Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.18 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 23991 712530 690174 2026-09-05T17:43:31Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Islam}} '''Saom''' atawa '''Saum''' ([[Basa Arab]]: صوم) nyaéta kecap [[Basa Arab]] keur [[puasa]] nu diatur ku [[hukum Islam]]. Patukang tonggong jeung kapercayaan (non-Islam), ibadahna keur [[Muslim]] henteu diwatesan ku [[bulan suci Islam]] [[Ramadan]] wungkul. Dina bulan Romadon mah saum téh mangrupa salasiji tina [[Rukun Islam]].<ref name=”bin”/> == Etimologi == Kecap ''saom'' diturunkeun tina [[Basa Siriak]] ''sawmo''. <ref name=”bin”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.com/books/about/Memantaskan_Diri_Menyambut_Bulan_Ramadha.html?hl=id&id=xL1TDwAAQBAJ#v=onepage&q=ramadhan&f=false| title =Memantaskan Diri Menyambut Bulan Ramadhan: Panduan Lengkap Menyambut Bulan Ramadhan dari Sebelum Ramadhan Sampai Setelahnyabin Hashim, Profesor Emeritus Dato` Isahak Haron| last =bin Hashim, Profesor Emeritus Dato` Isahak Haron| first =Abu | publisher =Maryam Kautsar Amru| location =Jakarta, Indonesia | year =2016|ISBN=9786023850037|pages =20}} Disungsi1 April 2022</ref> Sacara literal, saom hartina 'pantrang'. Dina istilah hukum Islam, Saom hartina 'dipantrang tina dahar, nginum jeung [[sapatemon]] <ref>http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/fasting-in-quraan.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726113402/http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/fasting-in-quraan.htm |date=2009-07-26 }}</ref> === Basa séjén === Keur lolobana Muslim, [[Basa Arab]] lain mangrupa basa kahiji, ku kituna, Muslim di tempat éta maké kecap séjén keur nyebutkeun Saum gumantung kana perenah jeung basana. Contona, Muslim di [[Apganistan]], [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Bangladés]], jeung [[Pakistan]] maké kecap ''rozah'' nu asalna tina [[Basa Pérsia]]. Di [[Turki]], Saom disebut ''oruç'', sedengkeun dina komunitas [[Malayu]] di [[Malaysia]], dipaké kecap ''puasa'', nu asalna tina [[Basa Sangsakerta]], ''upvaasa''. ''Puasa'' dipaké ogé di [[Indonésia]] jeung [[Sunda]]. == Definisi == Muslim dipantrang pikeun dahar, nginum, ngaroko, sarta sapatemon ti mimiti medalna [[fajar]] ([[Subuh]]) nepi ka surupna [[panonpoé]] ([[Magrib]]). Puasa téh hakékatna dimaksudkeun pikeun maluruh deukeutna urang ka Gusti [[Alloh]] sarta nambahan katakwaan ka Mantenna. salah sahiji tujuan tina puasa ogé nyaéta keur ngarasakeun kumaha rasana jalma nu henteu untung nu henteu salawasna mibanda [[dahareun]] jeung [[inuman]] nu nyampak. Ogé, urang téh kudu ngajauhan gegelendeng sarta mikir pikiran-pikiran nu datangna ti [[sétan]]. Puasa ogé bisa ditingali minangka hiji jalan keur ngadalikeun hawa napsu (lapar, halabhab, sahwat, amarah) sarta leuwih museurkeun kana kataatan ka Pangéran. == Kondisi puasa == === Niat (''Niyyah'') === Sangkan sah puasana, dina mangsa munggaran arek ngalakukeun saom, kudu dipiheulaan ku niat (''niyyah''); hal ieu bisa dianggep minangka ngawangun hiji sumpah. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} <!-- ===Kondisi umum=== Salila dina ngalaksanakeun puasa ieu, Umat muslim bakal ngajauhan tina sagala rupa hal anu dilarang ku Pangéran; kayaning barang tuang, nginum, sapatemon mangsa beurang. This is in addition to the standard obligation already observed by Muslims of avoiding that which is not permissible under Qur'anic or Shari'ah law (e.g. ignorant and indecent speech, arguing and fighting, and lustful thoughts). Without observing this standard obligation, Sawm is rendered useless, and is seen simply as an act of starvation. Lamun aya nu gering, keur  nyusuan kitudeui mangsa iinditan jauh, dianggap dibebaskeun tina kawajiban puasa.  Numutkeun [[Al-Qur'an]], pikeun sadaya kaayaan séjén, henteu puasa ngan ukur diidinan nalika  éta kaayaan  ngabalukarjeun bahaya pikeun kaséhatan hiji jalma - contona;  jalma anu geus rémpo,  lemah teuing pikeun puasa anu waktosna  panjang, awéwé keur ngandeg. Niténan puasa henteu diidinan pikeun awéwé anu haid.  Sanajan kitu, lamun haid awéwé geus réngsé, manéhna kudu mandi jeung neruskeun puasana.  Puasa  anu teu dilakonan  kusabab haid tadi angger kudu  dicumponan, iraha waé nepika saméméh datangna [[Ramadhan]] deui.  