bakari|2016}} Anjeunna gawé bareng raket jeung Sekretaris Interior [[James Rudolph Garfield]] sarta Kepala Dinas Leuweung Amérika Serikat [[Gifford Pinchot]] pikeun ngajalankeun runtuyan program konservasi anu meunang tantangan ti anggota Kongrés wilayah Kulon, sapertos [[Charles William Fulton]].{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=469–471}} Sanajan kitu, Roosevelt hasil ngadegkeun [[Dinas Leuweung Amérika Serikat]], nandatanganan pangwangunan lima [[Taman Nasional (Amérika Serikat)|Taman Nasional]], sarta nandatanganan [[Undang-undang Barang Antik]] 1906, anu dipaké ku anjeunna pikeun netepkeun 18 [[Monumén Nasional AS]] anyar. Anjeunna ogé ngadegkeun 51 [[suaka manuk]] munggaran, opat [[pangraksa sato liar]], sarta 150 [[Leuweung Nasional Amérika Serikat]]. Lega wilayah Amérika Serikat anu ditepkeun ku anjeunna dina panangtayungan publik totalna sakitar {{convert|230|e6acre|km2|sp=us|abbr=off}}.{{sfn|Brinkley|2009}} Roosevelt loba pisan ngagunakeun [[Paréntah éksekutif (Amérika Serikat)|paréntah éksekutif]] pikeun nangtayungan leuweung sarta lahan sato liar salami mangsa présidénna. Dina ahir periode kaduana, Roosevelt parantos ngagunakeun paréntah éksekutif pikeun nyadangkeun {{convert|150|e6acre|km2|sigfig=1|abbr=off|sp=us}} lahan perhutanan. Roosevelt teu asa-asa dina ngagunakeun paréntah éksekutif pikeun nangtayungan lingkungan, sanajan Kongrés nganggap anjeunna parantos ngalunju teuing kana seueur lahan. Ahirna, Sénator [[Charles William Fulton]] nyelipkeun amandémén kana undang-undang anggaran tatanén anu ngahalangan présidén pikeun nyadangkeun lahan leuwih loba deui. Sateuacan nandatanganan éta undang-undang, Roosevelt gancang-gancang netepkeun [[leuweung tengah peuting|21 cadangan leuweung tambahan]], nungguan nepi ka detik-detik terakhir sateuacan anjeunna nandatanganan undang-undang éta janten hukum. Sacara total, Roosevelt ngaluarkeun 1.081 paréntah éksekutif, langkung seueur ti présidén mana waé sateuacanna. ====Kepanikan bisnis 1907==== {{Further|Kepanikan 1907}} [[File:Theodore Roosevelt by Harris & Ewing Studio, 1907.jpg|thumb|Potrét Roosevelt taun 1907 karya [[Harris & Ewing]]]] Dina taun 1907, Roosevelt nyanghareupan krisis ékonomi domestik pangbadagna ti saprak [[Kepanikan 1893]]. Pasar saham Wall Street anjlog dina awal 1907, sarta seueur investor anu nyalahkeun kawijakan régulasi Roosevelt salaku cukang lantaran turunna harga saham.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=495–496}} Roosevelt ahirna ngabantu niiskeun krisis ku cara ngayakeun rapat jeung para pamingpin [[U.S. Steel]] dina 4 Nopémber 1907, sarta nyatujuan rencana maranéhna pikeun meuli pausahaan baja Tennessee anu ampir bangkrut—anu upami gagal bakal ngancurkeun bank badag di New York.{{sfn|Gould|2011|p=239}} Nanging, dina bulan Agustus, Roosevelt ngamuk ka jalma-jalma nu beunghar pisan alatan kasalahan ékonomi maranéhna, bari nyebut maranéhna salaku "**malefactors of great wealth**" (palaku kajahatan tina kabeungharan badag) dina biantara pentingna, "The Puritan Spirit and the Regulation of Corporations". Nalika nyoba mulangkeun kapercayaan, anjeunna nyalahkeun Éropa salaku sabab utama krisis, nanging saatos muji kajujuran kaom Puritan, anjeunna neraskeun: {{Blockquote|Bisa jadi kaputusan pamaréntah... pikeun ngahukum sababaraha palaku kajahatan tina kabeungharan badag (malefactors of great wealth), mémang miboga pangaruh kana ieu kaributan; sahenteuna dina hal anu ngabalukarkeun ieu jalma-jalma ngahiji pikeun nyiptakeun tekenan finansial sabisa-bisa, sangkan bisa ngaruksak ngaran kawijakan pamaréntah sarta ahirna bisa ngabatalkeun éta kawijakan, sangkan maranéhna bisa terus ngarasakeun hasil tina kajahatanana tanpa kaganggu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |editor-first=Hermann |editor-last=Hagedorn |title=The Works of Theodore Roosevelt |volume=18 - American Problems |date=1925 |publisher=[[Scribner & Sons]] |page=99}}</ref>}} Ngeunaan jalma anu beunghar pisan, Roosevelt sacara pribadi nyapéléké maranéhna, bari nyebut "maranéhna téh kacida teu pantesna pikeun mingpin nagara, sarta ... karuksakan langgeng anu dijieun ku maranéhna ngaliwatan naon anu dianggap ku maranéhna salaku operasi bisnis badag anu sah dina mangsa ayeuna". Lumangsung.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=215}} Dina taun 1906, saatos lumangsungna pamilihan anu dicarékéun, aya panyimpangan (insurréksi) di Kuba; Roosevelt ngirim Taft, Sekretaris Perang harita, pikeun ngawaskeun kaayaan; Roosevelt yakin yén anjeunna miboga wewenang sacara sapihak pikeun ngidinan Taft ngirimkeun pasukan Marinir, upami diperyogikeun, tanpa kedah aya persetujuan ti Kongrés.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=570}} Nalika mariksa karya ti sababaraha sarjana, Ricard ngalaporkeun yén: {{Blockquote|Parobahan anu pangmédokna dina historiografi Theodore Roosevelt di abad ka-21 nyaéta pindahna sawangan tina tuduhan sawaréh salaku tokoh impérialis janten pujian anu méh mufakat salaku diplomat ulung.... [Karya-karya anyar] parantos negeskeun kalayan mernah ngeunaan kamampuh Roosevelt anu luar biasa dina ngawangun "hubungan husus" anu nembe mekar di awal abad ka-20. ...Reputasi présidén ka-26 salaku diplomat anu brilian sarta politikus nyata (real politician) parantos nepi ka tingkat anu anyar di abad ka-21... nanging, kawijakanana di Filipina masih kénéh nampi rupa-rupa kritik.{{sfn|Ricard|2014}}}} Dina 6 Nopémber 1906, Roosevelt janten présidén munggaran anu angkat kaluar ti daratan utama Amérika Serikat dina hiji lalampahan diplomatik resmi. Roosevelt ngayakeun lalampahan salami 17 dinten ka Panama sarta Puérto Riko.<ref name="Forslund">{{cite web |last1=Forslund |first1=Catherine |title="Off for the Ditch" - Theodore and Edith Roosevelt Visit Panama in 1906 |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/off-for-the-ditch |publisher=[[White House Historical Association]] |access-date=January 14, 2024 |date=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Presidential and Secretaries Travels Abroad - Theodore Roosevelt |url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/roosevelt-theodore |publisher=Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, [[United States Department of State]] |access-date=January 14, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Thomas |first1=Heather |title=Theodore Roosevelt: A President of "Firsts" |url=https://blogs.loc.gov/headlinesandheroes/2020/06/theodore-roosevelt-a-president-of-firsts/ |access-date=January 14, 2024 |date=June 4, 2020 |quote=The first president to leave the country during his time in office—On November 9, 1906, Roosevelt embarks from the Chesapeake Bay aboard the U.S.S. Louisiana to inspect the construction of the Panama Canal,}}</ref> Anjeunna nganjang ka lokasi pangwangunan Terusan Panama sarta ngahadiran rupa-rupa resépsi diplomatik boh di Panama atanapi di Puérto Riko.<ref name="Forslund"/> ===Média=== [[File:Go Away Little Man Charles Green Bush.jpg|thumb|Karikatur taun 1903, "Go Away, Little Man, and Don't Bother Me", anu ngagambarkeun Roosevelt nuju nyingsieunan [[Kolombia]] pikeun meunangkeun [[Zona Terusan Panama]]]] Nuluykeun cara McKinley anu éféktif dina ngagunakeun pers, Roosevelt ngajadikeun Imah Bodas (White House) salaku puseur béja unggal poé, bari nyadiakeun kasempetan wawancara sarta poto. Saatos ningali para wartawan anu kumpul di luar Imah Bodas bari kahujanan dina hiji poé, anjeunna masihan hiji rohangan husus di jero pikeun maranéhna, anu sacara éféktif jadi mimitina ayana [[Konferénsi pers|press briefing]] présidén. Pihak pers anu ngarasa nganuhunkeun alatan dibéré aksés anu luar biasa ka Imah Bodas, males ku cara méré liputan anu lega ka Roosevelt.<ref name="american chronicle">Robert Rouse (2006). "Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference—93 years young!". American Chronicle.</ref> Salian ti kasus Fitnah Roosevelt-Panama, Roosevelt biasana miboga hubungan anu raket pisan jeung pihak pers. Nalika keur teu ngajabat, anjeunna milari napakah salaku panulis sarta é ditor majalah. Anjeunna resep diskusi sareng para intelektual, sastrawan, sarta panulis. Nanging, anjeunna méré watesan anu tegas ka para wartawan anu resep ngungkit-ngungkit skandal (exposé-oriented) anu dina mangsa jabatanna nyieun oplas majalah naék drastis alatan narajang para politikus, walikota, sarta korporasi anu korup. Roosevelt nyalira biasana mah henteu janten targét, nanging hiji biantara anjeunna dina taun 1906 nyiptakeun istilah "**[[muckraker]]**" pikeun para wartawan anu teu boga étika sarta sok nyieun tuduhan sawenang-wenang.<ref>Weinberg, Arthur & Weinberg, Lila Shaffer (1961). "The Muckrakers". University of Illinois Press.</ref> ===Pamilihan 1904=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1904}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1904.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Hasil Electoral College dina pamilihan 1904]] Saatos kakawasaan Thomas Platt mimiti luntur, Roosevelt ampir teu miboga lawan anu hartosna pikeun nominasi taun 1904.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=437–438}} Pikeun ngahormatan para pangrojong konservatif [[Mark Hanna]], Roosevelt mimitina nawarkeun jabatan ketua partéy ka [[Cornelius Bliss]], nanging anjeunna nolak. Roosevelt tuluy milih jalma kapercayaanana nyalira, [[George B. Cortelyou]] ti New York, Sekretaris Perdagangan sarta Tanaga Gawé anu munggaran. Pikeun nguatkeun posisina dina nominasi partéy, Roosevelt negeskeun yén saha waé anu ngalawan Cortelyou bakal dianggap ngalawan Présidén.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=501–503}} Présidén hasil ngamankeun nominasi dirina, nanging calon wakil présidén pilihanana, [[Robert R. Hitt]], henteu kapilih jadi nominé.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=504}} Sénator [[Charles W. Fairbanks|Charles Warren Fairbanks]] ti Indiana, anu jadi paporit kaom konservatif, anu tungtungna meunang nominasi éta.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=437–438}} Nalika Roosevelt nuturkeun tradisi petahana (incumbent) anu henteu milu kampanye langsung di lapangan (on the stump), anjeunna nyoba ngontrol talatah kampanye ngaliwatan paréntah husus ka Cortelyou. Anjeunna ogé nyoba ngatur kumaha pers ngaluarkeun pernyataan Imah Bodas ku cara ngabentuk "**Ananias Club**". Saha waé wartawan anu ngulang pernyataan présidén tanpa idin bakal dihukum ku cara diwatesan aksésna ka hareupna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=507}} Calon ti Partéy Démokrat dina taun 1904 nyaéta [[Alton B. Parker|Alton Brooks Parker]]. Surat kabar Démokrat nuding yén urang Républik nuju meres kontribusi kampanye anu badag tina korporasi-korporasi, sarta nyebut yén tanggung jawab utama aya di Roosevelt nyalira.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=215–216}} Roosevelt nolak tuduhan korupsi éta, bari dina waktu anu sarua maréntahkeun Cortelyou pikeun mulangkeun duit $100.000 tina kontribusi kampanye ti [[Standard Oil]].{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=216}} Parker nyebut yén Roosevelt nampi sumbangan korporasi sangkan inpormasi anu ngarugikeun ti [[Biro Korporasi]] henteu diumumkeun ka publik.{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=216}} Roosevelt sacara tegas nolak tuduhan Parker sarta ngajawab yén anjeunna bakal "ngalaksanakeun jabatan Présidén tanpa kabeungkeut ku jangji, sumpah, atanapi kasapukan naon waé...".{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=216–217}} Nanging, tuduhan ti Parker sarta Démokrat henteu miboga pangaruh badag kana pamilihan, sabab Roosevelt jangji bakal méré unggal urang Amérika hiji "**[[Square Deal|square deal]]**" (kasapukan anu adil).{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|pp=216–217}} Roosevelt meunang 56% sora rahayat (popular vote) dibandingkeun Parker anu ngan 38%, sarta meunang sora [[Electoral College (Amérika Serikat)|Electoral College]] 336 lawan 140. Sateuacan [[Inaugurasi kadua Theodore Roosevelt|upacara pelantikanana]], Roosevelt nyatakeun yén anjeunna moal nyalonkeun deui dina période salajengna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=513–514}} ===Période Kadua=== Nalika période kaduana jalan, Roosevelt mimiti pindah ka haluan kénca ti basis Partéy Républikna sarta ngusulkeun runtuyan réformasi, anu sabagéan badag gagal diluluskeun ku Kongrés. Pangaruh Roosevelt mimiti luntur nalika ngadeukeutan ahir période kaduana, ditambah ku janji anjeunna moal nyalonkeun deui, sarta konséntrasi kakawasaanana nimbulkeun réaksi keras ti seueur anggota Kongrés.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=463–464}} Anjeunna ngusahakeun undang-undang pangbadagan korporasi nasional, nungtut ayana [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Serikat|pajeg panghasilan]] féderal, sarta pajeg warisan. Roosevelt ogé nungtut watesan kana pamakéan paréntah pangadilan (injunctions) ngalawan serikat buruh nalika mogok. Anjeunna hoyong aya undang-undang tanggung jawab dunungan pikeun kacilakaan industri sarta dalapan jam gawé pikeun pagawé féderal. Dina widang séjén, anjeunna ogé ngusahakeun sistem tabungan pos (pikeun méré saingan ka bank lokal), sarta ménta undang-undang réformasi kampanye.{{sfn|Ricard|2011|pp=160–166}} Pamilihan 1904 terus janten sumber perdebatan antara Républik sareng Démokrat. Hiji panalungtikan Kongrés dina taun 1905 ngungkabkeun yén para eksekutif korporasi nyumbang puluhan rébu dolar dina taun 1904 ka Komite Nasional Républik. Dina taun 1908, sabulan sateuacan pamilihan présidén umum, Gubernur [[Charles N. Haskell]] ti Oklahoma nyebutkeun yén para sénator anu aya dina pangaruh Standard Oil neken Roosevelt, dina usum panas 1904, pikeun ngidinan nyéwakeun lahan minyak milik suku India ka anak pausahaan Standard Oil. Anjeunna nyebut Roosevelt ngabolaykeun kaputusan Sekretaris Interiorna sarta méré ijin jalur pipa ngaliwatan [[Bangsa Osage|lahan Osage]] ka Prairie Oil and Gas Company. Surat kabar New York ''Sun'' nyieun tuduhan sarupa sarta nyebut yén Standard Oil parantos nyumbang $150.000 ka urang Républik dina taun 1904 saatos ayana kaputusan Roosevelt éta. Roosevelt nyebut tuduhan Haskell salaku "bohông saenyana".{{Sfn|Chambers|1974|p=219}} ====Rétorika kabeneran==== Rétorika Roosevelt dicirian ku moralisme anu kuat ngeunaan kabeneran pribadi (personal righteousness).{{Sfn|Dorsey|2003}}{{Sfn|Hawley|2008}} Nada ieu katingali tina panyempadna kana "kabeungharan prédator" (predatory wealth) dina talatah anu dikirimkeun ka Kongrés dina Januari 1908 pikeun ngadesek diluluskeunana undang-undang tanaga gawé anu anyar: {{Blockquote|Kabeungharan prédator--nyaéta kabeungharan anu dikumpulkeun dina skala raksasa ngaliwatan sagala rupa bentuk kajahatan, mimitian tina nindés pagawé upahan nepi ka cara-cara anu teu adil sarta teu séhat pikeun mareuman saingan, sarta nipu publik ku cara manipulasi saham sarta sekuritas. Jalma-jalma beunghar tina jinis ieu, anu kalakuanana kudu dianggap hina ku unggal jalma anu miboga haté nurani anu bener, sarta anu geus ngalakukeun kasalahan gedé ku cara ngajar para pamuda urang yén kasuksésan bisnis anu luar biasa téh kudu dumasar kana kateujujuran, dina sababaraha bulan terakhir ieu geus némbongkeun yén maranéhna geus ngahiji pikeun ngayakeun réaksi. Usaha maranéhna nyaéta pikeun ngagubragkeun sarta ngaruksak ngaran sakabéh jalma anu ngajalankeun hukum kalayan jujur, pikeun nyegah ayana panerapan tambahan anu bakal ngahalangan maranéhna, sarta pikeun meunangkeun kabébasan tina sagala rupa watesan anu bakal ngidinan unggal palaku kajahatan anu teu miboga étika pikeun ngalakukeun naon waé anu dipihoyongna salami maranéhna miboga cukup duit.... Cara-cara anu digunakeun ku urang Standard Oil sarta maranéhna anu kalibet dina kombinasi séjénna... ngan bisa diyakinkeun ku cara ngadukung sistem moralitas anu ogé bakal ngayakinkeun sagala rupa bentuk kriminalitas ti pihak serikat buruh, sarta sagala rupa bentuk kekerasan, korupsi, sarta penipuan, mimiti tina rajapati nepi ka suap sarta kacurangan kotak suara dina politik.{{Sfn|Roosevelt|1908}}}} ===Roosevelt sarta masalah rasial=== {{Further|Tuang wengi Booker T. Washington di Imah Bodas|Kajadian Brownsville|Posisi politik Theodore Roosevelt#Hubungan ras}} Dina taun 1890 nepi ka 1919, lumangsung panurunan anu seukeut—hiji "nadir" (titik panghandapna)—dina status politik sarta sosial warga Amérika katurunan Afrika boh di wilayah Kidul atanapi di Kalér. Dina sisi positipna, Roosevelt ngasupkeun prajurit kulit hideung kana unit Rough Rider-na dina taun 1898. Anjeunna ogé ngondang tokoh utama kulit hideung, [[Booker T. Washington]], pikeun tuang wengi di Imah Bodas dina Oktober 1901, sarta rutin ménta nasehat Washington ngeunaan kumaha cara ngabagi jabatan patronase ka urang Républik kulit hideung. Nanging, beuki lila anjeunna beuki ngadukung kana tren panurunan kasebut. Salami kunjungan ka wilayah Kidul dina taun 1905, anjeunna ngélingan para pamilih katurunan Afrika sangkan nampi "**supremasi kulit bodas**" sarta agul ka urang bodas yén indungna téh asalna ti Georgia. Di tengah période kaduana, Présidén ngabubarkeun sakabéh batalyon prajurit kulit hideung anu dianggap sakongkol sarta nolak nurut kana paréntahna pikeun ngalaporkeun ngaran-ngaran prajurit anu narajang warga sipil kulit bodas dina [[Kajadian Brownsville|Kajadian Brownsville, Téxas]]. Dina taun 1912, nalika ngadegkeun [[Bull Moose Party|Partéy Bull Moose]], anjeunna ngan ngerahkeun urang bodas di wilayah Kidul, sedengkeun Présidén Taft ngerahkeun duanana ras di dinya. ==Pasca-kaprésidénan (1909–1919)== ===Pamilihan 1908=== {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1908}} Roosevelt mikaresep janten présidén nanging yakin yén watesan période jabatan téh mangrupikeun pangahalang tina diktator. Anjeunna mutuskeun pikeun nuhunan jangjina dina taun 1904 pikeun henteu nyalonkeun deui dina période katilu. Sanajan anjeunna leuwih milih Sekretaris Nagara [[Elihu Root]] salaku gagantina, kaayaan kaséhatan Root anu kirang saé ngajadikeun anjeunna teu cocog. Gubernur New York [[Charles Evans Hughes]] mangrupikeun calon anu kuat sarta miboga sumanget progresivisme anu sarua jeung Roosevelt, nanging Roosevelt nganggap Hughes teuing indepénden. Anjeunna ahirna milih Sekretaris Perangna, [[William Howard Taft]], anu parantos janten réjangna saprak 1890 sarta salawasna ngadukung kawijakan Roosevelt.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=483–485}} Roosevelt kacida hayongna nempatkeun gaganti pilihanna, sarta nyerat ka Taft: "Will nu bageur: Naha anjeun hayang kuring méré tindakan ka para pajabat féderal éta? Kuring bakal mileykeun beuheung maranéhna kalayan bungah pisan upami anjeun nyarios!" Sababaraha minggu saatosna, anjeunna nyebut "palsu sarta jahat" kana tuduhan yén anjeunna ngagunakeun jabatanna pikeun nguntungkeun Taft.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=626}} Dina konvénsi Républik 1908, seueur anu ngagorowok "opat taun deui" pikeun Roosevelt, nanging Taft kenging nominasi saatos Henry Cabot Lodge negeskeun yén Roosevelt mémang henteu minat.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=488–489}} Dina pamilihan 1908, Taft kalayan gampang ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat [[William Jennings Bryan]]. Taft ngamajukeun progresivisme anu nekenkeun kana aturan hukum; anjeunna leuwih milih hakim, lain politikus, anu nyieun kaputusan ngeunaan kaadilan. Nanging, Taft kabuktian kurang parigel dina politik dibandingkeun Roosevelt, kurang miboga tanaga, karisma pribadi, sarta rojongan publik anu ngajadikeun Roosevelt sakitu kuatna. Nalika Roosevelt sadar yén nurunkeun tarif bakal nyiptakeun tegangan di jero Partéy Républik, anjeunna eureun nyarioskeun hal éta. Taft, bari teu maliré kana résiko, neken pasualan tarif kalayan wani, anu ngahasilkeun [[Tarif Payne-Aldrich]] 1909, anu ahirna ngajauhkeun para réformis ti sagala sisi. Nalika krisis nuju mekar di jero Partéy, Roosevelt nuju lalampahan ka Afrika sarta Éropa, méré lolongkrang ka Taft. ===Afrika sarta Éropa (1909–1910)=== [[File:Roosevelt safari elephant.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt keur ngadeg di gigireun gajah beunang némbakna nalika safari di [[Afrika]]]] Dina Maret 1909, tilas présidén éta mangkat pikeun miluan [[Ékspédisi Afrika Smithsonian-Roosevelt]].<ref name="Science1908">"President Roosevelt's African Trip". Science (1908).</ref> Rombongan Roosevelt badarat di [[Mombasa]], [[Afrika Wétan Britania]], tuluy lumampah ka [[Kongo bélgia]] sateuacan nyusur Walungan Nil ka [[Khartoum]] di nagara [[Sudan]] ayeuna. Kalayan dukungan dana anu gedé ti [[Andrew Carnegie]] sarta tina hasil tulisanana sorangan, romongan Roosevelt moro rupa-rupa spésimén pikeun [[Smithsonian Institution]] sarta [[Museum sajarah Alam Amérika]].<ref name="SIA">"Roosevelt African Expedition Collects for SI". Smithsonian Institution Archives.</ref> Ieu grup dipingpin ku pangalun (hunter-tracker) R.J. Cunninghame, kaasup para élmuwan ti Smithsonian, sarta dibarengan ku [[Frederick Selous]], saurang pamburu sato badag sarta penjelajah kawentar. Peserta liana nyaéta [[Kermit Roosevelt]], [[Edgar Alexander Mearns]], [[Edmund Heller]], sarta [[John Alden Loring]]. Ieu tim hasil maéhan atawa néwak 11.400 sato,<ref name="SIA" /> ti mimiti serangga sarta beurit nepi ka kuda nil sarta gajah. Tina 1.000 sato badag, aya 512 sato pamburu (big game), kaasup genep [[Badak bodas]] anu langka. Beratna bangké sarta kulit sato anu parantos diawétkeun ku uyah dikirim ka Washington; peryogi mangtaun-taun pikeun nyusun éta kabéh. Ngeunaan jumlah sato anu kacida lobana éta, Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring ngan bisa disalahkeun upami ayana [[Muséum Nasional Sajarah Alam]], Muséum Sajarah Alam Amérika, sarta sakabéh lembaga zoologi sarupa ogé dianggap salah".{{Sfn|O'Toole|2005|p=67}} Anjeunna nyerat catetan lengkep ngeunaan ieu lalampahan dina buku ''African Game Trails''. Saatos safari, Roosevelt lumampah ka kalér pikeun ngayakeun tur ka Éropa. Panyimpangan munggaran nyaéta di Mesir, di dinya anjeunna masihan koméntar positip ngeunaan pamaréntahan Britania, bari nyebutkeun yén Mesir tacan siap pikeun merdéka.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=505}} Anjeunna nolak pendak sareng [[Paus Pius X]] alatan ayana papaséaan ngeunaan grup [[Métodis]] anu aktif di Roma. Anjeunna ogé pendak sareng Kaisar [[Franz Joseph]] ti [[Austria-Hungaria]], Kaisar [[Wilhelm II]] ti Jérman, Raja [[George V]] ti Britania Raya, sarta pamingpin liana. Di Oslo, Roosevelt masihan biantara anu nungtut ayana watesan pakarang angkatan laut, panguatan [[Pangadilan Arbitrase Permanén]], sarta pangbentukan "Liga Perdamaian" di antara kakuatan dunya.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=505–509}} Anjeunna masihan Kuliah Romanes di Oxford, di dinya anjeunna nyempad jalma-jalma anu nyoba nyaruakeun évolusi sato jeung kamekaran masarakat.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=511}} Sanajan Roosevelt nyoba nyingkahan politik domestik, anjeunna sacara rerencepan pendak sareng [[Gifford Pinchot]], anu nyaritakeun kuciwana ka [[Pamaréntahan Taft]]. Roosevelt mulang ka AS dina Juni 1910. Opat bulan saatosna, Roosevelt janten présidén AS munggaran anu naék pesawat, ngalayang salami 4 menit dina pesawat rancangan [[Wright bersaudara]]. ===Hubungan Husus (Great Rapprochement) sareng Britania Raya=== [[Great Rapprochement]] nyaéta titik temu tujuan diplomatik, politik, militer, sarta ékonomi antara Amérika Serikat sarta Britania Raya ti taun 1895 dugi ka 1915. Roosevelt miboga peran séntral ngaliwatan hubungan raketna sareng para intelektual sarta politikus Britania, sarta dina karya diplomatikna ngeunaan Terusan Panama. Britania ngabagéakeun Roosevelt, sakumaha katingali dina pasualan wates Alaska. Para diplomat Britania milih sahaluan sareng diplomat Roosevelt pikeun nolak klaim Kanada kana palabuhan sagara anu bakal méré aksés ka tambang emas di Yukon, Kanada. Urang Kanada ngarasa dikhianatan ku Britania anu leuwih milih ngabungahkeun Amérika Serikat. Dina taun 1915–1917, Roosevelt janten pangrojong utama sangkan Amérika milu perang di pihak Britania Raya. Dina Oktober 1916, nalika kampanye pikeun ngéléhkeun Woodrow Wilson, Roosevelt nyempad: {{Blockquote|Sipat Présidén Wilson anu nyingkahan tanggung jawab parantos dibungkus ku frasa anu kacida nyasabkeunana, frasa saurang pecundang, ''Anjeunna ngajaga urang tina perang.'' Padahal saenyana, perang beuki deukeut sarta beuki deukeut... jeung urang nyanghareupanana tanpa kawijakan, rencana, tujuan, atawa persiapan naon waé.{{Sfn|Morris|2010|p=469}}}} ===Sasmita (Schism) di Partéy Républik=== Roosevelt mimitina nyoba ngabentuk Taft sangkan jadi "duplikat" dirina, nanging anjeunna mundur nalika Taft mimiti némbongkeun jati dirina sorangan. Anjeunna ngarasa kasinggung nalika Taft nyebutkeun yén kasuksésanana téh hasil tina bantuan lanceuk kawalona, lain saukur ku Roosevelt. Roosevelt beuki ngarasa pajauh nalika Taft henteu badami sareng anjeunna ngeunaan pangangkatan kabinét.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|pp=665–666}} Roosevelt sarta kaom progresif liana ngarasa teu puas sacara idéologis kana kawijakan konservasi Taft sarta cara anjeunna nungkulan masalah tarif. Roosevelt ngadesek kaom progresif pikeun ngontrol Partéy Républik, sarta nyingkahan sasmita (pepecahan) anu bakal nguntungkeun Démokrat dina taun 1912. Pikeun tujuan éta, Roosevelt sacara publik nyatakeun optimismeu ngeunaan Pamaréntahan Taft saatos pendak sareng présidén dina Juni 1910.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=512–513}} ==== Pacengkadan ngeunaan kakawasaan pangadilan ==== Roosevelt masihan biantara di wilayah Kulon dina ahir usum panas sarta awal usum gugur taun 1910, di dinya anjeunna nyempad pisan kana sistem peradilan nagara. Roosevelt henteu ngan saukur narajang kaputusan [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Serikat]] taun 1905 dina kasus ''[[Lochner v. New York]]'', nanging anjeunna ogé nuding yén pangadilan féderal parantos ngaruksak démokrasi, bari nyebut para ahli hukum anu dicurigai salaku "hakim-hakim anu geus jadi fosil" (fossilized judges). Anjeunna ngabandingkeun kacenderungan maranéhna pikeun ngabatalkeun undang-undang réformasi progresif jeung kaputusan Hakim [[Roger B. Taney]] dina kasus ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]'' (1857). Pikeun mastikeun konstitusi bener-bener ngabéla kapentingan umum, Roosevelt milu jeung kaom progresif liana nungtut ayana "judicial recall", anu bakal ngidinan sora mayoritas rahayat pikeun nurunkeun hakim tina jabatanna sarta ngabatalkeun kaputusan pangadilan anu teu dipikaresep ku masarakat. Ieu serangan téh matak helok keur Taft. Sanajan sacara pribadi Taft satuju yén kasus ''Lochner'' sarta kaputusan liana téh mémang kurang merenah, anjeunna tetep percaya yén otoritas pangadilan diperlukeun pikeun ngajaga pamaréntahan konstitusional. Kahariwang Taft ieu ogé dirasakeun ku anggota elit komunitas hukum liana, sarta beuki nguatkeun pamadegan Taft yén Roosevelt ulah diidinan deui janten présidén.<ref>Istre, Logan Stagg (2021). "Bench over Ballot". The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.</ref> ==== "Nasionalisme Anyar" Roosevelt ==== [[File:TR smiling in automobile.tif|thumb|Roosevelt saatosna lungsur tina jabatan dina Oktober 1910]] [[File:Theodore Roosevelt and Archibald Hoxsey (1910).jpg|thumb|Roosevelt sarta pilot [[Archibald Hoxsey]] di [[St. Louis]], Oktober 1910]] Dina Agustus 1910, Roosevelt beuki rongkah dina ngayakeun persaingan ngaliwatan biantarana di [[Osawatomie, Kansas]], anu dianggap biantara paling radikal salami karirna. Ieu janten tanda Roosevelt sacara resmi papisah (pepegatan) sareng Taft sarta kaom Républik konservatif. Ngaliwatan program anu disebutna "**[[Nasionalisme Anyar (Theodore Roosevelt)|Nasionalisme Anyar]]**", Roosevelt nekenkeun yén kapentingan tanaga gawé kudu leuwih diutamakeun batan kapentingan modal, sarta diperlukeun kontrol kana pangbentukan sarta gabungan korporasi. Anjeunna ogé nungtut panyegahan sumbangan politik tina korporasi.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=675}} Nalika mulang ka New York, Roosevelt ngamimitian tarung pikeun ngarebut kontrol partéy Républik nagara bagian ti [[William Barnes Jr.]]. Taft mimitina jangji bakal ngadukung Roosevelt, nanging Roosevelt ngarasa dikhianatan nalika dukungan Taft henteu kabukti dina konvénsi nagara bagian 1910.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=515–516}} Roosevelt milu kampanye pikeun urang Républik dina [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1910]], nanging hasilna urang Démokrat kenging kontrol DPR pikeun munggaranana saprak 1892. Salah sahiji urang Démokrat anu anyar kapilih nyaéta [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] (Sénator nagara bagian New York), anu nyatakeun yén anjeunna ngawakilan kawijakan misan jauhna (Theodore) leuwih hade batan lawan Républikna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=517}} Para progresif Républik napsirkeun éta kaéléhan salaku alesan kuat pikeun ngayakeun reorganisasi partéy dina taun 1911.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=683}} Sénator [[Robert M. La Follette]] ngahiji sareng Pinchot sarta Gubernur California [[Hiram Johnson]] pikeun ngawangun Liga Républik Progresif Nasional; tujuanana nyaéta pikeun ngancurkeun kakuatan "bosisme" politik di tingkat nagara bagian sarta ngaganti Taft di tingkat nasional.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=518}} Sanajan Roosevelt rada cangcaya kana éta liga, anjeunna tetep ngadukung prinsip-prinsip progresifna. Hubungan Roosevelt jeung Taft ahirna bener-bener pegat saatos Departemén Kaadilan ngajukeun gugatan [[antitrust]] ngalawan [[US Steel]] dina Séptémber 1911; Roosevelt ngarasa dihina sabab anjeunna nyalira anu parantos nyatujuan akuisisi éta pausahaan nalika janten présidén. Nanging, Roosevelt harita tacan kersa nyalonkeun diri ngalawan Taft dina taun 1912; anjeunna leuwih milih ngantosan taun 1916.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|p=519}} ==== Papaséaan sareng Taft ngeunaan perjangjian arbitrase ==== Taft mangrupikeun pamingpin dunya dina urusan arbitrase salaku jaminan perdamaian dunya. Dina 1911, anjeunna sarta Sekretaris Nagara [[Philander C. Knox]] ngayakeun perjangjian sareng Britania sarta Perancis yén sagala pasulayan kudu méréskeun ngaliwatan arbitrase. Nanging, Roosevelt nyaleureukeun arbitrase salaku idéalisme anu konyol, sarta negeskeun yén perang téh mangrupikeun hiji-hijina jalan pikeun méréskeun pasulayan internasional anu serius. Roosevelt gawé bareng jeung sobatna, Sénator Henry Cabot Lodge, pikeun nyelipkeun amandémén anu ngagagalkeun éta perjangjian. Roosevelt sabenerna nuju nyabotaseu jangji kampanye Taft. Dina tingkat anu leuwih jero, Roosevelt yakin yén arbitrase téh solusi anu naif; anjeunna miboga kapercayaan ampir mistis yén perang téh miboga sipat anu mulya pikeun manusa. Hal ieu ngagambarkeun nasionalisme jingoistik Roosevelt anu kacida béda jeung itungan kauntungan ékonomi ti para pangusaha anu ngadukung Taft. === Pamilihan 1912 === {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912}} ==== Primari sarta konvénsi Républik ==== [[File:For Auld Lang Syne - Leonard Raven-Hill.jpg|thumb|Karikatur ''Punch'' dina Méi 1912, ngagambarkeun tarung campuh antara William Howard Taft sarta Roosevelt]] Dina Nopémber 1911, sakelompok urang Républik ti Ohio ngadukung Roosevelt pikeun nominasi présidén ti éta partéy. Roosevelt sacara nyata henteu nolak éta nominasi. Teu lila saatosna, Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring sabenerna karunya ka Taft... Kuring yakin anjeunna boga niat hadé, nanging niat hadéna téh leuleus, sarta anjeunna teu nyaho carana! Anjeunna pisan teu pantes pikeun mingpin, sarta ieu téh mangsa di mana urang butuh kapamingpinan." Dina Januari 1912, Roosevelt nyatakeun "upami rahayat milih kuring, kuring moal nolak pikeun ngabakti".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=698}} Roosevelt mimiti ngabayangkeun dirina salaku juru salamet partéy tina kaéléhan dina pamilihan anu bakal datang. Dina Pébruari 1912 di [[Boston]], Roosevelt nyarios, "Kuring bakal nampi nominasi présidén upami ditawarkeun ka kuring".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=705}} Elihu Root sarta Henry Cabot Lodge nyangka yén pepecahan bakal mawa kaéléhan dina pamilihan, sedengkeun Taft yakin yén anjeunna bakal éléh boh dina primari atanapi dina pamilihan umum.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=706}} Pamilihan primari 1912 mangrupikeun pamakéan munggaran [[Primari présidén Amérika Serikat|primari présidén]] sacara lega, hasil réformasi ti gerakan progresif. [[Primari présidén Partéy Républik 1912|Primari Républik]] di wilayah Kidul dimeunangkeun ku Taft, kitu ogé New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky, sarta Massachusetts. Samentara éta, Roosevelt meunang di Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland, Ohio, sarta Pennsylvania. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1912]] di Chicago, Taft kenging nominasi dina sora munggaran.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=524–526}} Roosevelt yakin yén nominasi éta parantos dipaling ti dirina. Anjeunna nyarios ka para pangrojongna yén aya "masalah moral anu gedé" anu nuju dipertaruhkeun. Roosevelt mungkas biantarana ku nyarios: "Teu sieun ku mangsa ka hareup; teu maliré kana nasib urang masing-masing; kalayan haté anu tegep sarta panon anu awas; urang nangtung di Armageddon, sarta urang tarung demi Gusti!" ==== Partéy Progresif (Bull Moose) ==== {{See also|Nasionalisme Anyar (Theodore Roosevelt)|Partéy Bull Moose}} [[File:Perkins-pinchot.JPG|thumb|Karikatur taun 1912 anu ngagambarkeun rebutan kontrol Partéy Progresif antara George Perkins (kénca) sarta Amos Pinchot]] Nalika kaéléhanana geus katingali, Roosevelt ngumumkeun yén anjeunna bakal "nampi nominasi progresif dina platform progresif sarta kuring bakal tarung nepi ka ahir, boh meunang boh éléh". Roosevelt méré ramalan, "Rasaan kuring mah urang Démokrat bakal meunang upami maranéhna nyalonkeun tokoh anu progresif".{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=717}} Roosevelt ahirna kaluar ti Partéy Républik sarta ngadegkeun **Partéy Progresif** (nu kawentar ku landihan Partéy **Bull Moose**).{{sfn|Miller|1992|p=526}} Kapamingpinan partéy anyar ieu ngawengku rupa-rupa tokoh réformis. [[Jane Addams]] kampanye satékah polah pikeun ieu partéy salaku taratas réformasi sosial. [[Gifford Pinchot]] ngawakilan kaom lingkungan, sedengkeun pangusaha [[Frank Munsey]] sarta bankir Wall Street [[George Walbridge Perkins]] nyadiakeun dukungan dana. Gubernur [[Hiram Johnson]] ngontrol partéy di California sarta diangkat janten calon wakil présidén Roosevelt. Platform Roosevelt nyuuarakeun usulan radikalna taun 1907–1908, nungtut campur tangan pamaréntah anu kuat pikeun nangtayungan rahayat tina kapentingan pribadi anu sarakah: {{blockquote|Ngancurkeun Pamaréntahan siluman ieu, ngabubarkeun **[[wikt:unholy alliance|aliansi jahat]]** antara bisnis anu korup sarta politik anu korup, nyaéta tugas munggaran pikeun nagarawan mangsa ayeuna. Nagara ieu milik rahayat. Sumber dayana, bisnisna, hukumna, sarta lembagana kudu dimangpaatkeun, dijaga, atanapi dirobah ku cara naon waé anu panghadéna pikeun kapentingan umum.}} Sanajan loba aktivis Partéy Progresif di Kalér anu nolak leungitna hak-hak sipil warga kulit hideung, Roosevelt ngajalankeun kampanye "**lily-white**" (ngan pikeun urang bodas) di wilayah Kidul. Nalika delegasi saingan antara urang bodas sarta urang hideung ti nagara bagian Kidul datang ka konvénsi, Roosevelt milih pikeun narima delegasi anu ngan urang bodas wungkul. Akibatna, anjeunna kenging sora anu sakedik pisan di luar basis tradisional Républik. Ti 1.100 county di wilayah Kidul, Roosevelt ngan meunang di sababaraha tempat sarta henteu meunang pisan di Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, atanapi South Carolina. [[Walungan Amazon]]. Walungan Duvida sababaraha waktu saatosna dingaranan deui janten [[Walungan Roosevelt]]. Rombongan Roosevelt ngawengku putrana, [[Kermit Roosevelt]], Kolonél Rondon, ahli alam [[George Kruck Cherrie]], Léttnan Brasil João Lira, dokter tim José Antonio Cajazeira, sarta 16 tukang dayung jeung kuli angkut anu parigel.<ref>{{Cite wikisource |last=Roosevelt |first=Theodore |date=1914 |chapter=The Start |title=Through the Brazilian Wilderness}}</ref> Ékspédisi awal dimimitian kalayan pinuh ku bangbaluh dina 9 Désémber 1913, di puncak usum hujan. Perjalanan nyusur Walungan Duvida dimimitian dina 27 Pébruari 1914.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} Roosevelt nampi tatu leutik dina sukuna saatos anjeunna luncat pikeun nyoba nyegah parahu sangkan teu nempuh batu. Nanging, éta tatu luar téh teu lila langsung nyababkeun anjeunna katarajang [[panyakit tropis]] anu mirip jeung [[malaria]] anu kantos katarajang ku anjeunna nalika di Kuba.<ref name="oimjjac">{{Cite book |last=Marx |first=Rudolph |title=The Health of The President: Theodore Roosevelt |date=October 31, 2011 |publisher=Health guidance}}</ref> Éta inféksi ngaleuleuskeun Roosevelt sakitu rongkahna dugi ka dina minggu kagenep, anjeunna kedah dirawat sacara maneuh ku dokter ékspédisi sarta Kermit. Nalika éta, anjeunna parantos teu tiasa leumpang alatan inféksi sarta tatu lami dina suku nu hiji deui akibat [[Kacilakaan Trém Pittsfield 1902|kacilakaan lalu lintas]] sapuluh taun sateuacanna. Roosevelt nandang nyeri dada sarta panas awakna naék dugi ka **39°C**, anu ngajadikeun anjeunna ngalindur (delirious). Ku margi nganggap kaayaanana janten ancaman pikeun kasalametan romongan liana, Roosevelt maksa sangkan anjeunna ditinggalkeun baé supados ékspédisi anu kirang bekel éta tiasa terus jalan, malah anjeunna parantos nyiapkeun diri pikeun maéhan manéh ku [[morfin]]. Ngan saukur panyambat ti putrana anu hasil ngayakinkeun anjeunna sangkan kersa neraskeun perjalanan.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} Sanajan kaayaan Roosevelt beuki parah sarta beurat awakna turun nepi ka **23 kg**, Rondon tetep ngalaunkeun léngkah perjalanan demi kaperluan nyieun peta, anu merlukeun eureun sacara rutin pikeun nangtukeun posisi dumasar kana panonpoé. Nalika Roosevelt mulang ka New York, babaturan sarta kulawargana kacida reuwasna ningali parobahan fisik sarta kacapéanana. Roosevelt nyerat ka sobatna, anu sigana mangrupikeun ramalan, yén éta lalampahan parantos motong umur hirupna sapuluh taun. Salami sésa hirupna anu kantun sababaraha taun deui, anjeunna sering kanceuh ku malaria sarta bareuh suku anu kacida parahna dugi ka kedah dioperasi.{{Sfn|Thayer|1919|pp=4–7}} Sateuacan Roosevelt nepi ka bumi, para kritikus parantos cangcaya kana klaimna yén anjeunna parantos ngajajah sarta nyusur walungan sapanjang **1.000 km** anu bener-bener tacan aya dina peta. Saatos jagjag deui, anjeunna masihan guaran dina hiji konvénsi anu diayakeun di Washington ku [[National Geographic Society]] sarta hasil ngabuktikeun yén klaimna téh bener.{{sfn|Millard|2009|pp=267–270}} ===Taun-taun pamungkas=== {{See also|Relawan Perang Dunya I Roosevelt}} [[File:TheodoreRooseveltportrait.jpg|thumb|Roosevelt {{circa}} 1914–1918]] Roosevelt mulang ka AS dina Méi 1914. Sanajan anjeunna ngarasa ambek ku ayana perjangjian pamaréntahan Wilson anu nyatakeun "kaduhung anu jero" (sincere regret) kana cara AS meunangkeun [[Zona Terusan Panama]], anjeunna tetep kataji ku sababaraha réformasi anu diluluskeun. Roosevelt milu kampanye pikeun Partéy Progresif, nanging [[Pamilihan Amérika Serikat 1914|pamilihan 1914]] janten musibah pikeun éta partéy katilu anu nembé ngadeg téh.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=539–540}} Roosevelt mimiti ngabayangkeun kampanye présidén deui, ayeuna mah salaku pamingpin Partéy Républik, nanging para pamingpin konservatif partéy tetep nolak anjeunna.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=548–549}} Kalayan harepan bisa ngayakeun nominasi babarengan, Partéy Progresif ngajadwalkeun konvénsina bareng jeung [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1916]]. Nalika Républik milih Charles Evans Hughes, Roosevelt nolak nominasi Progresif sarta ngadesek para pangrojongna sangkan ngadukung calon Républik.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=550–551}} Sanajan Roosevelt parantos lami teu resep ka Hughes, anjeunna leuwih teu resep deui ka Wilson, sarta antukna kampanye satékah polah pikeun Hughes. Nanging, Wilson kenging deui dina [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1916|pamilihan 1916]] ku sora anu tipis pisan.{{Sfn|Miller|1992|pp=552–553}} Partéy Progresif ahirna bubar, sarta Roosevelt bareng jeung para pangrojongna asup deui ka Partéy Républik. ====Perang Dunya I==== Nalika Perang Dunya Kahiji dimimitian dina taun 1914, Roosevelt sacara kuat ngadukung pihak [[Sekutu Perang Dunya I|Sekutu]] sarta nungtut kawijakan anu leuwih keras ka Jérman, utamana ngeunaan perang kapal selam. Roosevelt nyempad pisan kana kawijakan luar nagri Wilson, nyebutna salaku kagagalan dina nyanghareupan [[Kakejaman di bélgia|kakejaman di bélgia]] sarta palanggaran hak-hak Amérika.{{sfn|Brands|1997|pp=749–751, 806–809}} Dina taun 1916, Roosevelt terus-terusan nyempad warga Amérika katurunan Irlandia sarta Jérman anu disebutna teu patriotik; anjeunna negeskeun yén hiji jalma kudu jadi 100% urang Amérika, lain "**[[hyphenated American]]**" (urang Amérika nu miboga tanda sambung/dua kasatiaan). Dina Maret 1917, Kongrés masihan wewenang ka Roosevelt pikeun ngawangun maksimal opat divisi anu sarupa jeung [[Rough Riders]]. Nanging, Présidén Wilson ngumumkeun ka pers yén anjeunna moal ngirim Roosevelt sarta para relawanna ka Perancis, tapi bakal ngirim Pasukan Ekspedisi Amérika di handapeun paréntah Jenderal [[John J. Pershing]]. Roosevelt henteu kantos ngahampura Wilson pikeun hal ieu. Putra bungsu Roosevelt, [[Quentin Roosevelt]], saurang pilot di Perancis, gugur saatos pesawatna ditémbak ragrag di tukangeun garis pertahanan Jérman dina 14 Juli 1918 dina yuswa 20 taun. Roosevelt henteu kantos leres-leres jagjag deui saatos kaleungitan putrana éta.{{sfn|Dalton|2002|p=507}} ====Liga Bangsa-Bangsa==== Roosevelt mangrupikeun salah sahiji pangrojong awal tina sawangan modérn yén diperlukeun ayana tatanan dunya global. Dina biantara nampi Nobel taun 1910, anjeunna nyarios, "bakal janten hiji léngkah anu hébat upami kakuatan-kakuatan dunya anu jujur hoyong daméy ngawangun hiji Liga Perdamaian, lain saukur pikeun ngajaga perdamaian di antara maranéhna, tapi ogé pikeun nyegah, ku kakuatan upami diperyogikeun, jalma lian anu nyoba ngaruksak éta perdamaian."{{Sfn|Pringle|1931|p=519}} Nalika Perang Dunya I peupeus, Roosevelt ngusulkeun "Liga Dunya pikeun Perdamaian anu Bener" dina Séptémber 1914, anu bakal ngajaga kadaulatan nanging ngawatesan pakarang sarta merlukeun arbitrase. Anjeunna nambihan yén kudu aya "jangji suci yén upami aya nagara anu nolak nuturkeun kaputusan pangadilan kasebut, maka nagara lianna kudu nyabut pedang (perang) demi perdamaian sarta kaadilan." Dina taun 1915, anjeunna ngajéntrékeun rencana ieu leuwih spésifik. Sanajan Roosevelt miboga kahariwang ngeunaan dampakna kana kadaulatan Amérika Serikat, anjeunna negeskeun yén liga saperti kitu ngan bakal jalan upami Amérika Serikat milu salaku salah sahiji "penjamin babarengan". Dina taun 1918, Wilson ngembangkeun rencanana sorangan pikeun [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]] anu béda, anu ahirna jadi kanyataan dina [[Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris (1919–1920)|Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris]]. Roosevelt nyempad cara Wilson, nanging anjeunna pupus sateuacan rencana éta disatujuan di Paris. Carita-carita éta disebut ku anjeunna salaku "**yellow journalism of the woods**" (jurnalisme konéng ti leuweung). Présidén nyalira anu ngapopulérkeun istilah négatif "**nature faker**" pikeun ngagambarkeun para panulis anu ngagambarkeun sato-sato dina caritana kalayan sipat manusa (antropomorfisme) anu kaleuleuwihi. == Karakter sarta kapercayaan == [[File:SagamoreHill.JPG|thumb|[[Sagamore Hill]], bumi milik Roosevelt di [[Long Island]]]] Sarjana Britania [[Marcus Cunliffe]] ngaévaluasi argumén liberal yén Roosevelt téh saurang oportunis, éksibisionis, sarta impérialis. Nanging, Cunliffe muji kamampuh Roosevelt anu sarwa bisa, rasa hormatna kana hukum, sarta sipat ihlasna. Anjeunna boga pamadegan yén kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt téh leuwih hadé batan naon anu dituduhkeun ku para pangritikna. Cunliffe nyebut anjeunna "jalma gedé dina sagala rupa widang".{{sfn|Cunliffe|1955}} Roosevelt mangrupikeun saurang [[Fréémasion]] sarta anggota [[Sons of the American Revolution]] (Putra Révolusi Amérika). Anjeunna ogé anggota [[The Explorers Club]]. Roosevelt miboga minat saumur hirup pikeun ngajalankeun naon anu disebut ku anjeunna dina biantara taun 1899 salaku "**[[The Strenuous Life]]**" (Hirup anu Giat). Pikeun tujuan ieu, anjeunna rutin olahraga sarta miluan tinju, ténis, hiking, ngadayung, polo, sarta nunggang kuda. Nalika janten gubernur New York, anjeunna tinju sareng batur latihan sababaraha kali saminggu, hiji kabiasaan anu diteruskeun nalika janten présidén dugi ka beungeutna ditéwel sakitu tarikna nepi ka panon kencana janten lolong (fakta ieu tacan dibuka ka publik dugi ka sababaraha taun saatosna). Roosevelt ogé mimiti percaya kana mangpaat latihan **jiu-jitsu** saatos latihan sareng [[Yamashita Yoshitsugu]]. Hariwang yén AS bakal kaleungitan kakuatan militérna ku kakuatan anyar saperti Jepang, Roosevelt mimiti ngajurung latihan jiu-jitsu pikeun para prajurit Amérika. Roosevelt ogé saurang pamaén **singlestick** (tarung iteuk) anu sumanget; dumasar kana ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', anjeunna kantos sumping ka resépsi Imah Bodas kalayan leungeun anu dibébéd saatos tarung sareng Jenderal [[Leonard Wood]] dina taun 1905. [[File:1905 cartoon Theodore Roosevelt first and war first in peace.jpg|thumb|"The Man of the Hour", ngagambarkeun Roosevelt salaku prajurit dina 1898 sarta juru daméy dina 1905, méréskeun perang antara [[Rusia]] sarta [[Jepang]]]] Para sejarawan sering nekenkeun kana sisi Roosevelt salaku sosok prajurit (warrior persona). Richard D. White Jr nyatakeun yén "sumanget prajurit Roosevelt mangaruhan sawanganana kana politik nasional sarta hubungan internasional." Anjeunna nyandak posisi agrésif ngeunaan perang sareng Spanyol dina 1898, [[Sajarah Terusan Panama|Kolombia dina 1903]], sarta utamana sareng Jérman tina taun 1915 dugi ka 1917. Salaku démonstrasi kakuatan laut Amérika, anjeunna ngirimkeun "**[[Great White Fleet]]**" (Armada Bodas Besar) pikeun kuriling dunya dina 1907–1909. Anjeunna agul dina otobiografina: {{blockquote|Nalika kuring lungsur tina korsi Kaprésidénan, kuring parantos ngaréngsékeun tujuh satengah taun pamaréntahan, di mana teu aya hiji-hiji acan pélor anu ditémbakkeun ka musuh luar nagri. Urang aya dina kaayaan daméy anu mutlak... Pelayaran armada tempur sanés mangrupikeun sabab anu saeutik anu mastikeun kaayaan daméy sapertos kitu.