Awéwé kudu puasa dina waktu teu datang haid, sakumaha Allah nunjukkeun yén sagala tugas agama wajib pikeun  lalaki jeung awéwé . ===Ngalanggar sumpah jeung konsekwensina=== During Ramadan, one who fasts and breaks the oath out of forgetfulness must nevertheless continue, since the fast will remain valid. If, however, one intentionally breaks the fast, by eating, drinking, or smoking,then they must continue for the rest of the day, add one day onto their fast and pay a "penalty'" (fidyah). A fidyah differ from schools of thought. In Malaysia however, a fidyah consists of the amount or rice equivalent of a meal. However if one intentionally breaks the fast by having sex (without breaking it first by other means such eating etc) a set of "penalty" (kaffarra)shall apply. These exist in three forms, of which the person chooses one: * Fasting for an extra 60 consecutive days, if he/she couldn't then; * Feeding and clothing 60 people in need, if he/she couldn't then; * Freeing a muslim slave. Penalties for voluntary fasts at other times of the year, are, however, more lenient; if an oath is given, and circumstances dictate that it be broken (or the one giving the oath deliberately breaks it), one needs to fast for three days consecutively if they cannot initially find 10 poor people to feed and provide clothing for (both of which are commanded before the act of fasting as a form of repentance). The penalties are harsher during Ramadan because all mentally able Muslims are expected to have an increased awareness of the fast at that time. ===Mimiti jeung ahirna puasa=== In accordance with traditions handed down from [[Muhammad]], Muslims eat a pre-dawn meal called the [[suhoor]]. All eating and drinking must be finished before sunrise. Unlike the [[Zuhr|Salat-ul-Zuhr]] and [[Maghrib|Salat-ul-Maghrib]] prayers, which have clear astronomical definitions (noon and sunset), there are several definitions used in practice for the timing of "true dawn" (''al-fajr as-sadq''), as mentioned in the [[hadith]]. These range from when the center of the sun is 12 to 21 degrees below the horizon [http://www.al-islam.org/beliefs/practices/fajr.html] which equates to about 40 to 60 minutes before civil dawn. There are no restrictions on the morning meal other than the [[Muslim dietary laws|restrictions on Muslims diet]]. After completing the suhoor, Muslims recite the [[fajr]] prayer. The meal eaten to end the fast is known as [[Iftar|''al-Iftar'']]. Many Muslims, following the Sunnah of the Prophet, break the fast with dates and water before praying [[Maghrib|Salat-ul-Maghrib]], after which they might eat a more wholesome meal. ==Kauntungan puasa== Fasting inculcates a sense of fraternity and solidarity, as Muslims will feel and experience that which their needy and hungry brothers and sisters feel; however, even the poor, needy, and hungry may participate in the fast. Moreover, Ramadan is a month of giving charity and sharing meals to break the fast together, the latter offering more reward than if eating alone. As briefly mentioned earlier, fasting can also be observed voluntarily (as part of the [[Jihad#Greater and lesser Jihad|Greater Jihad]] ): ''Sawm'' is intended to teach believers patience and self-control in their personal conduct, to help control passions and temper, to provide time for meditation and to strengthen one's faith. Fasting also serves the purpose of cleansing the inner soul and freeing it of harm. Most importantly, the fast is also seen as a great sign of obedience by the believer to Allah. Faithful observance of the ''Sawm'' is believed to atone for personal faults and misdeeds and to help earn a place in paradise. While fasting in the month of [[Ramadan]] is considered [[Fard]] (obligatory), Islam also prescribed certain days for non-obligatory, voluntary fasting, such as: *each Monday and Thursday of a week *the 13th, 14th, and 15th day of each lunar month *six days in the month of Shawwal (the month following Ramadan) *the Day of Arafat (9th of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic (Hijri) calendar) *the Day of Ashuraa (10th of Muharram in the Islamic (Hijri) calendar), with one more day of fasting before or after it --> == Wanci nu dipantrang pikeun puasa == {{section-stub}} Sanajan puasa téh mangrupa ibadah nu hadé dina Islam, aya sababaraha wanci nu dipantrang puasa keur urang, di antarana: * [['Idul Adha]] * [['Idul Fitri]] * Poé Tasrék (tanggal 11, 12 jeung 13 dina bulan [[Dzulhijjah]]). * Puasa teu beunang dina poé [[Jumaah]] lian ti bulan [[Romadon]], kajaba lamun dihijikeun jeung poé saméméhna atawa sangeusna. == Puasa dina Qur'an == * يٰأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ كُتِبَ عَلَيْكُمُ ٱلصِّيَامُ كَمَا كُتِبَ عَلَى ٱلَّذِينَ مِن قَبْلِكُمْ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَتَّقُونَ 'Héy jalma-jalma nu ariman, geus diwajibkeun puasa ka aranjeun sakumaha diwajibkeunnana keur jalma-jalma saméméh anjeun, sangkan anjeun tarakwa.' [Surat Al Baqoroh, 183] <!