{{sfn|Roosevelt|1913|p=602}}}} Nanging, sejarawan [[Howard K. Beale]] boga pamadegan: {{blockquote|Anjeunna sarta réjangna ampir milarian perang demi perang éta sorangan. Teu nyaho kana perang modérn, Roosevelt ngaromantisasi perang... Pikeun anjeunna, aya hal anu matak bosen sarta kurang jalu (effeminate) ngeunaan perdamaian... Anjeunna agul ku perang, sumanget ku sajarah militér, sarta nempatkeun kualitas tempur dina tingkat anu luhur dina ajén-inajénna.{{sfn|Beale|1956|p=48}}}} Roosevelt sering muji paripolah moral nanging sigana tara kantos sacara kabuka nyatakeun kapercayaan spiritual pribadina. Saatos pupusna pamajikanana dina taun 1884, anjeunna ampir tara nyabit-nyabit nami Yesus boh sacara publik atanapi pribadi. Roosevelt sacara publik ngajurung jalma sangkan rajin ka garéja, sarta anjeunna nyalira mangrupikeun jamaah anu taat ti **Garéja Réformasi Walanda**. Nalika aturan jatah béngsin lumaku salami Perang Dunya Kahiji, anjeunna kersa mapay tilu mil (kira-kira 4,8 km) ti bumina ka garéja lokal sarta balik deui ka bumi, sanajan saatos ngalaman operasi anu serius. Nurutkeun Christian Reisner, "Agama téh geus jadi hal anu alami keur Mr. Roosevelt kawas narik napas". Dina biantara di Long Island Bible Society dina taun 1901, Roosevelt nyatakeun yén: {{blockquote|Ampir unggal jalma anu ngaliwatan karya hirupna parantos nambihan hasil anu dibanggakeun ku manusa, parantos dumasar kana karya hirupna sabagian ageung tina ajaran Alkitab... Di antara jalma-jalma panghébatna, jumlah anu kacida lobana nyaéta jalma anu rajin sarta diajar Alkitab sacara langsung.{{sfn|Reisner|1922|p=306}}}} == Posisi politik == {{Main|Posisi politik Theodore Roosevelt}} Nalika janten présidén, Roosevelt ngayakeun deui kapercayaan para [[Konservatisme fiskal|konservatif fiskal]] ku nyatakeun yén "mékanisme bisnis modérn téh sakitu hipuna nepi ka urang kudu ati-ati pisan sangkan teu ngaganggu éta mékanisme ku sumangat kabodoan."{{Sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=30–31}} Taun saatosna, Roosevelt negeskeun kamerdékaan présidén tina kapentingan bisnis ku cara nolak ngahijina pausahaan anu ngawangun [[Northern Securities Company]]. Loba jalma anu reuwas yén aya présidén anu wani nangtang bankir kawentar [[J.P. Morgan]].{{Sfn|Leuchtenburg|2015|pp=32–33}} Dina dua taun pamungkasna salaku présidén, Roosevelt beuki teu percaya ka "**big business**" (bisnis skala raksasa). Roosevelt nyoba ngaganti lingkungan ékonomi ''[[laissez-faire]]'' abad ka-19 ku modél ékonomi anyar di mana pamaréntah féderal miboga peran pangaturan anu leuwih badag. Ieu mangrupikeun inti tina idéologi politikna, nyaéta **konservatisme progresif**. Anjeunna hariwang yén upami kabeungharan henteu dibagikeun sacara adil tina kelas luhur, nagara bakal murag ka leungeun kaom radikal atanapi révolusi.{{Sfn|Morris|2001|pp=430–431}} Program domestikna, "**[[Square Deal]]**", miboga tilu tujuan utama: konservasi sumber daya alam, kontrol korporasi, sarta panyalindungan konsumén. === Sawangan kawijakan luar nagri === Dina analisis [[Henry Kissinger]], Roosevelt mangrupikeun présidén munggaran anu ngamekarkeun padoman yén Amérika Serikat miboga kawajiban pikeun némbongkeun kakuatan sarta pangaruhna sacara global. Roosevelt nolak modél nagara anu ngan saukur pasif. Salaku jalma anu dididik dina widang biologi, anjeunna mangrupikeun saurang "**social Darwinist**" anu percaya kana konsép ''survival of the fittest'' (sing saha nu kuat, nya manéhna nu salamet).{{Sfn|Kissinger|1994|pp=38–40}} Roosevelt mangrupikeun saurang **réalis** dina kawijakan luar nagrina. Anjeunna nyaleureukeun téma-téma idéalis liberal anu dipromosikeun ku tokoh saperti Woodrow Wilson. Kissinger nyebutkeun yén Roosevelt nolak éféktivitas hukum internasional; anjeunna boga pamadegan yén upami hiji nagara teu tiasa nangtayungan kapentinganana sorangan, komunitas internasional moal tiasa nulungan loba. Pikeun Roosevelt, perdamaian anu henteu didukung ku kakuatan téh sarua jahatna jeung kakuatan anu dipaké tanpa kabeneran.{{Sfn|Kissinger|1994|p=40}} == Warisan == Para sejarawan méré kiridit ka Roosevelt pikeun parobahan sistem politik nagara ku cara nempatkeun jabatan présidén salaku puseur perhatian ("[[bully pulpit]]") sarta nekenkeun kana karakter pribadi. Hasil gawéna ngawengku pangancuran monopoli (trust busting) sarta konservasi lingkungan. Anjeunna dianggap pahlawan ku kaom liberal sarta progresif alatan usulan awalna ngeunaan nagara karaharjaan (welfare state), réformasi tanaga gawé, sarta démokrasi langsung. Kaom konservatif sarta nasionalis ogé ngahormatan anjeunna alatan komitmenna kana hukum, katertiban, sarta ajén-inajén militér. Dalton nyatakeun yén ayeuna Roosevelt diaku salaku arsiték tina kaprésidénan modérn.{{Sfn|Dalton|2002|pp=4–5}} Sajaba ti éta, Roosevelt rutin nempatan réngking lima luhur dina daptar présidén Amérika Serikat anu panghadéna nurutkeun para ahli sajarah. === Persona sarta maskulinitas === Roosevelt diinget salaku salah sahiji kapribadian anu paling narik dina sajarah Amérika. Babaturanana, sejarawan Henry Adams, nyebutkeun yén Roosevelt téh "murni aksi" (pure act). Dalton nekenkeun kana gaya hirupna anu giat (strenuous life), sedengkeun Brands nyebut anjeunna salaku "kaom romantis terakhir" anu percaya yén kawani fisik mangrupikeun kautamaan anu pangluhurna.{{Sfn|Brands|1997|p=x}} Téma maskulinitas (sipat lalaki) Amérika ogé janten puseur tina gambaran Roosevelt. Anjeunna sering ngingetan yén lalaki ulah teuing léléda sarta kudu némbongkeun kakuatan maskulinna. Roosevelt ngamajukeun olahraga kompetitif pikeun nguatkeun fisik lalaki Amérika sarta ngadukung organisasi saperti **Boy Scouts** (Pramuka) pikeun ngawangun karakter budak lalaki Amérika sangkan jadi kuat. [[Minor Planet Center]] dina 8 Nopémber 2019 ({{small|[[Minor Planet Circulars|M.P.C.]] 118221}}).<ref name="MPC-Circulars-Archive">"MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center.</ref> [[Robert Peary]] ogé méré ngaran [[Pagunungan Roosevelt]] sarta [[Tanah Roosevelt]] dumasar kana ngaran anjeunna.<ref>Bart, Sheldon. "Race to the Top of the World". Scribd.</ref> Roosevelt ogé parantos ditémbongkeun dina sababaraha film sarta sérial tipi saperti ''[[Brighty of the Grand Canyon]]'', ''[[The Wind and the Lion]]'', ''[[Rough Riders (film)|Rough Riders]]'', ''[[My Friend Flicka (sérial TV)|My Friend Flicka]]'',<ref>Classic Television Archives. "My Friend Flicka".</ref> sarta ''[[Law of the Plainsman]]''. Aktor [[Robin Williams]] méré rupa pikeun Roosevelt dina wangun [[manekin]] lilin anu bisa hirup dina film ''[[Night at the Museum]]'' sarta sekuelna.{{sfn|Cullinane|2017}}<ref>Chi, Paul (2014). "Ben Stiller, 'Night at the Museum' Cast Honor Robin Williams". Variety.</ref> Roosevelt ogé janten pamingpin peradaban Amérika dina gim vidéo ''[[Civilization VI]]''.<ref>Gurwin, Gabe (2016). "Teddy Roosevelt will kill you with culture in 'Civilization VI'". Digital Trends.</ref> Ti mimiti taun 1965, [[Al Sheehan]] mroduksi acara musik taunan ngeunaan [[sajarah North Dakota]] anu dipidangkeun dina [[Medora Musical]], anu di jerona aya pintonan sosok Roosevelt nalika di wilayah [[Badlands]].<ref>Kvamme, Thomas A. (2003). "Wollan is mastermind behind Medora Musical". Williston Herald.</ref> Salami 80 taun, [[Patung Theodore Roosevelt Nunggang Kuda (New York City)|hiji patung Roosevelt nunggang kuda]], anu di gigireunana aya sosok [[Indian Amérika]] sarta saurang [[Amérika Afrika]], nangtung di hareupeun [[Museum Sejarah Alam Amerika]] di New York. Dina taun 2022, saatos mangtaun-taun ayana desakan ti para aktivis, éta patung ahirna dimumut (dipiceun). Présidén muséum, [[Ellen V. Futter]], nyatakeun yén ieu kaputusan sanés mangrupikeun panghukuman ka Roosevelt sacara pribadi, nanging dumasar kana "komposisi hiérarkis" (undak-usuk kakuatan) anu ditémbongkeun ku éta patung.<ref>Sutton, Benjamin (2022). "Controversial statue of Theodore Roosevelt removed". The Art Newspaper.</ref> === Média audiovisuall === Roosevelt mangrupikeun salah sahiji présidén munggaran anu sorana dirékam pikeun sajarah. Sababaraha rékaman biantarana masih kénéh aya dugi ka ayeuna. Hiji rékaman sora taun 1912 anu judulna ''The Right of the People to Rule'' (Hak Rahayat pikeun Maréntah), anu ngarékam sora Roosevelt kalayan jéntré pisan pikeun ukuran jaman harita, tiasa diaksés ngaliwatan perpustakaan [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Michigan]]. Klip audio kasebut ngawengku pamadeganana dina ngabéla Partéy Progresif dina taun 1912, di dinya anjeunna nyatakeun yén éta partéy téh mangrupikeun "partéyna rahayat" – béda pisan jeung partéy-partéy gedé lianna. {{multiple image | align = center | width = 300 | image1 = Teddy Roosevelt, San Francisco, 1903.ogg | caption1 = Parade pikeun barudak sakola di [[Van Ness Avenue]], [[San Francisco]] | image2 = Teddy Roosevelt video montage.ogg | caption2 = Koléksi klip film pondok Theodore Roosevelt }} == Témbongkeun ogé == * [[Sajarah éléktoral Theodore Roosevelt]] * [[Daptar pemburu sato gedé anu kawentar]] * [[Daptar présidén Amérika Serikat]] * [[Boneka Teddy bear]] (anu dingaranan dumasar kana landihan anjeunna) * [[Perpustakaan Digital Theodore Roosevelt]] * {{cite web | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | title = Theodore Roosevelt Association Cyclopedia | orig-date = 1941| url=https://www.theodoreroosevelt.org/content.aspx?page_id=22&club_id=991271&module_id=339179 | date=1989| edition=Édisi ka-2 nu geus Dirévisi | editor1-last = Hart | editor2-last = Ferleger | editor1-first = Albert Bushnell | editor2-first = Herbert Ronald|ref=none}} * {{cite book | last = Roosevelt | first = Theodore | title = The Selected Letters | year = 2001 | publisher = Cooper Square Press | isbn = 978-0-8154-1126-0| editor-last = Brands | editor-first = HW|url=https://archive.org/details/selectedletterso00roos}} * {{cite book |last=Ruddy|first=Daniel|title=Theodore the Great: Conservative Crusader|publisher=Regnery History |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-62157-441-5}} * {{cite book| last=Samuels| first=Peggy| year=1997| title=Teddy Roosevelt at San Juan: The Making of a President| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1v7PSGbzhDwC| publisher=Texas A&M UP| isbn=978-0-89096-771-3| access-date=17 Oktober 2015}} * {{Cite journal|first=Arnaldo |last=Testi|title=The gender of reform politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the culture of masculinity|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_1995-03_81_4/page/1509 |journal=Journal of American History|volume= 81|issue=4 |year=1995|pages=1509–1533|doi=10.2307/2081647 |jstor=2081647}} * {{cite book| last = Thayer| first = William Roscoe| year = 1919| title = Theodore Roosevelt: an intimate biography| url = https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.168636| publisher = Houghton Mifflin}} * {{cite book | last = Watts | first = Sarah | year = 2003 | title = Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire| url = https://archive.org/details/roughriderinwhit0000watt |ref=none}} {{refend}} == Tumbu luar == {{Sister project links|wikt=Roosevelt |b=no |n=no |s=Author:Theodore Roosevelt |v=no}} === Organisasi === * [http://www.boone-crockett.org Klub Boone jeung Crockett] * [http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org Asosiasi Theodore Roosevelt] === Perpustakaan sarta koléksi === * [https://www.trlibrary.com/ Perpustakaan Présidén Theodore Roosevelt] Medora, North Dakota. * [http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/ Puseur Theodore Roosevelt] di [[Universitas Nagara Bagian Dickinson]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180606131421/http://www.hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/houghton/collections/roosevelt.cfm Koléksi Theodore Roosevelt], di [[Perpustakaan Houghton]], Universitas Harvard * [https://guides.loc.gov/theodore-roosevelt-hunting-library Perpustakaan Pangburuan Theodore Roosevelt] di [https://www.loc.gov Perpustakaan Kongrés], Washington, DC. * [http://www.historicjournalism.com/theodore-roosevelt.html Jurnalisme Theodore Roosevelt di Arsip Jurnalisme Amérika] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170814084741/http://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/theodore-roosevelt Theodore Roosevelt di Museum Sajarah Alam Amérika] * {{Gutenberg author | id=729}} * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Theodore Roosevelt}} * {{Librivox author |id=1471}} ===Média=== * [[iarchive:theoroos1912|Theodore Roosevelt Speech Edison Recordings Campaign - 1912]], rekaman audio * {{NYTtopic|people/r/theodore_roosevelt}} * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151618-1/life-portrait-theodore-roosevelt "Life Portrait of Theodore Roosevelt"], ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Presidents: Life Portraits]]'', 3 Séptémber 1999 * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?165366-1/writings-theodore-roosevelt "Writings of Theodore Roosevelt"] ti [[C-SPAN]] ''[[American Writers: A Journey Through History]]'' * [https://theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record?libID=o285073 "The Abyssinian treatment administered to Standard Oil"], nu mana Roosevelt kadéngé ngucapkeun ngaran tukangna ===Nu lianna=== * [http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/ Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501200726/http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/ |date=May 1, 2021 }} * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/troosevelt/index.html Theodore Roosevelt: A Resource Guide]&nbsp;– [[Library of Congress]] * {{Nobelprize}} {{Theodore Roosevelt}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan jeung pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-par|us-ny-hs}} {{s-bef|before=[[William J. Trimble]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Anggota [[New York State Assembly|Majelis New York]]<br />ti distrik ka-21|years=1882–1884}} {{s-aft|after=[[Henry A. Barnum]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Thomas G. Alvord]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Pamingpin Minoritas [[New York State Assembly|Majelis New York]]|years=1883}} {{s-aft|after=[[Frank Rice (politician)|Frank Rice]]}} {{s-civ}} {{s-break}} {{s-vac|unknown|unknlast=[[William Farrar Smith]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[New York City Police Commissioner|Superintendén Departemén Kapulisian Kota New York]]|years=1895–1897}} {{s-aft|after=[[John McCullagh (superintendent)|John McCullagh]]}} {{s-gov}} {{s-bef|before=[[William McAdoo (New Jersey)|William McAdoo]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Assistant Secretary of the Navy|Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]]|years=1897–1898}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles Herbert Allen]]}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Frank S. Black]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Nomine [[Republican Party (United States)|Parté Républik]] pikeun [[Governor of New York|Gubernur New York]]|years=[[1898 New York state election|1898]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Benjamin Odell (politician)|Benjamin Odell]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Garret Hobart]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Nomine [[Republican Party (United States)|Parté Républik]] pikeun Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat|years=[[1900 United States presidential election|1900]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William McKinley]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Nomine [[Republican Party (United States)|Parté Républik]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Serikat|years=[[1904 United States presidential election|1904]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Howard Taft]]}} {{s-new|party}} {{s-ttl|title=Nomine [[Progressive Party (United States, 1912)|Parté Progrésif]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Serikat|years=[[1912 United States presidential election|1912]]}} {{s-non|reason=Parté bubar}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Frank S. Black]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Governor of New York|Gubernur New York]]|years=1899–1900}} {{s-aft|after=[[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Garret Hobart]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice President of the United States|Wakil Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1901}} {{s-aft|after=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William McKinley]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of the United States|Présidén Amérika Serikat]]|years=1901–1909}} {{s-aft|after=[[William Howard Taft]]}} {{s-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[[Bertha von Suttner]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Panampi [[Pangajén Nobel widang Perdamaian]]|years=1906}} {{s-aft|after=[[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]]|after2=[[Louis Renault (jurist)|Louis Renault]]}} {{s-end}} }} {{Navboxes |title=Artikel nu patali jeung Theodore Roosevelt |list1= {{American Historical Association presidents}} {{Conservatism US footer}} {{Eleanor Roosevelt}} {{Governors of New York}} {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} {{Historical left-wing third party presidential tickets (U.S.)}} {{1906 Nobel Prize winners}} {{Mount Rushmore}} {{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1901–1925}} {{Progressivism US footer}} {{Rough Riders}} {{Teddy bears}} {{T Roosevelt cabinet}} {{United States presidential election, 1900}} {{United States presidential election, 1904}} {{United States presidential election, 1912}} {{US Presidents}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{USSecNavy}} {{USVicePresidents}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Roosevelt, Theodore}} [[Kategori:Theodore Roosevelt| ]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1858]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1919]] [[Kategori:Calon wakil présidén Amérika Serikat 1900]] [[Kategori:Panulis diary Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Sejarawan Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Panulis lalaki Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Politikus Amérika abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Anggota Legislatif Nagara Bagian New York abad ka-19]] [[Kategori:Panulis diary Amérika abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Amérika abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Panulis lalaki Amérika abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Panulis non-fiksi Amérika abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Serikat abad ka-20]] [[Kategori:Aforis]] [[Kategori:Autobiografer Amérika]] [[Kategori:Bibliofil Amérika]] [[Kategori:Konservasionis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Esais Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pamburu Amérika]] [[Kategori:Pejudo lalaki Amérika]] [[Kategori:Panulis non-fiksi lalaki Amérika]] [[Kategori:Nasionalis Amérika]] [[Kategori:Sejarawan angkatan laut Amérika]] [[Kategori:Panampi Nobel Amérika]] [[Kategori:Urang Amérika turunan Walanda]] [[Kategori:Pangadeg parté politik Amérika]] [[Kategori:Panulis politik Amérika]] [[Kategori:Artikel nu ngandung klip vidéo]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Bulloch]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1904]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1912]] [[Kategori:Kandidat dina pamilihan présidén Amérika Serikat 1916]] [[Kategori:Pupus alatan emboli paru]] [[Kategori:Advokat reformasi éjahan basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Penjelajah Amazonia]] [[Kategori:Gubernur New York (nagara bagian)]] [[Kategori:Induksi Hall of Fame for Great Americans]] [[Kategori:Alumni Harvard Advocate]] [[Kategori:Alumni Harvard College]] [[Kategori:Anggota American Academy of Arts and Letters]] [[Kategori:Anggota American Philosophical Society]] [[Kategori:Anggota Sons of the American Revolution]] [[Kategori:Personél militer ti Kota New York]] [[Kategori:Progrésif New York (nagara bagian) (1912)]] [[Kategori:Komisioner pulisi Kota New York]] [[Kategori:Panampi Pangajén Nobel Perdamaian]] [[Kategori:Terusan Panama]] [[Kategori:Jalma nu aya hubunganana jeung American Museum of Natural History]] [[Kategori:Jalma nu lolong sabeulah]] [[Kategori:Jalma ti Oyster Bay, New York]] [[Kategori:Politikus ti Kota New York]] [[Kategori:Présidén American Historical Association]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat nu ogé Freemason]] [[Kategori:Era Progrésif di Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Peternak ti Dakota Kalér]] [[Kategori:Nomine présidén Parté Républik (Amérika Serikat)]] [[Kategori:Nomine wakil présidén Parté Républik (Amérika Serikat)]] [[Kategori:Gubernur New York ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Anggota Majelis Nagara Bagian New York ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Serikat ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Serikat ti Parté Républik]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Roosevelt|Theodore]] [[Kategori:Rough Riders]] [[Kategori:Kulawarga Schuyler]] [[Kategori:Panampi Medal of Honor Perang Spanyol–Amérika]] [[Kategori:Panampi Medal of Honor Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Perwira Angkatan Darat Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Asistén sekretaris angkatan laut Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Wakil présidén Amérika Serikat]] [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] fmqc80ag1kbq7rsd0qf0c4t560qwcgi Chlorarachniophyta 0 108085 712389 707248 2026-08-28T22:25:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Chlorarachniophyta | image = 2023 Chlorarachniophyte Numbered.svg | image_caption = Diagram struktur sél ''Chlorarachniophyta'' (nomeran) anu némbongkeun nukléomorf sarta kloroplas hasil endosimbiosis sekunder. | regnum = [[Rhizaria]] | phylum = [[Cercozoa]] | classis = '''Chlorarachniophyta''' | classis_authority = [[Hibberd]] & [[Norris]] (1984) | subdivision_ranks = Genus Utama | subdivision = * ''[[Chlorarachnion]]'' * ''[[Bigelowiella]]'' * ''[[Gymnochlora]]'' * ''[[Lotharella]]'' * ''[[Partenskyella]]'' }} '''Chlorarachniophyta''' (basa Sunda: '''Klorarakniofita''') nyaéta sakelompok alga laut anu miboga ciri has mangrupa kloroplas warna héjo sarta hirup salaku bagian tina filum [[Cercozoa]] dina supergroup [[Rhizaria]] <ref name="Adl2012">{{cite journal |author=Adl, S. M., et al. |title=The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2012 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493}}</ref>. Organisme ieu kawéntar dina dunya [[biologi]] molekulér margi miboga '''[[nukléomorf]]''', nyaéta sésa inti sél alga héjo anu hirup di jero sélna <ref name="Archibald2003">{{cite journal |author=Archibald, J. M., et al. |title=The genome of the chlorarachniophyte nucleomorph |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2003-07-17_424_6946/page/299 |journal=Nature |year=2003 |volume=424 |issue=6946 |pages=299–303}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Chlorarachniophyta''' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''chloros'' (χλωρός) anu hartina "héjo" sarta ''arachne'' (ἀράχνη) anu hartina "laba-laba" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=198}}</ref>. Nami ieu nujul kana warna kloroplasna anu héjo sarta wangun sélna anu miboga [[pseudopodia]] nyagak jiga ramat laba-laba <ref name="Archibald2003" />. == Ciri Has == Chlorarachniophyta miboga struktur sél anu kacida kompléksna: * '''Nukléomorf:''' Organél unik anu perenahna di antara mémbran kloroplas, mangrupakeun bukti nyata tina [[endosimbiosis]] sekunder tina alga héjo <ref name="Archibald2003" />. * '''Morfologi:''' Tiasa mangrupa amoeba (uniselulér), kista, atanapi ngawangun jaringan jaring (plasmodium) <ref name="Adl2012" />. * '''Pigmén:''' Miboga klorofil a sarta b, sami sareng tutuwuhan darat sarta alga héjo <ref name="Archibald2003" />. == Klasifikasi == Ieu kelompok munggaran didéskripsikeun ku Hibberd sarta Norris dina taun 1984. Sanajan miboga kloroplas jiga tutuwuhan, dumasar kana data [[DNA]], Chlorarachniophyta leuwih deukeut patalina sareng [[amoeba]] dina kelompok [[Rhizaria]] <ref name="Adl2012" />. == Babandingan Genus Utama == Pikeun ngabédakeun sababaraha genus dina kelompok ieu: {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |+ Perbandingan Genus Chlorarachniophyta ! Genus !! Wangun Sél !! Habitat |- | ''[[Chlorarachnion]]'' || Plasmodial (Jaring) || Tropis (Basisir) |- | ''[[Bigelowiella]]'' || Flagélata (Boga buntut) || Planktonik (Laut) |- | ''[[Lotharella]]'' || Amoeboid sarta Kista || Laut danget |} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Chlorarachniophyta]] [[Kategori:Cercozoa]] [[Kategori:Rhizaria]] [[Kategori:Alga]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] hlljniztc1vkn40krrysuf0nn8qyuhc Chromista 0 108087 712426 707293 2026-08-28T23:17:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Chromista | image = Chromista collage 2.jpg | image_caption = Rupa-rupa anggota Chromista, ngawengku alga coklat, diatom, sarta oomycetes. | regnum = '''Chromista''' | regnum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] (1981) | subdivision_ranks = Sub-karajaan Utama | subdivision = * [[Harosa]] (SAR) * [[Hacrobia]] }} '''Chromista''' (basa Sunda: '''Kromista''') nyaéta salasahiji karajaan (kingdom) [[eukariota]] uniselulér sarta multiselulér anu sabagian ageungna hirup di cai <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010">{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith, T. |title=Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista and the biogeochemical cycle |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2010-05_85_2/page/337 |journal=Biological Reviews |year=2010 |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=337–373}}</ref>. Ieu kelompok diwangun ku rupa-rupa organisme saperti alga coklat, [[diatom]], sarta sababaraha jenis parasit tutuwuhan. Karajaan ieu munggaran diusulkeun ku ahli biologi [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]] dina taun 1981 pikeun ngabédakeunana tina tutuwuhan (Plantae) sarta sato (Animalia) <ref name="Cavalier-Smith1981">{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith, T. |title=Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine? |journal=BioSystems |year=1981 |volume=14 |issue=3–4 |pages=461–481}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Chromista''' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''chroma'' (χρῶμα) anu hartina "warna" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=199}}</ref>. Nami ieu dipilih margi seueur anggota kelompok ieu anu miboga kloroplas kalawan pigmén tambahan saperti klorofil c sarta fikosantin, anu masihan warna coklat, konéng, atanapi emas <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. == Ciri Has == Chromista miboga ciri biologis anu unik dibandingkeun sareng [[eukariota]] sanésna: * '''Kloroplas:''' [[Plastidana]] sering dikurilingan ku opat lapis mémbran sarta perenahna di jero lumen rétikulum éndoplasma <ref name="Cavalier-Smith1981" />. * '''Flagéla:''' Loba anggotana miboga flagéla anu miboga "rambut" leutik anu disebut mastigonema (flagéla tinsel) <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. * '''Dinding Sél:''' Sabagian miboga dinding sél tina selulosa, nanging [[diatom]] miboga dinding sél tina silika ($SiO_2$) <ref name="Cavalier-Smith1981" />. == Babandingan Kelompok Utama == Pikeun ngabédakeun garis katurunan utama dina Chromista: {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |+ Babanndingan Kelompok Chromista ! Kelompok !! Karakteristik !! Conto |- | '''[[Stramenopiles]]''' || Flagéla miboga rambut (mastigonema) || Alga coklat, [[Diatom]] |- | '''[[Alveolata]]''' || Miboga kantong hawa (alveoli) di handapeun mémbran || [[Ciliata]], Dinoflagelata |- | '''[[Rhizaria]]''' || Amoeboid kalawan pseudopodia ipis || [[Foraminifera]], Radiolaria |- | '''[[Hacrobia]]''' || Kelompok alga mikroskopis || [[Haptophyta]], Cryptophyta |} == Peran dina Ékosistem == Chromista miboga peran anu kacida krusialna pikeun bumi: # '''Produsén Primér:''' [[Phytoplankton]] tina kelompok [[Chromista]] ngahasilkeun kira-kira 50% oksigén di atmosfir dunya ngaliwatan [[fotosintésis]] <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. # '''Ranté Kadaharan:''' Janten sumber kadaharan utama pikeun organismeu laut sanésna <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. # '''Industri:''' Alga coklat dipaké pikeun bahan [[alginat]] dina industri pangan sarta kosmétik <ref name="Heyne33">{{cite book |last=Heyne |first=K. |title=De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch-Indië |year=1913 |publisher=Ruygrok & Co. |location=Batavia |page=33}}</ref>. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Chromista]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Taksonomi]] l738n5b7h0l40k01edct4gjlc4s6l5t Alveolata 0 108088 712407 707295 2026-08-28T22:52:43Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Alveolata | image = Morphology of an Apicomplexa cell (Alveolata; Apicomplexa).jpg | image_caption = Morfologi sél Apicomplexa, salasahiji anggota Alveolata anu némbongkeun struktur alveoli sarta kompléks apikal. | regnum = [[Chromista]] | supergroup = [[SAR supergroup|SAR]] | infraregnum = '''Alveolata''' | infraregnum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] (1991) | subdivision_ranks = Filum Utama | subdivision = * [[Ciliophora]] (Siliata) * [[Apicomplexa]] * [[Dinoflagellata]] }} '''Alveolata''' (basa Sunda: '''Alvéolata''') nyaéta salasahiji kelompok gedé [[eukariota]] uniselulér anu miboga ciri has mangrupa ayana kantong mémbran leutik anu disebut '''alveoli''' di handapeun mémbran sélna <ref name="Adl2012">{{cite journal |author=Adl, S. M., et al. |title=The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2012 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493}}</ref>. Ieu kelompok diwangun ku organisme anu rupa-rupa pisan, kaasup parasit sato, organisme fotosintétik laut, sarta predator uniselulér <ref name="Gould2008">{{cite journal |author=Gould, S. B., et al. |title=Plastid Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-plant-biology_2008_59/page/491 |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |year=2008 |volume=59 |pages=491–517}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Alveolata''' asalna tina basa [[Latén]] ''alveolus'' anu hartina "liang leutik" atanapi "kantong leutik" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=33}}</ref>. Nami ieu dipilih ku [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]] dina taun 1991 pikeun ngagambarkeun struktur mémbran anu janten ciri utama ieu kelompok <ref name="Gould2008" />. == Ciri Has == Alveolata miboga ciri biologis anu unik: * '''Alveoli Kortikal:''' Kantong-kantong mémbran anu perenahna di handapeun mémbran plasma, fungsina pikeun ngarojong struktur sél sarta ngatur transportasi ion <ref name="Adl2012" />. * '''Mitochondria:''' Miboga mitokondria anu strukturna tubular (jiga tabung) atanapi ampular <ref name="Gould2008" />. * '''Kloroplas/Plastida:''' Sababaraha anggota (saperti Dinoflagelata) miboga kloroplas hasil endosimbiosis sekunder, sedengkeun kelompok Apicomplexa miboga plastida anu geus teu fungsi fotosintésis (disebut apikoplas) <ref name="Gould2008" />. == Papasingan == Alveolata dibagi kana [[tilu]] filum utama: # '''[[Ciliophora]] (Siliata):''' Organisme anu miboga rambut geter (silia) pikeun gerak sarta néwak dahareun, conto: ''[[Paramecium]]'' <ref name="Adl2012" />. # '''[[Apicomplexa]]:''' Kelompok parasit uniselulér anu miboga "kompléks apikal" pikeun nembus sél inang, conto: ''[[Plasmodium]]'' (nu nyababkeun malaria) <ref name="Gould2008" />. # '''[[Dinoflagellata]]:''' Alga uniselulér laut anu miboga dua flagéla sarta cangkang tina selulosa (téka) <ref name="Adl2012" />. == Babandingan Kelompok == {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |+ Perbandingan Kelompok Alveolata ! Filum !! Alat Gerak !! Sipat Utama !! Conto |- | '''Ciliophora''' || Silia (rambut geter) || Hirup bébas (predator) || ''[[Paramecium]]'' |- | '''Apicomplexa''' || Teu aya (ngarayap) || Parasit intrasélulér || ''[[Plasmodium]]'' |- | '''Dinoflagellata''' || Dua Flagéla || Fotosintétik / Miksotrof || ''[[Ceratium]]'' |} == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Alveolata]] [[Kategori:Chromista]] [[Kategori:Protista]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] 88ckpo89llr0z1pimp3g5uv1md8ehgl Heterokonta 0 108089 712434 707296 2026-08-28T23:23:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Heterokonta | image = Diatoms through the microscope.jpg | image_caption = Mikrograf [[Diatom]], salah sahiji kelompok pangbadagna dina infra-karajaan Heterokonta. | regnum = [[Chromista]] | subregnum = [[Harosa]] | infraregnum = '''Heterokonta''' | infraregnum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] (1981) | subdivision_ranks = Kelompok Utama | subdivision = * [[Bacillariophyceae]] (Diatom) * [[Phaeophyceae]] (Alga coklat) * [[Oomycota]] (Jamur cai) * [[Chrysophyceae]] (Alga emas) }} '''Heterokonta''' (basa Sunda: '''Héterokonta'''), anu ogé katelah ku nami '''Stramenopiles''', nyaéta salah sahiji garis katurunan utama [[eukariota]] anu diwangun ku rupa-rupa organisme, ti mimiti alga raksasa (kelp) nepi ka [[parasit]] tutuwuhan <ref name="Adl2012">{{cite journal |author=Adl, S. M., et al. |title=The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2012 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493}}</ref>. Karakteristik utama ieu kelompok nyaéta ayana dua [[flagéla]] anu béda wangunna dina hiji sél <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010">{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith, T. |title=Kingdoms Protozoa and Chromista |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2010-05_85_2/page/337 |journal=Biological Reviews |year=2010 |volume=85 |pages=337–373}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Heterokonta''' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''heteros'' (ἕτερος) anu hartina "béda" sarta ''kontos'' (κοντός) anu hartina "galah" atawa "flagéla" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=432}}</ref>. Nami ieu nujul kana sél motil (nu bisa gerak) anu miboga dua flagéla kalawan struktur anu teu sarua <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. == Ciri Has == Heterokonta miboga ciri biologis anu unik: * '''Flagéla Héterokon:''' Miboga hiji flagéla anu panjang sarta miboga "rambut" (mastigonema) jiga sikat, sarta hiji deui [[flagéla]] anu pondok tur mulus <ref name="Adl2012" />. * '''Pigmén:''' Seueur anggotana anu miboga [[kloroplas]] kalawan [[klorofil]] a, c, sarta fikosantin anu méré warna coklat atawa emas <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. * '''Mitosom/Hidrogénosom:''' Sababaraha kelompok anu hirup tanpa [[oksigén]] (anaérob) geus kaleungitan [[mitokondria]] normalna. == Babandingan Kelompok Utama == Dina jero infra-karajaan Heterokonta, aya rupa-rupa organisme anu béda pisan fungsina: {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |+ Kelompok Utama Heterokonta ! Kelompok !! Karakteristik !! Conto |- | '''[[Diatom]]''' || Cangkang silika (kaca) || ''Navicula'' |- | '''[[Alga Coklat]]''' || Multiselulér (raksasa) || ''[[Sargassum]]'', Kelp |- | '''[[Oomycota]]''' || Saprofit / Parasit || ''[[Phytophthora]]'' (Hama kentang) |- | '''[[Alga Emas]]''' || Uniselulér planktonik || ''Dinobryon'' |} == Peran Ékologi == Heterokonta miboga peran anu kacida krusialna pikeun biosfir: # '''Produsén Oksigén:''' Diatom di laut ngahasilkeun sawatara badag oksigén anu urang seuseup <ref name="Adl2012" />. # '''Hama Tutuwuhan:''' Sababaraha anggota Oomycota dipikawanoh salaku panyabab panyakit tutuwuhan anu parna, saperti hawar daun dina kentang <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2010" />. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Heterokonta]] [[Kategori:Chromista]] [[Kategori:Alga]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] 2c39khabiguhyo050v7sruloua9mnh4 Axodine 0 108091 712370 707298 2026-08-28T22:04:52Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Axodine | image = Actinophryid.jpg | image_caption = ''Actinophrys sol'', salasahiji conto organisme dina kelompok Axodine anu miboga struktur axopodia (jarum) pikeun néwak mangsa. | regnum = [[Chromista]] | supergroup = [[SAR supergroup|SAR]] | infraregnum = [[Heterokonta]] | phylum = [[Ochrophyta]] | classis = '''Axodine''' | classis_authority = [[Patterson]] (1994) | subdivision_ranks = Kelompok Utama | subdivision = * [[Actinophryid]] * [[Dictyochophyceae]] * [[Pelagophyceae]] }} '''Axodine''' (basa Sunda: '''Aksodin''') nyaéta salasahiji kelompok utama eukariota dina infra-karajaan [[Heterokonta]] anu ngawengku rupa-rupa organisme, ti mimiti alga fotosintétik dugi ka predator uniselulér <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2006">{{cite journal |author=Cavalier-Smith, T., & Chao, E. E. |title=Phylogeny and megasystematics of phagotrophic heterokonts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-molecular-evolution_2006-04_62_4/page/388 |journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution |year=2006 |volume=62 |pages=388–420}}</ref>. Ieu kelompok diusulkeun ku Patterson dina taun 1994 pikeun ngahijikeun organisme anu miboga ciri morfologi sél anu mirup sarta ditalungtik sacara [[filogenétika]] molekulér <ref name="Adl2012">{{cite journal |author=Adl, S. M., et al. |title=The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2012 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Axodine''' asalna tina gabungan kecap "axon" (poros/jarum) sarta "dino" (pusaran/flagéla). Nami ieu nujul kana ayana struktur mikrotubulus anu kaku dina jero sélna (axopodia) sarta sering miboga flagéla pikeun gerak <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2006" />. == Ciri Has == Anggota Axodine miboga sababaraha ciri biologis anu mandiri: * '''Axopodia:''' Pseudopodia anu kaku sarta dirojong ku mikrotubulus, dipaké pikeun néwak baktéri atanapi protista leutik sanésna <ref name="Adl2012" />. * '''Flagéla:''' Umumna miboga dua flagéla anu béda wangunna (héterokon), ciri has tina sakabéh anggota Stramenopiles <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2006" />. * '''Kloroplas:''' Sabagian anggotana miboga kloroplas warna coklat-emas anu ngandung klorofil a sarta c <ref name="Adl2012" />. == Papasingan == Kelompok Axodine dibagi kana sababaraha garis katurunan utama: # '''[[Actinophryid]]:''' Amoeboid anu hirup di cai tawar, kawéntar ku nami "heliozoa" margi wangunna jiga panonpoé kalawan jarum-jarum anu nyebrot kaluar <ref name="Adl2012" />. # '''[[Dictyochophyceae]]:''' Alga uniselulér anu miboga rangka silika éksternal anu éndah (silicoflagellates) <ref name="Cavalier-Smith2006" />. # '''[[Pelagophyceae]]:''' Alga laut anu hirup salaku plankton sarta miboga peran penting dina ékosistem samudra. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Axodine]] [[Kategori:Heterokonta]] [[Kategori:Chromista]] [[Kategori:Protista]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] 6naa55txa74xqdwdyfyqesxb4r9nwy2 Haptophyta 0 108101 712365 707362 2026-08-28T21:52:16Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Haptophyta | image = Emiliania huxleyi.jpg | image_caption = ''[[Emiliania huxleyi]]'', salasahiji spésiés Coccolithophore dina filum Haptophyta anu awakna katutupan ku taméng kapur (kokolit). | regnum = [[Chromista]] | supergroup = [[Hacrobia]] | phylum = '''Haptophyta''' | phylum_authority = [[Hibberd]] ex [[Edvardsen]] & [[Eikrem]] (2000) | classis = '''Prymnesiophyceae''' | subdivision_ranks = Ordo Utama | subdivision = * [[Coccolithophorales]] * [[Prymnesiales]] * [[Phaeocystales]] * [[Isochrysidales]] }} '''Haptophyta''' (basa Sunda: '''Haptofita'''), atanapi kawéntar ogé ku nami '''Prymnesiophyta''', nyaéta salasahiji filum [[alga]] uniselulér anu sabagéan ageung hirup di laut <ref name="Adl2012">{{cite journal |author=Adl, S. M., et al. |title=The Revised Classification of Eukaryotes |journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology |year=2012 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=429–493}}</ref>. Organisme ieu miboga ciri has anu ngabédakeunana tina alga sanésna, nyaéta ayana organél jiga pancing anu disebut '''haptonema''' <ref name="Edvardsen2000">{{cite journal |author=Edvardsen, B., et al. |title=Phylogenetic reconstructions of the Haptophyta |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_phycologia_2000-01_39_1/page/19 |journal=Phycologia |year=2000 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=19–35}}</ref>. == Étimologi == Ngaran '''Haptophyta''' asalna tina basa [[Yunani]] ''hapto'' (ἅπτω) anu hartina "nyabak" atanapi "némpél", sarta ''phyton'' (φυτόν) anu hartina "tutuwuhan" <ref name="Wittstein1852">{{cite book |last=Wittstein |first=G.C. |title=Etymologisch-botanisches Handwörterbuch |year=1852 |publisher=Ansbach |page=411}}</ref>. Nami ieu nujul kana fungsi haptonema anu tiasa némpél kana substrat atanapi mangsa. == Ciri Has == Haptophyta miboga sababaraha ciri biologis anu mandiri: * '''Haptonema:''' Struktur jiga benang kaku anu perenahna di antara dua flagéla. Haptonema miboga susunan mikrotubulus anu bénten sareng flagéla sarta fungsina pikeun néwak baktéri atanapi némpél <ref name="Edvardsen2000" />. * '''Kokolit:''' Seueur anggotana (kelompok Coccolithophore) anu ngahasilkeun taméng-taméng leutik tina kalsium karbonat ($CaCO_3$) anu disebut ''kokolit''. Nalika sélna paéh, ieu taméng bakal ngendap di dasar laut sarta ngabentuk lapisan kapur <ref name="Adl2012" />. * '''Pigmén:''' ''Kloroplasna'' ngandung ''klorofil'' a, c1, c2, sarta fikosantin anu masihan warna coklat-emas <ref name="Edvardsen2000" />. * '''Bioluminesénsi:''' Sababaraha spésiés tiasa ngahasilkeun [[cahaya]] di laut dina peuting <ref name="Adl2012" />. == Peran Ékologi == Haptophyta miboga dampak anu kacida badagna pikeun bumi: # '''Siklus Karbon:''' Ku cara ngabentuk taméng kapur, Haptophyta ngabantos mindahkeun karbon ti atmosfér ka dasar samudra (pompa biologis) <ref name="Edvardsen2000" />. # '''Blooming sarta Iklim:''' Spésiés saperti ''[[Phaeocystis]]'' tiasa ngabentuk ''ledakan populasi'' anu ngaluarkeun sanyawa dimétil sulfida (DMS), anu tiasa mangaruhan kamekaran awan sarta iklim dunya <ref name="Adl2012" />. == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Haptophyta]] [[Kategori:Chromista]] [[Kategori:Alga]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] 711jca98r6urbawqkz6lp5vnvpwztek Woodrow Wilson 0 108346 712312 711710 2026-08-28T20:35:26Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = President Woodrow Wilson Harris & Ewing (3x4 cropped b).jpg | caption = Wilson in 1914 | order = 28th | office = President of the United States | vice_president = [[Thomas R. Marshall]] | term_start = March 4, 1913 | term_end = March 4, 1921 | predecessor = [[William Howard Taft]] | successor = [[Warren G. Harding]] | order1 = 34th | office1 = Governor of New Jersey | term_start1 = January 17, 1911 | term_end1 = March 1, 1913 | predecessor1 = [[John Franklin Fort]] | successor1 = [[James Fairman Fielder]] | order3 = 13th | office3 = President of Princeton University | term_start3 = October 25, 1902 | term_end3 = October 21, 1910 | predecessor3 = [[Francis Landey Patton]] | successor3 = [[John Grier Hibben]] | birth_name = Thomas Woodrow Wilson | birth_date = {{birth date|1856|12|28}} | birth_place = [[Staunton, Virginia]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|1924|2|3|1856|12|28}} | death_place = Washington, D.C.,<!--Links not needed per MOS:OVERLINK--> U.S. | resting_place = [[Washington National Cathedral]] | party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | spouse = {{plainlist| * {{marriage|[[Ellen Axson Wilson|Ellen Axson]]|June 24, 1885|August 6, 1914|end=died}} * {{marriage|[[Edith Wilson|Edith Bolling]]|December 18, 1915}} }} | children = {{flatlist| * [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson|Margaret]] * [[Jessie Wilson Sayre|Jessie]] * [[Eleanor Wilson McAdoo|Eleanor]] }} | father = [[Joseph Ruggles Wilson]] | occupation = {{flatlist| * Politician * academic }} | education = {{plainlist| * [[Princeton University|College of New Jersey (later Princeton University)]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]]) * {{nowrap|[[Johns Hopkins University]] ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]])}} }} | awards = [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (1919) | signature = Woodrow Wilson Signature 2.svg | signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink | module = {{Infobox scientist | embed = yes | workplaces = Princeton University<br />Johns Hopkins University | field = [[Political science]] | thesis_title = Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics | thesis_url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231216211634if_/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/590be125ff7c502a07752a5b/t/62aa585097c42950b160b6a5/1655330908037/Wilson%2C+Thomas+Woodrow%2C+Congressional+Government.pdf | thesis_year = 1886 }} | module2 = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=Woodrow Wilson speaks on Democratic principles.ogg|title=Woodrow Wilson's voice|type=speech|description=On [[democratic principles]]<br />Recorded August 7, 1912}} }} '''Thomas Woodrow Wilson''' (28 Désémber 1856{{snd}}3 Pébruari 1924) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-28 anu ngajabat ti taun 1913 nepi ka 1921. Anjeunna mangrupa hiji-hijina présidén ti [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] anu mingpin dina [[Éra Progrésif]], nyaéta mangsa nalika [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]] mahabu nguasaan korsi kaprésidénan sarta lembaga [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|législatif]]. Nalika nyepeng kalungguhan présidén, Wilson ngayakeun parobahan (réformasi) ékonomi anu kacida gedéna sarta mingpin Amérika Sarikat ngaliwatan [[Perang Dunya I]]. Anjeunna ogé mangrupa arsiték utama diadegkeunna [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta haluan kawijakan luar nagrina katelah ku istilah [[Wilsonianisme]]. Wilson gumelar di [[Staunton, Virginia]], sarta [[Woodrow Wilson#Mangsa budak|gedé]] di wewengkon [[Amérika Sarikat Kidul]] dina mangsa [[Perang Sipil Amérika]] jeung [[Éra Rékonstruksi]]. Saatos nampi gelar [[Doktor Filosopi]] (Ph.D.) dina widang sajarah sarta élmu politik ti [[Universitas Johns Hopkins]], Wilson ngajar di sababaraha paguron luhur sateuacan diangkat janten présidén [[Universitas Princeton]]. Di dinya, anjeunna muncul salaku juru bicara utama pikeun [[Progrésivisme dina pendidikan luhur|gerakan progrésif dina widang pendidikan luhur]]. Wilson dianggap salasahiji "bapa pangadeg" dina widang [[administrasi publik]] alatan tulisanana dina taun 1887 anu judulna ''[[The Study of Administration]]''. Wilson kungsi ngajabat janten [[Gubernur New Jersey]] ti taun 1911 nepi ka 1913. Dina mangsa harita, anjeunna luncat tina pangaruh para "boss" partéy sarta hasil ngagolgolkeun sababaraha réformasi [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrésif]]. Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1912|pamilu taun 1912]], Wilson hasil ngéléhkeun présidén petahana ti Partéy Républik, [[William Howard Taft]], sarta calon ti pihak katilu anu ogé tilas présidén, [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. Ieu meunangna ngajadikeun anjeunna urang [[Urang Amérika Sarikat Kidul|Kidul]] munggaran anu hasil nempatan korsi kaprésidénan saprak [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|taun 1848]]. Dina taun munggaran janten présidén, Wilson méré wewenang pikeun lumangsungna [[Woodrow Wilson jeung ras|ségregasi ras]] sacara lega di lingkungan birokrasi féderal, sarta sikep anjeunna anu nolak [[Hak pilih awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|hak pilih awéwé]] ngondang rupa-rupa protés. Mangsa jabatan munggaranna sabagéan ageung dipaké pikeun ngagolgolkeun agenda domestikna anu progrésif, katelah ku sebutan [[The New Freedom|New Freedom]] (Kabébasan Anyar). Prioritas utamana nyaéta [[Undang-undang Panghasilan 1913]], anu jadi asal-muasal [[Pajeg panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg panghasilan]] modéren, sarta [[Undang-undang Federal Reserve]], anu ngalahirkeun sistem bank sentral [[Federal Reserve]]. Nalika [[Pecahna Perang Dunya I|Perang Dunya I peupeus]] dina taun 1914, Amérika Sarikat nyatakeun nétralitasna nalika Wilson nyobian jadi cukang lantaran perdamaian antara [[Pihak Sekutu dina Perang Dunya I|Pihak Sekutu]] jeung [[Pihak Séntral]]. Wilson meunang deui kalayan sora anu ipis dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916|pamilu taun 1916]], ngéléhkeun calon ti Partéy Républik, [[Charles Evans Hughes]]. Dina April 1917, Wilson ménta Kongrés pikeun ngaluarkeun deklarasi perang ngalawan Jérman salaku réspon kana kawijakan perang kapal silem Jérman anu taya watesna, anu geus ngarempeun kapal-kapal dagang Amérika. Wilson museurkeun perhatianana kana widang diplomasi, kalayan ngaluarkeun ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' (Opat Belas Poin) anu ditarima ku Pihak Sekutu sarta Jérman salaku dadasar pikeun perdamaian sanggeus perang. Anjeunna miharep pamilu sela taun 1918 jadi ajang referéndum pikeun ngarojong kawijakanana, nanging sabalikna, Partéy Républik kalah hasil ngawasa Kongrés. Saatos [[Gencatan Sanjata 11 Nopémber 1918|meunangna Pihak Sekutu]] dina Nopémber 1918, Wilson sumping ka [[Konferénsi Perdamaian Paris (1919–1920)|Konferénsi Perdamaian Paris]]. Wilson hasil merjuangkeun diadegkeunna organisasi multinasional, nyaéta [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], anu diasupkeun kana [[Perjangjian Versailles]] anu ditandatanganan ku anjeunna. Nanging di nagarana sorangan, Wilson nolak [[Kaum Irreconcilables|kompromi]] ti Partéy Républik anu sabenerna bisa ngidinan Sénat pikeun ngasahkeun Perjangjian Versailles sarta gabung jeung Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Wilson sabenerna mibanda niat pikeun nyalonkeun deui dina période katilu, nanging anjeunna katarajang stroke dina Oktober 1919 anu ngabalukarkeun anjeunna lumpuh (incapacitated). Dina mangsa harita, pamajikan sarta dokter pribadina anu ngadalikeun Wilson, sahingga taya kawijakan penting anu dihasilkeun. Samentara éta, kawijakan-kawijakanana ngabalukarkeun urang Amérika turunan Jérman sarta Irlandia di Partéy Démokrat ngarasa teu dianggap, nepi ka tungtungna Partéy Républik meunang mutlak (landslide) dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920|pamilu taun 1920]]. Dina Pébruari 1924, anjeunna tilar dunya dina yuswa 67 taun. Nepi ka abad ka-21, para ahli sajarah loba anu nyawad (mengkritik) Wilson alatan anjeunna ngarojong [[Ségregasi ras di Amérika Sarikat|ségregasi ras]], sanajan kitu aranjeunna tetep [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Wilson salaku présidén anu préstasi sarta ajénna di luhur rata-rata. Kaum [[Konsérvatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konsérvatif]] utamana nyawad anjeunna alatan ngalegaan pangaruh pamaréntah féderal, sedengkeun pihak séjénna mah muji Wilson alatan hasil ngaréngkédan kakawasaan korporasi-korporasi gedé sarta dianggap salaku tokoh anu ngadegkeun [[Liberalisme modéren di Amérika Sarikat|liberalisme modéren]]. == Mangsa budak sarta pendidikan == {{utama|Mangsa budak sarta karir akademik Woodrow Wilson}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson by Pach Bros c1875.jpg|thumb|Wilson, {{circa|1875}}|left]] {{Woodrow Wilson series}} Thomas Woodrow Wilson gumelar ti kulawarga turunan [[Urang Amérika turunan Skotlandia-Irlandia|Skotlandia-Irlandia]] sarta [[Urang Amérika turunan Skotlandia|Skotlandia]] di [[Staunton, Virginia]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 4</ref> Anjeunna mangrupa anak katilu ti opat duduluran, sarta putra lalaki munggaran ti pasangan [[Joseph Ruggles Wilson]] jeung Jessie Janet Woodrow. Aki sarta nini ti pihak bapakna hijrah ka Amérika Sarikat ti [[Strabane]], County Tyrone, Irlandia, dina taun 1807, sarta matuh di [[Steubenville, Ohio]]. Aki ti pihak bapakna, [[James Wilson (wartawan)|James Wilson]], ngédit surat kabar ''[[The Western Herald and Gazette]]'' anu ngarojong [[tarif]] sarta [[Abolisionisme di Amérika Sarikat|anti-perbudakan]].<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), p. 4</ref> Aki ti pihak indungna, Pendéta Thomas Woodrow, ngalih ti [[Paisley, Renfrewshire]], Skotlandia, ka [[Carlisle, Cumbria]], Inggris, sateuacan hijrah ka [[Chillicothe, Ohio]], dina ahir taun 1830-an.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 27–28</ref> Joseph patepang sareng Jessie nalika Jessie nuju sakola di akademi awéwé di Steubenville, sarta duanana nikah dina ping 7 Juni 1849. Teu lami saatos nikah, Joseph ditahbiskeun janten pastur [[Présbitérian]] sarta ditugaskeun ngawula di Staunton.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 28–29</ref> Putrana, Woodrow, gumelar di [[The Manse (Woodrow Wilson)|the Manse]], hiji imah di lingkungan Garéja Présbitérian munggaran Staunton tempat Joseph ngawula. Sateuacan yuswana genep dua taun, kulawargana ngalih ka Augusta, Georgia.<ref name="0'Toole 2018">{{cite book|title=The Moralist: Woodrow Wilson and the World He Made|url=https://archive.org/details/moralistwoodroww0000otoo|last=O'Toole|first=Patricia|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2018|isbn=978-0-7432-9809-4}}</ref> Pangéling-ngéling Wilson anu pangmunggaranna ngeunaan mangsa budakna nyaéta nalika anjeunna nuju ulin di buruan caket panto hareup imahna di Augusta dina yuswa tilu taun. Harita, anjeunna nguping saurang anu ngalangkung ngumumkeun kalayan rasa ijid yén [[Abraham Lincoln]] parantos [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1860|kapilih janten présidén]] sarta perang bakal geura peupeus.<ref name="0'Toole 2018" /><ref>Auchinloss (2000), ch. 1</ref> Wilson mangrupa salasahiji ti dua présidén Amérika Sarikat anu kungsi janten warga nagara [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]]; Présidén séjénna nyaéta [[John Tyler]], anu ngajabat salaku [[Présidén John Tyler|présidén Amérika Sarikat ka-10]] ti taun 1841 nepi ka 1845. Rama Wilson mibanda jati diri sabagé urang [[Amérika Sarikat Kidul]] sarta mangrupa pangrojong satia Konfédérasi salila Perang Sipil Amérika.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 17</ref> Rama Wilson mangrupa salasahiji pangadeg [[Garéja Présbitérian di Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika]], anu saterusna diganti ngaranna janten [[Garéja Présbitérian di Amérika Sarikat]] (PCUS), saatos pipisahan ti Garéja Présbitérian kalér dina taun 1861. Ramana janten pandéta di [[First Presbyterian Church (Augusta, Georgia)|First Presbyterian Church]] di Augusta, sarta kulawargana cicing di dinya dugi ka taun 1870.<ref>White (1925), ch. 2</ref> Ti taun 1870 dugi ka 1874, Wilson cicing di [[Columbia, South Carolina]], tempat ramana janten profésor téologi di [[Columbia Theological Seminary]].<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), ch. 4</ref> Dina taun 1873, Wilson janten anggota komunikan [[Columbia First Presbyterian Church]]; anjeunna tetep janten anggota di dinya saumur hirupna.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 23.</ref> Wilson sakola di [[Davidson College]] di [[Davidson, North Carolina]], dina taun ajaran 1873–74, nanging pindah janten mahasiswa taun kahiji ka College of New Jersey, anu ayeuna katelah [[Universitas Princeton]],<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 45–49</ref> tempat anjeunna neuleuman [[filsafat politik]] sarta [[sajarah]]. Di dinya anjeunna ngagabung jeung faternitas [[Phi Kappa Psi]], sarta aktif dina [[Whig literary and debating society|perkumpulan sastra jeung debat Whig]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 58–60, 64, 78</ref> Anjeunna ogé kapilih janten sékrétaris asosiasi [[Ménbal|maén bal]] sakola, présidén asosiasi [[Bisebal|bisbol]], sarta janten rédaktur pelaksana surat kabar mahasiswa.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 64–66</ref> Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|pamilu présidén 1876]] anu lumangsung panas, Wilson ngarojong [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Démokrat]] sarta calonna, [[Samuel J. Tilden]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 35.</ref> Saatos lulus ti Princeton dina taun 1879,<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 72–73</ref> Wilson neraskeun kuliah di [[Universitas Virginia School of Law]] di [[Charlottesville, Virginia]]. Di dinya anjeunna kalibet dina [[Virginia Glee Club]] sarta ngajabat janten présidén [[Jefferson Literary and Debating Society]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 53.</ref> Masalah kaséhatan maksa Wilson pikeun kaluar ti sakola hukum, nanging anjeunna tetep diajar hukum sacara mandiri nalika cicing sareng sepuhna di [[Wilmington, North Carolina]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 82–83</ref> Wilson tungtungna ditarima janten anggota [[Georgia bar|advokat Georgia]] sarta nyobi ngadegkeun [[Firma hukum|firma hukum]] di [[Atlanta]] dina taun 1882.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 84–86</ref> Sanajan anjeunna mikaresep sajarah hukum sarta yurisprudénsi substantif, anjeunna ijid (ngarasa teu resep) kana aspék prosédural sapopoé dina prakték hukum. Kirang ti sataun, Wilson ninggalkeun prakték hukumna pikeun neuleuman élmu politik sarta sajarah.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 58–59.</ref> Dina ahir taun 1883, Wilson daptar ka Universitas Johns Hopkins anu nembé diadegkeun di [[Baltimore]] pikeun nyandak studi doktoral dina widang sajarah, élmu politik, [[Basa Jérman|basa Jérman]], sarta widang séjénna.<ref>Pestritto (2005), 34.</ref><ref>Mulder (1978), pp. 71–72</ref> Wilson boga harepan janten profésor, kalayan nulis yén: "jabatan profésor nyaéta hiji-hijina tempat anu méré luang pikeun maca sarta migawé karya asli, hiji-hijina posisi literér anu boga panghasilan."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 92</ref> Wilson mépéskeun sabagian ageung waktosna di Universitas Johns Hopkins pikeun nulis ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics'', anu mangrupa mekarna tina runtuyan éséy nalika anjeunna neuleuman kumaha jalanna pamaréntah féderal.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 95–98</ref> Dina taun 1886, Wilson dilélér gelar Ph.D. dina widang sajarah sarta pamaréntahan ti Universitas Johns Hopkins,<ref>Pestritto (2005), p. 34</ref> anu ngajadikeun anjeunna hiji-hijina présidén dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat anu mibanda gelar Ph.D.<ref>{{cite web |title=President Woodrow Wilson |url=https://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/president-woodrow-wilson |website=The President Woodrow Wilson House |date=November 18, 2020 |access-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-date=April 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420151628/https://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/president-woodrow-wilson |url-status=live }}</ref> Dina awal taun 1885, [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] medarkeun buku Wilson anu judulna ''Congressional Government''. Ieu buku nampi réspon anu kacida hadéna, malah salasahiji kritikus nyebutkeun yén éta tulisan téh "tulisan kritis panghadéna ngeunaan [[Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|konstitusi Amérika]] anu kungsi aya saprak medalna tulisan [[Federalist Papers|'Federalist']]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Milne|first=David|year=2015|title=Worldmaking: The Art and Science of American Diplomacy|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UPe5BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79 79]|isbn=978-0-3747-1423-9}}</ref> == Kawin sarta kulawarga == [[Berkas:ELWilson.jpg|thumb|Dina Séptémber 1883, Wilson ngalamar calon pamajikanana, [[Ellen Axson Wilson]], putri saurang pandéta [[Présbitérian]] di [[Savannah, Georgia]].]] Dina taun 1883, Wilson patepang sarta murag asih ka [[Ellen Louise Axson]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 62–65.</ref> Anjeunna ngalamar Ellen dina Séptémber 1883; lamaranana ditarima, nanging duanana sapuk pikeun nunda pernikahan samentara Wilson nuju kuliah pascasarjana.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 89–92</ref> Axson mangrupa lulusan ti [[Art Students League of New York]], damel dina widang seni lukis potrét, sarta kungsi nampi medali pikeun salah sahiji karyana tina ajang [[Esposisi Univérsal (1878)]] di Paris.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ellen Wilson Biography |url=http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009085710/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |archive-date=2018-10-09 |website=National First Ladies' Library }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009085710/http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=28 |date=2018-10-09 }}</ref> Ellen rido ngorbankeun karir senina demi nikah sareng Wilson dina taun 1885.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 71–73.</ref> Ellen ogé diajar [[Basa Jérman]] supados tiasa mantuan narjamahkeun publikasi élmu politik dina basa Jérman anu luyu sareng panalungtikan Woodrow.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 107</ref> Dina April 1886, putra munggaran maranéhanana, [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson|Margaret]], gumelar. Putra kadua maranéhanana, [[Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre|Jessie]], gumelar dina Agustus 1887.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 85.</ref> Putra katilu sarta anu pamungkas, [[Eleanor Wilson McAdoo|Eleanor]], gumelar dina Oktober 1889.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 112</ref> Dina taun 1913, Jessie nikah ka [[Francis Bowes Sayre Sr.]], anu saterusna janten [[Komisioner Luhur pikeun Filipina]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 317</ref> Dina taun 1914, putra katilu maranéhanana, Eleanor, nikah ka [[William Gibbs McAdoo]], [[Sékrétaris Perbendaharaan Amérika Sarikat]] dina mangsa pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson anu saterusna janten [[Sénator AS ti California]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 328</ref> == Karir akademik == === Profésor === Ti taun 1885 dugi ka 1888, Wilson ngajar di [[Bryn Mawr College]], hiji [[Paguron luhur awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|paguron luhur awéwé]] anu nembé diadegkeun di [[Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania]], di luar kota [[Philadelphia]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 98–100</ref> Wilson ngajar sajarah Yunani sarta Romawi kuna, sajarah Amérika, élmu politik, sarta widang séjénna. Dina mangsa harita, artikel jurnalna taun 1887 anu judulna [[The Study of Administration]] dipedalkeun dina ''[[Political Science Quarterly]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shafritz |first=Jay M. |title=Classics of Public Administration |url=https://archive.org/details/classicsofpublic0000unse_q7r4 |last2=Hyde |first2=Albert C. |date=2015 |publisher=Wadsworth |isbn=978-1-305-63903-4 |edition=8th |location=Boston |publication-date=2017 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/classicsofpublic0000unse_q7r4/page/35 35]}}</ref> Éta artikel negaskeun yén administrasi publik kudu dianggap salaku widang studi mandiri, lain saukur sub-widang tina élmu politik. Administratur ogé kudu dipisahkeun nanging tetep tanggung jawab ka pamingpin politik, anu saterusna tanggung jawab ka rahayat. Ieu artikel dianggap kacida pentingna salaku dadasar dina widang administrasi publik, sarta Wilson dilélér salaku salasahiji bapa pangadeg éta widang.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hood |first=Christopher |title=The art of the state: culture, rhetoric, and public management |url=https://archive.org/details/artofstatecultur0000chri |last2= |first2= |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-829765-9 |edition=Reprinted |location=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofstatecultur0000chri/page/76 76]}}</ref> Harita, ngan aya 42 mahasiswa di éta kampus, sarta méh kabéhanana dianggap pasif teuing numutkeun selerana. [[M. Carey Thomas]], dekan di dinya, mangrupa saurang féminis fanatik, sarta Wilson papaséan sareng anjeunna ngeunaan kontrak gawéna nepi ka jadi papaséan anu rongkah. Dina taun 1888, Wilson ninggalkeun Bryn Mawr College tanpa aya acara perpisahan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 80–93.</ref> Wilson nampi tawaran janten dosén di [[Wesleyan University]], hiji kampus sarjana élit pikeun lalaki di [[Middletown, Connecticut]]. Anjeunna ngajar kuliah pascasarjana dina widang ékonomi politik sarta [[Sajarah Kulon]], ngalatih tim [[Ménbal Amérika|maén bal]] Wesleyan, sarta ngadegkeun tim debat.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 109–110</ref><ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 93–96.</ref> Dina Pébruari 1890, kalayan bantosan ti réngréngan sobatna, Wilson diangkat janten Ketua Jurusan Yurisprudénsi sarta Ékonomi Politik di College of New Jersey (ngaran harita pikeun Universitas Princeton), kalayan gaji $3.000 sataun ({{Inflation|US|3000|1890|fmt=eq}}).<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 104.</ref> Wilson gancang kawentar di Princeton salaku orator anu matak ngirut.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 117–118</ref> Dina taun 1896, [[Francis Landey Patton]] ngumumkeun yén College of New Jersey resmi diganti ngaranna janten Universitas Princeton; program ékspansi universitas anu ambisius marengan éta parobahan ngaran.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 128</ref> Dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1876|pamilu présidén 1896]], Wilson nolak calon Démokrat [[William Jennings Bryan]] sabab dianggap teuing ka kénca, sarta kalah ngarojong calon konsérvatif "[[Gold Democrat]]", [[John M. Palmer (pulitikus)|John M. Palmer]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 130</ref> Reputasi akademik Wilson terus nérékél sapanjang taun 1890-an, sarta anjeunna nolak sababaraha tawaran ti tempat séjén, kaasup ti Universitas Johns Hopkins sarta [[Universitas Virginia]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 132</ref> Di Universitas Princeton, Wilson medalkeun sababaraha karya sajarah sarta élmu politik sarta rutin nulis pikeun ''[[Political Science Quarterly]]''. Buku téksna, ''The State'', loba dipaké dina perkuliahan di Amérika dugi ka taun 1920-an.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 83, 101.</ref> Dina buku ''The State'', Wilson nulis yén pamaréntah boga hak anu sah pikeun ngamajukeun karaharjaan umum "ku cara nyaram pagawé budak, ngawaskeun kaayaan sanitasis pabrik, ngawatesan pagawéan awéwé dina widang anu ngabahayakeun kaséhatanana, ngayakeun tés resmi pikeun kamurnian atawa kualitas barang anu dijual, ngawatesan jam gawé dina widang nu tangtu, [sarta] ku saratus hiji deui watesan kana kakawasaan jalma-jalma anu teu boga haté sangkan teu ngéléhkeun jalma anu boga karunya dina dunya dagang atawa industri."<ref>Clements (1992) p. 9</ref> Anjeunna ogé nulis yén usaha amal kudu dipindahkeun tina ranah swasta sarta "dijantenkeun kawajiban hukum anu mutlak pikeun balaréa", hiji posisi anu, numutkeun sajarahwan Robert M. Saunders, némbongkeun yén Wilson "nuju neundeun dadasar pikeun nagara karaharjaan modéren."<ref>Saunders (1998), p. 13</ref> Buku katiluna, ''Division and Reunion'' (1893),<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 103.</ref> janten buku téks standar universitas pikeun ngajar sajarah AS pertengahan sarta ahir abad ka-19.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 121–122</ref> Wilson mibanda reputasi anu luhur salaku sajarahwan sarta janten anggota awal ti [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]].<ref>{{cite book|chapter=American Academy of Arts and Letters|title=World Almanac and Encyclopedia 1919|date=February 19, 2024 |location=New York|publisher=The Press Publishing Co. (The New York World)|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faBtNh34xREC&pg=PA216|page=216}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé kapilih janten anggota [[American Philosophical Society]] dina taun 1897.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Woodrow+Wilson&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=July 31, 2025 |website=search.amphilsoc.org |archive-date=February 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223144531/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Woodrow+Wilson&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |url-status=live }}</ref> === Présidén Universitas Princeton === {{Tempo ogé|Sajarah Universitas Princeton#Woodrow Wilson}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson 1902 cph.3b11773.jpg|thumb|Wilson dina taun 1902]] [[File:Princeton University Prospect.jpg|thumb|Salaku présidén Universitas Princeton, Wilson cicing di Prospect House di jero kampus universitas.]] Dina Juni 1902, para wali (trustees) Princeton naékkeun jabatan Profésor Wilson janten présidén universitas, ngagentos Patton anu dianggap ku para wali henteu éfisién dina ngajalankeun administrasi.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 110.</ref> Wilson mibanda cita-cita, sakumaha anu dicaritakeun ka para alumni, pikeun "ngarobah barudak anu haré-haré dina migawé pancén janten lalaki anu boga pamikiran." Anjeunna nyobi naékkeun standar pangonshoran (penerimaan) mahasiswa sarta ngagentos budaya "gentleman's C" (peunteun pas-pasan) ku diajar anu daria. Wilson ngadegkeun departemén-departemén akademik sarta sistem kurikulum inti pikeun nekenkeun kana pamekaran kaahlian. Mahasiswa kudu kumpul dina kelompok leutik anu diwangun ku genep urang di handapeun bingbingan asistén dosén anu katelah [[Preceptor dina pendidikan|preceptor]].<ref>Link (1947); Walworth (1958, vol. 1); Bragdon (1967).</ref> Pikeun ngabayaran ieu program-program anyar, Wilson ngayakeun kampanye pangumpulan dana anu ambisius sarta hasil, ngayakinkeun para alumni saperti [[Moses Taylor Pyne]] sarta filantropis saperti [[Andrew Carnegie]] pikeun nyumbang ka sakola.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 140–144</ref> Wilson ngangkat urang Yahudi sarta Katolik Roma munggaran janten tanaga pangajar (fakultas), sarta mantuan ngabébaskeun dewan tina dominasi kaum Présbitérian konsérvatif.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 155.</ref> Nanging, anjeunna ogé narékahan sangkan urang Amérika turunan Afrika (kulit hideung) teu tiasa asup ka éta sakola, padahal sakola-sakola [[Ivy League]] séjénna harita parantos nampi sajumlah leutik mahasiswa kulit hideung.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=O'Reilly|first1=Kenneth|title=The Jim Crow Policies of Woodrow Wilson|journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education|issue=17|year=1997|pages=117–121|issn=1077-3711|doi=10.2307/2963252|jstor=2963252}}</ref> Profésor filsafat [[John Grier Hibben]] parantos wanoh ka Wilson saprak maranéhanana masih janten mahasiswa. Duanana janten sobat dalit. Malah, nalika Wilson janten présidén Princeton dina taun 1902, Hibben mangrupa panaséhat utamana. Nanging dina taun 1912, Hibben ngareureuwas Wilson ku cara mingpin gerakan nolak rencana réformasi anu dipikanyaah ku Wilson. Hubungan duanana peupeus sarta Wilson kawéléh (kéléh mutlak). Dina taun 1912, dua taun saatos Wilson ninggalkeun Princeton, Hibben janten présidén Princeton.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper, Jr. |first=John Milton |title=Woodrow Wilson: A Biography |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-307-27301-7 |location=Westminster |pages=70–102}}</ref> Usaha Wilson pikeun ngoméan Princeton ngajadikeun anjeunna kawentar di tingkat nasional, nanging hal ieu ogé mangaruhan kana kaséhatanana.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 151–153</ref> Dina taun 1906, Wilson hudang sarta mendakan panon kencana teu tiasa ningali, alatan ayana gumpalan getih sarta hiperténsi. Sawangan médis modéren nyebutkeun yén Wilson harita katarajang stroke; anjeunna saterusna didiagnosa katarajang [[panyatoan pembuluh darah]] (pengerasan arteri), sami sareng ramana. Anjeunna mimiti némbongkeun sipat ramana anu teu sabaran sarta teu boga toléransi, anu sakapeung ngabalukarkeun kasalahan dina nyandak kaputusan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 156.</ref> Dina taun 1906, nalika nuju pakansi di [[Bermuda]], Wilson patepang sareng Mary Hulbert Peck, saurang inohong sosial. Numutkeun panulis biografi [[August Heckscher II]], sosobatan Wilson sareng Peck janten jejer sawala anu terus terang antara Wilson sareng pamajikanana, sanajan para sajarahwan Wilson can bisa mastikeun naha aya hubungan asih (affair) atawa henteu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 174.</ref> Wilson ogé ngirim serat-serat anu kacida pribadina ka Mary Peck, anu saterusna dipaké ku musuh-musuh politikna pikeun nyerang anjeunna.<ref>Cooper (2009) pp. 99–101.</ref> Saatos ngarobah kurikulum Universitas Princeton sarta ngadegkeun sistem perceptorial, Wilson salajengna nyobian ngawatesan pangaruh élit sosial di Princeton ku cara ngabubarkeun [[Princeton University eating clubs|klub-klub dahar]] kelas luhur.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 154–155</ref> Anjeunna ngusulkeun sangkan mahasiswa dipindahkeun ka asrama-asrama (quadrangles), nanging rencana Wilson ieu nampi tantangan keras ti para alumni Princeton.<ref>Walworth (1958, vol. 1), p. 109</ref> Dina Oktober 1907, alatan kuatna panolakan alumni, dewan wali Princeton maréntahkeun Wilson sangkan narik deui rencanana. Di ahir masa jabatanna, Wilson papaséan sareng [[Andrew Fleming West]], dekan sakola pascasarjana Princeton, sarta sekutuna, tilas Présidén [[Grover Cleveland]], anu janten wali Princeton. Wilson hoyong ngahijikeun gedong sakola pascasarjana ka puseur kampus, nanging West leuwih milih lokasi anu rada jauh. Dina taun 1909, dewan Princeton nampi sumbangan pikeun sakola pascasarjana kalayan sarat lokasina kedah di luar kampus puseur.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 183.</ref> Wilson janten kuciwa (disenchanted) kana jabatanna salaku présidén Princeton alatan lobana panolakan kana usulan-usulanana, sarta anjeunna mimiti mikirkeun pikeun terjun ka dunya politik. Sateuacan [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1908]], Wilson méré isarat ka sababaraha tokoh pangaruh di Partéy Démokrat ngeunaan karepna asup kana bursa calon. Sanajan anjeunna teu boga harepan teuing, Wilson méré paréntah sangkan anjeunna ulah ditawaran janten calon wakil présidén. Para pangurus partéy harita nganggap ideu-idena jauh teuing tina kanyataan sarta ngan saukur implengan, nanging binih-binih kabetot parantos dipelak.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 176.</ref> Dina taun 1956, [[McGeorge Bundy]] ngagambarkeun kontribusi Wilson pikeun Princeton: "Wilson bener dina kayakinanana yén Princeton kudu leuwih ti saukur imah anu genah sarta merenah pikeun barudak ngora anu bageur; Princeton geus jadi leuwih ti kitu saprak mangsa anjeunna."<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 203.</ref> == Gubernur New Jersey (1911–1913) == {{Tempo ogé|Pamilu gubernur New Jersey 1910}} [[File:Woodrow Wilson, New Jersey Governor - 1911.jpg|thumb|Wilson salaku gubernur New Jersey dina taun 1911]] Dina Januari 1910, Wilson mimiti narik perhatian [[James Smith Jr.]] sarta [[George Brinton McClellan Harvey]], dua pamingpin [[Komite Nagara Démokrat New Jersey|Partéy Démokrat New Jersey]], salaku calon poténsial pikeun [[Pamilu gubernur New Jersey 1910|pamilu gubernur]] anu bakal datang.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 208.</ref> Saatos kéléh dina lima pamilu gubernur ka tukang, para pamingpin Démokrat New Jersey mutuskeun pikeun ngarojong Wilson, saurang calon anu can kauji sarta mahiwal (unconventional). Para pamingpin partéy yakin yén reputasi akademik Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna juru bicara anu idéal pikeun ngalawan [[trust (bisnis)|trust]] sarta korupsi, nanging maranéhanana ogé miharep yén kurangna pangalaman Wilson dina pamaréntahan bakal ngajantenkeun anjeunna gampang dipangaruhan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 181–182</ref> Wilson sapuk nampi nominasi kasebut kalayan sarat yén éta pencalonan "datang ka kuring tanpa dipénta, sacara buleud (unanimous), sarta tanpa jangji ka sasaha ngeunaan nanaon."<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 192–193</ref> Dina konvénsi partéy tingkat nagara bagian, para [[political boss|boss politik]] ngerahkeun kakuatanana sarta hasil meunangkeun nominasi pikeun Wilson. Dina 20 Oktober, Wilson ngintunkeun surat pangunduran diri ka Universitas Princeton.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 194, 202–203</ref> Kampanye Wilson museur kana jangjina pikeun mandiri (independen) tina pangaruh para boss partéy. Anjeunna gancang ngarobah gaya "profésor"-na janten gaya pidato anu leuwih wanian sarta némbongkeun dirina salaku saurang [[Progrésivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrésif]] tulén.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 214.</ref> Sanajan Républikan William Howard Taft kungsi unggul di New Jersey dina [[Pamilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1908]] kalayan sora leuwih ti 82.000, Wilson hasil ngéléhkeun calon gubernur Républik [[Vivian M. Lewis]] kalayan sela leuwih ti 65.000 sora.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 215.</ref> Kaum Démokrat ogé hasil ngawasa [[Majelis Umum New Jersey]] dina [[Pamilu Amérika Sarikat 1910]], sanajan [[Sénat New Jersey]] tetep dicepeng ku Républik.<ref name="heckscher220"/> Saatos meunang pamilu, Wilson ngangkat [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]] janten sékrétaris pribadina, hiji jabatan anu dicepeng sapanjang karir politik Wilson.<ref name="heckscher220">Heckscher (1991), p. 220.</ref> Wilson mimiti nyusun agenda réformasi, kalayan niat pikeun nyapékéun tungtutan tina [[Mesin politik|mesin partéyna]]. Smith ménta Wilson pikeun ngarojong anjeunna maju ka Sénat AS, nanging Wilson nolak sarta kalah ngarojong lawan Smith, [[James Edgar Martine]], anu parantos meunang dina primari Démokrat. Meunangna Martine dina pamilu Sénat mantuan Wilson nempatkeun dirina salaku kakuatan mandiri dina Partéy Démokrat New Jersey.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 216–217.</ref> Nalika Wilson mimiti ngajabat, New Jersey parantos kawentar ku korupsi publik; éta nagara bagian katelah "Indungna Trust" sabab ngidinan pausahaan-pausahaan saperti [[Standard Oil]] pikeun nyingkahan [[Undang-undang antitrust Amérika Sarikat|undang-undang antitrust]] ti nagara bagian séjén.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 189–190</ref> Wilson sarta sakutu-sekutuna gancang ngagolgolkeun rUU Geran, anu motong kakuatan para boss politik ku cara ngawajibkeun [[Pamilu primari|primari]] pikeun sakabéh jabatan anu dipilih sarta pajabat partéy. Anjeunna ogé hasil ngaluarkeun undang-undang ngeunaan prakték korupsi anu ngawajibkeun sakabéh calon pikeun ngalaporkeun kauangan kampanye, ngawatesan pengeluaran kampanye, sarta nyaram sumbangan korporasi kana kampanye politik. Salian ti éta, Wilson ngarojong disahkeunna undang-undang [[kompénsasi pagawé]] pikeun mantuan kulawarga pagawé anu palastra atawa cilaka nalika digawé.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 225–227</ref> Alatan kasuksésanana ngagolgolkeun ieu undang-undang dina bulan-bulan munggaran janten gubernur, Wilson nampi pangakuan nasional sarta dukungan ti dua pihak (bipartisan) salaku saurang réformer sarta pamingpin gerakan Progrésif.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 216–217</ref> Kaum Républikan hasil ngawasa majelis nagara bagian dina awal taun 1912, sahingga Wilson mépéskeun lolobana sésa jabatanna pikeun méré véto kana rupa-rupa RUU.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 228–229</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna tetep hasil ngagolgolkeun rupa-rupa undang-undang réformasi kaasup anu ngawatesan pagawé budak sarta awéwé, sarta ningkatkeun standar kaayaan gawé di pabrik.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 135</ref> Déwan Atikan Nagara Bagian anu anyar diadegkeun "kalayan wewenang pikeun ngayakeun pamariksaan sarta negakkeun standar, ngatur wewenang nginjeum ti distrik, sarta ngawajibkeun kelas husus pikeun mahasiswa anu mibanda kabutuhan husus."<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 134</ref> Sateuacan béres jabatanna, Wilson ngawaskeun diadegkeunna klinik huntu gratis sarta ngaluarkeun undang-undang jalma miskin anu "kompréhénsif sarta ilmiah". Profési perawat ogé distandarisasi, samentara tanaga gawé kontrak di sakabéh lembaga pamasyarakatan sarta panjara dihapus sarta undang-undang hukuman anu teu ditangtukeun (indeterminate sentence) disahkeun.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=Apr 26, 1913 |title=WILSON LEGISLATION IN NEW JERSEY |journal=The Survey |publisher=Survey Associates |volume=30 |issue=4 |page=140 |hdl=2027/uc1.32106015659722?urlappend=%3Bseq=214 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.32106015659722?urlappend=%3Bseq=214%3Bownerid=9007199273643693-218}}</ref> Aya ogé hukum anu diwanohkeun pikeun maksa pausahaan kareta api "mayar pagawéna dua kali dina sabulan", sarta pangaturan jam gawé, kaséhatan, kasalametan, sarta yuswa jalma anu digawé di tempat dagang dilaksanakeun.<ref>{{cite book |title=Woodrow Wilson and New Jersey Made Over |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonnew00hosfuoft |first=Hester E. |last=Hosford |location=New York |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |year=1912 |page=[https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonnew00hosfuoft/page/90 88]}}</ref> Sakedap sateuacan ninggalkeun jabatan, Wilson nandatanganan runtuyan undang-undang antitrust anu katelah "Seven Sisters", sarta undang-undang séjén anu nyabut wewenang milih [[Juri di Amérika Sarikat|juri]] tina tangan shériff lokal.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 257</ref> == Presidential election of 1912 == {{Main|1912 United States presidential election}} === Democratic nomination === {{Main|1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1912 Democratic National Convention}} Wilson became a prominent 1912 presidential contender immediately upon his election as [[Governor of New Jersey]] in 1910, and his clashes with state party bosses enhanced his reputation with the rising Progressive movement.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 140–141</ref> In addition to progressives, Wilson enjoyed the support of Princeton alumni such as [[Cyrus McCormick Jr.]] and Southerners such as [[Walter Hines Page]], who believed that Wilson's status as a transplanted Southerner gave him broad appeal.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 212–213</ref> [[Edward M. House]] from Texas was also instrumental in securing Wilson's bid for the presidency as campaign manager and became his Wilson's chief advisor when he became president, where Wilson offered him any cabinet position he wanted, except Secretary of State, but House declined.<ref>{{cite book|author=Godfrey Hodgson|title=Woodrow Wilson's right hand: the life of Colonel Edward M. House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jcL20ZS_KUC&pg=PA126|year=2006|publisher=Yale University Press|page=126|isbn=0300092695}}</ref> Though Wilson's shift to the left won the admiration of many, it also created enemies such as [[George Brinton McClellan Harvey]], a former Wilson supporter who had close ties to [[Wall Street]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 224–225</ref> In July 1911, Wilson brought [[William Gibbs McAdoo]] in to manage the campaign.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 238.</ref> Prior to the [[1912 Democratic National Convention]], Wilson made a special effort to win the approval of three-time Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan, whose followers had largely dominated the Democratic Party since the [[1896 United States presidential election|1896 presidential election]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 141–142</ref> Speaker of the House [[Champ Clark]] of Missouri was viewed by many as the front-runner for the nomination, while House Majority Leader [[Oscar Underwood]] of Alabama also loomed as a challenger. Clark found support among the Bryan wing of the party, while Underwood appealed to the conservative [[Bourbon Democrat]]s, especially in the South.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 149–150</ref> In the [[1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries]], Clark won several of the early contests, but Wilson finished strong with victories in Texas, the Northeast, and the Midwest.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 229–230</ref> On the first presidential ballot of the Democratic convention, Clark won a plurality of delegates; his support continued to grow after the New York [[Tammany Hall]] machine swung behind him on the tenth ballot.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 155–156</ref> Tammany's support backfired for Clark, as Bryan announced that he would not support any candidate that had Tammany's backing, and Clark began losing delegates on subsequent ballots.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 233</ref> Wilson gained the support of [[Roger Charles Sullivan]] and [[Thomas Taggart]] by promising the vice presidency to Governor [[Thomas R. Marshall]] of Indiana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morton |first=Richard Allen |title=Roger C. Sullivan and the Triumph of the Chicago Democratic Machine, 1908–1920 |date=2019-01-23 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-7501-5 |chapter=Chapter 5, Roger Sullivan and the 1912 Democratic Convention}}</ref> and several Southern delegations shifted their support from Underwood to Wilson. Wilson finally won two-thirds of the vote on the convention's 46th ballot, and Marshall became Wilson's running mate.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 157–158</ref> == Pamilu umum == [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1912.svg|thumb|Peta electoral college pamilu présidén 1912]] Dina pamilu umum taun 1912, Wilson adu hareupan jeung dua lawan utama: William Howard Taft, saurang petahana ti Républik, sarta tilas Présidén Républik [[Theodore Roosevelt]], anu maju tina jalur [[partéy katilu (Amérika Sarikat)|partéy katilu]] salaku calon ti [[Partéy Progrésif (Amérika Sarikat, 1912)|Partéy "Bull Moose"]]. Calon kaopat nyaéta [[Eugene V. Debs]] ti [[Partéy Sosialis Amérika]]. Roosevelt peupeus hubungan jeung partéy asalna nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1912]] saatos Taft unggul tipis dina pencalonan deui. Beulahna Partéy Républik ieu méré harepan badag pikeun kaum Démokrat yén maranéhanana bisa meunangkeun korsi présidén pikeun munggaranana saprak [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1892|pamilu présidén 1892]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 154–155</ref> Roosevelt muncul salaku lawan utama Wilson. Wilson sarta Roosevelt silih serang salila kampanye sanajan duanana mibanda platform progrésif anu sarupa, nyaéta merlukeun campur tangan pamaréntah puseur.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 166–167, 174–175</ref> Wilson maréntahkeun pupuhu kauangan kampanyena, [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.|Henry Morgenthau]], sangkan teu nampi sumbangan tina korporasi sarta leuwih ngutamakeun sumbangan leutik ti masarakat lega.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 254–255.</ref> Salila kampanye, Wilson negaskeun yén tugas pamaréntah nyaéta "ngatur kahirupan anu bakal nempatkeun unggal jalma dina posisi pikeun nungtut hak normalna salaku mahluk hirup."<ref>Cooper (1983), p. 184</ref> Kalayan bantosan ahli hukum [[Louis Brandeis]], anjeunna nyusun platform [[The New Freedom|Kabébasan Anyar]] (New Freedom), anu museur kana ngabubarkeun trust sarta nurunkeun tarif [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|pajak impor]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 239–242</ref> Brandeis sarta Wilson nolak usulan Roosevelt pikeun ngadegkeun [[birokrasi]] kuat anu boga tugas ngatur korporasi badag; maranéhanana leuwih milih ngabubarkeun korporasi badag kasebut sangkan tercipta kaayaan ékonomi anu adil pikeun sararéa.<ref>Ruiz (1989), pp. 169–171</ref> Wilson ngayakeun kampanye anu kacida sumangetna, ngulilingan nagara pikeun nepikeun rupa-rupa pidato.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 237–244</ref> Tungtungna, anjeunna meunangkeun 41,8 persén sora rahayat (popular vote) sarta 435 ti 531 [[Electoral College (Amérika Sarikat)|sora éléktoral]].<ref>Gould (2008), p. vii</ref> Roosevelt meunangkeun sabagian sésa sora éléktoral sarta 27,4 persén sora rahayat, salasahiji [[Daptar hasil partéy katilu dina pamilu Amérika Sarikat|pencapaian partéy katilu pangkuatna]] dina sajarah AS. Taft meunang 23,2 persén sora rahayat nanging ngan nampi 8 sora éléktoral, samentara Debs meunang 6 persén sora rahayat. Dina [[Pamilu Amérika Sarikat 1910|pamilu législatif]] anu bareng lumangsungna, Démokrat hasil ngawasa [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Amérika Sarikat|DPR]] sarta meunangkeun mayoritas di [[Sénat Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 173–174</ref> Kameunangan Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna urang Kidul munggaran anu meunang pamilu présidén saprak Perang Sipil, présidén Démokrat munggaran saprak Grover Cleveland pangsiun dina taun 1897,<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 154–155, 173–174</ref> sarta hiji-hijina présidén anu mibanda gelar Ph.D.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 8</ref> Saatos kapilih, Wilson ngirim télégrap ka [[William F. McCombs]], Pupuhu Komite Nasional Démokrat, anu isina: {{Blockquote|Hiji cita-cita mulya parantos unggul. Unggal urang Démokrat, unggal pejuang progrésif tulén ti pihak mana waé, ayeuna kudu ngerahkeun sakabéh kakuatan sarta sumanget pikeun ngawujudkeun harepan rahayat, negakkeun hak-hak rahayat, sangkan kaadilan sarta kamajuan bisa jalan babarengan.<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Theodore_Roosevelt_and_the_Assassin/F3VBBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=theodore+roosevelt+and+the+assassin+Every+Democrat,+every+true+progressive&pg=PA220&printsec=frontcover Theodore Roosevelt and the Assassin Madness, Vengeance, and the Campaign of 1912 By Gerard Helferich, 2013, P.220]</ref>}} == Masa jabatan Présidén (1913–1921) == {{Progressivism US|politicians}} {{Utama|Masa jabatan présidén Woodrow Wilson}} {{Pikeun lini masa|Lini masa masa jabatan présidén Woodrow Wilson}} [[Berkas:WILSON, WOODROW. WITH CABINET LCCN2016858384 (restored).jpg|thumb|Wilson sarta jajaran kabinétna dina taun 1916]] Saatos pamilu, Wilson milih William Jennings Bryan janten Sekretaris Nagara (Menteri Luar Negeri), sarta Bryan méré saran ngeunaan anggota kabinét Wilson séjénna.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 185</ref> William Gibbs McAdoo, saurang pangrojong satia Wilson anu nikah ka putra Wilson dina taun 1914, janten Sekretaris Perbendaharaan (Menteri Kauangan), sarta [[James Clark McReynolds]], anu parantos hasil ngagugat sababaraha kasus antitrust anu kawentar, kapilih janten Jaksa Agung.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 190–192</ref> Penerbit [[Josephus Daniels]], saurang loyalis partéy sarta tokoh panyokong supremasi kulit bodas ti North Carolina,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Joseph Campbell |first=W. |date=1999 |title="One of the fine figures of American journalism": A Closer Look at Josephus Daniels of the Raleigh News and Observer |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08821127.1999.10739206 |journal=American Journalism |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=37–55 |doi=10.1080/08821127.1999.10739206 |issn=0882-1127|url-access=subscription }}</ref> kapilih janten Sekretaris Angkatan Laut, samentara pangacara ngora ti New York [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] janten Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 263–264</ref> Kapala staf ("sekretaris") Wilson nyaéta [[Joseph Patrick Tumulty]], anu boga peran salaku taméng politik sarta perantara jeung pihak pers.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 277.</ref> Panaséhat kabijakan luar negeri sarta sobat kapercayaan anu pangpentingna nyaéta "Kolonél" [[Edward M. House]]; Berg nulis yén, "dina hal aksés sarta pangaruh, [House] ngaleuwihan sakabéh anggota Kabinét Wilson."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 19</ref> === Agenda domestik New Freedom === [[Berkas:CONGRESS, U.S. OPENING MESSAGE, 63RD CONGRESS.jpg|thumb|Wilson nepikeun biantara [[Amanat Présidén (Amérika Sarikat)|State of the Union]] munggaranana dina taun 1913 di payuneun sidang gabungan [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Kongrés]], anu ngamimitian prakték modéren nepikeun biantara sacara langsung di payuneun sakabéh anggota Kongrés.]] Wilson ngawanohkeun hiji program léglislasi domestik anu kompréhénsif dina awal pamaréntahanana, hiji hal anu tacan kantos dilakukeun ku présidén mana waé sateuacanna.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 183–184</ref> Anjeunna ngumumkeun opat prioritas domestik utama: [[Gerakan konservasi|konservasi]] sumber daya alam, réformasi perbankan, pangurangan [[tarif dina sajarah Amérika Sarikat|tarif pajak impor]], sarta aksés anu leuwih gampang kana bahan baku pikeun para patani ku cara ngabubarkeun trust pertambangan di wilayah Kulon.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 186–187</ref> Wilson nepikeun ieu usulan dina April 1913 dina biantara di payuneun sidang gabungan Kongrés, ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran saprak [[John Adams]] anu nepikeun biantara ka Kongrés sacara langsung.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 292–293</ref> Dua taun munggaran Wilson ngajabat lolobana museur kana agenda domestikna. Nanging, ku ayana masalah jeung Méksiko sarta pecahna Perang Dunya I dina taun 1914, urusan luar negeri beuki lila beuki ngadominasi masa jabatanna.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 212–213, 274</ref> ==== Léglislasi tarif sarta pajak ==== Kaum Démokrat parantos lami nganggep yén tarif anu luhur téh sarua jeung pajak anu teu adil pikeun konsumén, sahingga pangurangan tarif janten prioritas utama maranéhanana.<ref name="Clements3637"/> Wilson negaskeun yén sistem tarif luhur "mutuskeun urang tina bagian anu sakuduna dina padagangan dunya, ngarémpak prinsip perpajakan anu adil, sarta ngajantenkeun pamaréntah salaku pakakas anu gampang dipaké ku kapentingan swasta."<ref>{{Cite web |year=2008 |title=First Inaugural Address of Woodrow Wilson |url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson1.asp |website=Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States : from George Washington 1789 to George Bush 1989}}</ref> Dina ahir Méi 1913, Pamingpin Mayoritas DPR [[Oscar Underwood]] parantos ngaluluskeun hiji RUU di DPR anu motong rata-rata tarif sagedé 10 persén sarta nerapkeun pajak kana panghasilan pribadi di luhur $4.000.<ref name=cooper216218/> RUU Underwood ieu mangrupa parobahan tarif pangbadagna ka handap saprak Perang Sipil. Ieu aturan sacara agrésif motong tarif pikeun bahan baku, barang anu dianggap "kabutuhan poko", sarta produk-produk domestik anu dihasilkeun ku trust, nanging tetep mertahankeun tarif anu luhur pikeun barang-barang méwah.<ref>Weisman (2002), p. 271</ref> Nanging, ngaluluskeun éta RUU tarif di Sénat mangrupa hiji tantangan. Sababaraha urang Démokrat ti Kidul sarta Kulon hoyong tetep aya panangtayungan (prontéksi) pikeun industri wol sarta gula di daérahna, sarta Démokrat mibanda mayoritas anu leuwih saeutik di luhur (Sénat).<ref name="Clements3637">Clements (1992), pp. 36–37</ref> Wilson ngayakeun pasamoan sacara intensif sareng para sénator Démokrat sarta nepikeun panyambat langsung ka rahayat ngaliwatan pers. Saatos sababaraha minggu pamariksaan sarta debat, Wilson sareng Sekretaris Nagara Bryan hasil ngahijikeun sora Démokrat di Sénat pikeun ngarojong éta RUU.<ref name="cooper216218" /> Sénat méré sora 44 banding 37 pikeun ngarojong RUU kasebut, kalayan ngan saurang Démokrat anu nolak sarta ngan saurang Républikan anu satuju. Wilson nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Pajak 1913]] (anu katelah Tarif Underwood) janten hukum dina 3 Oktober 1913.<ref name="cooper216218">Cooper (2009), pp. 216–218</ref> Ieu undang-undang ngurangan tarif sarta ngagentos kakirangan pendapatan nagara ku pajak panghasilan féderal sagedé hiji persén pikeun panghasilan di luhur $3.000, anu mangaruhan tilu persén pangeusi anu pangbeungharna.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 230–232, 278–282</ref> Kabijakan pamaréntahan Wilson mibanda dampak anu awét kana wangunan pendapatan pamaréntah, anu ayeuna utamana asalna tina perpajakan, lain tina tarif deui.<ref>Gould (2003), pp. 175–176</ref> ==== Sistem Federal Reserve ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah Sistem Federal Reserve}} [[Berkas:Federal Reserve Districts Map - Banks & Branches.png|thumb|Peta Distrik Federal Reserve kalayan bank-bank Federal Reserve (bunderan hideung), cabang Distrik (kotak hideung), sarta kantor puseur nasional Federal Reserve (warna beureum)]] Wilson teu ngantosan rengséna Undang-Undang Pajak 1913 sateuacan neraskeun kana agenda salajengna—perbankan. Nalika Wilson mimiti ngajabat, nagara-nagara sapertos Inggris sarta Jérman parantos ngadegkeun [[bank sentral]] anu dikelola ku pamaréntah, nanging Amérika Sarikat mah tacan mibanda bank séntral saprak [[Perang Bank]] dina taun 1830-an.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 219–220</ref> Saatos kajadian krisis kauangan nasional dina [[Panik 1907|taun 1907]], aya kasepakatan umum pikeun nyieun hiji sistem perbankan séntral anu bisa nyadiakeun mata uang anu leuwih fléksibel sarta koordinasi dina nyanghareupan panik kauangan. Wilson nyobian milari jalan tengah antara kaum progrésif sapertos Bryan sarta kaum Républikan konsérvatif sapertos [[Nelson Aldrich]], anu salaku pupuhu [[Komisi Monétér Nasional]], parantos ngusulkeun rencana bank séntral anu masih méré kakawasaan badag ka pihak swasta dina ngatur sistem monétér.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 40–42</ref> Wilson negaskeun yén sistem perbankan kedah "umum lain swasta, [sarta] kedah dipasrahkeun ka pamaréntah sorangan sangkan bank janten pakakas, lain dunungan, pikeun dunya bisnis."<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 316–317</ref> Kaum Démokrat nyusun rencana kompromi dimana bank-bank swasta bakal ngontrol dua belas [[Bank Federal Reserve]] régional, nanging kendali utama sistem kasebut dipasrahkeun ka hiji dewan pusat anu diusi ku jalma-jalma pilihan présidén. Wilson hasil ngayakinkeun kaum Démokrat sayap kénca yén ieu rencana anyar parantos luyu jeung paménta maranéhanana.<ref>Link (1954), pp. 43–53</ref> Di antara [[Kritik ka Federal Reserve|anu nolak]] ieu RUU téh nyaéta Anggota DPR AS [[Charles August Lindbergh]], anu boga pamikiran yén hal ieu bakal nyiptakeun "pamaréntah siluman" tina [[Kadaulatan monétér|kakuatan monétér]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-06-22 |title=The Federal Reserve's Framers Would Be Shocked (Published 2013) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/business/the-federal-reserves-framers-would-be-shocked.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424211149/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/business/the-federal-reserves-framers-would-be-shocked.html |archive-date=2023-04-24 |access-date=2025-11-25 |language=en}}</ref> sarta museurkeun kontrol ékonomi ka "kelompok anu saukur milari kauntungan."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lindbergh, Sr. |first=Charles A. |title=Lindbergh on the Federal Reserve |url=https://ia801007.us.archive.org/21/items/CharlesLindberghLindberghOnTheFederalReserve_201905/Charles%20Lindbergh%20-%20Lindbergh%20on%20the%20Federal%20Reserve.pdf}}</ref> Sénat méré sora 54–34 pikeun nyatujuan [[Undang-Undang Federal Reserve]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 42–44</ref> Sistem anyar ieu mimiti jalan dina taun 1915, sarta mibanda peran penting dina ngabiayaan usaha perang Sekutu sarta Amérika dina Perang Dunya I.<ref>Link (1956), pp. 199–240</ref> ==== Léglislasi antitrust ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah undang-undang antitrust Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson Priming the Prosperity Pump, 1914 political cartoon by Berryman.jpg|thumb|Kartun taun 1913 karya [[Clifford K. Berryman]] anu némbongkeun Wilson nuju "ngompa" ékonomi ku rupa-rupa undang-undang tarif, mata uang, sarta antitrust]] Saatos ngaluluskeun léglislasi penting pikeun nurunkeun tarif sarta ngoméan struktur perbankan, Wilson salajengna narékahan ayana undang-undang antitrust pikeun nguatkeun [[Undang-Undang Antitrust Sherman]] taun 1890.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 226–227</ref> Undang-Undang Sherman nyaram sakabéh "kontrak, kombinasi... atawa konspirasi, anu ngawatesan perdagangan", nanging tétéla teu mampuh nyegah munculna gabungan bisnis raksasa anu katelah [[Trust (bisnis)|trust]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 46–47</ref> Sahandapeun kelompok élit pangusaha, maranéhanana ngawasa dewan direksi bank-bank sarta pausahaan karéta api gedé, sarta ngagunakeun kakawasaanana pikeun nyegah ayana persaingan ti pausahaan anyar.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 326–327</ref> Kalayan pangrojong Wilson, Anggota DPR [[Henry De Lamar Clayton Jr.|Henry Clayton, Jr.]] ngasongkeun RUU anu bakal nyaram sababaraha prakték anti-persaingan saperti [[Diskriminasi harga|panyasuaian harga anu teu adil]], [[Tying (perdagangan)|prakték meungkeut (tying)]], [[perjangjian éksklusif]], sarta [[jabatan rangkap (interlocking directorates)]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 48–49</ref> Nalika Wilson sadar yén nyaram sakabéh prakték anti-persaingan ngaliwatan undang-undang téh hésé, anjeunna milih ngarojong léglislasi anu bakal ngadegkeun lembaga anyar, nyaéta [[Komisi Perdagangan Féderal]] (FTC). Ieu lembaga boga tugas pikeun nalungtik palanggaran antitrust sarta negakkeun hukum antitrust sacara mandiri tina Departemén Kaadilan. Kalayan dukungan ti dua partéy (bipartisan), Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Komisi Perdagangan Féderal 1914]], anu ngasupkeun ideu-ideu Wilson ngeunaan FTC.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 49–50</ref> Sabulan saatos nandatanganan éta undang-undang, Wilson ogé nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Antitrust Clayton 1914]], anu ngalengkepan Undang-Undang Sherman ku cara netepkeun sarta nyaram rupa-rupa prakték anti-persaingan.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 50–51</ref> ==== Buruh sarta pertanian ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah perburuhan di Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:Presidentwoodrowwilson.jpeg|thumb|Potrét resmi présidén Wilson taun 1913]] Wilson mimitina boga pamikiran yén undang-undang ngeunaan pagawé budak (child labor) téh kamungkinan bakal dianggap inkonstitusional, nanging anjeunna ngarobah sawanganana dina taun 1916 kusabab pamilu parantos caket. Dina taun 1916, saatos kampanye gégékan ti [[Komite Pagawé Budak Nasional]] (NCLC) sarta Liga Konsumén Nasional, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Keating–Owen]]. Ieu undang-undang nyaram pangiriman barang dina perdagangan antar-nagara bagian upami barang kasebut dijieun di pabrik anu ngagunakeun tanaga budak di handapeun umur anu ditangtukeun. Kaum Démokrat ti Kidul nolak, nanging henteu ngayakeun filibuster. Wilson nandatanganan ieu RUU dina detik-detik pamungkas alatan tekenan ti para pamingpin partéy anu negaskeun yén ieu ideu kacida populérna, utamana di kalangan pamilih awéwé anu nuju mekar. Wilson nyarios ka para anggota Kongrés Démokrat yén maranéhanana kudu ngaluluskeun ieu hukum sarta ogé hukum kompénsasi pagawé pikeun nyugemakeun gerakan progrésif nasional sarta pikeun meunangkeun pamilu 1916 ngalawan Partéy Républik anu parantos ngahiji deui. Ieu mangrupa undang-undang féderal munggaran ngeunaan pagawé budak. Nanging, [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]] ngabatalkeun ieu hukum dina kasus ''[[Hammer v. Dagenhart]]'' (1918). Kongrés saterusna ngaluarkeun hukum anu nerapkeun pajak ka bisnis anu maké tanaga budak, nanging éta ogé dibatalkeun ku Mahkamah Agung dina kasus ''[[Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.|Bailey v. Drexel Furniture]]'' (1923). Masalah pagawé budak nembé bener-bener réngsé dina taun 1930-an.<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur S. |last=Link |title=Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 |volume=5 |year=1965 |pages=56–59}}</ref> Anjeunna ogé nyatujuan udagan pikeun ngoméan kaayaan gawé anu beurat pikeun para pelaut sarta nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Pelaut]] LaFollette taun 1915.<ref>Clements, pp. 44, 81.</ref> Salila karir politikna, Wilson méré pancén ka anggota [[Fraternal Order of Eagles]] pikeun nalungtik undang-undang pénsiun kolot di luar nagri pikeun nangtukeun naha hukum saperti kitu bisa dilarapkeun di Amérika Sarikat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UsFIAAAAIBAJ&dq=President+Wilson+commissioned+members+of+the+Fraternal+Order+of+Eagles+old+age+pension+laws&pg=PA5&article_id=1042,2085282|title=Women Voters Hear Talks By Two Speakers|newspaper=The Meriden Daily Journal|via=Google Books |date=Jan 7, 1936}}</ref> Pénsiun pikeun pagawé nagri sipil (PNS) anu digawé di pamaréntah féderal mimiti diwanohkeun dina taun terakhir Wilson ngajabat.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Johnson | first1=Ronald N. | last2=Libecap | first2=Gary D. | title=The Federal Civil Service System and the Problem of Bureaucracy | publisher=University of Chicago Press | publication-place=Chicago | date=2007-12-01 | isbn=978-0-226-40177-5 | page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Joa6AzdM96MC&dq=Federal+civil+service+pensions+1920&pg=PA91 }}</ref> Wilson nyambat Departemén Tanaga Gawé pikeun nengahkeun (mediasi) konflik antara buruh sarta manajémen. Dina taun 1914, Wilson ngintunkeun prajurit pikeun mantuan ngeureunkeun [[Perang Tambang Batubara Colorado]], salasahiji sengketa tanaga gawé anu pangmautna dina sajarah Amérika.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 332</ref> Dina taun 1916, anjeunna ngadorong Kongrés pikeun nerapkeun [[Dalapan jam gawé|dalapan jam gawé]] pikeun pagawé karéta api, anu hasil ngeureunkeun mogok gawé badag. Hal ieu disebut salaku "intervénsi anu pangwanianna dina urusan perburuhan anu kungsi dilakukeun ku présidén mana waé."<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 345–346.</ref> Wilson saenyana kurang satuju kana campur tangan pamaréntah anu kaleuleuwihi dina [[Undang-Undang Pinjaman Ladang Féderal]], anu ngadegkeun dua belas bank régional kalayan wewenang pikeun méré pinjaman bunga rendah ka para patani. Nanging, anjeunna peryogi sora ti para patani sangkan bisa salamet dina pamilu 1916 anu bakal datang, janten anjeunna tetep nandatanganan éta undang-undang.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 63–64</ref> ==== Wewengkon sarta imigrasi ==== {{tempo ogé|Sajarah imigrasi ka Amérika Sarikat}} Wilson ngagem kawijakan anu parantos lami dicepeng ku Partéy Démokrat, nyaéta nolak mibanda jajahan (koloni). Anjeunna ngusahakeun otonomi sacara bertahap sarta kamerdékaan pinuh pikeun [[Filipina]], anu parantos dikawasa ku AS saprak taun 1898. Neraskeun kawijakan ti para miheulaanna, Wilson ningkatkeun tata kelola pamaréntahan mandiri di éta kapuloan ku cara méré wewenang anu leuwih badag ka [[Urang Filipina]] pikeun ngatur Législatif Filipina. [[Undang-Undang Jones 1916]] negaskeun komitmen Amérika Sarikat pikeun méré kamerdékaan ka Filipina dina mangsa nu bakal datang, sarta méré otonomi leuwih lega kalayan diadegkeunna [[Sénat Filipina]] sarta [[Déwan Perwakilan Rahayat Filipina]], anu masing-masing ngagantikeun [[Komisi Filipina]] anu dikelola ku urang Amérika sarta [[Majelis Filipina]] anu dikelola ku urang Filipina.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 249</ref> Dina taun 1916, Wilson [[Perjangjian Hindia Kulon Dénmark|meuli ku jalan perjangjian]] wilayah [[Hindia Kulon Dénmark]], anu saterusna diganti namina janten [[Kapuloan Virgin Amérika Sarikat]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Ambar|first=Saladin|url=https://millercenter.org/president/wilson/foreign-affairs|title=Woodrow Wilson: Foreign Affairs|website=Miller Center|publisher=University of Virginia|date=October 4, 2016|access-date=August 24, 2022}}</ref> Imigrasi ti Éropa nyirorot kacida nalika Perang Dunya I dimimitian, sarta Wilson kurang merhatoskeun ieu pasualan salila masa jabatanna.<ref>{{cite book|last=Allerfeldt|first=Saladin|year=2013|chapter=Wilson's Views on Immigration and Ethnicity|editor-last=Kennedy|editor-first=Ross A.|title=A Companion to Woodrow Wilson|edition=1st hardcover|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|pages=152–172|doi=10.1002/9781118445693|isbn=978-1-4443-3737-2}}</ref> Nanging, anjeunna mibanda sawangan anu saé ka "imigran anyar" ti Éropa kidul sarta wétan. Wilson ogé dua kali méré véto kana undang-undang anu dikaluarkeun ku Kongrés anu tujuanna pikeun ngawatesan asupna para imigran, sanajan véto anu terakhir mah tungtungna dibatalkeun (overridden) ku Kongrés.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 252–253, 376–377</ref> ==== Ngangkat hakim ==== {{Utama|Calon Mahkamah Agung Woodrow Wilson}} {{Daptar utama|Daptar hakim féderal anu diangkat ku Woodrow Wilson}} Wilson nyalonkeun tilu urang pikeun [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]], anu sadayana disatujuan ku Sénat AS. Dina taun 1914, Wilson nyalonkeun jaksa agung anu nuju ngajabat, [[James Clark McReynolds]]. Sanajan mibanda kréndénsial salaku pajoang "trust buster" (pangbubar trust) anu kuat,<ref>{{cite web |last=Fox |first=John |title=James Clark McReynolds |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |website=Capitalism and Conflict: Supreme Court History, Law, Power & Personality, Biographies of the Robes |date=December 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System (PBS) |access-date=July 31, 2025 |archive-date=April 24, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424130119/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424130119/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/capitalism/robes_mcreynolds.html |date=April 24, 2011 }}</ref> McReynolds malah janten tokoh utama blok konservatif di mahkamah dugi ka pangsiun dina taun 1941.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 273</ref> Numutkeun Berg, Wilson nganggap yén ngangkat McReynolds mangrupa salasahiji kasalahan pangbadagna salila anjeunna ngajabat.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 400</ref> Dina taun 1916, Wilson [[Pencalonan Mahkamah Agung Louis Brandeis|nyalonkeun Louis Brandeis ka Mahkamah Agung]], anu ngahudangkeun debat panas di Sénat alatan idéologi Brandeis anu progrésif sarta agamana; Brandeis mangrupa calon munggaran ti turunan [[Yahudi]] di Mahkamah Agung. Tungtungna, Wilson hasil ngayakinkeun Sénator Démokrat pikeun nyatujuan Brandeis, anu ngabakti di mahkamah dugi ka taun 1939. Sabalikna ti McReynolds, Brandeis janten salasahiji sora progrésif utama di mahkamah.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 330–332</ref> Nalika aya korsi kosong kadua dina taun 1916, Wilson ngangkat pangacara progrésif [[John Hessin Clarke]]. Clarke disatujuan ku Sénat sarta ngabakti di Mahkamah dugi ka pangsiun dina taun 1922.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 340, 586</ref> === Kawijakan luar negeri mangsa jabatan kahiji === {{utama|Kawijakan luar negeri pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson}} ==== Amérika Latin ==== {{tempo ogé|Katerlibatan Amérika Sarikat dina Révolusi Méksiko|Perang Pisang}} [[Berkas:VillaUncleSamBerrymanCartoon.png|thumb|Kartun anu némbongkeun [[Uncle Sam]] asup ka [[Méksiko]] dina taun 1916 pikeun ngahukum Pancho Villa kalayan ucapan Uncle Sam, "I've had about enough of this" (Kuring geus cukup sabar ku kieu téh).]] Wilson narékahan pikeun ngajauh tina kawijakan luar negeri para miheulaanna anu dianggap imperialistik, sarta anjeunna nolak [[Diplomasi Dolar]] gaya Taft.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 289–290</ref> Sanajan kitu, anjeunna mindeng ngayakeun intervénsi di [[Amérika Latin]], kalayan nyarios dina taun 1913, "Kuring bakal ngajarkeun républik-républik di [[Amérika Kidul]] pikeun milih jalma-jalma anu bener."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horgan |first=Paul |title=Great River: the Rio Grande in North American History |publisher=Wesleyan University Press |year=1984 |location=Middletown, CT |page=913}}</ref> [[Perjangjian Bryan–Chamorro]] taun 1914 ngajantenkeun [[Nikaragua]] wilayah protéktorat sacara ''de facto'', sarta AS [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Nikaragua|nempatkeun prajurit]] di dinya salila Wilson ngajabat. Pamaréntahan Wilson ogé [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Républik Dominika (1916–24)|ngirim pasukan pikeun nempatan]] [[Républik Dominika]] sarta [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Haiti|ngayakeun intervénsi]] di [[Haiti]]. Salian ti éta, Wilson ogé méré ijin pikeun intervénsi militer di [[Kuba]], [[Panama]], sarta [[Honduras]].<ref>Herring (2008), pp. 388–390</ref> Wilson mimiti ngajabat nalika lumangsungna [[Révolusi Méksiko]], anu dimimitian taun 1911 saatos kaum liberal ngagulingkeun diktator militer [[Porfirio Díaz]]. Sakedap sateuacan Wilson ngajabat, kaum konservatif ngarebut deui kakawasaan ngaliwatan kudéta anu dipingpin ku [[Victoriano Huerta]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 96–97</ref> Wilson nolak légitimasi "pamaréntahan tukang jagal" (government of butchers) pimpinan Huerta sarta nungtut Méksiko ngayakeun pamilu anu démokratis.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1007454|title = Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico|journal = The Americas|volume = 41|issue = 2|pages = 151–176|last1 = Henderson|first1 = Peter V. N.|year = 1984|doi = 10.2307/1007454| s2cid=147620955 }}</ref> Saatos Huerta nangkep personél Angkatan Laut AS anu teu kahaja badarat di zona terlarang deukeut kota palabuan [[Tampico]], Wilson [[Okupasi Amérika Sarikat di Veracruz|ngirim Angkatan Laut pikeun nempatan]] kota [[Veracruz]], Méksiko. Intervénsi Amérika ieu meunangkeun réaksi keras ti sakabéh lapisan politik di Méksiko, anu tungtungna ngayakinkeun Wilson pikeun ngabatalkeun rencana perluasan militer. Nanging, intervénsi éta hasil ngajantenkeun Huerta kabur ti éta nagara.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 98–99</ref> Hiji kelompok anu dipingpin ku [[Venustiano Carranza]] hasil ngawasa sabagian badag Méksiko, sarta Wilson ngaku ka pamaréntahan Carranza dina Oktober 1915.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 99–100">Clements (1992), pp. 99–100</ref> Carranza terus nyanghareupan rupa-rupa lawan di Méksiko, kaasup [[Pancho Villa]], anu sateuacanna ku Wilson disebut salaku "sajenis Robin Hood."<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 99–100"/> Dina awal taun 1916, Pancho Villa nyerang désa [[Columbus, New Mexico]], anu nyababkeun palastrana sarta tatu warga Amérika. Hal ieu ngahudangkeun amarah warga AS anu nungtut hukuman pikeun Villa. Wilson maréntahkeun Jenderal [[John J. Pershing]] sarta 4.000 pasukan pikeun nyebrang wates demi nangkep Villa. Dugi ka April, pasukan Pershing parantos hasil ngabubarkeun kelompok Villa, nanging Villa sorangan teu kacepeng sarta Pershing terus ngudag dugi ka jero wilayah Méksiko. Carranza saterusna balik ngalawan Amérika sarta nuduh yén éta téh invasi anu ngahina, anu méh waé ngabalukarkeun perang. Kaayaan mimiti tenang saatos Méksiko satuju ngaleupaskeun tahanan Amérika, sarta rundayan diplomasi dimimitian. Kusabab Wilson hoyong geuwat narik pasukan ti Méksiko alatan tegangan di Éropa, anjeunna maréntahkeun Pershing pikeun mundur. Pasukan Amérika terakhir ninggalkan Méksiko dina Pébruari 1917.<ref>Link (1964), 194–221, 280–318; Link (1965), 51–54, 328–339</ref> ==== Nétralitas dina Perang Dunya I ==== [[Berkas:The American War-Dog by Oscar Cesare 1916.jpg|thumb|Kartun Wilson sarta "Jingo", anjing perang Amérika, anu nyindekkeun kaum "jingo" (chauvinis) anu hayang pisan perang]] [[Perang Dunya I]] peupeus dina Juli 1914, nyanghareupkeun [[Kakuatan Séntral]] (Jérman, [[Austria-Hungaria]], [[Kasultanan Utsmaniyah]], sarta saterusna [[Bulgaria]]) ngalawan [[Sakutu Perang Dunya I|Pasukan Sakutu]] (Britania, [[Prancis]], [[Rusia]], [[Sérbia]], sarta sababaraha nagara séjénna). Perang ragot dina kaayaan anu statis (stalemate) kalayan korban jiwa anu kacida loba di [[Front Kulon (Perang Dunya I)|Front Kulon]], Prancis. Duanana nolak tawaran Wilson sarta House pikeun nengahkeun (mediasi) sangkan konflik lekasan.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 123–124</ref> Ti mimiti 1914 dugi ka awal 1917, udagan utama kawijakan luar negeri Wilson nyaéta ngajaga Amérika Sarikat sangkan teu kalibet dina perang di Éropa sarta jadi calo perjangjian daméy.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 339.</ref> Anjeunna negaskeun yén sakabéh tindakan pamaréntah AS kudu nétral, kalayan nyebutkeun yén urang Amérika "kudu teu beurat sabeulah dina pamikiran boh dina tindakan, kudu nahan parasaan sarta nahan unggal transaksi anu bisa dianggap salaku condong ka salasahiji pihak anu nuju parébat."<ref>Link (1960), p. 66.</ref> Salaku kakuatan nétral, AS nungtut hakna pikeun dagang jeung dua pihak. Nanging, Angkatan Laut Karajaan Britania anu kuat nerapkeun [[Blokade Jérman (1914–1919)|blokade ka Jérman]]. Pikeun ngabungahkeun Washington, London satuju pikeun terus meuli sababaraha komoditas utama Amérika saperti kapas kalayan harga sateuacan perang. Upami aya kapal dagang Amérika anu kacepeng mawa barang terlarang (kontraband), Angkatan Laut Karajaan diparéntahkeun pikeun meuli sakabéh muatanana sarta ngaleupaskeun éta kapal.<ref>Lake, 1960.</ref> Wilson nampi ieu kaayaan sacara pasif.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 119–123</ref> Pikeun ngawaler blokade Britania, Jérman ngaluncurkeun [[Kampanye U-boat (Perang Dunya I)|kampanye kapal selam]] ngalawan kapal-kapal dagang di laut sakuriling Kapuloan Britania.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 124–125</ref> Dina awal 1915, Jérman nilemkeun tilu kapal Amérika; Wilson mibanda sawangan, dumasar kana bukti anu asup akal, yén éta kajadian téh teu dihaja, sarta urusan ganti rugi bisa ditunda dugi ka perang réngsé.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 362.</ref> Dina Méi 1915, kapal selam Jérman nembak torpédo ka kapal pesiar Britania [[RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']], anu nelasan 1.198 panumpang, kaasup 128 warga nagara Amérika.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 362</ref> Wilson ngawaler sacara publik ku nyebatkeun, "aya kaayaan dimana saurang lalaki ngarasa teuing agung (too proud) pikeun gelut. Aya kaayaan dimana hiji bangsa ngarasa bener pisan sahingga teu perlu ngayakinkeun batur ku kakuatan yén manéhna bener."<ref>Brands (2003), pp. 60–61</ref> Wilson nungtut pamaréntah Jérman "ngalakukeun léngkah saharita pikeun nyegah kacilakaan sarupa" saperti tilemna ''Lusitania''. Alatan hal ieu, Bryan, anu percaya yén Wilson leuwih milih ngabéla hak dagang Amérika batan nétralitas, mundur tina Kabinét.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 125–127</ref> Dina Maret 1916, [[SS Sussex|SS ''Sussex'']], hiji kapal féri Prancis anu teu mawa pakarang, ditorpédo di Selat Inggris sarta opat urang Amérika palastra. Wilson hasil nandeskeun jangji ti Jérman pikeun ngawatesan perang kapal selam luyu jeung aturan perang kapal pangawal (cruiser warfare), anu mangrupa kameunangan diplomatik badag.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 384–387</ref> Kaum intervénsionis, anu dipingpin ku Theodore Roosevelt, hoyong perang ngalawan Jérman sarta nyerang Wilson anu nolak ngawangun kakuatan angkatan darat. Saatos tilemna ''Lusitania'' sarta mundurna Bryan, Wilson sacara publik komit kana hal anu katelah "[[Gerakan Kasiapsiagaan|gerakan kasiapsiagaan]]" (preparedness movement), sarta mimiti nguatkeun angkatan darat sarta angkatan laut.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 128–129</ref> Dina Juni 1916, Kongrés ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Pertahanan Nasional 1916]], anu ngadegkeun [[ROTC|Korps Pelatihan Perwira Cadangan]] sarta ngalegaan [[Garda Nasional Amérika Sarikat|Garda Nasional]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 394</ref> Saterusna dina taun éta, Kongrés ogé ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Angkatan Laut 1916]] pikeun perluasan armada laut sacara badag.<ref>Link (1954), p. 179.</ref> === Pernikahan kadua === [[Berkas:Mr. and Mrs. Woodrow Wilson seated outdoors with their three daughters standing behind them-(left to right) Margaret, Eleanor, and Jessie, in Cornish, New Hampshire LCCN2013649731 (restored).jpg|thumb|Kulawarga Wilson dina taun 1912]] Kaséhatan Ellen Wilson nyirorot saatos salakina mimiti ngajabat, sarta dokter ngadiagnosa anjeunna kakeunaan [[Panyakit Bright]] dina Juli 1914.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 332–333</ref> Ellen tilar dunya dina 6 Agustus 1914.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 334–335</ref> Présidén Wilson kacida katarajangna ku éta musibah dugi ka kakeunaan déprési.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 333–335</ref> Dina 18 Maret 1915, Wilson patepang sareng [[Edith Bolling Galt]] dina hiji acara entéh di Gedong Bodas.<ref>Haskins (2016), p. 166</ref> Galt mangrupa saurang randa sarta pangusaha perhiasan anu asalna ogé ti Kidul. Saatos sababaraha kali patepang, Wilson murag asih ka anjeunna, sarta ngalamar dina Méi 1915. Galt mimitina nolak, nanging Wilson teu nyerah saterusna terus ngadeukeutan.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 348–350.</ref> Edith laun-laun nampi éta hubungan, sarta maranéhanana rasmian tunangan dina Séptémber 1915.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 361, 372–374</ref> Maranéhanana nikah dina 18 Désémber 1915. Woodrow Wilson nyusul [[John Tyler]] sarta Grover Cleveland salaku présidén anu nikah nalika nuju ngajabat.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 350, 356.</ref> === Pamilu présidén 1916 === {{Utama|Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916}} [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson, accepting Democratic nomination, 1916.JPG|thumb|Wilson nampi nominasi Partéy Démokrat pikeun présidén dina taun 1916]] [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1916.svg|thumb|Peta electoral college 1916]] Wilson dicalonkeun deui dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1916]] tanpa lawan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 405–406</ref> Pikeun narik pamilih progrésif, Wilson nyambat léglislasi anu nyadiakeun dalapan jam gawé sarta genep poé gawé dina saminggu, ukuran kaséhatan sarta kasalametan, larangan pagawé budak, sarta panangtayungan pikeun pagawé awéwé. Anjeunna ogé ngarojong upah minimum pikeun sakabéh pagawé féderal.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 335</ref> Kaum Démokrat ogé kampanye kalayan slogan "Anjeunna Ngajaga Urang tina Perang" (He Kept Us Out of War), sarta méré gorowok yén kameunangan Républikan hartosna perang jeung Jérman.<ref>Cooper (2009) pp. 341–342, 352</ref> Pikeun ngahijikeun deui sayap progrésif sarta konservatif, [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1916]] nyalonkeun hakim Mahkamah Agung [[Charles Evans Hughes]]; salaku saurang yurists, anjeunna parantos lami teu kalibet dina dunya politik saprak 1912. Sanajan Républikan nyerang kawijakan luar negeri Wilson, urusan domestik leuwih ngadominasi kampanye. Républikan ngalawan kawijakan New Freedom Wilson, utamana pangurangan tarif sarta pajak panghasilan anyar, ogé [[Undang-Undang Adamson]] anu ku maranéhanana disebut salaku "léglislasi kelas".<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 248–249, 252–253</ref> Pamilu lumangsung kacida ketatna. Hughes unggul di wilayah Wétan, samentara Wilson unggul di Kidul sarta Kulon. Kaputusan ahir aya di California. Dina 10 Novémber, California mastikeun yén Wilson meunang di éta nagara bagian kalayan sela 3.806 sora, anu méré anjeunna mayoritas sora éléktoral. Sacara nasional, Wilson meunang 277 sora éléktoral sarta 49,2 persén sora rahayat, samentara Hughes meunang 254 sora éléktoral sarta 46,1 persén sora rahayat.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 415–416</ref> Wilson hasil meunang ku cara nyokot loba sora anu sateuacanna asup ka Roosevelt atawa Debs dina taun 1912.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1900319|title = Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_1967-06_54_1/page/57|journal = The Journal of American History|volume = 54|issue = 1|pages = 57–72|last1 = Leary|first1 = William M.|year = 1967|doi = 10.2307/1900319|author1-link=William M. Leary}}</ref> Anjeunna nyapu beres wilayah [[Solid South]] sarta meunang di ampir sakabéh nagara bagian Kulon. Kapilihna deui Wilson ngajantenkeun anjeunna urang Démokrat munggaran saprak [[Andrew Jackson]] (taun 1832) anu meunang dua masa jabatan berturut-turut. Démokrat ogé tetep ngawasa Kongrés.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 311–312</ref> ==== Amérika Sarikat lebet kana Perang Dunya I ==== {{Utama|Lebetna Amérika kana Perang Dunya I}} {{Tempo ogé|Amérika Sarikat dina Perang Dunya I|Kawijakan luar negeri pamaréntahan Woodrow Wilson}} Dina Januari 1917, [[Kakaisaran Jérman]] ngamimitian kawijakan anyar nyaéta [[perang kapal selam teu kawates]] ngalawan kapal-kapal di laut sakuriling Kapuloan Britania. Pamingpin Jérman terang yén ieu kawijakan kamungkinan badé ngahudang amarah AS dugi ka lebet kana perang, nanging maranéhanana miharep bisa ngéléhkeun Pasukan Sakutu sateuacan AS mampuh mobilisasi kakuatan sapinuhna.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 137–138</ref> Dina ahir Pébruari, publik AS nampi béja ngeunaan [[Télégraf Zimmermann]], hiji komunikasi diplomatik rusiah dimana Jérman nyoba ngayakinkeun Méksiko pikeun ngagabung perang ngalawan Amérika Sarikat.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 138–139</ref> Saatos runtuyan serangan ka kapal-kapal Amérika, Wilson ngayakeun rapat Kabinét dina 20 Maret; sakabéh anggota Kabinét satuju yén parantos waktosna Amérika Sarikat lebet kana perang.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 139–140</ref> Para anggota Kabinét percaya yén Jérman nuju ngayakeun perang komérsial ngalawan Amérika Sarikat, sarta AS kedah ngawaler ku deklarasi perang resmi.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 430–432</ref> Dina 2 April 1917, Wilson nepikeun biantara di payuneun [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat|Kongrés AS]], ménta deklarasi perang ngalawan Jérman. Anjeunna nyebatkeun yén Jérman nuju ngayakeun "tindakan anu taya lian ti perang ngalawan pamaréntah sarta rahayat Amérika Sarikat." Anjeunna ménta ayana wajib militer (draft) pikeun ningkatkeun jumlah pasukan, naékeun pajak pikeun waragad militér, méré pinjaman ka pamaréntah Sakutu, sarta ningkatkeun produksi industri jeung tatanén.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 140–141</ref> Anjeunna nandeskeun, "urang teu mibanda udagan pribadi. Urang teu hayang nalukkeun, teu hayang ngawasa... teu ménta kompensasi materi pikeun pangurbanan anu bakal urang pasrahkeun sacara rido. Urang ngan saukur salasahiji pajoang pikeun hak-hak umat manusa. Urang bakal ngarasa sugema nalika éta hak-hak parantos aman sakumaha amanna kapercayaan sarta kabébasan bangsa-bangsa."<ref>Berg (2013), p. 437</ref> [[Déklarasi perang ku Amérika Sarikat]] [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Jérman 1917|ngalawan Jérman]] ditarima ku Kongrés kalayan sora mayoritas mutlak ti dua partéy dina 6 April 1917.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 439</ref> Amérika Sarikat saterusna ogé [[Déklarasi perang Amérika Sarikat ka Austria-Hungaria|nyatakeun perang]] ngalawan Austria-Hungaria dina Désémber 1917.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 462–463</ref> Kalayan asupna AS kana kancah perang, Wilson sarta Sekretaris Perang [[Newton D. Baker]] ngalaksanakeun perluasan angkatan darat, kalayan udagan ngabentuk 300.000 anggota [[Angkatan Darat Régulér (Amérika Sarikat)|Angkatan Darat Régulér]], 440.000 anggota [[Garda Nasional Amérika Sarikat|Garda Nasional]], sarta 500.000 pasukan wajib militer anu katelah "[[Angkatan Darat Amérika Sarikat (1917–1919)|Angkatan Darat Nasional]]". Sanajan aya sababaraha panolakan kana wajib militer (konkripsi) sarta pangiriman prajurit ka luar nagri, mayoritas badag di dua kamar Kongrés satuju nerapkeun wajib militer ngaliwatan [[Undang-Undang Layanan Sélektif 1917]]. Pikeun nyegah ayana karusuhan wajib militer saperti jaman Perang Sipil, ieu undang-undang ngadegkeun dewan wajib militer lokal anu boga tugas nangtukeun saha waé anu kudu mangkat perang. Dugi ka ahir perang, ampir 3 juta jalma parantos asup wajib militer.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 143–146</ref> Angkatan laut ogé ngalaman kamekaran anu kacida badag, sarta angka kaleungitan kapal Sakutu nyirorot pisan alatan kontribusi AS sarta nerapkeun [[Konvoy dina Perang Dunya I|sistem konvoy]] anu anyar.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 147–149</ref> ==== Opat Belas Poin ==== {{Utama|Opat Belas Poin}} Wilson narékahan pikeun ngadegkeun "katengtreman babarengan anu kaorganisir" pikeun nyegah konflik di mangsa nu bakal datang. Dina ieu udagan, anjeunna ditolak lain waé ku Kakuatan Séntral, nanging ogé ku nagara-nagara Sakutu séjénna, anu dina rupa-rupa tingkatan, hayang meunangkeun konsési sarta nerapkeun perjangjian daméy anu boga sipat ngahukum (punitive) ka Kakuatan Séntral.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 164–165</ref> Dina 8 Januari 1918, Wilson nepikeun biantara anu katelah Opat Belas Poin, dimana anjeunna nétélakeun udagan perang jangka panjang pamaréntahanna. Wilson nyambat diadegkeunna asosiasi bangsa-bangsa pikeun ngajamin kamerdékaan sarta integritas wilayah sakabéh nagara—nu saterusna janten [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]].<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 471.</ref> Poin séjénna kaasup pangosongan wilayah anu diokupasi, pangadegan nagara [[Polandia]] anu merdéka, sarta [[hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan]] (self-determination) pikeun bangsa-bangsa di handapeun kakuasaan Austria-Hungaria sarta Kasultanan Utsmaniyah.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 469–471</ref> ==== Jalanna perang ==== {{Utama|Perang Dunya I}} Di handapeun paréntah Jenderal Pershing, [[Pasukan Ékspédisi Amérika]] mimiti anjog ka Prancis dina pertengahan taun 1917.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 144</ref> Wilson sarta Pershing nolak usulan Britania jeung Prancis sangkan prajurit Amérika dihijikeun kana unit Sakutu anu parantos aya. Ieu hal méré Amérika kabébasan pikeun nindak, nanging merlukeun pangadegan organisasi sarta jalur suplai anu anyar.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 150</ref> Rusia kaluar tina kancah perang saatos nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Brest-Litovsk]] dina Maret 1918, anu ngamungkinkeun Jérman mindahkeun pasukanana ti [[Front Wétan (Perang Dunya I)|Front Wétan]].<ref name="clements149151">Clements (1992), pp. 149–151</ref> Kalayan harepan bisa nembus garis pertahanan Sakutu sateuacan pasukan Amérika sumping sapinuhna, Jérman ngaluncurkeun [[Serangan Musim Semi Jérman|Serangan Musim Semi]] di [[Front Kulon (Perang Dunya I)|Front Kulon]]. Duanana nandangan korban ratusan rébu jiwa nalika Jérman hasil nyered mundur Britania jeung Prancis, nanging Jérman teu hasil ngarebut ibu kota Prancis, [[Paris]].<ref>Berg (2013), p. 474</ref> Dina ahir taun 1917 ngan aya 175.000 prajurit Amérika di Éropa, nanging dina pertengahan 1918, saloba 10.000 urang Amérika anjog ka Éropa unggal poéna.<ref name="clements149151"/> Saatos pasukan Amérika ngagabung dina campuh, Sakutu hasil ngéléhkeun Jérman dina [[Patempuran Belleau Wood]] sarta [[Patempuran Château-Thierry (1918)]]. Ti mimiti Agustus, Sakutu ngaluncurkeun [[Serangan Saratus Poé]], anu hasil nyered mundur pasukan Jérman anu tos lungsé.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 479–481</ref> Samentara éta, pamingpin Prancis jeung Britania ngayakinkeun Wilson pikeun ngirim sababaraha rébu prajurit Amérika guna ngagabung dina [[Intervénsi Sakutu dina Perang Sipil Rusia|intervénsi Sakutu]] di Rusia, anu nuju ditarajang [[Perang Sipil Rusia]] antara komunis [[Bolshevik]] ngalawan [[Gerakan Bodas]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 498–500</ref> Dina ahir Séptémber 1918, pamingpin Jérman tos teu percaya deui yén maranéhanana bisa meunangkeun perang, sarta Kaisar [[Wilhelm II, Kaisar Jérman|Wilhelm II]] ngangkat pamaréntahan anyar anu dipingpin ku [[Pangéran Maximilian ti Baden]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 165–166</ref> Baden geuwat ménta gencatan senjata ka Wilson, kalayan ngajantenkeun Opat Belas Poin salaku dadasar sumerahna Jérman.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 503</ref> [[Edward M. House|House]] hasil nanggung kasepakatan gencatan senjata ti Prancis jeung Britania, nanging saatos ngancem yén Amérika bakal ngayakeun gencatan senjata sapihak tanpa maranéhanana.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 479–488.</ref> Jérman sarta Pasukan Sakutu mungkas campuh ku nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata 11 Novémber 1918]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 511–512</ref> Austria-Hungaria parantos nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata Villa Giusti]] dalapan poé sateuacanna, samentara Kasultanan Utsmaniyah parantos nandatanganan [[Gencatan Senjata Mudros]] dina bulan Oktober. Dina ahir perang, 116.000 anggota militer Amérika palastra, sarta 200.000 séjénna tatu.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 20</ref> ==== Urusan jero nagri (Home front) ==== {{Utama|Urusan jero nagri Amérika Sarikat salila Perang Dunya I}} [[Berkas:FoodWillWinTheGreatWarNOLA.jpg|thumb|Hiji spanduk anu unina, "Food will win the war—don't waste it" (Kadaharan bakal meunangkeun perang—ulah dihambur-hambur), di payuneun balé kota [[New Orleans]] dina Oktober 1918]] [[Berkas:Women workers in ordnance shops, Midvale Steel and Ordnance Company, Nicetown, Pennsylvania. Hand chipping with pneumati - NARA - 530774.jpg|thumb|Pagawé awéwé di bengkel sanjata di [[Pennsylvania]], taun 1918]] Kalayan asupna Amérika kana Perang Dunya I dina April 1917, Wilson janten présidén dina mangsa perang. [[Déwan Industri Perang]], anu dipingpin ku [[Bernard Baruch]], diadegkeun pikeun nangtukeun kawijakan sarta udagan manufaktur perang AS. Calon présidén di mangsa hareup, [[Herbert Hoover]], mingpin [[Administrasi Kadaharan Amérika Sarikat]]; [[Administrasi Bahan Bakar Féderal]], anu dijalankeun ku [[Harry Augustus Garfield]], ngenalkeun [[Waktu usum panas|daylight saving time]] sarta ngatur jatah suplai bahan bakar; William McAdoo tanggung jawab dina urusan obligasi perang; sarta [[Vance C. McCormick]] mingpin Déwan Perdagangan Perang. Tokoh-tokoh ieu, anu sacara koléktif katelah salaku "kabinét perang", ngayakeun rapat mingguan sareng Wilson.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 469.</ref> Kusabab Wilson kacida fokusna kana kawijakan luar negeri, anjeunna méré wewenang anu lega pikeun urusan jero nagri ka para bawahanana.<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 296–297</ref> Dina mangsa perang, anggaran féderal naék drastis tina $1 miliar dina [[taun fiskal]] 1916 janten $19 miliar dina taun fiskal 1919.<ref name="clements156157"/> Salian ti waragad pikeun kaperluan militérna sorangan, Wall Street (1914–1916) sarta Departemén Kauangan (1917–1918) méré pinjaman badag ka nagara-nagara Sakutu pikeun ngabiayaan perang Britania jeung Prancis.<ref>Cooper (1990), pp. 276, 319</ref> Pikeun nyegah inflasi luhur sapertos anu lumangsung dina Perang Sipil, pamaréntahan Wilson naékeun pajak salila perang.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 320</ref> [[Undang-Undang Pendapatan Perang 1917]] sarta [[Undang-Undang Pendapatan 1918]] naékeun tarif pajak pangluhurna janten 77 persén, ningkatkeun jumlah warga Amérika anu mayar pajak panghasilan sacara signifikan, sarta nerapkeun [[pajak kauntungan leuwih]] pikeun bisnis sarta individu.<ref>Weisman (2002), pp. 325–329, 345</ref> Sanajan kitu, AS tetep kedah nginjeum artos dina jumlah anu badag. Sekretaris Kauangan McAdoo ngaluarkeun obligasi perang kalayan bunga rendah, sarta pikeun narik minat investor, bunga obligasi éta dibébaskeun tina pajak. Obligasi ieu kacida populérna dugi ka loba investor anu nginjeum duit demi bisa meuli leuwih loba obligasi. Hal ieu, ditambah ku tekenan mangsa perang séjénna, ngabalukarkeun naékna inflasi, sanajan inflasi ieu sabagian bisa diimbangan ku naékna upah sarta kauntungan bisnis.<ref name="clements156157">Clements (1992), pp. 156–157</ref> Pikeun ngawangun opini publik, dina taun 1917 Wilson ngadegkeun kantor propaganda modéren munggaran, nyaéta [[Komite Informasi Publik]] (CPI) anu dipingpin ku [[George Creel]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 449–450</ref> Wilson nyambat para pamilih dina [[Pamilu sela Amérika Sarikat 1918]] pikeun milih Démokrat salaku bentuk dukungan kana kawijakanana. Nanging, Républikan hasil narik sora urang [[Jérman-Amérika]] anu ngarasa kasingkir sarta tungtungna ngawasa Kongrés.