-- ==Fasting in other religions== [[Lent]] in [[Christianity]], [[Yom Kippur]], [[Tisha B'av]], [[Fast of Esther]], [[Fast of Gedalia|Tzom Gedalia]] and the [[Fast of the Firstborn]], all in [[Judaism]], are also times of fasting. In the Qur'an, in verse 183 of the second chapter (2:183), God says, "fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you." Nevertheless, the fasting practices are different from one another. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) generally fast for 24 hours on the first Sunday of each month. Like Muslims, they refrain from all drinking and eating unless they are children or are physically unable to fast. Fasting is also a feature of [[ascetic]] traditions in religions such as [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Members of the [[Baha'i Faith]] observe a [[Nineteen Day Fast]] from sunrise to sunset during March each year. --> == Tempo ogé == * [[Puasa]] * [[Saum Senén Kemis]] * [[Saum daud]] * [[Tzom]] (Yahudi) == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} == Tumbu luar == * {{en}} [http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/fasting-in-quraan.htm Puasa dina Qur'an] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726113402/http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/fasting-in-quraan.htm |date=2009-07-26 }} * {{en}} [http://abdurrahman.org/ramadhan/index.html Koleksi Artikel jeung BUku nu komprehensif ngeunaan puasa Romadon] * {{en}} [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Fast%20until%20the%20night%20%28Ramadan%29.html Esoteric view on sawm - fasting in Ramadan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250111115513/http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Fast%20until%20the%20night%20(Ramadan).html |date=2025-01-11 }} [[Kategori:Saum| ]] 4fvuwzxz8e7d1r5eq5i22w3n8becu1k 0 25308 712541 712445 2026-09-05T21:05:23Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712541 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:L-Ascorbic acid.svg|thumb|2-okso-L-tréo-héksono-1,4- lakton-2,3-énédiol<br> atawa (''R'')-3,4-dihidroksi-5-((''S'')- 1,2-dihidroksiétil)furan-2(5''H'')-on atawa nu kawentar vitamin C]] '''Vitamin C''' atawa '''<small>L</small>-askorbat''' téh hiji [[zat gizi ésénsial]] pikeun [[simian|primata luhur]] jeung sababaraha [[spésiés]] lianna. Askorbat perlu pikeun sababaraha rupa [[métabolismeu|réaksi métabolismeu]] dina sakabéh awak [[sato]] jeung [[tutuwuhan]] sarta [[biosintésis|dihasilkeun ku awak]] ampir sakabéh organismeu, iwal manusa jeung sababaraha [[primata]]. Ieu vitamin kawentar ku balukar tina kakuranganana: [[barusuh]] (skorbut)<ref name="UKFSA">{{cite web |url=http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=Food Standards Agency (UK) }}</ref><ref name="UMM">{{cite web |url=http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |title=Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date=April 2002 |author= |publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231142109/http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/VitaminCAscorbicAcidcs.html |date=2005-12-31 }}</ref><ref name="OSU">{{cite web |url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/|title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-07 |date=2006-01-31 |first=Jane, Ph.D. |last= Higdon|publisher=Oregon State University, Micronutrient Information Center}}</ref>. [[Farmakofor]] vitamin C téh [[ion]] askorbatna. Pikeun mahluk hirup, askorbat téh [[antioksidan]] anu naméngan awak tina [[setrés oksidatif]]<ref name="Padayatty">{{cite journal |author=Padayatty S, Katz A, Wang Y, Eck P, Kwon O, Lee J, Chen S, Corpe C, Dutta A, Dutta S, Levine M |title=Vitamin C as an antioxidant: evaluation of its role in disease prevention |url=http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=18-35 |year=2003 |pmid=12569111 