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Livermore |first=Seward W. |date=1948 |title=The Sectional Issue in the 1918 Congressional Elections |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=29–60 |doi=10.2307/1895138 |jstor=1895138}}</ref> Wilson nolak gawé bareng atawa kompromi jeung pamingpin anyar di DPR sarta Sénat—Sénator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] janten musuh buyutna.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parsons |first=Edward B. |date=1989 |title=Some International Implications of the 1918 Roosevelt-Lodge Campaign Against Wilson and a Democratic Congress |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_winter-1989_19_1/page/141 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=141–157 |jstor=40574571}}</ref> Dina Novémber 1919, Jaksa Agung Wilson, [[A. Mitchell Palmer]], mimiti nargétkeun kelompok anarkis, anggota [[Pagawé Industri Dunya]] (IWW), sarta kelompok anti-perang séjénna dina aksi anu katelah [[Palmer Raids]]. Rébuan jalma ditéwak kalayan tuduhan ngasud kekerasan, spionase, atawa sedisi (hasutan ngalawan nagara). Dina mangsa éta, kaayaan fisik Wilson parantos sakarat (incapacitated) sarta anjeunna henteu dibéjaan ngeunaan naon anu nuju lumangsung.<ref>Cooper (2008), pp. 201, 209</ref> ==== Konférénsi Daméy Paris ==== {{Utama|Balukar tina Perang Dunya I|Konférénsi Daméy Paris (1919–1920)}} [[Berkas:Big four.jpg|thumb|Kaum "Big Four" dina [[Konférénsi Daméy Paris]] ping 27 Méi 1919, saatos réngséna [[Perang Dunya I]] kalayan Wilson nangtung gigireun [[Georges Clemenceau]] di palebah katuhu]] [[Berkas:Review of reviews and world's work (1890) (14586729460).jpg|thumb|Lobana rahayat Itali di [[Milan]] kumpul pikeun ngabagéakeun Wilson.]] Saatos nandatanganan gencatan senjata, Wilson angkat ka Éropa pikeun mingpin délégasi Amérika dina Konférénsi Daméy Paris, anu ngajantenkeun anjeunna présidén munggaran anu nuju ngajabat anu nganjang ka Éropa.<ref>Heckscher (1991), p. 458.</ref> Sanajan ayeuna kaum Républikan ngawasa Kongrés, Wilson nyisihkeun maranéhanana. Sénat Républikan sarta sawatara Sénat Démokrat humandeuar alatan kurangna wakil maranéhanana dina délégasi. Délégasi éta diwangun ku Wilson, Kolonél House,{{efn|House sarta Wilson peunggas silaturahmi nalika Konférénsi Daméy Paris, sarta House teu mibanda peran deui dina pamaréntahan saatos Juni 1919.<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 570–572, 601">Berg (2013), pp. 570–572, 601</ref>}} Sekretaris Nagara [[Robert Lansing]], Jenderal [[Tasker H. Bliss]], sarta diplomat [[Henry White (diplomat)|Henry White]], anu mangrupa hiji-hijina urang Républikan, éta ogé lain partisan anu aktip.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 516–518</ref> Salian ti balik dua minggu ka Amérika Sarikat, Wilson netep di Éropa salila genep bulan, dimana anjeunna fokus kana ngahontal perjangjian daméy pikeun mungkas perang sacara resmi. Wilson, Perdana Menteri Britania [[David Lloyd George]], Perdana Menteri Prancis [[Georges Clemenceau]], sarta Perdana Menteri Itali [[Vittorio Emanuele Orlando]] ngawangun kelompok "[[Big Four (Perang Dunya I)|Big Four]]", pamingpin Sakutu anu mibanda pangaruh pangbadagna dina Konférénsi Daméy Paris.<ref>Herring (2008), pp. 417–420</ref> Wilson kungsi teu damang nalika konférénsi lumangsung, sarta sawatara ahli yakin yén [[Flu Spanyol]] mangrupa sababna.<ref>{{cite news|last=Baker|first=Peter|date=October 2, 2020|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/02/us/politics/trump-covid.html|title=Trump Tests Positive for the Coronavirus|work=The New York Times|access-date=August 24, 2022}}</ref> Béda jeung pamingpin Sakutu séjénna, Wilson teu narékahan pikeun meunangkeun wilayah anyar atawa ganti rugi materi ti Kakuatan Séntral. Udagan utama anjeunna nyaéta pangadegan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, anu ku anjeunna dianggap salaku "batu konci tina sakabéh program".<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 533–535</ref> Wilson nyalira anu mingpin komite anu nyusun [[Kovenan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]].<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 177–178</ref> Kovenan éta nandeskeun para anggota pikeun ngahormatan [[kabébasan agaman]], méré kaadilan ka minoritas ras, sarta ngabéréskeun parébat sacara daméy ngaliwatan organisasi saperti [[Mahkamah Internasional Permanén]]. Pasal X tina Kovenan Liga merlukeun sakabéh nagara pikeun ngabéla anggota Liga tina agrési luar.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 538–539</ref> Jepang ngusulkeun sangkan konférénsi ngarojong [[Usulan Kasaruaan Ras]]; Wilson salaku pupuhu nolak éta usulan ku cara nyebutkeun yén sanajan usulan éta disatujuan ku mayoritas, aya panolakan kuat anu nyata (sanajan teu aya sora anu sacara resmi nolak) sarta dina urusan ieu, sora kudu buleud (unanimous). Délégasi Jepang hoyong transkrip nunjukkeun yén mayoritas sora saenyana mah parantos satuju kana amandemén éta.<ref>{{cite book|first=Naoko|last=Shimazu|year=1998|title=Japan, Race, and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919|url=https://archive.org/details/japanraceequalit0000shim|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=[https://archive.org/details/japanraceequalit0000shim/page/154 154] ff}}</ref> Kovenan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa saterusna diasupkeun kana [[Perjangjian Versailles]], anu mungkas perang jeung Jérman, sarta kana perjangjian daméy séjénna.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 180–185</ref> Salian ti Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, udagan utama Wilson séjénna nyaéta sangkan hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan (self-determination) janten dadasar utama dina nangtukeun wates-wates internasional anyar.<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 534, 563">Berg (2013), pp. 534, 563</ref> Nanging, demi ngawujudkeun Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, Wilson kapaksa ngalah dina sababaraha poin ka kakuatan séjén. Jérman diwajibkeun masrahkeun wilayahna sacara permanén, mayar ganti rugi perang (reparasi), nyerahkeun sakabéh koloni di luar nagri, sarta nampi [[okupasi militér Sakutu di Rhineland]]. Tambahanana, aya [[Pasal 231 Perjangjian Versailles|klausa]] anu sacara husus nyebutkeun yén Jérman tanggung jawab kana peupeusna perang. Wilson satuju ngantepkeun nagara-nagara Sakutu Éropa sarta Jepang pikeun ngalegaan kakawasaanana ku cara ngadegkeun koloni ''de facto'' di Wétan Tengah, Afrika, sarta Asia tina uras-uras Kakaisaran Jérman sarta Utsmaniyah; wilayah-wilayah ieu dibéré landihan "[[Mandat Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]]". Jepang anu meunangkeun kapentingan Jérman di [[Semenanjung Shandong]], Cina, janten kacida [[Masalah Shandong|teu populérna]], sabab hal ieu mungkusan jangji Wilson ngeunaan pamaréntahan mandiri. Harepan Wilson pikeun hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan mibanda sawatara kameunangan nalika konférénsi ngaku sababaraha nagara anyar di Éropa Wétan, kaasup [[Prinsipait Albania|Albania]], [[Républik Cékoslowakia Kahiji|Cékoslowakia]], [[Républik Polandia Kadua|Polandia]], sarta [[Karajaan Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="Berg 2013, pp. 534, 563"/><ref>Herring (2008), pp. 421–423</ref> Negosiasi réngsé dina Méi 1919, dimana harita pamingpin anyar [[Jérman Républikan]] ningal éta perjangjian pikeun munggaranana. Sawatara pamingpin Jérman milih nolak éta perdamaian alatan syarat-syaratna anu kacida beuratna, nanging tungtungna Jérman nandatanganan perjangjian éta dina 28 Juni 1919.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 185–186</ref> Wilson teu mampuh ngayakinkeun kakuatan Sakutu séjénna, utamana Prancis, pikeun ngurangan "paitna" hukuman ka Kakuatan Séntral anu éléh. Alatan usahana pikeun nyiptakeun katengtreman dunya anu langgeng, Wilson dilélér pangajén [[Pangajén Nobél Widang Padaméian]] taun 1919.<ref>{{cite news|last=Glass|first=Andrew|date=December 10, 2012|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2012/12/woodrow-wilson-nobel-peace-prize-dec-10-1920-084809|title=Woodrow Wilson receives Nobel Peace Price, Dec. 10, 1920|work=Politico}}</ref> ==== Debat ratifikasi sarta kasoran ==== [[Berkas:President Woodrow Wilson - NH 18.jpeg|thumb|Wilson mulang ti [[Konférénsi Daméy Versailles]] nunggang [[USS George Washington|USS ''George Washington'']], nalika kapal éta nuju ka [[Palabuhan New York]] dina 8 Juli 1919; [[Majelis Nasional Weimar]] di Jérman sacara resmi ngaratifikasi éta perjangjian poé saterusna ku sora 209 lawan 116.<ref>{{cite book|author=Koppel S. Pinson|title=Modern Germany: Its History and Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-DHU-892|year=1964|page=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-DHU-892/page/397 397] f}}</ref>]] Ratifikasi Perjangjian Versailles merlukeun pangrojong dua per tilu sora Sénat, hiji hal anu kacida héséna sabab kaum Républikan mibanda mayoritas tipis di Sénat saatos [[Pamilu AS 1918]].<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191">Clements (1992), pp. 190–191</ref> Kaum Républikan ngarasa ambek alatan Wilson teu daék sawala ngeunaan perang atawa balukarna sareng maranéhanana, nepi ka muncak janten campuh partisan anu kacida panasna di Sénat. Sénator Républikan [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] ngarojong vérsi perjangjian anu merlukeun Wilson pikeun kompromi. Wilson nolak.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Sawatara urang Républikan, kaasup manten Présidén Taft sarta manten Sekretaris Nagara [[Elihu Root]], sabenerna mah milih ratifikasi perjangjian kalayan sababaraha parobahan, sarta pangrojong publik maranéhanana méré harepan pikeun Wilson sangkan éta perjangjian bisa ditarima.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Debat ngeunaan perjangjian ieu museur kana sawala ngeunaan peran Amérika dina komunitas dunya di mangsa saatos perang, sarta para sénator kabagi janten tilu kelompok utama. Kelompok munggaran, diwangun ku kalolobaan urang Démokrat, satuju kana éta perjangjian.<ref name="Clements (1992), pp. 190–191"/> Opat belas sénator, kalolobaanana urang Républikan, katelah kelompok "[[irreconcilables]]" (anu teu bisa dirukunkeun) sabab maranéhanana sacara mutlak nolak AS asup ka Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Sababaraha urang di antarana nolak perjangjian alatan dianggap gagal nekenkeun dékolonisasi sarta pangaributan pakarang (disarmament), samentara nu séjénna sieun masrahkeun kabébasan nindak Amérika ka organisasi internasional.<ref name="herring427430">Herring (2008), pp. 427–430</ref> Kelompok sésana, katelah "reservationists" (nu mibanda catetan), nampi ide Liga Bangsa-Bangsa nanging ménta rupa-rupa parobahan pikeun mastikeun panangtayungan kedaulatan Amérika sarta hak Kongrés pikeun mutuskeun mangkat perang.<ref name="herring427430"/> Pasal X tina Kovenan Liga, anu narékahan nyiptakeun sistem [[kaamanan koléktif]] ku cara ngawajibkeun anggota Liga pikeun silih jaga tina agrési luar, dianggap bakal maksa AS pikeun aub dina perang naon waé anu diputuskeun ku Liga.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 652–653</ref> Wilson tetep nolak pikeun kompromi, sabagian alatan anjeunna hariwang kudu muka deui negosiasi jeung nagara-nagara séjén anu parantos nandatanganan perjangjian.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 191–192, 200</ref> Nalika Lodge méh hasil ngawangun dua per tilu mayoritas pikeun ngaratifikasi Perjangjian kalayan sapuluh catetan (reservasi), Wilson kalah maksa para pangrojongna pikeun milih "Nay" (Nolak) dina 19 Maret 1920, anu tungtungna nutup éta pasualan. Cooper nyebutkeun yén "ampir sakabéh pangrojong Liga" satuju jeung Lodge, nanging usaha maranéhanana "gagal ngan saukur kusabab Wilson sacara sadar nolak sakabéh reservasi anu diajukeun di Sénat."<ref>{{cite book|last=Cooper|first=John Milton Jr.|year=2001|title=Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations|url=https://archive.org/details/breakingheartofw00coop|page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingheartofw00coop/page/283 283]}}</ref> [[Thomas A. Bailey]] nyebut tindakan Wilson ieu salaku "puncak tina tindakan nelasan anak sorangan" (infanticide).<ref>{{cite book|last=Bailey|first=Thomas A.|year=1945|title=Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal|url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsongre0000thom_a1q3|page=[https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsongre0000thom_a1q3/page/277 277]}}</ref> Anjeunna nambahan: "Éta perjangjian ditelasan di imah babaturanana, lain di imah musuhna. Dina analisis pamungkas, sanés aturan dua per tilu, atawa kelompok 'irreconcilables', atawa Lodge, nanging Wilson sarta para pangiringna anu nurut baé anu parantos méré tancaban pati."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ambrosius|first=Lloyd E.|date=1987|title=Woodrow Wilson's Health and the Treaty Fight, 1919–1920|journal=The International History Review}}</ref> ==== Ambrukna kaséhatan ==== Pikeun ngahudang pangrojong publik kana ratifikasi, Wilson ngayakeun tur biantara ka nagara-nagara bagian Kulon, nanging anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka Gedong Bodas dina ahir Séptémber alatan masalah kaséhatan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 619, 628–638</ref> Dina 2 Oktober 1919, Wilson kakeunaan stroke anu parna, anu ngabalukarkeun awak bagian kencana lumpuh, sarta paningalna ngan kantun sabagian dina panon katuhu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 615–622.</ref> Anjeunna ngan bisa ngagolér di ranjang salila sababaraha minggu sarta papisah ti sing saha waé iwal ti pamajaganna, dokterna nyaéta [[Cary Grayson]], sarta ahli saraf konsultan [[Francis Xavier Dercum]].<ref>Aminoff & Daroff (2014), pp. 983–986</ref> Bert E. Park, saurang ahli bedah saraf anu mariksa catetan médis Wilson saatos anjeunna tilar dunya, nyerat yén panyakit Wilson mangaruhan kapribadianana dina rupa-rupa cara, ngajantenkeun anjeunna gampang kakeunaan "gangguan émosi, kontrol impuls anu lemah, sarta gangguan dina nyandak kaputusan."<ref>Clements (1992), p. 198</ref> Alatan hoyong mantuan présidén sangkan jagjag deui, Tumulty, Grayson, sarta Ibu Nagara nangtukeun dokumén naon waé anu tiasa dibaca ku présidén sarta saha waé anu meunang komunikasi sareng anjeunna. Alatan pangaruhna anu kacida gedéna dina pamaréntahan, sababaraha pihak nyebut Edith Wilson salaku "présidén awéwé munggaran di Amérika Sarikat."<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 643–644, 648–650</ref> Link nyatakeun yén dina Novémber 1919, "pamulihan Wilson ngan saukur sabagian. Pikiranna kawilang masih tétéla, nanging fisikna tos lungse, sarta éta panyakit parantos ngancurkeun émosina sarta ngaparah sipat-sipat pribadina anu kurang saé."<ref>Link (1979), p. 121</ref> Salila ahir taun 1919, jalma-jalma kapercayaan Wilson nyumputkeun parnana kaayaan kaséhatan anjeunna.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 659–661, 668–669</ref> Dugi ka Pébruari 1920, kaayaan présidén anu sabenerna mimiti kanyahoan ku publik. Loba anu ngarasa cangcaya kana kamampuh Wilson pikeun mingpin présidén nalika perjuangan Liga Bangsa-Bangsa nuju muncak, sarta masalah domestik sapertos aksi mogok gawé, pangangguran, inflasi, sarta ancaman Komunisme nuju ragot. Dina pertengahan Maret 1920, Lodge sarta kaum Républikan ngawangun koalisi sareng urang Démokrat anu pro-perjangjian pikeun ngaratifikasi perjangjian kalayan catetan (reservasi), nanging Wilson nolak kompromi ieu sarta cukup loba urang Démokrat anu nurut kana paréntahna pikeun ngéléhkeun ratifikasi éta.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 544, 557–560</ref> Taya saurang ogé jalma deukeut Wilson anu kersa mastikeun, sakumaha anu diwajibkeun ku Konstitusi, ngeunaan "kateumampuhna dina ngalaksanakeun wewenang sarta tugas jabatan kasebut."<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 555</ref> Sanajan sababaraha anggota Kongrés ngadorong Wakil Présidén Marshall pikeun nyokot alih jabatan présidén, Marshall teu kungsi nyoba pikeun ngaganti Wilson.<ref>United States Senate, "Thomas R. Marshall"</ref> Mangsa kateumampuh Wilson anu kacida lila nalika ngajabat présidén ieu méh taya tandingna dina sajarah; tina présidén-présidén sateuacanna, ngan [[James Garfield]] anu kantos aya dina kaayaan sarupa, nanging Garfield masih kénéh mibanda kontrol méntal anu leuwih hadé sarta teu nyanghareupan loba masalah anu kacida gentingna.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 535</ref> ==== Démobilisasi ==== Nalika perang lekasan, Pamaréntahan Wilson ngabubarkeun dewan-dewan mangsa perang sarta lembaga-lembaga régulasi.<ref>Kennedy (2004), pp. 249–250</ref> Prosés démobilisasi lumangsung pabaliut sarta sakapeung diwarnaan ku kekerasan; opat juta prajurit dipulangkeun ka imahna kalayan mawa saeutik artos sarta fasilitas anu minim. Dina taun 1919, aksi mogok gawé di industri-industri badag peupeus, anu ngaganggu ékonomi nagara.<ref>Levy & Fisher (1994), p. 494</ref> Nagara ogé ngalaman kaributan saterusna nalika runtuyan karusuhan ras peupeus dina usum panas 1919 anu katelah [[Red Summer 1919|Red Summer]] (Usum Panas Beureum).<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 609–610, 626</ref> Dina taun 1920, ékonomi nyirorot kana [[Déprési 1920–21|déprési ékonomi anu parna]], pangangguran naék janten 12 persén, sarta harga produk tatanén turun drastis.<ref>Clements (1992), pp. 207, 217–218</ref> ==== Ambrukna kaséhatan ==== Pikeun ngahudang pangrojong publik kana ratifikasi, Wilson ngayakeun tur biantara ka nagara-nagara bagian Kulon, nanging anjeunna kapaksa mulang ka Gedong Bodas dina ahir Séptémber alatan masalah kaséhatan.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 619, 628–638</ref> Dina 2 Oktober 1919, Wilson kakeunaan stroke anu parna, anu ngabalukarkeun awak bagian kencana lumpuh, sarta paningalna ngan kantun sabagian dina panon katuhu.<ref>Heckscher (1991), pp. 615–622.</ref> Anjeunna ngan bisa ngagolér di ranjang salila sababaraha minggu sarta papisah ti sing saha waé iwal ti pamajaganna, dokterna nyaéta [[Cary Grayson]], sarta ahli saraf konsultan [[Francis Xavier Dercum]].<ref>Aminoff & Daroff (2014), pp. 983–986</ref> ==== Red Scare sarta Palmer Raids ==== [[Berkas:June 3 1919 Newspapers of the 1919 United States anarchist bombings.png|thumb|Judul berita dina koran ping 3 Juni 1919, ngeunaan [[Pengeboman anarkis Amérika Sarikat 1919|kajadian bom]]]] Nyusul [[Révolusi Bolshevik]] di [[Rusia]] sarta usaha révolusi sarupa di [[Jérman]] jeung [[Hungaria]], loba urang Amérika anu sieun ku kamungkinan ayana térorisme di Amérika Sarikat. Kasieun ieu beuki parna alatan [[Pengeboman anarkis Amérika Sarikat 1919|kajadian bom]] dina April 1919 nalika kaum anarkis ngirimkeun 38 bom ngaliwatan surat ka tokoh-tokoh penting Amérika; saurang palastra nanging kalolobaan pakét hasil ditéwak. Salapan bom surat séjénna dikirimkeun dina bulan Juni, anu nyababkeun sababaraha urang tatu.<ref>Avrich (1991), pp. 140–153</ref> Kasieun anyar ieu, ditambah ku sumanget patriotik nasional, ngahudangkeun "[[Red Scare Munggaran]]" dina taun 1919. Jaksa Agung Palmer, ti mimiti Novémber 1919 dugi ka Januari 1920, ngaluncurkeun aksi [[Palmer Raids]] pikeun nindes organisasi-organisasi radikal. Leuwih ti 10.000 jalma ditéwak sarta 556 urang asing didéportasi, kaasup [[Emma Goldman]].<ref>Coben (1963), pp. 217–245</ref> Tindakan Palmer ieu meunang palawanan tina pangadilan sarta sawatara pajabat senior administrasi. Taya saurang ogé anu ngalaporkeun ka Wilson ngeunaan naon anu nuju dipidamel ku Palmer.<ref>Cooper (1990), p. 329</ref> Saterusna dina taun 1920, [[Pengeboman Wall Street]] dina 16 Séptémber nelasan 40 urang sarta nyababkeun ratusan tatu, janten serangan téroris pangmautna dina sajarah Amérika nepi ka mangsa éta. Kaum anarkis ngaku tanggung jawab sarta jangji bakal ngayakeun kekerasan deui; maranéhanana teu hasil ditéwak.<ref>Gage (2009), pp. 179–182</ref> ==== Prohibisi sarta hak pilih awéwé ==== [[Prohibisi di Amérika Sarikat|Prohibisi]] (larangan inuman keras) mekar salaku gerakan réformasi anu teu kabendung salila Perang Dunya I, nanging [[Kapérésidénan Woodrow Wilson|administrasi Wilson]] ngan saukur mibanda peran leutik.<ref>Timberlake (2013).</ref> [[Amandemén Kadalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kadalapan Belas]] lulus di Kongrés sarta diratifikasi ku nagara-nagara bagian dina taun 1919. Dina Oktober 1919, Wilson ngavéto [[Undang-Undang Volstead]], nyaéta aturan pikeun ngajalankeun Prohibisi, nanging véto anjeunna dibatalkeun (overridden) ku Kongrés.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 648</ref> Wilson asalna nolak [[Hak pilih awéwé di Amérika Sarikat|hak pilih awéwé]] dina taun 1911 sabab anjeunna percaya yén kaum awéwé kurang mibanda pangalaman publik pikeun janten pamilih anu saé. Bukti nyata ngeunaan kumaha pamilih awéwé nindak di nagara-nagara bagian Kulon ngarobah pamikiranana, sarta anjeunna mimiti ngarasa yén awéwé saenyana mah bisa janten pamilih anu hadé. Anjeunna teu nyarios sacara publik ngeunaan ieu pasualan, iwal ti ngan saukur niron posisi Partéy Démokrat yén hak pilih mangrupa urusan nagara bagian, utamana alatan palawanan kuat ti warga kulit bodas di bagian Kidul (South) ka hak pilih warga kulit hideung.<ref>Steinson (2013), pp. 343–365</ref> Dina biantara taun 1918 di payuneun Kongrés, Wilson pikeun munggaranana ngarojong hak milih nasional: "Urang parantos ngajantenkeun kaum awéwé salaku mitra dina ieu perang.... Naha urang bakal ngantep maranéhanana ngan saukur janten mitra dina sangsara, pangorbanan, sarta kasusah, nanging sanés mitra dina hak sarta kaistiméwaan?"<ref>Wilson Center (2013).</ref> DPR ngaluluskeun amandemén konstitusi pikeun hak pilih awéwé di sakuliah nagara, nanging kapegat di Sénat. Wilson terus neken Sénat sangkan milih éta amandemén, nyebatkeun yén ratifikasina kacida pentingna pikeun meunangkeun perang.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 492–494</ref> Sénat tungtungna nyatujuan dina Juni 1919, sarta jumlah nagara bagian anu diperlukeun ngaratifikasi [[Amandemén Kasalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kasalapan Belas]] dina Agustus 1920.<ref>Clements (1992), p. 159</ref> ==== Pamilu 1920 ==== {{Utama|Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920}} [[Berkas:ElectoralCollege1920.svg|thumb|Nomine présidén [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] [[Warren G. Harding]] ngéléhkeun nomine Démokrat James Cox dina [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920]].]] Sanajan kaayaan fisikna teu mampuh alatan panyakit, Wilson saenyana mah masih hoyong nyalonkeun deui pikeun période katilu. Nalika [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1920]] sacara kuat ngarojong kabijakan-kabijakan Wilson, para pamingpin Démokrat nolak anjeunna, sarta kalah milih masangkeun Gubernur [[James M. Cox]] sareng Asistén Sekretaris Angkatan Laut Franklin D. Roosevelt.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 565–569.</ref> Kaum Républikan museurkeun kampanyena kana palawanan ka kabijakan Wilson, kalayan Sénator Warren G. Harding ngajangjikeun "[[return to normalcy]]" (mulang ka kaayaan normal). Wilson kalolobaanana cicing baé salila kampanye, sanajan anjeunna ngarojong Cox sarta terus ngajak AS sangkan asup janten anggota Liga Bangsa-Bangsa. Harding meunang mutlak dina éta pamilu, kalayan mibanda leuwih ti 60% sora rahayat sarta meunang di unggal nagara bagian [[Solid South|di luar wewengkon Kidul]].<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 569–572.</ref> Wilson papanggih sareng Harding pikeun nginum entéh dina poé terakhirna ngajabat, 3 Maret 1921. Alatan kaséhatanana, Wilson teu tiasa ngahadiran [[Inaugurasi Warren G. Harding|pelantikan Harding]].<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 700–701.</ref> Dina 10 Désémber 1920, Wilson dilélér Pangajén Nobél Widang Padaméian taun 1919 "alatan péranna salaku pangadeg Liga Bangsa-Bangsa".<ref>Nobel Prize Institute, "The Nobel Peace Prize 1919"</ref> Wilson janten présidén Amérika Sarikat kadua anu nuju ngajabat saatos Theodore Roosevelt anu janten [[Daptar pamingpin nagara anu meunang Nobél|Penerima Nobél Padaméian]].<ref>History.com, "Woodrow Wilson awarded Nobel Peace Prize"</ref> == Pasca-kapérésidénan sarta tilar dunya (1921–1924) == [[Berkas:Wilson funeral, 2-6-24 LOC npcc.10360.jpg|thumb|Iring-iringan pamakaman manten présidén Woodrow Wilson dugi ka Katedral Nasional Washington]] [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson tomb 2.jpg|thumb|Pamakaman pamungkas Woodrow Wilson di Katedral Nasional Washington]] Saatos réngsé période kaduana dina taun 1921, Wilson sareng pamajaganna pindah ti [[Gedong Bodas]] ka hiji imah kota (townhouse) di bagian [[Sheridan-Kalorama Historic District|Kalorama]], [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 697–704</ref> Anjeunna tetep nuturkeun kamekaran pulitik nalika Présidén Harding sarta Kongrés Républik nolak janten anggota Liga Bangsa-Bangsa, neukteuk pajeg, sarta naékkeun tarif.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 713</ref> Dina taun 1921, Wilson muka prakték hukum sareng manten sekretaris nagara [[Bainbridge Colby]]. Wilson sumping dina poé munggaran nanging teu kungsi deui balik deui, sarta éta prakték hukum téh ditutup dina ahir taun 1922. Wilson nyoba nyerat, sarta anjeunna ngahasilkeun sababaraha éséy pondok saatos usaha anu kacida beuratna; tulisan-tulisan éta "nandaan panutup anu sedih pikeun karir sastra anu sateuacanna kacida agungna."<ref>Cooper 2009, p. 585.</ref> Anjeunna nolak nyerat mémoar, nanging sering papanggih sareng [[Ray Stannard Baker]], anu nyerat biografi Wilson tilu jilid anu dipedar dina taun 1922.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 698, 706, 718</ref> Dina Agustus 1923, Wilson ngahadiran pamakaman panerusna, Warren Harding.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 581–590</ref> Dina 10 Novémber 1923, Wilson méré biantara nasional terakhirna, ngaliwatan radio dina poé [[Armistice Day]] (Poé Gencatan Senjata) ti perpustakaan imahna.<ref>NPS.gov, "Woodrow Wilson's last address"</ref> ==== Tilar dunya ==== Kaséhatan Wilson teu nunjukkeun kamajuan anu hartosna saatos lungsur ti jabatan,<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 711, 728</ref> malah beuki nyirorot dina Januari 1924. Anjeunna tilar dunya dina 3 Pébruari 1924, dina yuswa 67 taun. Présidén sarta Ibu Nagara harita, [[Calvin Coolidge|Calvin]] jeung [[Grace Coolidge]], sumping ka pamakamanana, kitu ogé mantan Ibu Nagara [[Florence Harding]]. Mantan Ibu Nagara [[Helen Herron Taft]] ngawakilan salakina, Ketua Mahkamah Agung sarta mantan présidén [[William Howard Taft]], anu nuju teu damang dugi ka teu tiasa sumping. Di antara 2.000 tamu anu diondang, aya 11 sénator, loba anggota DPR (House of Representatives), sarta sababaraha pajabat luhur ti luar nagri.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 735–738</ref> Wilson dimakamkeun di [[Katedral Nasional Washington]], janten hiji-hijina présidén anu tempat peristirahatan terakhirna aya di jero ibukota nagara.<ref>Whitcomb (2002), p. 262</ref> == Hubungan ras == {{Utama|Woodrow Wilson sarta masalah ras}} [[Berkas:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|alt="Warga kulit bodas kageuing ku insting pikeun mertahankeun diri ... dugi ka ahirna lahir Ku Klux Klan anu hébat, hiji kakaisaran sajati di Kidul, pikeun nangtayungan nagri Kidul."|Kutipan tina buku ''History of the American People'' karya Woodrow Wilson sakumaha anu dipidangkeun dina film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'']] Wilson lahir sarta digedékeun di wewengkon Kidul (South) ku kolot anu kacida ngadukungna kana ayana perbudakan sarta [[Nagara Konfédérasi Amérika|Konfédérasi]]. Sacara akademis, Wilson dianggap salaku apologis (pembéla) perbudakan sarta kelompok [[Redeemers]], sarta salasahiji promotor utama mitos [[Lost Cause]] (Panyabab anu Leungit).<ref>Benbow (2010), pp. 509–533</ref> Wilson mangrupa urang Kidul munggaran anu kapilih janten présidén saatos [[Pamilu présidén Amérika Sarikat 1848|Zachary Taylor dina 1848]], sarta hiji-hijina mantan warga Konfédérasi. Kameunangan Wilson dirayakeun ku para pangrojong [[Ségregasi ras di Amérika Sarikat|ségregasi di wewengkon Kidul]]. Nalika di Universitas Princeton, Wilson sacara aktif nyegah mahasiswa turunan Afrika-Amérika (kulit hideung) sangkan teu bisa asup kuliah.<ref>O'Reilly (1997), pp. 117–121</ref> Sababaraha ahli sajarah nyorot rupa-rupa conto kawijakan Wilson anu sacara terang-terangan rasialis sarta kaputusanana pikeun neundeun jalma-jalma anu pro-ségregasi dina Kabinétna.<ref>Foner (2006)</ref><ref>Turner-Sadler (2009), p. 100</ref> Ahli séjénna nyebutkeun yén Wilson ngabéla ségregasi salaku "kawijakan anu rasional sarta ilmiah" dina sawala pribadi, sarta ngagambarkeun anjeunna salaku jalma anu "resep ngalalakonkeun heureuy 'darky' (heureuy rasial) ngeunaan warga kulit hideung Amérika."<ref>Feagin (2006), p. 162</ref> Salila masa kapérésidénan Wilson, film karya [[D. W. Griffith]] anu pro-[[Ku Klux Klan]], nyaéta ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915), janten film munggaran anu dipidangkeun di [[Gedong Bodas]].<ref>Stokes (2007), p. 111.</ref> Sanajan mimitina mah anjeunna teu pati kritis kana éta film, Wilson tungtungna ngajaga jarak saatos meunang protés ti publik sarta ngaluarkeun pernyataan anu ngutuk pesen dina éta film, bari nolak yén anjeunna parantos terang eusina sateuacan diputer.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 349–350.</ref> ==== Ségregasi birokrasi féderal ==== Dina taun 1910-an, warga [[Afrika-Amérika]] parantos ampir sagemblengna taya kasempetan pikeun kapilih dina jabatan publik. Meunangkeun jabatan éksekutif ngaliwatan pajabat luhur (appointment) dina birokrasi féderal biasana janten hiji-hijina pilihan pikeun para inohong Afrika-Amérika. Numutkeun Berg, Wilson sabenerna mah terus nunjuk warga Afrika-Amérika pikeun posisi-posisi anu sacara tradisi sok dieusi ku warga kulit hideung, sanajan kudu nyanghareupan palawanan ti loba sénator wewengkon Kidul. [[Oswald Garrison Villard]], anu saterusna janten lawan politikna, mimitina mah nyangka yén Wilson sanés jalma anu fanatik (bigot) sarta ngarojong kamajuan warga kulit hideung, nanging anjeunna ngarasa hanjelu ku palawanan urang Kidul di Sénat anu tungtungna méré pangaruh ka Wilson.<ref>Berg (2013), pp. 307–311.</ref> Dina sawala sareng Wilson, wartawan John Palmer Gavit nyindekkeun yén nangtang pandangan urang Kidul "pastina bakal micu konflik anu bakal ngeureunkeun sakabéh program législatif sacara total."<ref name="Jacobs & Milkins 2017">Jacobs & Milkis (2017), pp. 193–217.</ref> Ti saprak réngséna jaman Rekonstruksi, boh Partéy Démokrat boh Républik mikawanoh yén aya sababaraha jabatan anu sacara unofisial "disadiakeun" pikeun warga Afrika-Amérika anu mibanda kualifikasi. Wilson nunjuk total salapan urang Afrika-Amérika pikeun posisi penting dina birokrasi féderal, dimana dalapan urang di antarana mangrupa jalma-jalma ti jaman Républik sateuacanna. Salaku babandingan, William Howard Taft kungsi nampa amukan ti urang Républik alatan anjeunna ngan saukur nunjuk 31 pajabat kulit hideung, angka panghandapna pikeun présidén ti Partéy Républik. Saatos ngajabat, Wilson mecat ampir kabéh iwal ti dua urang tina 17 pangawas kulit hideung dina birokrasi féderal anu sateuacanna ditunjuk ku Taft.<ref>George Mason University, "Missed Manners: Wilson Lectures a Black Leader"</ref> Ti saprak taun 1863, misi diplomatik AS ka Haiti sarta Santo Domingo ampir sok dipingpin ku diplomat Afrika-Amérika tanpa ningal ti partéy mana présidénna; Wilson mungkas éta tradisi anu parantos lumangsung satengah abad kasebut, nanging anjeunna terus nunjuk diplomat kulit hideung, sapertos [[George Washington Buckner]] sarta [[Joseph L. Johnson]], pikeun mingpin misi ka [[Libéria]].<ref>Lovett & Coffee (1984), pp. 4–8</ref> Ti saprak ahir Rekonstruksi, birokrasi féderal mangrupa hiji-hijina jalan karir dimana warga Afrika-Amérika bisa ngalaman sakedik kasaruaan hak, sarta janten pondasi utama pikeun tumuwuhna kelas menengah warga kulit hideung.<ref>USPS, "African-American Postal Workers in the 20th Century"</ref> ==== Ségregasi birokrasi féderal ==== Pamaréntahan Wilson ningkatkeun kawijakan rékrutmen anu diskriminatif sarta ségregasi di kantor-kantor pamaréntahan anu parantos dimimitian dina mangsa Theodore Roosevelt sarta dituluykeun ku Taft.<ref>Meier & Rudwick (1967), pp. 178–184</ref> Dina bulan munggaran Wilson ngajabat, Diréktur Jéndral Pos [[Albert S. Burleson]] ngadesek présidén sangkan ngadegkeun kantor-kantor pamaréntahan anu papisah dumasar ras.<ref name="wolgemuth">Wolgemuth (1959), pp. 158–173</ref> Wilson teu narima usulan Burleson sacara sagemblengna, nanging anjeunna méré kawenangan ka para menteri kabinét pikeun ngatur ségregasi di departeménna masing-masing.<ref>Berg (2013), p. 307</ref> Dina ahir taun 1913, loba departemén, kaasup Angkatan Laut, Departemén Kauangan, sarta Kantor Pos, parantos mibanda tempat gawé, jamban, sarta kantin anu dipisahkeun.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> Loba lembaga nagara ngagunakeun ségregasi salaku alesan pikeun nerapkeun kawijakan "khusus kulit bodas", kalayan alesan yén maranéhanana teu mibanda fasilitas pikeun pagawé kulit hideung. Dina kaayaan kieu, warga Afrika-Amérika anu parantos didamel sateuacan pamaréntahan Wilson dipaksa pangsiun dini, dipindahkeun, atawa langsung dipecat.<ref>Lewis (1993), p. 332</ref> Atas saran Sénator Oklahoma [[Thomas Gore]], Wilson nunjuk Adam E. Patterson, saurang Démokrat kulit hideung ti Oklahoma, pikeun jabatan [[Register of the Treasury]] dina Juli 1913; nanging Patterson narik diri saatos meunang palawanan ti sénator Démokrat urang Kidul sapertos [[James K. Vardaman]] sarta [[Benjamin Tillman]]. Wilson saterusna kalah nunjuk [[Gabe E. Parker]], anu mibanda turunan campuran Éropa sarta [[Choctaw]], sarta saatos éta anjeunna teu kantos deui nunjuk warga kulit hideung pikeun jabatan féderal.<ref name="Jacobs & Milkins 2017"/><ref>Yellin (2013), pp. 81–112</ref> Diskriminasi ras dina rékrutmen féderal beuki parna nalika saatos taun 1914, Komisi Layanan Sipil AS ngayakeun aturan anyar anu ngawajibkeun unggal pelamar gawé pikeun ngalampirkeun poto pribadi. Alesan resmina mah nyaéta pikeun nyegah penipuan; nanging saenyana mah ngan aya 14 kasus penipuan identitas anu kapanggih dina taun sateuacanna.<ref>Glenn (1957), p. 91</ref> Salaku wilayah féderal, Washington, D.C. parantos lila janten tempat anu méré kasempetan gawé leuwih jembar sarta kurang diskriminasi pikeun warga Afrika-Amérika. Nanging dina taun 1919, para véteran kulit hideung anu mulang ka D.C. kaget nalika mendakan aturan [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]] parantos lumaku; loba anu teu tiasa deui balik kana padamelan lami maranéhanana atawa malah teu meunang asup ka gedong tempat maranéhanana kungsi didamel alatan warna kulit. [[Booker T. Washington]] ngagambarkeun kaayaan ieu: "Kuring tacan kantos ningal warga kulit hideung sakitu pundungna sarta pait haténa sapertos dina mangsa ayeuna."<ref>Politico (2015), "How Woodrow Wilson Stoked the First Urban Race Riot"</ref> ==== Afrika-Amérika dina pasukan pakarang ==== {{Utama|Ségregasi ras dina Pasukan Pakarang Amérika Sarikat}} [[Berkas:King, Stoddard WW1 draft card.jpg|thumb|Kartu pendaftaran wajib militer Perang Dunya I. Bagian handap kencana tiasa diteukteuk pikeun nandaan lalaki turunan Afrika sangkan ségregasi militér tetep kajaga.]] Sanajan ségregasi parantos aya di Angkatan Darat sateuacan Wilson, tingkat kapeurihna ningkat kacida dina mangsa pamaréntahanana. Dina période munggaran Wilson, Angkatan Darat sarta Angkatan Laut nolak ngangkat perwira anyar tina warga kulit hideung.<ref>Lewis, p. 332</ref> Perwira kulit hideung anu parantos ngajabat ngalaman diskriminasi anu beuki parna sarta sering dipaksa kaluar atawa dipecat kalayan alesan anu teu tétéla.<ref>James (2013), pp. 49–51</ref> Saatos AS asup kana Perang Dunya I, Departemén Perang ngayakeun wajib militer ka ratusan rébu warga kulit hideung, sarta para pamilon wajib militer éta dibayar sarua tanpa ningal ras. Pangangkatan perwira Afrika-Amérika dimimitian deui, nanging unit-unitna tetep dipisahkeun (ségregasi) sarta ampir kabéh unit husus kulit hideung dipingpin ku perwira kulit bodas.<ref>Cooke (1999)</ref> Béda sareng Angkatan Darat, Angkatan Laut AS saenyana mah teu kantos sacara resmi nerapkeun ségregasi. Nanging, saatos Wilson nunjuk [[Josephus Daniels]] janten [[Sekretaris Angkatan Laut]], sistem Jim Crow langsung dilarapkeun; kapal, fasilitas latihan, jamban, sarta kantin kabéhanana janten dipisahkeun.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> Nalika Daniels méré loba kasempetan pikeun pelaut kulit bodas sangkan naék pangkat, para pelaut Afrika-Amérika kalah diturunkeun darajatna janten ngan saukur pagawé dapur sarta kabersihan, malah sering dititah janten palayan pikeun perwira kulit bodas.<ref>Foner (1974), p. 124</ref> === Réspons kana kekerasan rasial === [[Berkas:East St Louis Massacre cartoon, Morris.jpg|thumb|Kartun pulitik taun 1917 anu dipedar dina ''[[New York Evening Mail]]'' ngeunaan [[Karusuhan East St. Louis]] 1917 kalayan téks: "Pa Présidén, naha henteu jantenkeun Amérika aman pikeun démokrasi?"]] Pikeun nyumponan kabutuhan tanaga gawé industri, [[Migrasi Gedé (Afrika-Amérika)|Migrasi Gedé]] warga Afrika-Amérika kaluar ti wewengkon Kidul ningkat drastis dina taun 1917 sarta 1918. Ieu migrasi janten cukang lantaran [[Kekerasan rasial massal di Amérika Sarikat|karusuhan ras]], kaasup [[Karusuhan East St. Louis]] taun 1917. Pikeun ngaréspons éta karusuhan, nanging saatos meunang protés keras ti publik, Wilson naros ka Jaksa Agung [[Thomas Watt Gregory]] naha pamaréntah féderal tiasa pipilueun pikeun "nahan tindakan nista ieu". Atas saran Gregory, Wilson milih pikeun teu nyandak tindakan langsung pikeun nangani éta karusuhan.<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 407–408</ref> Dina taun 1918, Wilson tungtungna nyarita sacara kabuka pikeun nangtang [[pancaka (lynching) di Amérika Sarikat]], kalayan nyebutkeun: "Kuring nyarita kalayan tétéla yén unggal urang Amérika anu milu dina tindakan mob (massa) atawa méré dukungan dina wangun naon baé lain putra sajati tina ieu démokrasi anu hébat, nanging janten panghianatna... [sarta] ngérakeun nagara ku hianat kana standar hukum sarta hak-hakna."<ref>Cooper (2009), pp. 409–410</ref> Dina taun 1919, [[Red Summer of 1919|rangkaian karusuhan ras séjénna]] lumangsung di [[Karusuhan Ras Chicago 1919|Chicago]], [[Karusuhan Ras Omaha 1919|Omaha]], sarta dua lusin kota gedé séjénna di wewengkon Kalér. Ahli sajarah ngira-ngira leuwih ti 250 warga Afrika-Amérika nemasing pati.<ref>PBS, "Hundreds of black deaths during 1919's Red Summer are being remembered"</ref> Pamaréntah féderal tetep teu pipilueun, sakumaha anu parantos lumangsung sateuacanana.<ref>Rucker & Upton (2007), p. 310</ref> == Warisan == === Reputasi sajarah === [[Berkas:US-$100000-GC-1934-Fr-2413.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Sertifikat emas taun 1934 saharga $100.000 anu mintonkeun gambar Wilson]] Wilson sacara umum [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|dipeunteun ku para ahli sajarah sarta élmuwan pulitik]] salaku présidén anu mibanda préstasi di luhur rata-rata.<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Dina pandangan sababaraha ahli sajarah, Wilson, leuwih ti para pangheulana, parantos nyandak léngkah-léngkah pikeun nyiptakeun pamaréntah féderal anu kuat pikeun nangtayungan rahayat biasa tina kakuatan korporasi gedé anu kaleuleuwihi.<ref>Politico (2015), "What Woodrow Wilson Did For Black America"</ref> Anjeunna sacara umum dianggap salaku tokoh konci dina ngadegkeun [[liberalisme Amérika modern]], sarta mibanda pangaruh kuat ka présidén-présidén ka hareupna sapertos [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sarta [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Cooper boga pamanggih yén dina hal pangaruh sarta ambisi, ngan saukur [[New Deal]] sarta [[Great Society]] anu tiasa nyalip préstasi domestik mangsa kapérésidénan Wilson.<ref>Cooper (2009), p. 213</ref> Loba préstasi Wilson, kaasup Federal Reserve (Bank Sentral), Federal Trade Commission (Komisi Perdagangan), pajeg panghasilan, sarta hukum tanaga gawé, terus mangaruhan Amérika Sarikat lila saatos Wilson tilar dunya.<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Loba kaum [[Konservatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konservatif]] anu nyerang Wilson alatan péranna dina ngalegaan kakawasaan pamaréntah féderal.<ref>The New Yorker (2009)</ref> Dina taun 2018, kolumnis konservatif George Will nyerat dina ''The Washington Post'' yén Theodore Roosevelt sarta Wilson mangrupa "karuhun tina sistem [[imperial presidency]] (kapérésidénan imperial) jaman ayeuna".<ref>The Washington Post (2018)</ref> Kawijakan luar nagri Wilson, anu katelah salaku [[Wilsonianisme]], ogé méré pangaruh anu jero kana [[kawijakan luar nagri Amérika]], sarta Liga Bangsa-Bangsa karya Wilson mangaruhan lahirna [[Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB)]].<ref name="jschuessler1"/> Saladin Ambar nyerat yén Wilson mangrupa "negarawan munggaran di tingkat dunya anu nyarita lain ngan saukur ngalawan [[imperialisme]] Éropa, nanging ogé ngalawan wangun anyar dominasi ékonomi anu sakapeung disebut salaku 'imperialisme informal'."<ref name="millerlegacy"/> [[Berkas:Woodrow Wilson postage stamp issues.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.7|Kantor Pos AS ngaluarkeun perangko pikeun ngahormatan Wilson: 17 sén (1925), 1 dollar (1938), sarta 7 sén (1956)]] Sanajan mibanda loba préstasi salila ngajabat, Wilson nampa kritik keras alatan catetanana ngeunaan hubungan ras sarta kabébasan sipil, intervensina di Amérika Latin, sarta kagagalanana dina ngasahkeun Perjangjian Versailles.<ref name="millerlegacy"/> Sanajan anjeunna boga akar budaya Kidul sarta catetan rasis di Princeton, Wilson janten urang Démokrat munggaran anu nampa rojongan lega tina komunitas Afrika-Amérika dina pamilu présidén.<ref>O'Reilly (1997), pp. 117–121</ref> Nanging, para pangrojong Afrika-Amérika Wilson, anu loba meuntas garis partéy pikeun milih anjeunna dina taun 1912, ngarasa kacida kuciwana ku pamaréntahan Wilson, utamana kaputusanana pikeun nerapkeun aturan Jim Crow (ségregasi) dina birokrasi féderal.<ref name="wolgemuth"/> == Kawijakan ékonomi: New Freedom == Saatos dilantik, Wilson langsung ngajalankeun agenda "**New Freedom**" pikeun ngarombak tilu pilar utama ékonomi: tarif, perbankan, sarta kakuatan korporasi (trust). === Undang-Undang Underwood sarta Pajeg Panghasilan === Pikeun nurunkeun harga barang pikeun rahayat, Wilson ngadesek Kongrés sangkan ngaluluskeun [[Undang-Undang Underwood]] dina taun 1913, anu nurunkeun tarif impor sacara drastis pikeun munggaranana ti saprak Perang Sadulur. Pikeun ngagentos kakirangan pendapatan nagara alatan turunna tarif, anjeunna nerapkeun pajeg panghasilan féderal (graduated income tax) dumasar kana [[Amandemén Kagenep Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kagenep Belas]]. === Sistim Federal Reserve === Salasahiji warisan Wilson anu paling pangaruh nyaéta pangadegan [[Federal Reserve]] (Bank Sentral AS) ngaliwatan Undang-Undang Federal Reserve 1913. Ieu sistim diciptakeun pikeun nyadiakeun mata uang anu fléksibel sarta méré stabilitas kana sistim kauangan nasional, sangkan kakuatan bank-bank badé di Wall Street bisa dikontrol ku pamaréntah féderal. === Federal Trade Commission (FTC) === Pikeun ngajaga persaingan usaha anu adil, Wilson ngadegkeun [[Federal Trade Commission]] dina taun 1914. Tugasna nyaéta pikeun nalungtik sarta ngeureunkeun prakték bisnis anu teu jujur sarta nyegah tumuwuhna monopoli anu ngarugikeun padagang leutik sarta konsumen. === Budaya popular === Dina taun 1944, [[20th Century Fox]] ngaluarkeun film ''[[Wilson (film 1944)|Wilson]]'', hiji [[biopic]] ngeunaan Wilson anu dibéntangan ku [[Alexander Knox]] sarta diarahkeun ku sutradara [[Henry King (sutradara)|Henry King]]. Ieu film dianggap mintonkeun sosok Wilson sacara "idéalistik". Film ieu mangrupa proyék pribadi sarta karesep ti présidén studio sakaligus produser [[Darryl F. Zanuck]], anu kacida mikahéman sosok Wilson. Ieu film nampa pamuji ti para kritikus film sarta para pangrojong Wilson,<ref>Manny, Farner (14 Agustus 1944). ''The New Republic''.</ref> sarta hasil meunang sapuluh nominasi [[Piala Oscar|Academy Awards]], dimana [[Academy Awards ka-17|lima di antarana hasil dimeunangkeun]].<ref name="Erickson 1944">Erickson (2013). "Wilson (1944) – Review Summary"</ref> Sanajan populér di kalangan elit, film ''Wilson'' gagal pisan di bioskop (box-office bomb), nepi ka ngabalukarkeun karugian ampir $2 juta pikeun studio.<ref>Variety (20 Maret 1946). "'You Can Sell Almost Anything But Politics or Religion Via Pix' – Zanuck"</ref> Kagagalan film ieu disebut mibanda pangaruh anu jero sarta lila ka Zanuck, sarta nepi ka ayeuna tacan aya deui studio gedé anu nyoba nyieun film dumasar kana lalakon hirup Wilson.<ref name="Erickson 1944"/> == Karya == * [https://archive.org/details/congressionalgov00wilsiala/ ''Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics.''] Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1885. * [https://archive.org/details/stateelementshi06wilsgoog ''The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics.''] Boston: D.C. Heath, 1889. * [https://archive.org/details/divisionandreun00wilsgoog ''Division and Reunion, 1829–1889.''] New York, London, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1893. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924032634960 ''An Old Master and Other Political Essays.''] New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924014329274 ''Mere Literature and Other Essays.''] Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1896. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924032749149 ''George Washington.''] New York: Harper & Brothers, 1897. * ''[[A History of the American People (Séri lima jilid)|A History of the American People]].'' Dina lima jilid. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1901–02. * [https://archive.org/details/constitutionalgo0000wils_h2r1/ ''Constitutional Government in the United States.''] New York: Columbia University Press, 1908. * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029052558 ''The Free Life: A Baccalaureate Address.''] New York: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1908. * [https://archive.org/details/newfreedomacall01halegoog/ ''The New Freedom: A Call for the Emancipation of the Energies of a Generous People.''] New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1913. —Pidato-pidato. * [https://archive.org/details/roadawayfromrevo00wils/ ''The Road Away from Revolution.''] Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923. * ''The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson.'' Ray Stannard Baker sarta William E. Dodd (éd.) Dina genep jilid. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1925–27. * ''Study of public administration'' (Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1955). * ''A Crossroads of Freedom: The 1912 Campaign Speeches of Woodrow Wilson.'' John Wells Davidson (éd.) New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1956. * ''The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.'' Arthur S. Link (éd.) Dina 69 jilid. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967–1994. & Schuster |isbn=978-0-7432-9809-4}} * {{cite book |last=Pestritto|first=Ronald J. |title=Woodrow Wilson and the Roots of Modern Liberalism |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilsonroo0000pest|date=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-1517-8}} * {{cite journal |last1=Ruiz |first1=George W. |title=The Ideological Convergence of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_winter-1989_19_1/page/159 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |date=1989 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=159–177 |jstor=40574572}} * {{cite book|last1=Saunders|first1=Robert M.|title=In Search of Woodrow Wilson: Beliefs and Behavior|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofwoodro0000saun|isbn=978-0-313-30520-7|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Press}} * {{cite book |last=Stokes |first= Melvyn |title=D. W. Griffith's ''The Birth of a Nation: A History of "The Most Controversial Motion Picture of All Time"'' |url=https://archive.org/details/dwgriffithsbirth0000stok | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2007 | isbn=978-0-19-533679-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Walworth |first=Arthur |title=Woodrow Wilson, Volume I, Volume II |publisher=Longmans, Green |year=1958 |oclc=1031728326 |url=https://archive.org/details/woodrowwilson00walw }} * {{cite book |last=Weisman |first=Steven R. |title=The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson – The Fierce Battles over Money That Transformed the Nation |date=2002 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-85068-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/greattaxwars00weis }} * {{cite book |last=White|first=William Allen|title=Woodrow Wilson – The Man, His Times and His Task|isbn=978-1-4067-7685-0|publisher=Read Books|date=2007|orig-year=1925}} * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Woodrow |url=https://archive.org/stream/congressionalgov00wilsiala#page/n5/mode/2up |title=Congressional Government, A Study in American Politics |year=1885 |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |via=Internet Archive |oclc=504641398 }} * Wright, Esmond. "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 1: Woodrow Wilson and the First World War" ''History Today''. (Mar 1960) 10#3 pp.&nbsp;149–157. ** Wright, Esmond. "The Foreign Policy of Woodrow Wilson: A Re-Assessment. Part 2: Wilson and the Dream of Reason" ''History Today'' (Apr 1960) 19#4 pp.&nbsp;223–231. {{refend}} == Bacaan salajengna == {{Daptar utama|Bibliografi Woodrow Wilson}} === Pikeun pelajar === * Archer, Jules. ''World citizen: Woodrow Wilson'' (1967) [https://archive.org/details/worldcitizenwood00arch/page/n9/mode/2up online], pikeun tingkat sakola menengah atas. * Frith, Margaret. ''Who was Woodrow Wilson?'' (2015) [https://archive.org/details/whowaswoodrowwil0000frit online], pikeun tingkat sakola menengah pertama. === Historiografi === Bagean ieu ngawengku analisis ngeunaan kumaha para ahli sajarah meunteun Wilson sarta warisanana tina rupa-rupa jihat pandang: * Ambrosius, Lloyd. ''Wilsonianism: Woodrow Wilson and his legacy in American foreign relations'' (Springer, 2002). * [[John M. Cooper (sajarahwan)|Cooper, John Milton]], ed. ''Reconsidering Woodrow Wilson: Progressivism, Internationalism, War, and Peace'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). * {{cite journal|last1=Janis |first1=Mark Weston |title=How Wilsonian Was Woodrow Wilson? |journal=Dartmouth Law Journal |year=2007 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–15}} * {{cite journal|doi=10.1111/0145-2096.00247|title=Woodrow Wilson, World War I, and American National Security |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_diplomatic-history_winter-2001_25_1/page/n21|year=2001 |last1=Kennedy |first1=Ross A. |journal=Diplomatic History |volume=25 |pages=1–31}} * {{cite journal|jstor=27551193|title=History, Health and Herons: The Historiography of Woodrow Wilson's Personality and Decision-Making |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_winter-1994_24_1/page/57|last1=Saunders |first1=Robert M. |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1994 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=57–77}} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1177/106591297703000203|title=Woodrow Wilson as 'Corporate-Liberal': Toward a Reconsideration of Left Revisionist Historiography |year=1977 |last1=Seltzer |first1=Alan L. |journal=Western Political Quarterly |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=183–212}} == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sister project links|wikt=Wilson|commons=Woodrow Wilson|b=no|n=no|q=Woodrow Wilson|s=Author:Thomas Woodrow Wilson|v=no}} ;Resmi * [https://www.wilsoncenter.org/about-woodrow-wilson Ngeunaan Woodrow Wilson – Wilson Center] * [http://www.woodrowwilson.org/ Perpustakaan Presidén & Muséum Woodrow Wilson] ;Koléksi digital * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/woodrow-wilson}} * {{Gutenberg author|id=1689|name=Woodrow Wilson}} * {{Internet Archive author|sname=Woodrow Wilson}} * {{Librivox author|id=2417}} ;Séjénna * {{nobelprize}} {{Woodrow Wilson|state=collapsed}} {{Navboxes |title=Jabatan sarta pangajén |list1= {{s-start}} {{s-aca}} {{s-bef|before=[[Francis Landey Patton]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Universitas Princeton]]|years=1902–1910}} {{s-aft|after=[[John Aikman Stewart]]<br />''acting'' (pj)}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Frank S. Katzenbach]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Calon [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] pikeun [[Gubernur New Jersey]]|years=[[Pamilihan gubernur New Jersey 1910|1910]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James Fairman Fielder]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Jennings Bryan]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar calon présidén Partéy Démokrat Amérika Sarikat|Calon présidén]] [[Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] pikeun Présidén Amérika Sarikat|years=[[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1912|1912]], [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1916|1916]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James M. Cox]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[John Franklin Fort]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar gubernur New Jersey|Gubernur New Jersey]]|years=1911–1913}} {{s-aft|after=[[James Fairman Fielder]]<br />''acting'' (pj)}} {{s-bef|before=[[William Howard Taft]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]]|years=1913–1921}} {{s-aft|after=[[Warren G. Harding]]}} {{s-ach}} {{s-bef|before=[[Komite Internasional Palang Merah]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Penerima Hadiah Nobél Padaméian|years=1919}} {{s-aft|after=[[Léon Bourgeois]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Giulio Gatti-Casazza]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Daptar sampul majalah Time (1920-an)|Sampul majalah ''Time'']]|years=12 Nopémber 1923}} {{s-aft|after=[[Erich Ludendorff]]}} {{s-end}} }} [[Kategori:Présiden Amérika]] jne3b924dd54uficwv7mbx6onad67p0 Herbert Hoover 0 108497 712436 711645 2026-08-28T23:25:17Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260828sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 712436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox officeholder | image = President Hoover portrait.jpg | caption = Hoover dina taun 1928 | office = [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-31 | vice_president = [[Charles Curtis]] | term_start = 4 Maret 1929 | term_end = 4 Maret 1933 | predecessor = [[Calvin Coolidge]] | successor = [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] | office1 = [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]] ka-3 | president1 = {{plainlist| * [[Warren G. Harding]] * Calvin Coolidge}} | term_start1 = 5 Maret 1921 | term_end1 = 21 Agustus 1928 | predecessor1 = [[Joshua W. Alexander]] | successor1 = [[William F. Whiting]] | office2 = Diréktur [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat]] | president2 = [[Woodrow Wilson]] | term_start2 = 21 Agustus 1917 | term_end2 = 16 Nopémber 1918 | predecessor2 = Jabatan anyar | successor2 = Jabatan dilaungkeun | birth_name = Herbert Clark Hoover | birth_date = {{birth date|1874|8|10}} | birth_place = [[West Branch, Iowa]], AS. | death_date = {{death date and age|1964|10|20|1874|8|10}} | death_place = New York City, AS. | resting_place = [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] | party = [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]] (ti taun 1920) | other_party = [[Politikus indepénden|Indepénden]] (saméméh 1920) | spouse = {{marriage|[[Lou Henry Hoover|Lou Henry]]|10 Pébruari 1899|7 Januari 1944|end=died}} | children = {{flatlist| * [[Herbert Hoover Jr.|Herbert Jr.]] * [[Allan Hoover|Allan]]}} | education = [[Universitas Stanford]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]]) | signature = Herbert Clark Hoover Signature.svg | signature_alt = Tanda tangan kursif mangsi | module = {{Listen |pos = center |embed = yes |filename = Hoover moment.ogg |title = Sorana Hoover |type = speech |description = Hoover nembé ngumumkeun [[Rencana stimulus ékonomi 1931]]<br>Dirékam 18 Oktober 1931}} }} '''Herbert Clark Hoover''' (10 Agustus 1874 – 20 Oktober 1964) nyaéta [[Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] ka-31, ngajabat ti taun 1929 nepi ka 1933. Saméméh asup ka dunya pulitik, Hoover digawé salaku [[insinyur]] sarta pangusaha dina industri pertambangan. Sanggeus kalibet dina layanan ''publik'', manéhna diangkat pikeun mingpin sababaraha tarékah kamanusaan utama, kaasup jadi pupuhu ''Commission for Relief in Belgium]]'', anu hasil mulangkeun leuwih ti 100.000 urang Amérika anu kapiuhan di Éropa, diréktur [[U.S. Food Administration]], anu nyadiakeun jatah keur prajurit sarta kadaharan keur warga anu kalaparan di Éropa, diréktur [[American Relief Administration]], anu mingpin infrastruktur sarta bantuan pangan pasca-perang di Éropa, sarta ngadegkeun [[Commission for Polish Relief]]. Salaku anggota [[Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Partéy Républik]], manéhna ngajabat salaku [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]] ka-3 ti taun 1921 nepi ka 1928 saméméh [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928|kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1928]]. [[Masa kapersidénan Herbert Hoover|Masa kapersidénanana]] didominasi ku [[Depresi Besar]], sarta kawijakan ogé métodena pikeun merangan krisis éta dianggap teu nyukupan sarta kolot teuing (konservatif). Di tengah kaayaan manéhna anu teu dipikaresep ku rahayat, manéhna éléh mutlak dina usaha kapilih deui ku [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dina taun [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932|1932]]. Lahir ti kulawarga [[Quaker]] di [[West Branch, Iowa]], Hoover digedékeun di [[Oregon]]. Manéhna mangrupa salah sahiji lulusan munggaran ti [[Universitas Stanford]] anu anyar dina taun 1895. Hoover nyokot posisi di hiji pausahaan pertambangan anu puseurna di [[London]] anu digawé di [[Australia]] sarta [[Tiongkok]]. Manéhna gancang jadi insinyur pertambangan anu beunghar. Dina taun 1914, nalika bituna [[Perang Dunya I]], manéhna ngatur sarta mingpin ''Commission for Relief in Belgium'', hiji organisasi bantuan internasional anu nyadiakeun kadaharan ka Bélgia anu dikoasa ku Jérman. Nalika [[Amérika Sarikat|AS]] asup ka jero perang dina taun 1917, Présidén [[Woodrow Wilson]] nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin ''Food Administration''. Manéhna jadi kawentar salaku "diktator pangan" di nagarana. Sanggeus perang, Hoover mingpin ''American Relief Administration'', anu nyadiakeun kadaharan keur jutaan jalma anu kalaparan di [[Éropa Tengah]] sarta Wétan, utamana [[Rusia]]. Jasa-jasana nalika mangsa perang ngajadikeun manéhna jadi favorit loba pihak [[Progresivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrisif]], sarta manéhna gagal nyiar nominasi Républik dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920|Pemilu 1920]]. Hoover ngajabat salaku Menteri Perdagangan di sahandapeun présidén [[Warren G. Harding]] sarta [[Calvin Coolidge]]. Hoover mangrupa anggota Kabinét anu aktif sarta katingali pisan, nepi ka katelah salaku "Menteri Perdagangan sarta Wakil Menteri keur sakabéh departemén séjénna." Manéhna boga pangaruh dina kamekaran transportasi udara sarta radio. Hoover mingpin réspon féderal kana [[Banjir Gedé Mississippi 1927]]. Manéhna meunangkeun nominasi Républik dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928|Pemilu 1928]] sarta ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat [[Al Smith]] kalayan sora anu kacida mutlakna. Dina taun 1929, Hoover mimiti ngajabat présidén. Nanging, dina taun kahiji jabatanna, [[Pasar saham ancur 1929|pasar saham ancur]], anu nandaan mimitina Depresi Besar. Hoover ngarojong [[Repatriasi Méksiko]] sarta résponna kana Depresi Besar dianggap sacara lega kurang sumanget. Di tengah-tengah Depresi Besar, manéhna éléh mutlak ku calon Démokrat Franklin D. Roosevelt dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932|Pemilu 1932]]. Masa pangsiun Hoover lumangsung leuwih ti 31 taun, salah sahiji mangsa pangsiun présidén anu panglilana. Manéhna nulis loba karya sarta jadi beuki [[Konservatisme di Amérika Sarikat|konservatif]] dina mangsa pangsiunna. Manéhna sacara kuat ngritik kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt sarta [[New Deal]]. Dina taun 1940-an sarta 1950-an, sawangan umum ka Hoover ningkat, sabagéan gedé alatan jasa-jasana dina sababaraha pancén keur présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] sarta [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], kaasup mingpin [[Komisi Hoover]] anu boga pangaruh. Penilaian kritis kana kapersidénanana ku para sajarahwan sarta élmuwan pulitik sacara umum [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun manéhna]] di antara présidén anu panggoréngna dina sajarah Amérika, sanajan Hoover kenging pamuji kana tindakanana salaku tokoh kamanusaan sarta pajabat publik.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levinson|first=Martin H.|title=Indexing and Dating America's 'Worst' Presidents |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_et-cetera_2011-04_68_2/page/147|date=2011 |journal=ETC: A Review of General Semantics |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=147–155 |jstor=42579110 |issn=0014-164X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Merry |first=Robert W. |date=January 3, 2021|title=RANKED: Historians Don't Think Much of These Five U.S. Presidents |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/reboot/ranked-historians-dont-much-these-five-us-presidents-175654 |access-date=February 25, 2022 |magazine=The National Interest}}</ref> == Mangsa leutik sarta pendidikan == {{stack|float=left|[[File:Herbert Hoover birthplace.jpg|left|thumb|Imah pondok tempat lahirna Hoover di [[West Branch, Iowa]]]]}} Herbert Clark Hoover lahir dina 10 Agustus 1874, di [[West Branch, Iowa]].{{efn|Hoover satuluyna jadi présidén munggaran anu lahir di kuloneun [[Walungan Mississippi]], sarta tetep jadi hiji-hijina présidén anu lahir di Iowa.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=4}}}} Bapana, Jesse Hoover, nyaéta saurang [[tukang panday]] sarta nu boga toko pakakas tatanén turunan Jérman, Swiss, sarta Inggris.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=4}} Indungna Hoover, Hulda Randall Minthorn, digedékeun di [[Norwich, Ontario]], Kanada, méméh pindah ka [[Iowa]] dina taun 1859. Kawas kalolobaan warga West Branch séjénna, Jesse sarta Hulda téh urang [[Quakers]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=5–10}} Sabudeureun umur dua taun "Bertie", nénéhna harita, katarajang panyakit [[croup]] anu parna, sarta sempet dianggap geus maot nepi ka dihirupkeun deui ku emangna, John Minthorn.<ref>Burner, p. 6.</ref> Nalika budak leutik, manéhna mindeng disebut ku bapana salaku "stick in the mud" (budak leutik nu kapepet na leutak) alatan mindeng kajebak dina leutak nalika meuntas jalan anu can diaspal.<ref>Burner, p. 7.</ref> Kulawarga Herbert boga peran penting dina kahirupan ibadah di éta kota, utamana alatan peran indungna, Hulda, di garéja.<ref>Burner, p. 9.</ref> Nalika keur budak, Hoover rutin sakola, tapi manéhna jarang maca buku sorangan salian ti Alkitab.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=13–14, 31}} Bapana Hoover, anu kacatat ku koran lokal boga sipat "pikabungaheun sarta dareuda", tilar dunya dina taun 1880 dina umur 34 taun alatan serangan jantung dadakan.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=10}} Indungna Hoover tilar dunya dina taun 1884 alatan [[tipes]], ninggalkeun Hoover, lanceukna Theodore, sarta adina May, jadi budak yatim piatu.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=17–18}} Hoover hirup 18 bulan saterusna jeung emangna, Allen Hoover, di hiji tegalan deukeut dinya.<ref>{{cite web | last=Crippen | first=Ray | title=Column: President spent days of his boyhood only 90 miles away | website=Worthington Globe | date=August 19, 2017 | url=https://www.dglobe.com/community/column-president-spent-days-of-his-boyhood-only-90-miles-away | access-date=August 8, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/presidents/bio31.htm| title = National Park Service – The Presidents (Herbert Hoover)<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> [[File:Photograph of Herbert Hoover as a Young Child - DPLA - 2081d35b8c65741f0f3db55c82d4790e.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.57|Hoover dina taun 1877]] Dina Nopémber 1885, Hoover dikirim ka [[Newberg, Oregon]], pikeun hirup bareng emangna John Minthorn, saurang dokter sarta pangusaha Quaker anu anakna sorangan geus tilar dunya sataun méméhna.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://hoover.archives.gov/timeline#event-/timeline/item/hoover-moved-newberg-oregon |title = Timeline|date = December 6, 2017}}</ref> Kulawarga Minthorn dianggap boga budaya sarta méré atikan, sarta nanamkeun étika gawé anu kuat.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=12}} Sarua jeung West Branch, Newberg téh kota wates anu dicicingan ku urang Quaker ti Wétan Tengah.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=20–21}} Minthorn mastikeun yén Hoover meunang atikan, tapi Hoover teu resep kana loba pancén anu dibikeun ka manéhna sarta mindeng ngarasa keuheul ka Minthorn. Saurang panitén ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "budak yatim [anu] sigana dipaliré dina loba hal".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=22–24}} Hoover sakola di Friends Pacific Academy (ayeuna [[Universitas George Fox]]), tapi kaluar dina umur tilu belas taun pikeun jadi asisten kantor di kantor real estate emangna (Oregon Land Company)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://hoover.archives.gov/timeline#event-/timeline/item/hoover-worked-oregon-land-company-salem-oregon |title = Timeline|date = December 6, 2017}}</ref> di [[Salem, Oregon]]. Sanajan manéhna teu sakola SMA, Hoover diajar pembukuan, ngetik, sarta matematika di sakola peuting.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=4–6}} Hoover mangrupa anggota angkatan munggaran "Pioneer Class" ti [[Universitas Stanford]], asup dina taun 1891 sanajan gagal dina sakabéh [[Ujian asup pendidikan|ujian asup]] iwal matematika.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=16}}{{efn|Hoover satuluyna ngaku salaku mahasiswa munggaran di Stanford, kalayan alesan yén manéhna téh jalma munggaran dina angkatan munggaran anu saré di asrama.<ref name=e1>{{Citation | first = David 'Dave' | last = Revsine | url = https://www.espn.com/college-football/columns/story?columnist=revsine_dave&id=2680873 | title = One-sided numbers dominate Saturday's rivalry games | newspaper = ESPN | date = November 30, 2006 | publisher = Go | access-date = November 30, 2006}}</ref>}} Nalika taun kahiji, manéhna pindah jurusan tina téknik mesin ka géologi sanggeus digawé pikeun [[John Casper Branner]], pupuhu departemén géologi Stanford. Dina taun kadua, Sam Collins ngajukeun pangadegan ''Romero Hall Boarding Club'', imah mondok koperasi mahasiswa munggaran di Romero Hall, pikeun "pergaulan sarta ékonomi", anu diadegkeun babarengan ku Hoover sarta [[Hidden Houses|William Foster Hidden]].<ref name="Lane">{{cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Rose Wilder |title=The Making of Herbert Hoover |date=1920 |publisher=The Century Co. |location=New York |pages=130–139 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924030938983 |access-date=November 2, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Irwin |first1=Will |author1-link=Will Irwin |title=Herbert Hoover: A Reminiscent Biography |date=1928 |publisher=[[Century Company]] |url=https://archive.org/details/herberthooverare007945mbp |access-date=September 15, 2024 |via=[[archive.org]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lockley |first1=Fred |title=History of the Columbia River Valley from the Dalles to the Sea |date=1928 |publisher=[[S. J. Clarke Publishing Company]] |page=498 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7AxNswEACAAJ |access-date=September 15, 2024 |chapter=W. Foster Hidden (William Foster Hidden (1871–1963)) |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Hoover nyaéta mahasiswa anu biasa-biasa waé, sarta manéhna méakkeun loba waktuna pikeun digawé part-time atawa milu dina kagiatan kampus.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=35–39}} Sanajan awalna éraan di antara papada mahasiswa, Hoover meunang pamilihan salaku bendahara mahasiswa sarta jadi kawentar alatan rasa teu resepna kana [[fraternities and sororities]] (organisasi mahasiswa).{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=6–9}} Manéhna ngajabat salaku manajer mahasiswa pikeun tim [[Bisbol Stanford Cardinal|bisbol]] sarta [[Sepak bola Stanford Cardinal|sepak bola]], sarta mantuan ngatur [[Big Game (sepak bola Amérika)|Big Game]] munggaran ngalawan [[Universitas California, Berkeley]].<ref>Big Games: College Football's Greatest Rivalries – Page 222</ref> Nalika usum panas méméh sarta sanggeus taun pamungkasna, Hoover magang di handapeun géolog ékonomi [[Waldemar Lindgren]] ti [[United States Geological Survey]]; pangalaman-pangalaman ieu ngayakinkeun Hoover pikeun ngudag karir salaku géolog pertambangan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=39–41}} == Karir téknik sarta bisnis == === Bewick, Moreing & Co. === [[File:Herbert Hoover in 1898.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Hoover, umur 23 taun; dipoto di [[Perth]], Australia Kulon, dina taun 1898]] Nalika Hoover lulus ti Stanford dina taun 1895, nagarana nuju aya di tengah [[Panic of 1893]] sarta manéhna awalna hésé néangan gawé.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=6–9}} Manéhna digawé dina rupa-rupa pagawéan tambang tingkat handap di [[Pagunungan Sierra Nevada]] nepi ka hasil ngayakinkeun insinyur pertambangan kawentar Louis Janin pikeun nyéwa manéhna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=46–48}} Sanggeus digawé salaku pangawas tambang salila sataun, Hoover ditarima gawé ku Bewick, Moreing & Co. ("Bewick"), hiji pausahaan pusatna di London anu ngajalankeun [[Pertambangan emas|tambang emas]] di [[Australia Kulon]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=48–50}} Manéhna mimitina indit ka [[Coolgardie, Australia Kulon|Coolgardie]], anu harita jadi pusat [[Eastern Goldfields]], kalayan gajih $5,000 ({{Inflation|US|5000|1897|fmt=eq}}). Kaayaan di wewengkon tambang emas kacida teuasna; Hoover ngagambarkeun tegalan [[Coolgardie (wilayah biogeografis)|Coolgardie]] sarta [[Murchison (wilayah biogeografis)|Murchison]] di sisi [[Gurun Victoria Gedé]] salaku tanah "laleur hideung, lebu beureum, sarta panas bodas".<ref name="Hoover biography">{{cite web|url=http://hooverinstitutionla.blogspot.com/2011/06/herbert-hoover-just-another-stanford.html?m=1|title=Herbert Hoover, the graduate: Have Stanford degree, will travel |date=June 15, 2011|publisher=Hoover Institution |access-date=January 24, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia | publisher = Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum | title = FAQ | contribution = What did the President do in Western Australia? | access-date = January 18, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120118014403/http://www.hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia | archive-date = January 18, 2012 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118014403/http://www.hoover.archives.gov/info/faq.html#Australia |date=January 18, 2012 }}</ref> Hoover terus-terusan indit-inditan meuntas [[Outback]] pikeun meunteun sarta ngatur tambang-tambang pausahaan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=54–55}} Manéhna ngayakinkeun Bewick pikeun meuli tambang emas [[Sons of Gwalia]], anu tétéla jadi salah sahiji tambang paling suksés di wewengkon éta.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=56}} Sabagian alatan tarékah Hoover, pausahaan tungtungna ngawasa kurang leuwih 50 persén produksi emas di [[Australia Kulon]].{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=283}} Hoover mawa loba [[Imigran Italia di Australia|imigran Italia]] pikeun neukteuk biaya sarta ngalawan [[Gerakan buruh Australia|gerakan buruh]] para panambang Australia.<ref name=HG>{{Citation | url = http://www.gwalia.org.au/ | title = Gwalia Historic Site | place = AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/programsales/studyguide/StG_Hoovers_Gold.pdf | publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|year=2005|title=Hoover's Gold|access-date=June 17, 2010}}</ref> Nalika digawé di pausahaan tambang, Hoover jadi teu satuju kana aturan saperti [[upah minimum]] sarta [[kompensasi pagawé]], manéhna ngarasa hal éta teu adil keur nu boga pausahaan. Gawéna Hoover narik perhatian dunyana, sarta dina taun 1898 manéhna ditaékkeun pangkat jadi mitra junior (''junior partner'').{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=10–13}} Pepecahan kabuka lumangsung antara Hoover jeung bosna, Ernest Williams, tapi pamingpin Bewick niiskeun kaayaan ku cara nawarkeun Hoover posisi anu narik di [[Dinasti Qing|Tiongkok]].{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=32}} Nalika nepi di Tiongkok, Hoover ngembangkeun tambang emas deukeut [[Tianjin]] atas nami Bewick sarta pausahaan milik Tiongkok, [[Chinese Engineering and Mining Company]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=70–71, 76}} Manéhna jadi kacida katarikna kana [[Sajarah Tiongkok]], tapi manéhna henteu neruskeun diajar [[Basa Mandarin|basana]] nepi ka tingkat mahér. Manéhna sacara kabuka méré pépéling yén pagawé Tiongkok téh teu éfisién sarta sacara rasial leuwih handap.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=72–73}} Manéhna méré bongbolongan pikeun ngoméan nasib pagawé Tiongkok, nyoba ngeureunkeun prakték kontrak budak jangka panjang sarta ngayakeun réformasi pagawé dumasar kana préstasi.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=34}} [[Pemberontakan Boxer]] peupeus teu lila sanggeus kulawarga Hoover nepi di Tiongkok, ngajebak maranéhna sarta loba warga nagara asing séjénna nepi ka [[Aliansi Dalapan Nagara|pasukan militer multinasional]] ngéléhkeun pasukan Boxer dina [[Pertempuran Tientsin]]. Alatan sieun pamaréntah Tiongkok bakal runtuh, diréktur pausahaan Chinese Engineering and Mining Company sapuk pikeun ngadegkeun usaha patungan Sino-Inggris anyar jeung Bewick. Sanggeus maranéhna hasil ngawasa pausahaan tambang Tiongkok anyar éta, Hoover jadi mitra operasional dina tungtung taun 1901.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=77–81, 85–89}} Dina peran ieu, Hoover terus indit-inditan ka sakuliah dunya atas nami Bewick, ngadatangan tambang-tambang anu dijalankeun ku pausahaan di buana anu béda-béda. Dimimitian dina Désémber 1902, pausahaan nyanghareupan masalah hukum sarta kauangan anu numpuk sanggeus salah sahiji mitra ngaku geus sacara curang ngajual saham di hiji tambang. Masalah séjénna muncul dina taun 1904 sanggeus pamaréntah Inggris ngawangun dua [[Komisi Karajaan|komisi karajaan]] anu misah pikeun nalungtik prakték tanaga gawé sarta urusan kauangan Bewick di Australia Kulon. Sanggeus pausahaan éléh dina gugatan hukum, Hoover mimiti néangan jalan pikeun kaluar tina kemitraan éta, sarta manéhna ngajual sahamna dina pertengahan taun 1908.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=88–93, 98, 102–104}} ===Usaha mandiri=== [[File:HHoover (retouched).jpg|thumb|upright|Hoover dina taun 1917 nalika jadi insinyur pertambangan]] Sanggeus ninggalkeun Bewick, Moreing, Hoover digawé salaku konsultan pertambangan sarta bankir mandiri anu pusatna di London. Sanajan manéhna geus kakoncara salaku géolog sarta operator tambang, Hoover museurkeun loba perhatianana kana néangan dana, ngaropéa organisasi korporasi, sarta ngabiayaan usaha-usaha anyar.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=112–115}} Manéhna boga spésialisasi dina ngahirupkeun deui operasi pertambangan anu nuju dinesah (bermasalah), nyokot bagian tina kauntungan salaku imbalan tina kaahlian téknis sarta kauanganana.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=11–13}} Hoover nganggap dirina sarta batur-baturna salaku "dokter téknik keur pausahaan anu gering", sarta manéhna meunang jujuluk salaku "dokter tambang gering".{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=392}} Manéhna investasi di unggal buana sarta boga kantor di San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; sarta [[Mandalay]], [[Myanmar|Burma Britania]].<ref>Hoover, Herbert C. (1952). ''The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover Years of Adventure 1874–1920''. London: Hollis & Carter. p. 99</ref> Dina taun 1914, Hoover geus jadi jalma anu kacida beungharna, kalayan perkiraan kabeungharan pribadi salaku $4 juta (sarua jeung ${{Inflation|US|4|1914|r=2}} juta dina taun {{Inflation-year|US}}).{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=569}} Hoover milu ngadegkeun [[Consolidated Zinc|Zinc Corporation]] pikeun ékstraksi [[séng]] deukeut kota [[Broken Hill, New South Wales|Broken Hill]] di Australia.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=115}} Zinc Corporation ngamekarkeun prosés [[froth flotation]] pikeun misahkeun séng tina bijih timah-pérak{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=24–43}} sarta ngajalankeun pabrik flotasi diferensial bijih selektif munggaran di dunya.<ref name="Blainey">{{cite book|last1=Blainey|first1=Geoffrey|title=The Rush That Never Ended|url=https://archive.org/details/rushthatneverend0000blai|url-access=registration|date=1963|publisher=Melbourne University Press|location=Melbourne|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rushthatneverend0000blai/page/265 265–268]}}</ref> Hoover digawé bareng jeung Burma Corporation, hiji firma Inggris anu ngahasilkeun pérak, timah, sarta séng dina jumlah badag di [[Tambang Bawdwin]] [[Namtu]].<ref name="Hoover" />{{rp|90–96,101–102}}{{sfn|Nash|1983|p=381}} Manéhna ogé mantuan ngaronjatkeun [[Ékstraksi tambaga|produksi tambaga]] di [[Kyshtym]], [[Kaisar Rusia|Rusia]], ngaliwatan pamakéan peléburan piritik. Manéhna ogé sapuk pikeun ngatur tambang misah di [[Pagunungan Altai]] anu, nurutkeun Hoover, "ngamekarkeun meureun kumpulan bijih tunggal panggedéna sarta pangbeungharna anu kanyahoan di dunya".<ref name="Hoover">Hoover, Herbert C. (1952). ''The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover Years of Adventure 1874–1920''. London: Hollis & Carter</ref>{{rp|102–108}}<ref name="Kennan">{{cite book|last1=Kennan|first1=George|title=Siberia and the Exile System|date=1891|publisher=James R. Osgood, McIlvaine & Co.|location=London|pages=165, 286}}</ref> Dina waktu luangna, Hoover nulis. Kuliah-kuliahna di universitas [[Universitas Columbia|Columbia]] sarta Stanford diterbitkeun dina taun 1909 kalayan judul ''Principles of Mining'' (Prinsip-Prinsip Pertambangan), anu jadi buku téks standar. Éta buku ngagambarkeun parobahan pamikiranana kana idé-idé [[Progresivisme di Amérika Sarikat|progrisif]], nalika Hoover mimiti ngarojong [[Dalapan jam gawé|dalapan jam gawé sapoé]] sarta [[Serikat buruh|serikat buruh]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=18–20}} Hoover jadi kacida katarikna kana [[sajarah sains]], sarta manéhna utamana katarik ku ''[[De re metallica]]'', hiji karya boga pangaruh ti abad ka-16 ngeunaan pertambangan sarta metalurgi ku [[Georgius Agricola]]. Dina taun 1912, Hoover sarta pamajidanna nerbitkeun tarjamahan basa Inggris munggaran tina ''De re metallica''.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=119–120}} Hoover ogé asup jadi déwan pangawas di Stanford, sarta mingpin kampanye anu suksés pikeun nunjuk John Branner salaku présidén universitas éta.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=124–125}} == Awal karir politik == === Pupuhu komite Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia (1914–1919) === {{Further|Presidénsi Woodrow Wilson}} {{Main|Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia}} [[Perang Dunya I]] peupeus dina Agustus 1914, nyanghareupkeun Jérman sarta sekutuna ngalawan Perancis sarta sekutuna. [[Rencana Schlieffen]] Jérman nyaéta pikeun ngahontal kameunangan gancang ku cara narajang ngaliwatan Bélgia anu nétral pikeun ngepung Tentara Perancis di wétaneun Paris. Éta manuver gagal nepi ka Paris, tapi Jérman hasil ngarebut ampir sakabéh Bélgia sarta ngajajah sabagéan badag éta nagara salila sésa perang. Hoover sarta pangusaha Amérika séjénna anu pusatna di London ngadegkeun komite pikeun ngatur mulangna kira-kira 100,000 urang Amérika anu kajebak di Éropa. Hoover diangkat salaku pupuhu komite sarta, kalayan idin ti Kongrés sarta [[Presidénsi Woodrow Wilson|pamaréntahan Wilson]], tanggung jawab kana distribusi bantuan ka urang Amérika di Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=132–136}} Hoover satuluyna nyebutkeun, "Kuring henteu nyadar harita, tapi dina 3 Agustus 1914, karir kuring geus réngsé salawasna. Kuring geus aya dina jalan leueur tina kahirupan publik."<ref>{{cite web|title=The Humanitarian Years|url=http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html|publisher=[[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]]|access-date=February 16, 2011|mode=cs2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109151702/http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html|archive-date=January 9, 2011|url-status=dead}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109151702/http://hoover.archives.gov/exhibits/Hooverstory/gallery02/index.html |date=January 9, 2011 }}</ref> Dina awal Oktober 1914, organisasi Hoover geus ngadistribusikeun bantuan ka saeutikna 40,000 urang Amérika.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=137–138}} [[Invasi Jérman ka Bélgia (1914)|Invasi Jérman ka Bélgia]] dina Agustus 1914 nyababkeun krisis pangan di Bélgia, hiji nagara anu kacida gumantungna kana impor pangan. Jérman nolak tanggung jawab pikeun méré dahar warga Bélgia di wilayah anu direbut, sarta Inggris nolak ngaleupaskeun [[Blokade Jérman (1914–1919)|blokade]] maranéhna ka [[Pendudukan Jérman di Bélgia nalika Perang Dunya I|Bélgia anu dijajah Jérman]] iwal pamaréntah AS ngawas impor pangan Bélgia salaku pihak nétral dina perang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=140–142}} Kalayan gawé bareng pamaréntahan Wilson sarta [[Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation|CNSA]], hiji organisasi bantuan Bélgia, Hoover ngadegkeun [[Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia]] (CRB).{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=143–144}} CRB meunangkeun sarta ngimpor jutaan ton bahan pangan pikeun didistribusikeun ku CNSA, sarta mantuan mastikeun yén tentara Jérman henteu nyokot éta kadaharan. Sumbangan pribadi sarta hibah pamaréntah nyadiakeun sabagéan badag tina anggaran $11-juta-sabulan, sarta CRB jadi sabenerna "républik bantuan" anu mandiri, kalayan bandéra, angkatan laut, pabrik, panggilingan, sarta jalan karéta sorangan.{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=79}}<ref>George H. Nash, "The "Great Humanitarian": Herbert Hoover, the Relief of Belgium, and the Reconstruction of Europe after War I." ''The Tocqueville Review'' 38.2 (2017): 55–70.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2023}} Hoover digawé 14 jam sapoé ti London, ngatur distribusi leuwih ti dua juta ton kadaharan ka salapan juta korban perang. Dina bentuk awal [[diplomasi jemput-anteur]] (''shuttle diplomacy''), manéhna meuntas [[Laut Kalér]] opat puluh kali pikeun panggih jeung otoritas Jérman sarta ngayakinkeun maranéhna pikeun ngidinan pangiriman kadaharan.<ref name="Hudson2014">{{cite book|first=John|last=Hudson|title=Christmas 1914: The First World War at Home and Abroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1YTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT31|date=October 6, 2014|publisher=History Press|isbn=978-0-7509-6038-0|pages=31}}</ref> Manéhna ogé ngayakinkeun [[Menteri Kauangan Inggris]] [[David Lloyd George]] pikeun ngidinan individu ngirim duit ka urang Bélgia, sahingga ngurangan beban gawé CRB.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=158–159}} Atas paménta pamaréntah Perancis, CRB mimiti ngirimkeun pasokan ka masarakat di [[Pendudukan Jérman di timur laut Perancis nalika Perang Dunya I|Perancis Kalér anu dijajah Jérman]] dina taun 1915.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=163}} Dina taun 1926, diplomat Amérika [[Walter Hines Page|Walter Page]] ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "meureun hiji-hijina jalma anu hirup anu sacara pribadi (hartina, tanpa nyekel jabatan resmi) geus ngayakeun rundayan pamahaman jeung pamaréntah Inggris, Perancis, Jérman, Walanda, sarta Bélgia".<ref name="HendrickWilson1926">{{cite book|first1=Burton Jesse|last1=Hendrick|first2=Woodrow|last2=Wilson|title=The life and letters of Walter H. Page|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJonAQAAMAAJ|year=1926|publisher=Doubleday, Page|page=313}}</ref><ref name="WilsonLink1982">{{cite book|first1=Woodrow|last1=Wilson|first2=Arthur Stanley|last2=Link|title=The Papers of Woodrow Wilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PjsJAQAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=369|isbn=978-0-691-04690-7}} vol 40 p 369.</ref> === Diréktur Administrasi Pangan AS (1917–1918) === {{Main|Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat}} [[File:"Wanted Immediately. 2,000,000 Garments for destitute Men, Women, and children in occupied Northern France and... - NARA - 512616.jpg|upright|thumb|Poster [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat|Administrasi Pangan AS]]]] Perang ngalawan Jérman diumumkeun dina April 1917, sarta pangan Amérika kacida pentingna pikeun kameunangan Sekutu. Nalika AS nuju mobilisasi perang, Présidén Wilson nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin [[Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat|Administrasi Pangan AS]], anu ditugaskeun pikeun mastikeun kaperluan pangan nagara salila perang.{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=96–97}} Hoover geus boga harepan pikeun asup ka pamaréntahan saprak taun 1916, sarta manéhna meunangkeun éta posisi sanggeus lobi ka sababaraha anggota Kongrés sarta kapercayaan Wilson, [[Edward M. House]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=178, 187–191}} Meunang jujuluk "czar pangan", Hoover ngarékrut kakuatan rélawan ratusan rébu awéwé sarta ngagunakeun [[Propaganda dina Perang Dunya I|propaganda]] di bioskop, sakola, sarta garéja.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43}} Manéhna kalayan taliti milih jalma-jalma pikeun mantuan kapamingpinan lembaga—[[Alonzo E. Taylor]] (kaahlian téknis), [[Robert A. Taft|Robert Taft]] (hubungan politik), [[Gifford Pinchot]] (pangaruh tatanén), sarta Julius Barnes (kaahlian bisnis).{{sfn|Burner|1996|p=101}} [[Perang Dunya I]] geus nyiptakeun krisis pangan global anu sacara drastis ngaronjatkeun harga pangan sarta ngabalukarkeun karusuhan pangan sarta kalaparan di nagara-nagara anu perang. Tujuan utama Hoover salaku czar pangan nyaéta nyadiakeun pasokan pikeun Pihak Sekutu, tapi manéhna ogé narékahan pikeun nyetabilkeun harga domestik sarta nyegah kakurangan di jero nagara.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=183–185}} Dina kawasa lega anu dibikeun ku [[Food and Fuel Control Act]] (Undang-Undang Kontrol Pangan sarta Bahan Bakar), Administrasi Pangan ngawas produksi pangan di sakuliah Amérika Sarikat, sarta administrasi ngagunakeun kakuatanana pikeun meuli, ngimpor, nyimpen, sarta ngajual kadaharan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=198–199}} Alatan hayang nyingkahan jatah (ransum) resmi, Hoover netepkeun poé-poé husus sangkan masarakat nyingkahan dahar kadaharan nu tangtu pikeun disimpen keur ransum prajurit: [[Senén tanpa daging]] (''meatless Monday''), Rebo tanpa gandum, sarta "lamun ragu-ragu, dahar kentang". Kawijakan ieu disebut "Hooverizing" ku tukang publikasi pamaréntah, sanajan Hoover terus-terusan méré paréntah sangkan publikasi henteu nyebut ngaran manéhna.{{sfn|Burner|1996|pp=104–109}} Administrasi Pangan ngirimkeun 23 juta métrik ton kadaharan ka Pihak Sekutu, nyegah karuntuhan maranéhna sarta matak Hoover meunang pujian gedé.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=212–213}} Salaku kapala Administrasi Pangan, Hoover meunang loba pangrojong di Amérika Sarikat, utamana di kalangan progrisif anu nempo Hoover salaku administrator ahli sarta simbol éfisiénsi.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=204–206}} Manéhna kapilih jadi anggota [[American Philosophical Society]] salila masa jabatanna.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Herbert+Hoover&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=October 2, 2023 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> === Diréktur Administrasi Bantuan Amérika (1919–1923) === {{Main|Administrasi Bantuan Amérika}} Perang Dunya I réngsé dina bulan Nopémber 1918, tapi Éropa terus nyanghareupan kaayaan pangan anu kritis; Hoover ngira-ngira yén aya 400 juta jalma anu nyanghareupan kamungkinan kalaparan.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=214–215}} Administrasi Pangan Amérika Sarikat dirobah jadi [[Administrasi Bantuan Amérika]] (ARA), sarta Hoover ditugaskeun nyadiakeun kadaharan ka Éropa Tengah sarta Wétan.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Salian ti nyadiakeun bantuan, ARA ngawangun deui infrastruktur dina upaya ngahirupkeun deui ékonomi Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=215–217}} Salila [[Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris, 1919]], Hoover ngabulaé salaku panaséhat deukeut Présidén Wilson, sarta manéhna sapikiran jeung tujuan Wilson pikeun ngadegkeun [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], nangtukeun wates dumasar kana [[hak nangtukeun nasib sorangan]], sarta nyingkahan méré hukuman anu beurat ka Pihak Tengah anu éléh.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=216–222}} Taun saterusna, ékonom Inggris kawentar [[John Maynard Keynes]] nulis dina ''[[The Economic Consequences of the Peace]]'' yén lamun réalime, "kanyaho, kamurahan haté sarta sikep teu milih pihak" Hoover dipaké leuwih lega dina rundayan di Paris, dunya bakal meunang "Perdamaian anu Alus".{{sfn|Keynes|1919|p=247}} Sanggeus waragad pamaréntah AS pikeun ARA béak dina pertengahan 1919, Hoover ngarobah ARA jadi organisasi swasta, ngumpulkeun jutaan dolar ti donatur swasta.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Manéhna ogé ngadegkeun European Children's Fund (Dana Barudak Éropa), anu nyadiakeun bantuan ka lima belas juta barudak di opat belas nagara.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=224}} Sanajan ditentang ku Sénator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] sarta urang Républik séjénna, Hoover tetep nyadiakeun bantuan ka bangsa Jérman anu éléh sanggeus perang, sarta bantuan ka [[Kalaparan Rusia 1921–1922|kalaparan]] anu narajang [[Républik Sosialis Federasi Soviét Rusia]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Hoover ngutuk kaum [[Bolshevik]] tapi méré pépéling ka Présidén Wilson sangkan ulah [[Intervénsi Sekutu dina Perang Sipil Rusia|pipilueun]] dina [[Perang Sipil Rusia]], sabab manéhna nempo pasukan [[Gerakan Bodas|Rusia Bodas]] henteu leuwih alus ti batan Bolshevik sarta sieun ku kamungkinan keterlibatan AS anu lila.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=43–45}} Kalaparan Rusia 1921–22 nelasan genep juta jalma, tapi intervénsi ARA meureun geus nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa.<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.hoover.org/research/food-weapon| publisher = Hoover Institution | title = Hoover Digest | contribution = Food as a Weapon.}}</ref> Nalika ditanya naha manéhna téh kalah mantuan Bolshevisme ku cara méré bantuan, Hoover némbalan, "dua puluh juta jalma nuju kalaparan. Naon baé politikna, maranéhna kudu dipéré dahar!"{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=41–43, 57–58}} Ngagambarkeun rasa nuhun loba urang Éropa, dina Juli 1922, panulis Soviét [[Maxim Gorky]] ngomong ka Hoover yén "bantuan anjeun bakal asup kana sajarah salaku pencapaian anu unik sarta raksasa, pantes meunang kamulyaan panggedéna, anu bakal lila diinget ku jutaan urang Rusia anu geus disalametkeun ku anjeun tina pati".<ref>[http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2011/pr-famine-040411.html How the U.S. saved a starving Soviet Russia: PBS film highlights Stanford scholar's research on the 1921–23 famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130064356/http://news.stanford.edu/pr/2011/pr-famine-040411.html |date=January 30, 2012 }}". Stanford University. April 4, 2011</ref> Dina taun 1919, Hoover ngadegkeun [[Perpustakaan sarta Arsip Institusi Hoover|Koléksi Perang Hoover]] di Universitas Stanford. Manéhna nyumbangkeun sakabéh berkas Komisi Bantuan di Bélgia, Administrasi Pangan AS, sarta Administrasi Bantuan Amérika, sarta jangji méré $50,000 salaku dana abadi ({{Inflation|US|50000|1919|fmt=eq}}). Para sarjana dikirim ka Éropa pikeun ngumpulkeun pamflét, publikasi masarakat, dokumén pamaréntah, koran, poster, proklamasi, sarta bahan-bahan séjénna anu patali jeung perang sarta révolusi anu lumangsung sanggeusna. Éta koléksi dingaranan deui jadi Perpustakaan Perang Hoover dina taun 1922 sarta ayeuna katelah [[Perpustakaan sarta Arsip Institusi Hoover]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hoover Institution Timeline |url=http://www.hoover.org/about/timeline |publisher=Hoover Institution |access-date=September 25, 2017}}</ref> Salila mangsa sanggeus perang, Hoover ogé ngajabat salaku présidén Federated American Engineering Societies.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7e4eBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Republicans and Labor: 1919—1929|first=Robert H.|last=Zieger|date=January 13, 2015|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8131-6499-1}}</ref><ref name=Himmelberg>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KqqgTB8Q_wC&pg=PA169|title=Antitrust and Regulation During World War I and the Republican Era, 1917-1932|first=Robert F.|last=Himmelberg|date=1994|orig-date=1st pub. January 16, 1962|publisher=Taylor & Francis|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-8153-1406-6}}</ref> == Pemilu présidén 1920 == {{Further|Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1920}} Hoover teu pati dipikawanoh ku masarakat Amérika méméh taun 1914, tapi jasana dina pamaréntahan Wilson ngajadikeun manéhna saurang contender dina pemilu présidén 1920. Usaha Hoover salila mangsa perang pikeun pajeg anu leuwih luhur, kritikna kana tindakan Jaksa Agung [[A. Mitchell Palmer]] nalika [[Red Scare Munggaran]], sarta pangrojongna kana aturan saperti [[Upah minimum di Amérika Sarikat|upah minimum]], opat puluh dalapan jam gawé saminggu, sarta [[Undang-undang tanaga gawé budak di Amérika Sarikat|ngaleungitkeun tanaga gawé budak]] ngajadikeun manéhna narik perhatian urang progrisif ti kadua partéy.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=45–50}} Sanajan manéhna digawé dina pamaréntahan [[Sajarah Partéy Démokrat (Amérika Sarikat)|Démokrat]] Woodrow Wilson, Hoover henteu kungsi kabeungkeut rapet boh ka Démokrat atawa [[Sajarah Partéy Républik (Amérika Sarikat)|Républik]]. Mimitina manéhna nyoba nyingkahan pikeun mihak ka salah sahiji partéy dina pemilu 1920, kalayan harepan salah sahiji ti dua partéy gedé éta bakal nyalonkeun manéhna jadi présidén dina konvénsi nasional maranéhna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=232–234}} Dina Maret 1920, manéhna ngarobah stratégi sarta nyatakeun dirina salaku urang Républik; hal ieu didorong sabagéan gedé ku kapercayaan yén Démokrat boga lolongkrang leutik pikeun meunang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=235–236}} Sanajan kawentar di tingkat nasional, jasa Hoover dina pamaréntahan Wilson geus ngajauhkeun manéhna tina patani sarta [[Old Right (Amérika Sarikat)|Old Guard konservatif di GOP]], sarta pancalonan présidénna kandas sanggeus éléh dina primér California ku [[favorite son]] [[Hiram Johnson]]. Dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1920]], [[Warren G. Harding]] muncul salaku calon kompromi sanggeus konvénsi macét di antara pangrojong Johnson, [[Leonard Wood]], sarta [[Frank Orren Lowden]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=45–50}} Hoover ngarojong kampanye Harding anu suksés dina pemilu umum, sarta manéhna mimiti neundeun dasar pikeun maju jadi présidén di mangsa hareup ku cara ngawangun basis pangrojong anu kuat di Partéy Républik.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=237–238}} == Menteri Perdagangan (1921–1928) == {{Further|Presidénsi Warren G. Harding|Presidénsi Calvin Coolidge}} [[File:HooverCommerce1926.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Asistén William McCracken (kénca) sarta Walter Drake (katuhu) bareng Menteri Hoover (tengah)]] Sanggeus kapilih jadi présidén dina taun 1920, Harding méré ganjaran ka Hoover pikeun pangrojongna, kalayan nawarkeun jabatan boh salaku [[Menteri Jero Nagri Amérika Sarikat]] atawa [[Menteri Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat]]. Menteri Perdagangan harita dianggap jabatan Kabinét anu leutik, kalayan tanggung jawab anu kawates sarta kurang jéntré, tapi Hoover mutuskeun pikeun nampa éta posisi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=51–52}} Sikep progrisif Hoover, pangrojongna anu terus-terusan ka [[Liga Bangsa-Bangsa]], sarta pindahna manéhna ka Partéy Républik anyar kénéh, nimbulkeun pertentangan kana jabatanna ti loba [[Konférénsi Républik Sénat|urang Républik di Sénat]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=247–248}} Pikeun nungkulan ieu tantangan, Harding ngapasangkeun nominasi Hoover jeung tokoh favorit konservatif [[Andrew Mellon]] salaku [[Menteri Kauangan Amérika Sarikat]], sarta nominasi Hoover boh Mellon tungtungna disahkeun ku Sénat. Hoover ngajabat salaku Menteri Perdagangan ti taun 1921 nepi ka 1928, digawé di sahandapeun Harding sarta, sanggeus Harding tilar dunya dina taun 1923, Présidén [[Calvin Coolidge]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=51–52}} Nalika sawatara anggota paling nonjol dina pamaréntahan Harding, kaasup Jaksa Agung [[Harry M. Daugherty]] sarta Menteri Jero Nagri [[Albert B. Fall]], kalibet dina [[Presidénsi Warren G. Harding#Skandal pamaréntahan|skandal gedé]], Hoover muncul kalayan bersih tina rupa-rupa pamariksaan ka pamaréntahan Harding.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=288–292}} Hoover ngabayangkeun Departemén Perdagangan salaku puseur kamekaran sarta stabilitas nagara.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–63}} Pangalamanana dina mobilisasi ékonomi mangsa perang ngayakinkeun manéhna yén pamaréntah féderal bisa ngamajukeun éfisiénsi ku cara ngaleungitkeun runtah (kabubujal), ningkatkeun produksi, nyorong pamakéan prakték dumasar data, investasi dina infrastruktur, sarta ngajaga sumber daya alam. Manéhna ngamajukeun skéma "Super Power" pikeun interkonéksi utilitas listrik,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeGraaf |first=Leonard |date=1990 |title=Corporate Liberalism and Electric Power System Planning in the 1920s |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3115843 |journal=The Business History Review |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.2307/3115843 |jstor=3115843 |issn=0007-6805}}</ref> sarta nampa telepon [[Vidéo-telepon|Picturephone]] térémonial munggaran di Washington dina April 1927 ti Walter Gifford, Pupuhu AT&T di New York City.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Norcross |first=Amy |date=April 7, 2019 |title=Hoover joins 1st American demo of long-distance TV, April 7, 1927 |url=https://www.edn.com/hoover-joins-1st-american-demo-of-long-distance-tv-april-7-1927/ |access-date=September 12, 2025 |magazine=[[EDN (magazine)|EDN]]}}</ref> Jalma-jalma sajamanana ngagambarkeun pamikiran Hoover salaku "alternatif katilu" antara "kapitalisme anu teu kakontrol" sarta [[sosialisme]], anu beuki kawentar di Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=254–257}} Hoover narékahan pikeun nyiptakeun kasaimbangan antara buruh, modal, sarta pamaréntah, sarta ku sabab ieu, manéhna rupa-rupa disebut salaku urang [[korporatisme]] atawa [[asosiasionalisme]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=106}} Prioritas luhurna nyaéta diplomasi ékonomi, kaasup ngamajukeun kamekaran ékspor, sarta panyalindungan tina prakték monopoli pamaréntah asing, utamana ngeunaan karét sarta kopi.<ref>Joseph Brandes, ''Herbert Hoover and Economic Diplomacy: Department of Commerce Policy, 1921–1928'' (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1970) pp 83–74. [https://archive.org/details/herberthoovereco00bran online].</ref> Hoover ngarojong loba program pangurangan pajeg ti Mellon tapi leuwih mihak kana sistem [[pajeg progrisif]] sarta nentang usaha menteri kauangan éta pikeun ngaleungitkeun [[pajeg warisan di Amérika Sarikat|pajeg warisan]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=303–304}} Manéhna ogé ménta, sarta meunangkeun, kawasa pikeun koordinasi urusan ékonomi di sakuliah pamaréntahan. Manéhna nyiptakeun loba sub-departemén sarta komite, ngawas sarta ngatur sagala hal ti mimiti statistik manufaktur nepi ka [[transportasi hawa]]. Dina sababaraha hal, manéhna "nyokot" kadali tanggung jawab ti departemén Kabinét séjén nalika manéhna nganggap yén maranéhna henteu ngajalankeun tanggung jawabna kalayan hadé; sawatara jalma mimiti nyebut manéhna salaku "Menteri Perdagangan sarta Wakil Menteri pikeun sakabéh departemén séjénna".{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–63}} Pikeun ngaréspon [[Depresi 1920–21]], manéhna ngayakinkeun Harding pikeun ngawangun komisi présidén ngeunaan pangangguran, anu nyorong pamaréntah lokal pikeun ngalakukeun belanja infrastruktur kontrasiklikal.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=260–264}} Hiji konférénsi dilaksanakeun pikeun ngabahas kaayaan pangangguran dina taun 1921, kalayan Hoover boga argumén yén "henteu aya kagagalan ékonomi anu kacida pikasieuneunana hartina jiga hiji nagara anu boga kaleuwihan tina unggal kabutuhan hirup, tapi anggotana anu daék sarta hayang digawé kalah dicabut tina éta kabutuhan."<ref>Herbert Hoover, Unemployment, and the Public Sphere A Conceptual History, 1919-1933 By Vincent Gaddis, 2005, P.19</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hoover boga pamandangan yén solusi pikeun kaayaan pangangguran nagara lain dina intervénsi féderal tapi dina tindakan sacara sukaréla sarta lokal.<ref>Herbert Hoover As Secretary of Commerce Studies in New Era Thought and Practice, Editor: Ellis Wayne Hawley, 1981, P.25</ref> Manéhna ogé nentang pangmayaran langsung ti pamaréntah ka individu anu nganggur, boga kapercayaan yén hal ieu moal ngan ngabalukarkeun belanja defisit anu badé tapi ogé ngajadikeun jalma gumantung ka pamaréntah.<ref>Herbert Hoover, Unemployment, and the Public Sphere A Conceptual History, 1919-1933 By Vincent Gaddis, 2005, P.19</ref> Sakumaha anu ditepikeun ku Hoover salila éta konférénsi: {{Blockquote|It is not consonant with the spirit or institutions of the American people that a demand should be made upon the public treasury for the solution of every difficulty. The Administration has felt that a large degree of solution could be expected through the mobilization of the fine cooperative action of our manufacturers and employers and of our public bodies and local authorities. And that if a solution could be found in these directions we should accomplish even more than the care of our unemployed-that we will again demonstrate that independence and ability of action amongst our own people which saves our Government from that ultimate paternalism that would undermine our whole political system. In the other countries that have been primarily affected by the War, solution has been had by direct doles to individuals by their Governments. We have so far escaped this most vicious of solutions, and I am hopeful, and I believe you will be, that it is within the intelligence and initiative of our people that we may find remedies against hardship and bitterness that do not, except in exceptional cases, come within the range of charity.<ref>THE PRESIDENCY VS. HOOVER By Samuel Crowther, GARDEN CITY NEW YORK, DOUBLEDAY, DORAN AND COMPANY, INC. 1928, P.143-144</ref>}} ===Regulation of radio and transportation=== {{Main|Regulation of radio broadcast in the United States}} [[File:HerbertClarkHoover.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Hoover listening to a [[radio receiver]], 1925]] Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million,{{sfn|Ferrell|1998|pp=32–33}} and Hoover's tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States. Between 1922 and 1925, Hoover organized conferences among radio manufacturers, news agencies, and government organizations which played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of [[radio broadcasting]]. Hoover also helped pass the [[Radio Act of 1927]], which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed "non-useful" to the public. Hoover's attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Lepore |first=Jill |title=These Truths |url=https://archive.org/details/thesetruthshisto0000lepo |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. |year=2018 |isbn=9780393635249 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thesetruthshisto0000lepo/page/427 427]–428 |chapter=A Constitution of the Air |lccn=2018019180}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Barnouw|first=Erik|title=A Tower In Babel; A history of Broadcasting in the United States to 1933|year=1966|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of 91st Congress, First Session. Volume 115, Part 4|journal=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of 91st Congress}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|others=United States Congress|author-link=Edith Green|last=Green|first=Edith|title=Program Practices of Television Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85wTj3YZGL4C&q=Congressional+Record:+%22herbert+hoover%22+radio&pg=PA3558|journal=Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 87th Congress, Second Session|volume=108|issue=part 3 (Pages 2851 to 4340)|date=March 7, 1962|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=85wTj3YZGL4C&pg=PA3558&dq=Congressional+Record:+%22herbert+hoover%22+radio&hl=en 3558]|quote=Interestingly, ... an American ... recognized the problem that arose with general dissemination, as opposed to [[Point-to-point (telecommunications)|point-to-point transmission]], of messages by wireless. ... The American was Herbert Hoover.}}</ref> Hoover was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by government subsidies. He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for [[Aerial application|crop dusting]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=53–54}} Hoover also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later [[Federal Aviation Administration]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=271}} As Commerce Secretary, he hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. His chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of [[Traffic collision|traffic accidents]], but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests. The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity among jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets.<ref>Peter D. Norton, ''Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City'' (MIT Press, 2008), pp. 178–197 {{ISBN|0-262-14100-0}}</ref> === Ngawangun citra diri Hoover === [[Phillips Payson O'Brien]] boga pamandangan yén Hoover boga masalah jeung Inggris. Manéhna geus mangtaun-taun cicing di Britania Raya sarta Australia salaku pagawé pausahaan Inggris, sahingga aya résiko manéhna bakal dicap salaku "pakakas" Inggris. Aya tilu solusi, anu sakabéhna dicoba ku manéhna kalayan gawé bareng rapet jeung média anu kacida mujina ka manéhna.<ref>George H. Nash, "The Great Enigma and the Great Engineer", in John E. Haynes, ed., ''Calvin Coolidge and the Coolidge Era,'' (1998) pp 149–80.</ref> Kahiji nyaéta citra salaku élmuwan anu tenang, henteu kabawa ku parasaan (émosi) tapi salawasna komitmen pikeun néangan sarta ngajalankeun solusi pangalusna. Solusi kadua nyaéta ku cara meunangkeun reputasi salaku saurang kamanusaan (humanitarian), anu kacida padulina kana kasusah dunya, saperti kalaparan di Bélgia, sarta masalah-masalah husus di Amérika anu geus diréngsékeun ku manéhna salaku komisaris pangan salila perang dunya. Solusi katilu nyaéta ngagunakeun taktik heubeul "twisting the British tail" (nyigeung kangeunahan Inggris), anu dipaké ku manéhna salaku pakarang nalika [[Rencana Stevenson|krisis karét dunya 1925–1926]]. [[Industri otomotif di Amérika Sarikat|Industri mobil Amérika]] meakkeun 70% tina hasil dunya, tapi investor Inggris ngawasa sabagéan badag pasokanana. Rencana maranéhna nyaéta pikeun neukteuk sacara drastis hasil ti [[Malaya Britania]], anu boga pangaruh naékkeun harga karét nepi ka tikel tilu. Hoover kalayan sumanget méré runtuyan biantara sarta wawancara anu ngutuk prakték [[Monopoli|monopoli]] éta sarta ménta sangkan éta hal diureunkeun. [[Departemén Luar Nagri Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Luar Nagri Amérika]] teu hayang aya krisis saperti kitu sarta ngalakukeun kompromi dina taun 1926. Harita, Hoover geus hasil ngaréngsékeun masalah citrana, sarta salila kampanye taun 1928 manéhna hasil ngbungkem serangan anu nyebutkeun yén manéhna deukeut teuing jeung kapentingan Inggris.<ref>Phillips Payson O'Brien, "Herbert Hoover, Anglo–American Relations and Republican Party Politics in the 1920s." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 22.2 (2011): 200–218.</ref> === Banjir Mississippi === [[Banjir Gedé Mississippi 1927]] ngabobol sisi walungan sarta [[tanggul]] [[walungan Mississippi bagian handap]] dina awal taun 1927, anu ngabalukarkeun banjir di jutaan héktar lahan sarta nyababkeun 1,5 juta jalma kudu ngungsi ti imahna. Sanajan penanganan bencana lain mangrupa tugas [[Departemén Perdagangan Amérika Sarikat|Departemén Perdagangan]], para gubernur ti genep nagara bagian di sapanjang walungan Mississippi sacara husus ménta ka Présidén Coolidge pikeun nunjuk Hoover jadi koordinator penanganan banjir.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=68–71}} Boga kapercayaan yén penanganan bencana lain urusan pamaréntah féderal, Coolidge mimitina nolak pikeun kalibet, tapi tungtungna manéhna nurut kana tekenan politik sarta nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin komite husus pikeun mantuan éta wewengkon.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=328–329}} Hoover ngadegkeun leuwih ti saratus [[Kota tenda|tenda pangungsian]] sarta armada leuwih ti genep ratus kapal, sarta hasil ngumpulkeun dana $17 juta (sarua jeung ${{Inflation|US|17|1927|r=2}} juta dina taun {{Inflation-year|US}}). Sabagéan badag alatan kapamingpinanana salila krisis banjir, dina taun 1928, Hoover mimiti leuwih kawentar batan Présidén Coolidge sorangan.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=68–71}} Sanajan Hoover meunang pujian anu lega pikeun peranna dina éta krisis, manéhna méré paréntah pikeun nyumputkeun laporan ngeunaan perlakuan anu salah ka urang Amérika turunan Afrika di [[kémp pangungsian]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=333–335}} Manéhna ngalakukeun hal éta kalayan gawé bareng jeung tokoh kulit hideung Amérika [[Robert Russa Moton]], anu dijangjikeun bakal meunang pangaruh anu gedé sanggeus Hoover jadi présidén.<ref name="pbs">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/flood-moton-cac/ 'Robert Moton and the Colored Advisory Commission'], PBS.org</ref> === Inisiatif séjénna === [[File:Hoover and Harding at baseball game.jpg|thumb|Hoover (kénca) bareng [[Florence Harding]] sarta Présidén [[Warren Harding]] dina hiji pertandingan baseball taun 1921]] Kalayan tujuan pikeun nyorong investasi bisnis anu bijaksana, Hoover ngajadikeun Departemén Perdagangan salaku puseur informasi (''clearinghouse''). Manéhna ngarékrut loba akademisi ti rupa-rupa widang sarta ditugaskeun pikeun nerbitkeun laporan ngeunaan rupa-rupa aspék ékonomi, kaasup [[Industri beusi sarta baja di Amérika Sarikat|produksi baja]] sarta film. Pikeun ngaleungitkeun kabubujal (runtah), manéhna nyorong [[standardisasi]] produk saperti [[ban]] mobil sarta dot botol orok.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=257–200}} Usaha séjénna pikeun ngurangan kabubujal kaasup ngurangan karugian tanaga gawé tina sengketa dagang sarta parobahan musiman, ngurangan karugian industri tina kacilakaan sarta tatu, sarta ngurangan jumlah [[minyak bumi]] anu tumpah salila ékstraksi sarta pangiriman. Manéhna ngamajukeun perdagangan internasional ku cara muka kantor-kantor di luar nagri pikeun méré naséhat ka para pangusaha. Hoover utamana kacida sumangetna pikeun ngamajukeun film-film [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] di luar nagri.{{sfn|Hart|1998}} Kampanye "Own Your Own Home" (Boga Imah Sorangan) nyaéta hiji kolaborasi pikeun ngamajukeun kapimilik imah kulawarga tunggal, jeung grup-grup saperti gerakan Better Houses in America, Architects' Small House Service Bureau, sarta Home Modernizing Bureau. Manéhna digawé bareng jeung para bankir sarta industri [[Asosiasi simpen pinjam|simpen pinjam]] pikeun ngamajukeun kiridit imah (KPR) jangka panjang anyar, anu sacara drastis ngarangsang pangwangunan imah.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hutchison |first=Janet |title=Building for Babbitt: the State and the Suburban Home Ideal |journal=Journal of Policy History |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=184–210 |year=1997 |doi=10.1017/S0898030600005923 |issn=0898-0306 |s2cid=155048376}}</ref> Pencapaian séjénna kaasup hasil ngayakinkeun [[U.S. Steel]] pikeun ngajalankeun dalapan jam gawé sapoé, sarta ngabantu kana ayana [[Kasapukan Walungan Colorado]], hiji kasapukan [[hak cai]] di antara nagara-nagara bagian di [[Amérika Sarikat Bagian Kidul-kulon]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=269–271}} {{Main|Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928}} Hoover cicing-cicing ngumpulkeun pangrojong pikeun maju jadi présidén sapanjang taun 1920-an, tapi manéhna kalayan taliti nyingkahan parasaan Coolidge anu kurang merenah, anu harita aya kamungkinan maju deui pikeun jabatan saterusna dina [[Pemilu Présidén Amérika Sarikat 1928]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=322–323}} Bareng jeung sakumna nagara, manéhna kaget nalika Coolidge dina Agustus 1927 nyatakeun "[[I do not choose to run]]" (kuring milih moal maju deui) pikeun jabatan saterusna. Kalayan pangunduran diri Coolidge anu geus deukeut, Hoover langsung muncul salaku calon unggulan pikeun nominasi Républik taun 1928, sarta manéhna kalayan gancang nyusun tim kampanye anu kuat anu dipingpin ku [[Hubert Work]], [[Will H. Hays]], sarta [[Reed Smoot]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=335–338}} Coolidge henteu kersa nunjuk Hoover salaku panerusna, malah kungsi nyarita "salila genep taun éta jalma méré kuring naséhat anu teu dipénta—anu sakabéhna goréng".{{sfn|Ferrell|1957|p=195}} Sanajan parasaanana biasa-biasa waé ka Hoover, Coolidge teu boga niat pikeun meulah partéy ku cara nentang sacara kabuka kana pancalonan Menteri Perdagangan anu keur populér éta.{{sfnm|McCoy|1967|1pp=390–391|Wilson|1975|2pp=122–123}} Salah sahiji tokoh publik anu ngarojong Hoover pikeun pancalonan présidén ti Républik nyaéta [[William Randolph Hearst]], anu boga pamandangan yén "Kaayaan ayeuna merlukeun konservatisme, sarta konservatisme Menteri Hoover téh mangrupa tipe anu konstruktif, lain tipe anu réaksionér."<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCNPAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA18&dq=Hearst+The+present+situation+demands+conservatism,+and+Secretary+Hoover%E2%80%99s+conservatism+is+of+the+constructive+and+not+the+reactionary+type&article_id=7187,2028328&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjrlcecnqOMAxVYUkEAHYW7G-gQ6AF6BAgFEAM#v=onepage&q=Hearst%20The%20present%20situation%20demands%20conservatism%2C%20and%20Secretary%20Hoover%E2%80%99s%20conservatism%20is%20of%20the%20constructive%20and%20not%20the%20reactionary%20type&f=falseSt. Petersburg Times 10 Jun 1928]</ref> Loba pamingpin Républik anu waspada sarta nyoba néangan calon alternatif, saperti Menteri Kauangan Andrew Mellon atawa urut menteri luar nagri [[Charles Evans Hughes]].<ref name="rusnak">{{cite journal|last1=Rusnak|first1=Robert J.|title=Andrew W. Mellon: Reluctant Kingmaker|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_spring-1983_13_2/page/269|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|date=Spring 1983|volume=13|issue=2|pages=269–278|jstor=27547924}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hughes sarta Mellon nolak pikeun maju, sarta calon poténsial séjénna saperti [[Frank Orren Lowden]] sarta Wakil Présidén [[Charles G. Dawes]] gagal meunangkeun pangrojong anu lega.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=338–339}} Hoover meunangkeun nominasi présidén dina sora (ballot) munggaran dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1928]]. Delegasi konvénsi kungsi mertimbangkeun pikeun nyalonkeun deui Wakil Présidén Charles Dawes salaku [[pendamping kampanye]] (''running mate'') Hoover, tapi Coolidge, anu ngéwa ka Dawes, nyatakeun yén hal éta bakal jadi "panghina pribadi" pikeun dirina. Konvénsi kalah milih Sénator [[Charles Curtis]] ti Kansas.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Mencken | first1 = Henry Louis | last2= Nathan | first2= George Jean | title = The American Mercury | year = 1929 | page = 404 }}</ref> Hoover nampa éta nominasi di [[Stadion Stanford]], nyarita ka balaréa yén manéhna bakal neruskeun kawijakan-kawijakan pamaréntahan Harding sarta Coolidge.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=71–72}} Urang Démokrat nyalonkeun gubernur New York [[Al Smith]], anu jadi calon munggaran ti [[Geréja Katolik di Amérika Sarikat|Katolik]] ti partéy gedé pikeun posisi présidén.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=344–345, 350}} [[File:ElectoralCollege1928.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral 1928]] Hoover masrahkeun surat pangunduran diri salaku Menteri Perdagangan dina 7 Juli, tapi Coolidge nahan manéhna nepi ka 21 Agustus pikeun ngaréngsékeun urusan anu tunda.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coolidge Defers Action on Hoover; President's Wishes as to Date of Resignation's Acceptance Are Not Revealed. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1928/07/08/archives/coolidge-defers-action-on-hoover-presidents-wishes-as-to-date-of.html |access-date=July 24, 2024 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=July 8, 1928 |page=2 col. 2}}</ref>{{sfn|Clements|2010|pp=413–414}} Hoover museurkeun kampanyeana kana catetan Républik ngeunaan katengtreman sarta kamakmuran, sarta reputasi dirina salaku insinyur sarta pajabat publik anu suksés. Alatan teu pati resep méré biantara politik, Hoover leuwih loba cicing sarta masrahkeun urusan kampanye ka Curtis sarta urang Républik séjénna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=343–346}} Smith leuwih karismatik sarta gampang campur gaul batan Hoover, tapi kampanyena ruksak ku [[anti-Katolik di Amérika Sarikat|sikep anti-Katolik]] sarta pertentanganana anu jelas kana Prohibisi (larangan inuman keras). Hoover sorangan henteu kungsi jadi pangrojong kuat Prohibisi, tapi manéhna nampa platform Partéy Républik anu ngarojong hal éta sarta ngaluarkeun pernyataan anu ambivalén kalayan nyebut Prohibisi salaku "hiji éksperimén sosial sarta ékonomi anu agung, mulya dina motifna sarta lega tujuanna".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=349–351}} Di wilayah Kidul, Hoover sarta partéy nasional ngagunakeun stratégi "[[Gerakan lily-white|lily-white]]", nyaéta nyingkirkeun urang Républik kulit hideung tina posisi kapamingpinan dina usaha pikeun metot simpati urang Kidul kulit bodas.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=462–463}} Salila kampanye pemilu, Hoover ngutuk usulan Démokrat pikeun kontrol publik kana tanaga cai, modifikasi prohibisi, sarta bantuan tatanén salaku “sosialisme nagara”<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dbwwAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA1&dq=herbert+hoover+democratic+program+socialism&article_id=5712,2708952&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiT2pr50saRAxUmUEEAHbvRIhcQ6AF6BAgGEAM#v=onepage&q=herbert%20hoover%20democratic%20program%20socialism&f=false St. Petersburg Times 25 Oct 1928]</ref> sarta ogé ngabandingkeun naon anu disebut ku manéhna salaku “rugged individualism” (individualisme tangguh) Amérika jeung naon anu dianggap négatif ku manéhna salaku sosialisme nagara sarta paternalisme Éropa: {{Blockquote|Nalika perang réngsé, hal anu pangpentingna tina sakabéh pasualan, boh di nagara urang sorangan boh di sakuliah dunya, nyaéta naha pamaréntah kudu neruskeun kapamilikan sarta operasional mangsa perangna kana rupa-rupa alat produksi sarta distribusi. Urang nangtang ku hiji pilihan mangsa damai antara sistem individualisme tangguh Amérika sarta filosofi Éropa ngeunaan doktrin-doktrin anu papalingan pisan—doktrin paternalisme sarta sosialisme nagara. Panampa kana ieu idé-idé bakal hartina karuksakan tina pamaréntahan mandiri ngaliwatan sentralisasi pamaréntah. Hal éta bakal hartina ngaruksak inisiatif sarta usaha individu anu geus ngajadikeun raayat urang tumuwuh kana kaagungan anu taya tandingna.'<ref>[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XNJbAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=herbert+hoover+speech+new+york+paternalism&article_id=1524,4809789&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-hsqk0caRAxU9V0EAHUy0BaMQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=herbert%20hoover%20speech%20new%20york%20paternalism&f=false St. Joseph Gazette 23 Oct 1928]</ref>}} Hoover terus unggul dina hasil poling sapanjang kampanye taun 1928, sarta manéhna sacara mutlak ngéléhkeun Smith dina poé pamilihan, kalayan meunangkeun 58 persén sora raayat sarta 444 ti 531 sora éléktoral.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=355, 360}} Para sajarawan sapuk yén reputasi nasional Hoover sarta ékonomi anu nuju meujeuhna alus, ditambah deui ku perpecahan jero di Partéy Démokrat ngeunaan agama sarta Prohibisi, ngajamin kameunangan mutlakna.<ref>Elesha Coffman, 'The "Religious Issue" in Presidential Politics', ''American Catholic Studies'', (Winter 2008) 119#4 pp 1–20</ref> Daya tarik Hoover ka pamilih kulit bodas di Kidul hasil ngabobol "[[Solid South]]", sarta manéhna meunang di lima nagara bagian Kidul.{{sfn|Garcia 1980}} Kameunangan Hoover ditarima kalayan positip ku surat kabar; salah sahijina nulis yén Hoover bakal "digawé kacida tohaga dina tugas-tugas anu aya di hareupeun bangsa sahingga dina ahir dalapan taun jabatanna salaku présidén, urang bakal nempo deui ka tukang kana hiji éra pencapaian anu luar biasa".{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=369–370}} Pihak anu nentang Hoover panaséhat naha manéhna henteu ngalakukeun nanaon pikeun [[Alokasi korsi kongrés Amérika Sarikat|ngalokasikeun deui korsi kongrés]] sanggeus [[Sénsus Amérika Sarikat 1920]] anu némbongkeun ayana kanaékan populasi kota sarta imigran. Sénsus 1920 nyaéta sénsus sapuluh taunan anu munggaran sarta hiji-hijina anu hasilna henteu dipaké pikeun nangtukeun deui alokasi korsi Kongrés, anu tungtungna mangaruhan Éléktoral College taun 1928 sarta méré dampak kana pemilu présidén.<ref name=slayton>{{cite book |last=Slayton |first=Robert A. |date=June 2, 2002 |title=Empire Statesman: The Rise and Redemption of Al Smith |url=https://archive.org/details/empirestatesmanr00robe/page/13 |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |page=[https://archive.org/details/empirestatesmanr00robe/page/13 13] |isbn=978-0-684-86302-3 }}</ref><ref name=finan>{{cite book |last=Finan |first=Christomer M. |date=June 2, 2002 |title=Alfred E. Smith: The Happy Warrior |url=https://archive.org/details/alfredesmithhapp00fina |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=0-8090-3033-0 }}</ref> == Kapersidénan (1929–1933) == {{Main|Kapersidénan Herbert Hoover}} [[File:Taft Hebert Hoover Oath.jpg|thumb|Hoover keur disumpah ku Hakim Agung [[William Howard Taft]] dina 4 Maret 1929]] Hoover nempo kapersidénan salaku pakakas pikeun ngabenerkeun kaayaan sakabéh urang Amérika ku cara nyorong gawé bareng antara publik jeung swasta—anu ku manéhna disebut "voluntarisme" (sukarelawan). Manéhna boga kacenderungan nolak paksaan atawa pipilueun pamaréntah, sabab manéhna nganggap hal éta ngalanggar idé-idé Amérika ngeunaan individualisme sarta kamerdikaan diri.<ref name="9iopl">{{Citation | title = Biography | date = October 4, 2016 | publisher = Miller center | url = http://millercenter.org/president/hoover/essays/biography/1}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Hoover ngadukung ayana béaya pangsiun anu dibiayaan ku pamaréntah pikeun maranéhna anu umurna di luhur 65 taun, sanajan usulan ieu henteu kungsi dilaksanakeun salila mangsa jabatanna.<ref>100 Turning Points in American History By Alan Axelrod, 2019, P.195</ref> Undang-undang utama munggaran anu ditandatanganan ku manéhna nyaéta [[Undang-Undang Pamasaran Tatanén 1929]], anu ngadegkeun [[Déwan Ladang Féderal]] pikeun nyetabilkeun harga hasil tatanén.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=65–66}} Hoover loba ngagunakeun komisi-komisi pikeun nalungtik pasualan sarta ngusulkeun solusi, sarta loba tina komisi éta téh disponsoran ku donor swasta lain ku pamaréntah. Salah sahiji komisi anu dimimitian ku Hoover, nyaéta Komite Panalungtikan ngeunaan Trén Sosial, ditugaskeun pikeun nalungtik sakabéh kahirupan masarakat Amérika.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=84–85}} Manéhna nunjuk Kabinét anu lolobana diusi ku jalma beunghar, konservatif anu pro-bisnis,{{sfn|Fausold 1985|p=34}} kaasup Menteri Kauangan [[Andrew Mellon]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=81–82}} [[Lou Henry Hoover]] nyaéta saurang Ibu Nagara anu aktip. Manéhna jadi conto pikeun [[Awéwé Anyar|awéwé anyar]] dina éra sanggeus Perang Dunya I: calakan, jagat, sarta sadar kana rupa-rupa poténsi awéwé.<ref>Tempo sacara umum Nancy Beck Young, ''Lou Henry Hoover: Activist First Lady'' (University Press of Kansas, 2005)</ref> === Kawijakan jero nagri === ==== Déprési Gedé ==== {{See also|Déprési Gedé di Amérika Sarikat}} Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Hoover nyarita yén "upami dipaparin kasempetan pikeun maju kalayan kawijakan dalapan taun ka tukang, urang bakal geura-giru kalayan pitulung Gusti, nempo poé dimana kamiskinan bakal dileungitkeun tina ieu bangsa".<ref>{{cite book|first1=James L. |last1=Roark |first2=Michael P.|last2=Johnson|first3=Patricia Cline|last3=Cohen|first4=Sarah|last4=Stage|first5=Susan M.|last5=Hartmann|title=The American Promise, Volume C: A History of the United States: Since 1890|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ozj_o6POIssC&pg=PA772|year=2012|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=772|isbn=978-0-312-56944-0}}</ref> Sanggeus nempo hasil kamakmuran anu dibawa ku kamajuan téknologi, loba jalma anu milu ngarasa optimis saperti Hoover, sarta pasar saham anu geus ramé beuki naék luhur nalika Hoover mimiti ngajabat.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=80–81}} Ieu rasa optimis téh sabenerna nyumputkeun sababaraha ancaman pikeun pertumbuhan ékonomi AS anu tuluy-tuluyan, kaasup [[Krisis tatanén 1920-an|krisis tatanén]] anu terus lumangsung, jenuhna [[barang konsumsi]] saperti [[Mobil|mobil]], sarta tumuwuhna [[Kateusaruaan panghasilan di Amérika Sarikat|kateusaruaan panghasilan]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=65–68}} Anu pangbahayana pikeun ékonomi nyaéta spékulasi kalebihan anu geus naékkeun [[Harga saham|harga saham]] jauh saluhureun ajén sabenerna.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=35–36}} Sababaraha régulator sarta bankir geus ngingetan Coolidge sarta Hoover yén kagagalan pikeun nahan spékulasi bakal ngabalukarkeun "salah sahiji musibah kauangan panggedéna anu kungsi katingali ku ieu nagara," tapi duanana présidén éta asa-asa pikeun kalibet dina urusan [[Sistem Cadangan Féderal]], anu ngatur bank-bank.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=68–71}} Dina ahir Oktober 1929, [[Pasar Saham Ancur 1929|pasar saham ancur]], sarta ékonomi dunya mimiti turun drastis kana mangsa [[Déprési Gedé]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=72–74}} Anu jadi [[sabab Déprési Gedé]] masih jadi bahan padu omong,{{sfn|Kaufman|2012|p=502}} tapi Hoover nempo yén kurangna kapercayaan kana sistem kauangan mangrupa masalah ékonomi anu paling dasar anu disanghareupan ku bangsa.{{sfn|Houck|2000|pp=155–156}} Manéhna nyoba nyingkahan pipilueun féderal, percaya yén cara pangalusna pikeun nguatkeun ékonomi nyaéta ngaliwatan pangiatan bisnis-bisnis saperti bank sarta jalan karéta api. Manéhna ogé sieun yén ngantepkeun individu narima "[[belanja karaharjaan|santunan]]" (''dole'') bakal ngaleutikan nagara sacara permanén,{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=350–351}} sarta percaya yén "bantuan pikeun individu ti pamaréntah féderal bakal mawa runtuyan korupsi sarta kabubujal (pemborosan) anu can pernah kasaksian ku bangsa urang."<ref>History of the U.S., Vol. 2 By Thomas V. DiBacco, 1991, P.353</ref> Sabalikna, Hoover percaya pisan yén pamaréntah lokal sarta sumbangan swasta anu kudu nanganan pangabutuh individu.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009b}} ##### Kawijakan awal ##### [[File:President Herbert Hoover Sitting At His Desk (31-1930-A17).jpg|thumb|Hoover keur calik dina méjana dina 20 Désémber 1930. Ieu mangrupa poto munggaran Hoover di Gedong Bodas, sarta poto munggaran anu némbongkeun telepon dina méja saurang présidén.]] Sanajan manéhna nyoba méré gambaran positip kana [[Wall Street Ancur 1929|Salasa Hideung]], Hoover gancang gerak pikeun nanganan runtagna pasar saham.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=74–75}} Dina poé-poé sanggeus Salasa Hideung, Hoover ngumpulkeun para pamingpin bisnis sarta buruh, ménta maranéhna pikeun nyingkahan pamotongan gajih sarta panghentian gawé nalika nagara nyanghareupan naon anu diyakini ku manéhna salaku résési pondok, sarupa jeung Déprési 1920–21.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=104105}} Hoover ogé ngayakinkeun pausahaan jalan karéta sarta utilitas publik pikeun ningkatkeun belanja pangwangunan sarta pangropéa, sarta [[Federal Reserve]] ngumumkeun yén maranéhna bakal nurunkeun suku bunga.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=53–55}} Dina awal taun 1930, Hoover meunangkeun tambahan dana $100 juta ti Kongrés pikeun neruskeun kawijakan pinjaman sarta pameulian [[Déwan Ladang Féderal]].<ref>Harris Gaylord Warren, ''Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 175.</ref> Ieu léngkah-léngkah téh sacara koléktif dirancang pikeun nyegah siklus [[déflasi]] sarta méré [[Stimulus (ékonomi)|stimulus fiskal]].{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=53–55}} Dina waktu anu sarua, Hoover nentang usulan kongrés pikeun méré bantuan féderal ka nu pangangguran, sabab manéhna percaya yén program saperti kitu téh mangrupa tanggung jawab pamaréntah nagara bagian, lokal, sarta organisasi filantropi.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=147–149}} Hoover mimiti ngajabat kalayan harepan bisa naékkeun tarif tatanén pikeun mantuan para patani anu keur kasusah alatan krisis ladang taun 1920-an, tapi usahana ieu jadi kabeungkeut kana hiji rarancang undang-undang anu naékkeun tarif sacara lega.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=93–97}} Hoover nolak pikeun kalibet jero dina debat kongrés ngeunaan tarif éta, sarta Kongrés ngahasilkeun hiji RUU tarif anu naékkeun tingkat pajeg pikeun loba barang.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=399–402, 414}} Sanajan éta RUU téh teu dipikaresep ku balaréa, Hoover ngarasa manéhna teu bisa nolak hasil législatif utama ti [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat ka-71]] anu dikawasa ku Républik. Ngaliwatan protés ti loba ahli ékonomi, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Tarif Smoot–Hawley]] jadi hukum dina Juni 1930.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=414–415}} Kanada, Perancis, sarta nagara-nagara séjénna males ku cara naékkeun tarif ogé, anu ngabalukarkeun kontraksi dina [[perdagangan internasional]] sarta ngajadikeun ékonomi beuki parah.<ref>Kumiko Koyama, "The Passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: Why Did the President Sign the Bill?" ''Journal of Policy History'' (2009) 21#2 pp. 163–86</ref> Urang Républik Progrésif saperti Sénator [[William E. Borah]] ti Idaho kacida ambekna nalika Hoover nandatanganan éta undang-undang tarif, sarta hubungan Hoover jeung faksi éta di partéy teu kungsi pulih deui.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=91–92}} ===== Kawijakan satuluyna ===== [[File:Herbert Hoover and Ted Joslin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Hoover di Oval Office bareng [[Theodore Joslin|Ted Joslin]], 1932]] Dina ahir taun 1930, [[Pangangguran di Amérika Sarikat|tingkat pangangguran nasional]] geus nepi ka 11,9 persén, tapi can pati jelas pikeun sabagéan badag urang Amérika yén kamunduran ékonomi ieu bakal leuwih parah batan Déprési 1920–21.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=58–59}} Runtuyan [[bank bangkrut|kagagalan bank]] dina ahir taun 1930 nandakeun [[Runtagna ékonomi|runtagna ékonomi]] anu leuwih gedé dina taun 1931.{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=65–66}} Nalika nagara-nagara séjén ninggalkeun [[standar emas]], Hoover nolak pikeun ngaleupaskeunana;{{sfn|Kennedy|1999|pp=77–78}} manéhna ngécé kana sagala [[sistem monétér]] séjénna salaku "[[Koléktivisme sarta individualisme|koléktivisme]]".{{sfn|Eichengreen|Temin|2000|pp=196–197}} Hoover nempo yén lemahna [[Ékonomi Éropa]] mangrupa sabab utama tina masalah ékonomi di Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=143–144}} Salaku réspon kana runtugna [[Ékonomi Jérman]], Hoover ngumpulkeun rojongan kongrés pikeun moratorium sataun kana hutang perang Éropa.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=441–444, 449}} [[Moratorium Hoover]] ditarima kalayan hadé di Éropa sarta Amérika Sarikat, tapi Jérman tetep aya dina bangku [[Gagal bayar|kagagalan bayar]] tina pinjamanna.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=450–452}} Nalika ékonomi dunya beuki parah, pamaréntahan démokratis loba anu runtag; di Jérman, pamingpin [[Partéy Nazi]] [[Adolf Hitler]] nyekel kakawasaan sarta ngabubarkeun [[Républik Weimar]].{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=485–486}} Nepi ka pertengahan 1931, tingkat pangangguran geus nepi ka 15 persén, anu ngabalukarkeun kasieun anu beuki ningkat yén nagara keur ngalaman déprési anu jauh leuwih parah batan kamunduran ékonomi saméméhna.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=140–141}} Salaku jalma anu rada katutup sarta boga kasieun pikeun nyarita di hareupeun umum, Hoover ngantepkeun lawan-lawanna di Partéy Démokrat ngagambarkeun dirina salaku jalma anu tiis, teu mampuh, réaksionér, sarta kurang gaul.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=351–352}} Lawan-lawan Hoover nyiptakeun rupa-rupa [[Landihan (julukan)|landihan]] anu ngahina pikeun ngaruksak reputasina, saperti "[[Hooverville]]" (padumukan kumuh sarta kémp pangungsian), "kulit Hoover" (kardus anu dipaké pikeun nambal sol sapatu anu bolong), sarta "simbut Hoover" (koran urut anu dipaké pikeun nyimbut diri tina hawa tiis).<ref>{{cite book| title=The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918–1924| last=Cabanes| first=Bruno| page=206| publisher=Cambridge University Press| date=2014|isbn=978-1-107-02062-7}}</ref> Nalika Hoover terus nolak usaha bantuan féderal, Gubernur [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ti New York ngaluncurkeun Administrasi Bantuan Darurat Samentara pikeun méré bantuan ka nu pangangguran. Urang Démokrat mosisikeun éta program salaku alternatif anu leuwih merhatoskeun batan naon anu disebut sikép apatis Hoover ka nu pangangguran, sanajan Hoover percaya yén program kitu téh tanggung jawab nagara bagian sarta lokal.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=457–459}} Ékonomi terus nyirorot, kalayan tingkat pangangguran ampir nepi ka 23 persén dina awal taun 1932,{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–166}} sarta Hoover tungtungna ngadéngékeun pamenta pikeun leuwih loba pipilueun féderal.{{sfn|Olson 1972|pp=508–511}} Dina Januari 1932, manéhna ngayakinkeun Kongrés pikeun ngesahkeun pangadegan [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]] (RFC), anu bakal méré pinjaman anu dijamin ku pamaréntah ka lembaga kauangan, jalan karéta, sarta pamaréntah lokal.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=153–154}} RFC nyalametkeun loba bisnis tina kabangkrutan, tapi gagal ngarangsang pinjaman komérsial saloba anu dipiharep ku Hoover, sabagéan alatan RFC dijalankeun ku bankir konservatif anu teu kersa méré pinjaman anu boga résiko luhur.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–163}} Dina bulan anu sarua nalika RFC diadegkeun, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Bank Pinjaman Imah Féderal]], anu ngadegkeun 12 bank distrik anu diawasi ku Déwan Bank Pinjaman Imah Féderal kalayan cara anu sarupa jeung Sistem Federal Reserve.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|pp=309}} Manéhna ogé mantuan dina pengesahan [[Undang-Undang Glass–Steagall 1932]], hiji panerapan perbankan darurat anu dirancang pikeun ngalegaan kiridit perbankan ku cara ngalegaan jaminan dimana bank Federal Reserve diwenangkeun pikeun méré pinjaman.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=483–484}} Nalika ieu léngkah-léngkah téh gagal nahan krisis ékonomi, Hoover nandatanganan [[Undang-Undang Bantuan Darurat sarta Pangwangunan]], hiji RUU proyék umum saharga $2 miliar, dina Juli 1932.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=162–166}} ====Budget policy==== [[File:Debt1929-50.jpg|thumb|left|National debt as a fraction of GNP up from 20% to 40% under Hoover. From ''Historical Statistics US'' (1976).]] After a decade of [[budget surplus]]es, the federal government experienced a [[Budget deficits|budget deficit]] in 1931.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|p=303}} Though some economists, like [[William Trufant Foster]], favored [[deficit spending]] to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a [[balanced budget]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=158–159}} In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase [[tax revenue]] by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the [[Revenue Act of 1932]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=472, 488–489}} The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the [[tax cut]] reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s. Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top [[Estate tax in the United States|estate tax]] rate, cut [[Income tax in the United States|personal income tax]] exemptions, eliminated the [[Corporate tax in the United States|corporate income tax]] exemption, and raised corporate tax rates.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ippolito |first1=Dennis S. |title=Deficits, Debt, and the New Politics of Tax Policy |url=https://archive.org/details/deficitsdebtnewp0000ippo |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-85157-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/deficitsdebtnewp0000ippo/page/35 35]}}</ref> Prior to its passage, the legislation included a sales tax, but this part of the bill was defeated in the House of Representatives by 211 to 178 votes.<ref>[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/LaGuardia_in_Congress/2hNdePcjrdUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=la+guardia+in+congress+sales+tax+211+votes&pg=PA224&printsec=frontcover LaGuardia in Congress By Howard Zinn, 2010, P.224]</ref> Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=159–161}} {{Clear left}} {{Further|Gerakan Lily-white|Repatriasi Méksiko}} [[File:President & Mrs Hoover in Belvidere IL cph.3b12319.jpg|thumb|upright|Herbert sarta [[Lou Henry Hoover]] dina karéta api di Illinois]] Hoover jarang nyabit-nyabit ngeunaan [[Gerakan hak sipil (1896–1954)|hak sipil]] nalika manéhna jadi présidén. Manéhna percaya yén urang Afrika-Amérika sarta ras séjénna bisa ningkatkeun darajatna sorangan ngaliwatan pendidikan sarta inisiatif individu.<ref>Lisio, Donald J. ''Hoover, Blacks, & Lily-Whites: A Study of Southern Strategies'', University of North Carolina Press, 1985 ([https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=105110361 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605043201/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=105110361 |date=June 5, 2011 }})</ref> Hoover nunjuk leuwih loba urang Afrika-Amérika kana jabatan féderal batan Harding sarta Coolidge digabungkeun, tapi loba pamingpin Afrika-Amérika anu ngutuk rupa-rupa aspék administrasi Hoover, kaasup kateukersa Hoover pikeun ngadorong undang-undang féderal [[Gerakan anti-lynching|anti-panyiksa (anti-lynching)]].{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=471–474}} Hoover ogé terus ngajalankeun strategi lily-white, nyaéta nyoplokkeun urang Afrika-Amérika tina posisi pamingpin di Partéy Républik dina usaha pikeun mungkas [[Solid South|dominasi Partéy Démokrat di Kidul]].{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=462–464}} Sanajan [[Robert Russa Moton|Robert Moton]] sarta sababaraha pamingpin kulit hideung séjénna nampa strategi lily-white salaku léngkah samentara, lolobana pamingpin Afrika-Amérika mah kacida ambekna.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=464–465}} Hoover beuki ngajauhan pamingpin kulit hideung ku cara nyalonkeun hakim konservatif ti Kidul, [[John J. Parker]], ka [[Mahkamah Agung Amérika Sarikat]]; pencalonan Parker tungtungna gagal di Sénat alatan ayana perlawanan ti [[NAACP]] sarta organisasi buruh.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=465–467}} Loba pamilih kulit hideung anu pindah ka Partéy Démokrat dina pemilu 1932, sarta urang Afrika-Amérika engkéna bakal jadi bagian penting tina [[Koalisi New Deal]] Franklin Roosevelt.{{sfn|Garcia 1980|pp=476–477}} Salaku bagian tina usahana pikeun ngawatesan pangangguran, Hoover nyoba neukteuk [[imigrasi ka Amérika Sarikat]], sarta dina taun 1930 manéhna ngaluarkeun paréntah éksékutip anu ngawajibkeun individu boga pagawéan saméméh pindah ka Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Rappleye|2016|p=247}} Administrasi Hoover ngamimitian kampanye pikeun nungtut [[Imigrasi ilegal ka Amérika Sarikat|imigran ilegal di Amérika Sarikat]], anu pangaruhna kacida kuatna ka [[Urang Méksiko-Amérika]], utamana maranéhna anu cicing di [[California Kidul]].{{sfn|Hoffman 1973|pp=206–207}} Pamaréntah féderal ogé ngarojong repatriasi Méksiko dimana aya sakitar 300.000 nepi ka dua juta urang Méksiko sarta Méksiko-Amérika anu dipulangkeun, didéportasi, atawa diusir ka Méksiko salila taun 1930-an, utamana dina mangsa jabatan Hoover. Opat puluh nepi ka genep puluh persén ti maranéhna téh sabenerna [[Kawasarganagaraan Amérika Sarikat|warga nagara Amérika]].<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Byza6YM2bukC|title=The Praeger Handbook of Latino Education in the U.S.|last=Rosales|first=F. Arturo|date=January 1, 2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313338304|editor-last=Soto|editor-first=Lourdes Diaz|pages=400–403|chapter=Repatriation of Mexicans from the US}}</ref><ref name="gratton">{{cite news|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/102163/imre12054.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950|last1=Gratton|first1=Brian|last2=Merchant |first2=Emily|date=December 2013|pages=944–975|publisher=The International migration review|issue=4|volume=47}}</ref>{{sfn|Johnson 2005|p=4–5}} Sanajan pamaréntah féderal nyorong repatriasi, hal ieu lolobana diatur ku otoritas nagara bagian sarta lokal kalayan pangrojong ti pihak swasta. Administrasi Hoover ngadéportasi 34.000 urang ka Méksiko antara taun 1930 nepi ka 1933. Tapi, leuwih loba jalma anu milih repatriasi sacara sukarela.{{sfn|Hoffman 1973|pp=208, 217–218}}<ref name="gratton" /> Sababaraha ahli boga pamadegan yén repatriasi massal ieu mangrupa kawijakan ti administrasi Hoover.<ref name="gratton" /> Numutkeun profésor hukum Kevin R. Johnson, kampanye repatriasi ieu minuhan standar hukum modern ngeunaan [[ethnic cleansing]] (pembersihan étnis), sabab ngalibatkeun panyabutan paksa hiji minoritas ras ku aktor pamaréntah.{{sfn|Johnson 2005|p=6}} Hoover ngatur deui [[Biro Urusan India]] pikeun ngawatesan éksploitasi ka urang pribumi Amérika (Native Americans).<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 15, 2016 |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |access-date=May 2, 2022 |website=National Archives}}</ref> ==== Prohibisi ==== Nalika mimiti ngajabat, Hoover ngadesek urang Amérika pikeun matuh kana [[Amandemén Kadalapan Belas Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat|Amandemén Kadalapan Belas]] sarta [[Undang-Undang Volstead]], anu geus netepkeun [[Prohibisi di Amérika Sarikat|Prohibisi]] di sakuliah Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=372–373}} Pikeun méré rékoméndasi kawijakan publik ngeunaan Prohibisi, manéhna ngadegkeun [[Komisi Wickersham]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|p=85}} Hoover tadina miharep yén laporan publik komisi éta bakal nguatkeun siképna anu pro-Prohibisi, tapi éta laporan téh kalah nyawad kana palaksanaan Undang-Undang Volstead sarta nyatet ayana tumuwuhna panolakan publik kana Prohibisi. Sanggeus Laporan Wickersham dipublikasikeun dina taun 1931, Hoover nolak saran ti sababaraha babaturan deukeutna sarta nolak pikeun nyatujuan révisi naon waé kana Undang-Undang Volstead atawa Amandemén Kadalapan Belas, sabab manéhna sieun hal éta bakal ngaruksak rojongan ti para panganjur Prohibisi.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=433–435}} Nalika opini publik beuki malik nentang Prohibisi, beuki loba jalma anu ngarémpak hukum, sarta gerakan akar jukut mimiti digawé satékah polah pikeun ngabolaykeun Prohibisi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Repealing National Prohibition|url=https://archive.org/details/repealingnationa0000kyvi|last=Kyvig|first=David E.|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|year=1979|location=Chicago, IL|pages=[https://archive.org/details/repealingnationa0000kyvi/page/49 49]}}</ref> Dina Januari 1933, hiji amandemén konstitusi pikeun ngabolaykeun Amandemén Kadalapan Belas disatujuan ku Kongrés sarta diajukeun ka nagara-nagara bagian pikeun diratifikasi. Nepi ka Désémber 1933, éta amandemén geus diratifikasi ku jumlah nagara bagian anu diperlukeun pikeun jadi [[Amandemén Kasalapan Likur Konstitusi Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name=DCHuckabee>{{cite web|last=Huckabee|first=David C.|title=Ratification of Amendments to the U.S. Constitution|url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015810/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 27, 2004|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service reports]]|date=September 30, 1997}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040627015810/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/97-922.pdf |date=June 27, 2004 }}</ref> ==== Protés Bonus Army ==== {{Main|Bonus Army}} Rébuan véteran Perang Dunya I sarta kulawargana ngayakeun démonstrasi sarta masang kémp di Washington, DC, salila bulan Juni 1932, nungtut pamayaran saharita tina bonus anu geus dijanjikeun ku [[Undang-Undang Kompénsasi Disaluyukeun Perang Dunya]] dina taun 1924; katangtuan dina éta undang-undang nyebutkeun yén pamayaran bonus téh kakara bakal dilaksanakeun dina taun 1945. Sanajan ditawaran duit ku [[Kongrés Amérika Sarikat]] pikeun marulang ka lemburna, sababaraha anggota "Bonus Army" tetep cicing di dinya. Pulisi Washington nyoba ngabubarkeun para démonstran, tapi jumlahna éléh loba sarta teu hasil. Pulisi ngaleupaskeun témbakan dina usaha anu taya gunana pikeun nyiptakeun katartiban, anu ngabalukarkeun dua démonstran tiwas sarta loba petugas anu tatu. Hoover ngirimkeun pasukan Angkatan Darat AS anu dipingpin ku Jéndral [[Douglas MacArthur]] ka tempat protés. MacArthur, anu percaya yén manéhna keur merangan [[Révolusi Komunis]], milih pikeun ngabersihkeun éta kémp ku kakuatan militér. Sanajan Hoover teu maréntahkeun MacArthur pikeun ngabubarkeun démonstran ku cara kitu, manéhna nyatujuan tindakan éta sanggeus kajadianana lumangsung.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=136–138}} Ieu kajadian téh jadi hal anu ngerakeun pikeun administrasi Hoover sarta ngaruksak usahana pikeun kapilih deui dina pemilu.<ref name="dickson1">{{cite magazine|last1=Dickson|first1=Paul|last2=Allen|first2=Thomas B.|title=Marching on History|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/marching-on-history-75797769/|access-date=February 7, 2017|magazine=Smithsonian|date=February 2003}}</ref> === Kawijakan luar nagri === Numutkeun Leuchtenburg, Hoover téh "présidén Amérika pamungkas anu mimiti ngajabat tanpa boga kabutuhan anu nyata pikeun merhatoskeun dunya luar". Sanajan kitu, salila mangsa jabatan Hoover, tatanan dunya anu diadegkeun sanggeus Perang Dunya I mimiti runtag.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|p=117}} Salaku présidén, Hoover umumna nedunan jangjina saméméh ngajabat pikeun henteu pipilueun kana urusan jero nagri Amérika Latin. Dina taun 1930, manéhna ngaluarkeun [[Mémorandum Clark]], hiji panolakan kana [[Roosevelt Corollary]] sarta léngkah nuju non-intervénsionisme di Amérika Latin. Hoover henteu sagemblengna nahan diri tina pamakéan militér dina [[hubungan Amérika Latin–Amérika Sarikat|urusan Amérika Latin]]; manéhna tilu kali ngancem bakal ngayakeun intervénsi di [[Républik Dominika]], sarta ngirimkeun kapal perang ka [[Él Salvador]] pikeun ngarojong pamaréntah dina nyanghareupan révolusi sayap kénca.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=120–121}} Sanajan aya tindakan-tindakan éta, manéhna mungkas [[Perang Cau]] (Banana Wars), ngaréngsékeun [[pangeureutan Amérika Sarikat di Nikaragua|pangeureutan Nikaragua]] sarta ampir mungkas [[pangeureutan Amérika Sarikat di Haiti|pangeureutan Haiti]].{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=183–186}} Hoover méré prioritas kana [[pancaténan pakarang]] (disarmament), anu dipiharep ku manéhna bisa mindahkeun dana ti militér kana kabutuhan jero nagri.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|p=58}} Hoover sarta Menteri Luar Nagri [[Henry L. Stimson]] museurkeun perhatian kana ngalegaan [[Perjangjian Angkatan Laut Washington]] 1922, anu tujuanna pikeun nyegah balapan [[pakara pakarang]] angkatan laut.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=479–480}} Alatan usaha Hoover, Amérika Sarikat sarta kakuatan angkatan laut utama séjénna nandatanganan [[Perjangjian Angkatan Laut London]] 1930.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=175–176}} Ieu perjangjian téh mangrupa munggaran kalina kakuatan-kakuatan angkatan laut sapuk pikeun ngawatesan tonase [[Kapal pangrojong|kapal tambahan]], sabab perjangjian saméméhna mah ngan ukur mangaruhan kana [[kapal utama]] (capital ships).{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=117–119}} Dina [[Konférénsi Pancaténan Pakarang Dunya]] 1932, Hoover ngadesek pangurangan pakarang anu leuwih loba sarta ngalarang pamakéan [[tank]] sarta [[kapal nu mawa bom]], tapi usulna henteu ditarima.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=117–119}} Dina taun 1931, Jepang [[invasi Jepang ka Manchuria|nginvasi]] [[Manchuria]], ngéléhkeun [[Angkatan Révolusionér Nasional]] [[Républik Cina (1912–1949)]] sarta ngadegkeun [[Manchukuo]], hiji nagara bonéka. Administrasi Hoover ngutuk éta invasi, tapi ogé nyoba nyingkahan konflik jeung urang Jepang, sabab sieun yén nyokot sikép anu teuing keras bakal ngaleutikan kakuatan moderat di pamaréntahan Jepang sarta ngajauhkeun poténsi sekutu pikeun ngalawan [[Uni Soviét]], anu ku manéhna dianggap salaku ancaman anu jauh leuwih gedé.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=122–123}} Salaku réspon kana invasi Jepang, Hoover sarta Menteri Luar Nagri Stimson nyieun garis badag [[Doktrin Stimson]], anu nétépkeun yén Amérika Sarikat moal ngaku kana wilayah-wilayah anu dimeunangkeun ku cara kekerasan.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1844715|title = The Stimson Doctrine and the Hoover Doctrine|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1954-04_59_3/page/513|journal = The American Historical Review|volume = 59|issue = 3|pages = 513–542|last1 = Current|first1 = Richard N.|year = 1954|doi = 10.2307/1844715}}</ref> == Kampanye pamilihan deui 1932 == {{Main|Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1932}} Nepi ka pertengahan 1931, saeutik pisan pangamat anu mikir yén Hoover boga harepan gedé pikeun meunangkeun jabatan kadua di tengah krisis ékonomi anu terus lumangsung.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=193–194}} Harepan urang Républik kacida murepna nepi ka Hoover teu nyanghareupan perlawanan anu hartosna pikeun dicalonkeun deui dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1932]]. Coolidge sarta inohong Républik séjénna kabéhanana ngaliwatkeun kasempetan pikeun nangtang Hoover.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=194–195}} Franklin D. Roosevelt meunangkeun pencalonan présidén dina sora (ballot) kaopat dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Démokrat 1932]], ngéléhkeun calon Démokrat taun 1928, Al Smith. Urang Démokrat nyerang Hoover salaku cukang lantaran Déprési Gedé, sarta dianggap teu paduli kana sangsara anu dialaman ku jutaan jalma.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=353}} Salaku Gubernur New York, Roosevelt geus ménta législatur New York pikeun méré bantuan ka jalma-jalma anu merlukeun, anu ngawangun reputasi Roosevelt salaku jalma anu leuwih satuju kana intervénsionisme pamaréntah salila krisis ékonomi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=138–140}} Partéy Démokrat, kaasup Al Smith sarta pamingpin nasional séjénna, ngahiji di tukangeun Roosevelt, samentara urang Républik progrésif saperti George Norris sarta [[Robert M. La Follette Jr.|Robert La Follette Jr.]] ninggalkeun Hoover.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=211–212}} Prohibisi beuki teu dipikaresep sarta golongan "wet" (anti-prohibisi) méré argumén yén nagara bagian sarta lokal merlukeun duit pajeg. Hoover ngusulkeun amandemén konstitusi anyar anu teu jelas sacara hususna. Program Roosevelt ngajanjikeun pangabolayan Amandemén ka-18.<ref>"Prohibition After the 1932 Elections" [https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1932081100 ''CQ Researcher'']</ref><ref>Herbert Brucker, "How Long, O Prohibition?" ''The North American Review'', 234#4 (1932), pp. 347–357. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25114102 online]</ref> [[File:ElectoralCollege1932.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Hasil sora éléktoral 1932]] Hoover mimitina ngarencanakeun ngan ukur bakal ngayakeun hiji atawa dua biantara utama sarta masrahkeun sésa kampanyena ka utusan (proxy), sakumaha anu biasana dilakukeun ku présidén anu keur ngajabat. Sanajan kitu, didorong ku paménta urang Républik sarta ngarasa ambek ku klaim-klaim urang Démokrat, Hoover tungtungna turun langsung ka masarakat. Dina salapan biantara radio utamana, Hoover utamana ngabéla administrasina sarta [[Filsafat politik|filsafat pamaréntahanana]], ngadesek para pamilih pikeun tetep nyekel kana "dasar pangalaman" sarta nolak anggapan yén intervénsionisme pamaréntah bisa nyalametkeun nagara tina Déprési.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=359}} Para sejarawan boga pamadegan yén biantara radiona henteu ditarima kalayan hadé, sabagéan alatan cara nyaritana anu monoton sarta kaku.<ref name=":0" /> Dina lalampahan kampanyena ka sakuliah nagara, Hoover nyanghareupan balaréa anu bisa jadi pangmushuhna anu kungsi katingali ku hiji présidén anu keur ngajabat. Dina unggal pangeureutan kampanye, manéhna mindeng diganggu (heckled) sarta dipoyok, malah di [[Beloit, Wisconsin]], saurang lalaki ditahan kalayan tuduhan yén manéhna geus nyoplokkeun paku tina jalur karéta api saméméh karéta Hoover ngaliwat. Saurang anggota [[United States Secret Service | Secret Service]] nyatet, "Kuring geus ngarénjangan Présidén-Présidén saprak [[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] sarta can kungsi ningali présidén bener-bener dipoyok, kalayan jalma-jalma lalumpatan ka jalan bari némbongkeun sikép ngahina ka manéhna."<ref name="rehoming">{{Cite news |author=<!-- not stated --> |url=https://time.com/archive/6890906/republicans-homing-hoover/ |magazine=Time |date=November 14, 1932 |title=Republicans: Rehoming Hoover |access-date=April 21, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Tungtungna, usaha Hoover pikeun ngabenerkeun administrasina henteu didéngé ku masarakat, sabab sabagéan badag publik nyalahkeun administrasina salaku cukang lantaran déprési.{{sfn|Carcasson|1998|pp=361–362}} Dina sora éléktoral, Hoover éléh 59–472, sarta ngan meunang di genep nagara bagian.{{sfn|Fausold 1985|pp=212–213}} Hoover meunangkeun 39,6 persén tina sora populer (popular vote), turun drastis 18,6 poin perséntase tina hasilna dina pemilu 1928.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=142}} </ref> Anu ngajadikeun manéhna kuciwa pisan, Hoover henteu diondang pikeun ngabantosan nagara sanggeus [[Sajarah militér Amérika Sarikat nalika Perang Dunya II|Amérika Sarikat aub dina Perang Dunya II]] alatan ayana pabéantar pamadegan jeung Roosevelt sarta popularitasna anu tetep murep.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=155–156}} Manéhna henteu ngudag pencalonan présidén dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1944]], sarta, dumasar kana paménta calon ti Républik [[Thomas E. Dewey]], manéhna nahan diri pikeun henteu milu kampanye salila pamilihan umum.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=572}} Dina taun 1945, Hoover méré saran ka Présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] sangkan ngabolaykeun tungtutan Amérika Sarikat ngeunaan [[penyerahan tanpa sarat]] ti Jepang alatan tingginya proyéksi korban jiwa tina [[Operasi Downfall|rencana invasi ka Jepang]], sanajan harita Hoover teu nyahoeun ngeunaan ayana [[Proyék Manhattan]] sarta [[Pakarang nuklir Amérika Sarikat|bom atom]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen |first=Jared |title=Accidental presidents: eight men who changed America|url=https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0 |date=April 9, 2019 |publisher= Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-5011-0982-9|edition=First hardcover |location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/accidentalpresid0000cohe_i0y0/page/313 313]|oclc=1039375326}}</ref> Dina awal mangsa perang, [[Bernard Baruch]] ngusulkeun ka Franklin Roosevelt yén Hoover bisa waé dimangpaatkeun dina kapasitas administratif pikeun usaha perang. Roosevelt ngajawab, "Kuring téh lain Yésus Kristus. Kuring moal ngahudangkeun Hoover tina maotna," sarta éta ideu téh dipopohokeun kitu waé.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schaefer |first1=Matthew |title=Hoover and 20th Century Presidents: Franklin Roosevelt |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2020/04/08/hoover-and-20th-century-presidents-franklin-roosevelt/ |website=hoover.blogs.archives.gov |access-date=2 May 2026 |date=8 April 2020 |quote=‘I’m not Jesus Christ.  I’m not raising Hoover from the dead.’}}</ref> Sanajan Roosevelt nolak ngagunakeun jasa Hoover, manéhna tetep méré hormat ku cara ngutus Jéndral [[Albert Coady Wedemeyer]] pikeun rutin nganjang ka Hoover di suite-na di Hotel Waldorf Astoria, New York City, pikeun méré béja panganyarna ngeunaan rencana perang Sekutu. Tapi tetep waé, manéhna teu dibéré nyaho ngeunaan program pakarang atom ku Wedemeyer.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schwartz |first1=Thomas |title=A Troubled Relationship |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2021/05/05/a-troubled-relationship/ |website=hoover.blogs.archives.gov |access-date=2 May 2026 |date=5 May 2021}}</ref> Dina taun 1943, Hoover nyatakeun dukunganna kana [[Zionisme]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Herbert Hoover's Plan for Palestine | url=https://cooperative-individualism.org/medoff-rafael_herbert-hoover's-plan-for-palestine-1990-summer.pdf | access-date=December 29, 2024}}</ref> === Pasca-Perang Dunya II === {{Further|Kapersidénan Harry S. Truman|Kapersidénan Dwight D. Eisenhower}} [[File:Hoover men Allan Herbert Sr Andrew 1950.jpg|thumb|Hoover bareng jeung putrana [[Allan Hoover|Allan]] (kénca) sarta incuna Andrew (luhur), 1950]] Saatos Perang Dunya II, Hoover sosobatan jeung Présidén Truman sanajan maranéhna boga bédana idéologi.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=157–158}} Alatan pangalaman Hoover jeung Jérman dina ahir Perang Dunya I, dina taun 1946 Truman milih tilas présidén éta pikeun ngulilingan [[Jérman anu dikawasa Sekutu]] sarta [[Roma]], Itali pikeun mastikeun kabutuhan pangan nagara-nagara anu dikawasa éta. Sanggeus ngulilingan Jérman, Hoover ngahasilkeun [[Misi Ékonomi Présidén ka Jérman sarta Austria|sajumlah laporan]] anu kritis kana kawijakan pangeureutan AS.<ref>{{cite book | first = Michael R. | last = Beschloss | title = The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945 | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743244541 | url-access = registration | publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|location=New York City|date = 2002 |isbn=978-0-7432-4454-1|page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743244541/page/277 277]}}</ref> Manéhna nyatakeun dina salah sahiji laporanna yén "aya ilusi yén Jérman Anyar anu nyésa sanggeus [[Jérman Wétan sacara Sajarah#Konférénsi Potsdam|anéksasi]] bisa diréduksi jadi '[[Rencana Morgenthau|nagara pastor]] (pastoral state).' Hal éta moal bisa dilakukeun iwal urang maéhan atawa mindahkeun 25.000.000 jalma ti dinya."<ref>{{cite web|author=UN Chronicle |url=https://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2008/webarticles/080103_marshallplan.html |title=The Marshall Plan at 60: The General's Successful War on Poverty |publisher=The United Nations |date=March 18, 1947 |access-date=June 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080414103548/http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2008/webarticles/080103_marshallplan.html |archive-date=April 14, 2008 }}</ref> Atas inisiatif Hoover, program kadaharan sakola di [[Bizone|zona pangeureutan Amérika sarta Inggris di Jérman]] dimimitian dina 14 April 1947; éta program méré dahar ka 3.500.000 barudak.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shephard |first=Roy J. |author-link=Roy J. Shephard |year=2014 |title=An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World |publisher=[[Axel Springer SE]]|location=New York City|page=782 }}</ref> {{external media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [https://www.loc.gov/rr/record/pressclub/hoover.html National Press Club Luncheon Speakers], Herbert Hoover, March 10, 1954, 37:23, Hoover speaks starting at 7:25 about the second reorganization commission, [[Library of Congress]]<ref name="loc">{{cite web | title =National Press Club Luncheon Speakers, Herbert Hoover, March 10, 1954 | publisher =[[Library of Congress]] | url =https://www.loc.gov/rr/record/pressclub/hoover.html | access-date =October 20, 2016 }}</ref> }} Anu leuwih penting deui, dina taun 1947 Truman nunjuk Hoover pikeun mingpin [[Komisi Hoover|Komisi Organisasi Cabang Éksékutip Pamaréntah]], hiji studi tingkat luhur anu anyar. Truman nampa sababaraha rékoméndasi ti "Komisi Hoover" pikeun ngaleungitkeun pemborosan, penipuan, sarta inéfisiénsi, ngahijikeun lembaga-lembaga, sarta nguatkeun kontrol Gedong Bodas kana kawijakan.<ref>Richard Norton Smith, ''An Uncommon Man,'' (1984) pp 371–380.</ref><ref>Christopher D. McKenna, "Agents of adhocracy: management consultants and the reorganization of the executive branch, 1947–1949." ''Business and Economic History'' (1996): 101–111.</ref> Sanajan Hoover kungsi nentang konséntrasi kakawasaan Roosevelt dina taun 1930-an, manéhna percaya yén kapersidénan anu leuwih kuat diperlukeun ku ayana [[Zaman Atom]].{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=158–159}} Salila [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1948|pamilihan présidén 1948]], Hoover ngarojong kampanye calon Républik [[Thomas E. Dewey]] anu gagal ngalawan Truman, tapi manéhna tetep boga hubungan anu hadé jeung Truman.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=587–588}} Hoover satuju kana ayana Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (UN) sacara prinsip, tapi manéhna nolak méré kaanggotaan ka [[Uni Soviét]] sarta nagara-nagara [[Nagara komunis|Komunis]] séjénna. Manéhna nganggap Uni Soviét sarua hinana sacara moral jeung Jérman Nazi sarta ngarojong usaha [[Richard Nixon]] jeung nu séjénna pikeun ngungkab urang Komunis di Amérika Sarikat.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=592–594}} [[File:President John F. Kennedy and former President Herbert Hoover.jpg|thumb|Hoover bareng jeung Présidén [[John F. Kennedy]] dina taun 1961]] Dina taun 1949, Dewey salaku gubernur New York nawarkeun korsi Sénat ka Hoover anu ditinggalkeun ku [[Robert F. Wagner]]. Éta téh ngan ukur pikeun jadi sénator salila dua bulan, sarta manéhna nolak.<ref>Herbert Hoover, ''The Crusade Years, 1933–1955: Herbert Hoover's Lost Memoir of the New Deal Era and Its Aftermath'', edited by George H. Nash, (Hoover Institution Press, 2013) p 13.</ref> [[File:Hoover Truman Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|left|Hoover (katuhu) bareng jeung Présidén [[Harry S. Truman]] (tengah) sarta Jéndral [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (kénca) di [[Universitas Princeton]]]] Hoover ngarojong pamingpin konservatif [[Robert A. Taft]] dina [[Konvénsi Nasional Républik 1952]], tapi pencalonan présidén ti partéy kalah labuh ka [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], anu satuluyna meunangkeun [[Pamilihan présidén Amérika Sarikat 1952|pamilihan 1952]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=595}} Sanajan Eisenhower nunjuk Hoover kana komisi présidén séjénna, Hoover teu pati resep ka Eisenhower, manéhna nyalahkeun Eisenhower alatan gagalna dina ngabolaykeun New Deal.{{sfn|Leuchtenburg 2009|pp=158–159}} Kagiatan publik Hoover mantuan mulihkeun reputasina, kitu ogé carana anu sok ngagunakeun humor anu ngarendahkeun diri sorangan; manéhna sakapeung nyarita yén "Kuring téh hiji-hijina jalma pinunjul anu ngaranna kungsi dijadikeun ngaran déprési."{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=592}} Dina taun 1958, Kongrés ngaluarkeun [[Undang-Undang Tilas Présidén]], anu méré pénsiun taunan $25.000 (sarua jeung {{Inflation|US|25000|1958|fmt=eq}}) ka unggal tilas présidén.<ref name="Smith 2008">{{cite web |title=Former Presidents: Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits |date=March 18, 2008 |website=[[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-249.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120224024/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/98-249.pdf |archive-date=January 20, 2011 |access-date=November 18, 2008 |first=Stephanie |last=Smith }}</ref> Hoover nampa éta duit pénsiun sanajan manéhna teu butuh duitna, bisa jadi pikeun nyingkahan Truman ngarasa éra, sabab kaayaan kauangan Truman anu dikabarkan kurang hadé jadi salah sahiji pemicu disahkeunna éta undang-undang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Martin |first=Joseph William Jr. |author-link=Joseph William Martin Jr. |year=1960 |title=My First Fifty Years in Politics as Told to Robert J. Donovan |publisher=McGraw-Hill |page=249 }}</ref> Dina awal taun 1960-an, Présidén [[John F. Kennedy]] nawarkeun rupa-rupa posisi ka Hoover; Hoover nolak éta tawaran tapi manéhna ngabéla administrasi Kennedy sanggeus [[Invasi Teluk Babi]], [[Krisis Misil Kuba]], sarta manéhna ngarasa sedih pisan ku ayana [[pamaténian John F. Kennedy]] dina taun 1963.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=601}} Hoover nulis sababaraha buku salila mangsa pangsiunna, kaasup ''The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson'', dimana manéhna satékah polah ngabéla tindakan-tindakan Wilson dina Konférénsi Perdamaian Paris.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=571, 604–605}} Dina taun 1944, manéhna mimiti nulis ''Freedom Betrayed'', anu sering disebut ku manéhna salaku "[[magnum opus]]"-na. Dina ''Freedom Betrayed'', Hoover sacara keras ngritik [[Kawijakan luar nagri administrasi Franklin D. Roosevelt|kawijakan luar nagri Roosevelt]], utamana kaputusan Roosevelt pikeun ngaku ka Uni Soviét pikeun méré bantuan ka nagara éta salila Perang Dunya II.{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=606}} Ieu buku téh kakara dipublikasikeun dina taun 2012 sanggeus diédit ku sejarawan [[George H. Nash]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Yerxa|first=Donald A|title=Freedom Betrayed: An interview with George H. Nash about Herbert Hoover's Magnum Opus|journal=Historically Speaking|date=September 2012|volume=XIII| issue = 4}}</ref> === Pupusna sarta Umur Panjang === {{anchor|Death}} [[File:Herbert Hoover Presidential Library 009.jpg|thumb|right|Makam Herbert sarta [[Lou Henry Hoover]]]] Hoover nyanghareupan tilu panyakit utama salila dua taun pamungkas hirupna, kaasup operasi dina Agustus 1962 pikeun ngangkat sél nu tumuwuh dina [[Peujit gedé|peujit gedéna]].{{sfn|Whyte 2017|pp=606–607}}<ref name=Hoover90NYT>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/08/10/archives/hoover-marks-90th-year-today-predicts-new-gains-for-nation-because.html| title=Hoover Marks 90th Year Today; Predicts New Gains for Nation Because of Its Freedoms| newspaper=The New York Times| date=August 10, 1964| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Manéhna pupus di New York City dina 20 Oktober 1964, alatan ayana [[pendarahan internal]] anu hébat.<ref>{{Cite news| title=Herbert Hoover Is Dead; Ex-President, 90, Served Country in Varied Fields| last=Phillips| first=McCandlish| date=October 21, 1964|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0810.html| newspaper=[[The New York Times]] on the web| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref><ref name=bbupidan>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=FzxYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=aPcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1272%2C2733112 |via=[[The Bulletin (Bend)|''The Bulletin'']] |agency=United Press International |last=Justice |first=Charles J. |title=Ex-President Herbert Hoover dead at 90 |date=October 20, 1964 |page=1}}</ref><ref name=hdanali>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=wH1IAAAAIBAJ&sjid=g2wDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5537%2C2967559 |via=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |last=Everett |first=Arthur |title=Hoover dies at 90 after long illness |date=October 21, 1964 |page=1}}</ref> Sanajan kekecapan pamungkas anu diucapkeun ku Hoover teu kanyahoan, tulisan pamungkasna anu kanyahoan nyaéta pesen "get-well" pikeun sobatna, tilas Présidén Harry S. Truman, genep poé saméméh manéhna pupus, sanggeus manéhna ngadéngé yén Truman tatu alatan tiroseuleu di kamar mandi:<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mancini |first1=Mark |title=Harry Truman and Herbert Hoover: An Unlikely Friendship |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/52420/harry-truman-and-herbert-hoover-unlikely-friendship |website=Mentalfloss.org |date=August 30, 2013 |publisher=Mentalfloss |access-date=April 6, 2019}}</ref> {{blockquote|"Bak mandi téh mangrupa ancaman pikeun para tilas présidén, sakumaha anu meureun inget ku anjeun yén hiji bak mandi nangtang kuring sarta [[Parihna tulang tonggong|méréngpékkeun tulang tonggong]] kuring nalika kuring keur di [[Vénézuéla]] dina misi kalaparan dunya anjeun dina taun 1946. Simpati panghaneutna sarta harepan panghadéna ti kuring sangkan anjeun énggal damang."}} Dua bulan saméméhna dina 10 Agustus, Hoover nincak umur 90 taun,<ref name=bbaugtn>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=M_hYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TvcDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1352%2C5635225 |newspaper=The Bulletin |agency=United Press International |last=Wilson |first=Lyle |title=Hoover, 90 years today, wants no honors |date=August 10, 1964 |page=4}}</ref><ref name=pipgnin>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NtgNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yGwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7143%2C1046713 |via=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |agency=Associated Press |last=Daniell |first=Raymond |title=Hoover marking 90th birthday |date=August 10, 1964 |page=7}}</ref> manéhna jadi présidén AS kadua (sanggeus [[John Adams]]) anu nincak umur sakitu. Nalika ditanya kumaha parasaanana nalika nincak umur sakitu, Hoover ngajawab, "Teuing ku kolot."<ref name=Hoover90NYT/> Nalika pupusna, Hoover geus teu ngajabat salila leuwih ti 31 taun (sakabéhna {{age in days|1933|3|4|1964|10|20|format=commas}} poé). Ieu téh mangrupa mangsa pangsiun panglilana dina sajarah kapersidénan, ngalangkungan John Adams anu lilana 25 taun, nepi ka [[Jimmy Carter]] meupeuskeun éta rékor dina Séptémber 2012.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=John| last=Dillon| title=The Record-Setting Ex-Presidency of Jimmy Carter| url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/09/the-record-setting-ex-presidency-of-jimmy-carter/262143/| magazine=[[The Atlantic]]|date=September 9, 2012|access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Présidén [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] maréntahkeun sangkan bandera dikibarkeun satengah tihang sarta jadi salah sahiji ti 500 tamu anu diondang kana upacara pangureunan anu dilaksanakeun di [[Gereja Episkopal St. Bartholomew (Manhattan)|Gréja Épiskopal St. Bartholomew]]. Inohong séjénna anu hadir nyaéta tilas Wakil Présidén sarta bakal calon Présidén Richard Nixon, Perwakilan [[William E. Miller]], Gubernur [[Nelson Rockefeller]], tilas Gubernur Thomas E. Dewey, tilas Jaksa Agung [[Robert F. Kennedy]], tilas Menteri Pos [[James A. Farley]], Laksamana Muda [[Lewis L. Strauss]] sarta para Sénator [[Hubert Humphrey]], [[Barry Goldwater]], [[Kenneth Keating]], sarta [[Jacob Javits]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 23, 1964 |title=LEADERS ATTEND HOOVER FUNERAL |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/10/23/archives/leaders-attend-hoover-funeral-johnson-and-goldwater-join-city-in.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713124424/https://www.nytimes.com/1964/10/23/archives/leaders-attend-hoover-funeral-johnson-and-goldwater-join-city-in.html |archive-date=July 13, 2024 |access-date=October 30, 2025 |newspaper=The New York Times |pages=1 }}</ref> Hoover dipasihan panghormatan kalayan [[Pamulasaraan nagara di Amérika Sarikat|pamulasaraan nagara]] dimana layonna [[persemayaman|disemayamkeun]] di [[rotunda United States Capitol]].<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.aoc.gov/nations-stage/lying-state-honor| title=Lying in State or in Honor | publisher=Architect of the Capitol| location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Présidén Johnson sarta Ibu Nagara [[Lady Bird Johnson]] hadir, tapi tilas présidén Truman sarta Eisenhower duanana teu bisa hadir alatan nuju teu damang. Satuluyna, dina 25 Oktober, manéhna dikureubkeun di West Branch, Iowa, deukeut [[Perpustakaan sarta Muséum Présidén Herbert Hoover|perpustakaan présidénna]] sarta tempat lahirna di kawasan [[Situs Sajarah Nasional Herbert Hoover]]. Sanggeusna, pamajikan Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover, anu geus dikureubkeun di Palo Alto, California, sanggeus pupusna dina taun 1944, dipindahkeun pikeun dikureubkeun deui di gigireunana.<ref>{{cite web| title=Gravesite| website=nps.gov| url=https://www.nps.gov/heho/learn/historyculture/gravesite.htm| publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior| access-date=March 25, 2019}}</ref> Pamulasaraan nagara ieu téh mangrupa anu katilu dina jangka waktu dua belas bulan, sanggeus [[Pamulasaraan nagara John F. Kennedy|Présidén John F. Kennedy]] sarta [[Jéndral Besar]] [[Douglas MacArthur]]. [[Black Jack (kuda)|Black Jack]] nyaéta kuda tanpa nu tumpak (riderless horse) anu milu dina tilu upacara pamulasaraan éta.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} ==Warisan== === Reputasi sajarah === Hoover kacida teu dipikaresepna nalika manéhna ninggalkeun jabatan sanggeus pamilihan 1932, sarta reputasi sajarahna kakara mimiti pulih dina taun 1970-an. Nurutkeun Profésor David E. Hamilton, para sejarawan méré aprésiasi ka Hoover pikeun kapercayaanana anu tulus kana boluntarisme sarta gawé bareng, ogé inovasi dina sababaraha programna. Sanajan kitu, Hamilton ogé nyatet yén Hoover téh kurang tapis sacara pulitik sarta gagal mikawanoh parahna Déprési Gedé.{{sfn|Hamilton 2016}} [[Nicholas Lemann]] nulis yén Hoover geus diinget "salaku jalma anu kaku teuing sacara konservatif pikeun méré réaksi anu tapis kana Déprési, salaku lawan anu apes pikeun Franklin Roosevelt anu hébat, sarta salaku politisi anu hasil ngarobah nagara anu tadina pro-Républik jadi pro-Démokrat".<ref name="lemann">{{cite magazine |last1=Lemann |first1=Nicholas |title=Hating on Herbert Hoover |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/10/23/hating-on-herbert-hoover |access-date=February 18, 2019 |magazine=The New Yorker |date=October 23, 2017}}</ref> Poling ka para sejarawan sarta élmuwan pulitik umumna [[Peringkat sajarah présidén Amérika Sarikat|nempatkeun]] Hoover dina jajaran sapertilu panghandapna ti sakabéh présidén. Poling taun 2018 ti bagian Présidén sarta Pulitik Éksékutip [[Asosiasi Élmu Pulitik Amérika]] nempatkeun Hoover salaku présidén panghadéna ka-36.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Brandon|last1=Rottinghaus|first2=Justin S.|last2=Vaughn|title=How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=February 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190310203020/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/|archive-date=March 10, 2019}}</ref> Poling [[C-SPAN]] taun 2017 ka para sejarawan ogé nempatkeun Hoover salaku présidén panghadéna ka-36.<ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|website=[[C-SPAN]]|access-date=May 14, 2018}}</ref> Sanajan Hoover umumna dianggap boga mangsa kapersidénan anu gagal, manéhna ogé meunang pamuji pikeun tindakanana salaku kamanusaan sarta pajabat publik.<ref name="lemann"/> Panulis biografi Glen Jeansonne nulis dina taun 2016 yén Hoover téh "salah sahiji urang Amérika anu paling luar biasa dina jaman modéren," sarta nambahan yén Hoover "ngajalanan hirup anu jadi conto carita [[Horatio Alger]], iwal ti carita Horatio Alger mah eureun dina puncak kasuksésan".{{sfn|Jeansonne 2016|pp=1–2}} Panulis biografi [[Kenneth Whyte]] nulis yén, "pananya ngeunaan dimana posisi Hoover dina tradisi pulitik Amérika tetep jadi hal anu pinuh ku perdebatan nepi ka poé ieu. Sanajan manéhna écés maénkeun peran penting dina kamekaran tradisi progrésif sarta konservatif, duanana pihak moal daék ngaku ka manéhna alatan sieun kacampuran ku pihak séjénna."{{sfn|Whyte 2017|p=610}} Sejarawan [[Richard Pipes]], ngeunaan tindakanana nalika mingpin [[Administrasi Bantuan Amérika]], nyebutkeun: "Loba negarawan nempatan tempat anu nonjol dina sajarah alatan geus ngirim jutaan jalma kana pati; Herbert Hoover, anu dihina alatan kinerjana salaku Présidén, sarta geura dipopohokeun di Rusia, boga kaistiméwaan anu langka nyaéta geus nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa."<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Pipes|title=Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime|url=https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich|year=1993|publisher=Knopf|page=[https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich/page/421 419]}}</ref> ===Sawangan kana ras === Sanajan omongan sarta humor rasis téh umum dina mangsa harita, Hoover teu kungsi ngalakukeun hal éta nalika jadi présidén, sarta diskriminasi anu dihaja téh mangrupa hal anu [[Anatéma|paling dipantang]] ku manéhna. Saperti loba batur sapantaranna, Hoover nganggap urang bodas sacara alamiah leuwih unggul ti batan urang hideung, nganggap yén "percampuran getih téh ngarugi keun". Manéhna mikir yén atikan sarta pagawéan bakal ngaronjatkeun darajat urang hideung, ku kituna manéhna ngarojong [[Universitas Tuskegee|Institut Tuskegee]].<ref name="garcia"/> Pamajikanana, [[Lou Henry Hoover]], meupeuskeun batasan warna kulit salaku ibu nagara ku cara ngondang [[Jessie De Priest]], pamajikan anggota kongrés hideung munggaran anu kapilih sanggeus sababaraha dékadeu, kana [[Acara téh Jessie De Priest di Gedong Bodas|acara téh tradisional pikeun para pamajikan anggota kongrés]], ogé saterusna ngondang paduan sora Institut Tuskegee (anu harita dipingpin ku [[William L. Dawson (komponis)|William Dawson]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=William L. Dawson Tribute {{!}} Tuskegee University |url=https://www.tuskegee.edu/student-life/student-organizations/choir/william-l-dawson-tribute |website=www.tuskegee.edu |access-date=March 5, 2023}}</ref> Sanajan manéhna nganggap dirina salaku babaturan pikeun urang hideung sarta nu ngarojong kamajuan maranéhna,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jeansonne |first=G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQZfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT257 |title=The Life of Herbert Hoover: Fighting Quaker, 1928–1933 |date=April 3, 2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-11189-0}}</ref> loba urang hideung sapantaranna anu boga sawangan bédé. [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] ngagambarkeun Hoover salaku "rasis anu teu démokratis anu ningali urang hideung salaku spésiés 'sub-manusa'".<ref name="garcia">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.17077/0003-4827.8609| issn = 0003-4827| volume = 44| issue = 7| pages = 507–515| last = Garcia| first = George F.| title = Herbert Hoover and the Issue of Race| journal = The Annals of Iowa| access-date = May 11, 2019| date = 1979| url = https://pubs.lib.uiowa.edu/annals-of-iowa/article/id/3996/| doi-access = free}}</ref> Sababaraha sejarawan maluruh leungitna kapercayaan urang Amérika-Afrika ka partéy Républik téh dimimitian dina mangsa jabatanana, utamana alatan usahana pikeun nyingkirkeun urang Amérika-Afrika tina kapamingpinan partéy Républik di wilayah Kidul.<ref name="garcia"/> Mangsa Hoover di Cina ogé mangaruhan sawanganana ka urang Asia sarta urang Amérika-Asia. Manéhna nulis yén "euweuh pamanggih mékanis anu ngagejleugkeun dunya" anu asalna ti Cina, manéhna ngklaim yén ieu téh alatan urang Cina teu boga insting mékanis anu sarua jeung urang Éropa.<ref name="garcia" /> Hal ieu meureun mangaruhan kaputusanana pikeun ngurangan imigrasi ngaliwatan pangwatesan visa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Howard |first=Spencer |date=August 4, 2016 |title=Hoover on Immigration |url=https://hoover.blogs.archives.gov/2016/08/04/hoover-on-immigration/ |access-date=August 24, 2024 |publisher=[[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]]}}</ref> ==Dicutat Tina== {{reflist|2}} === Catetan === <references group="lower-alpha"/> [[Kategori:Présidén Amérika Sarikat]] 7767zskyz500jvu36d66ou6mft9603g