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929003945/http://www.jacn.org/cgi/reprint/22/1/18.pdf |date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> sarta salaku [[kofaktor]] dina sababaraha réaksi [[énzim]]atik penting<ref name="UKFSA Risk" />. == Peran biologis == [[Gambar:L-ascorbic-acid-3D-balls.png|thumb|Modél 3D Vitamin C]] Vitamin C téh [[Énantiomér|<small>L</small>-énantiomér]] askorbat; énantiomér sabalikna, <small>D</small>-énantiomér, teu boga mangpaat fisiologis anu penting. Duanana mangrupa [[kiral (kimia)|kiral]] pikeun [[wangun molekul]] anu sarua. Nalika [[rédoks|ngaréduksi]], <small>L</small>-askorbat nu [[réduktor]] kuat téh bakal robah jadi bentuk kaoksidasi, [[asam dehidroaskorbat|<small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat]]<ref name="UKFSA Risk">{{cite web |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |title=Vitamin C – Risk Assessment |accessdate=2007-02-19 |publisher=UK Food Standards Agency }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129082537/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/evm_c.pdf |date=2007-11-29 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-dehidroaskorbat lajeng bisa diréduksi balik jadi <small>L</small>-askorbat aktif ku énzim jeung glutation<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione-ascorbic acid antioxidant system in animals |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=269 |issue=13 |pages=9397-400 |year=1994 |pmid=8144521 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914171031/http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/13/9397.pdf |date=2009-09-14 }}</ref>. <small>L</small>-askorbat téh [[asam gula]] [[asam lemah|lemah]] anu wangunna patali jeung [[glukosa]] nu sacara alami diciptakeun ngahiji jeung [[ion hidrogén]] ngabentuk [[assam askorbat]], atawa ngahiji jeung ion [[logam]] ngabentuk [[askorbat mineral]]. === Mangpaat === Pikeun manusa, vitamin C jétu pisan salaku [[antioksidan]], ngurangan [[setrés oksidatif]], salaku substrat [[peroksidaseu askorbat]]<ref name="OSU" />, ogé salaku [[kofaktor]] énzim dina [[biosintésis]] bahan-bahan biokimia penting. Vitamin C boga peran salaku [[donor éléktron]] pikeun dalapan énzim<ref>Levine M, Rumsey SC, Wang Y, Park JB, Daruwala R. Vitamin C. In Stipanuk MH (ed): "Biochemical and Physiological Aspects of Human Nutrition." Philadelphia: W B Saunders, kc. 541–567, 2000.</ref>: * Tilu énzim dina [[hidroksilasi]] [[kolagén]]<ref>Prockop DJ, Kivirikko KI: Collagens: molecular biology, diseases, and potentials for therapy. Annu Rev Biochem 64:403–434, 1995.</ref><ref>Peterkofsky B: Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 1135S–1140S, 1991.</ref><ref>Kivirikko KI, Myllyla R: Post-translational processing of procollagens. Ann N Y Acad Sci 460: 187–201, 1985.</ref>. Ieu réaksi nambahkeun [[Hidroksida|gugus hidroksil]] kana asam amino [[prolin]] atawa [[lisin]] dina molekul molekul (ngaliwatan [[hidroksilaseu prolil]] jeung [[hidroksilaseu lisil]]), antukna molekul kolagénna bisa ngabentuk wangun tripel héliks; ku kituna vitamin C jadi éséntial pikeun kamekarkeun jeung mulasara [[jaringan tatu]], [[saluran getih]], jeung kartilage<ref>McGee, William, M.D., M.H.A., Assistant Professor of Medicine and Surgery, Tufts University School of Medicine; [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Ascorbic acid]</ref>. * Dua énzim pikeun sintésis [[karnitin]]<ref>Rebouche CJ: Ascorbic acid and carnitine biosynthesis. Am J Clin Nutr 54:1147S–1152S, 1991.</ref><ref>Dunn WA, Rettura G, Seifter E, Englard S. Carnitine biosynthesis from gamma-butyrobetaine and from exogenous protein-bound 6-N-trimethyl-L-lysine by the perfused guinea pig liver. Effect of ascorbate deficiency on the in situ activity of gammabutyrobetaine hydroxylase. J Biol Chem 259:10764–10770, 1984.</ref>. Karnitin penting dina ngakut [[asam lemak]] ka [[mitokondria]] pikeun ngahasilkeun [[Adenosin trifosfat|ATP]]. * Anu tilu sésana nyaéta ** [[hidroksilaseu béta dopamin]] dina biosintésis [[norépinéfrin]] tina [[dopamin]]<ref>Levine M, Dhariwal KR, Washko P, Welch R, Wang YH, Cantilena CC, Yu R: Ascorbic acid and reaction kinetics in situ: a new approach to vitamin requirements. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) Spec No:169–172, 1992.</ref><ref>Kaufman S: Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase. J Psychiatr Res 11: 303–316, 1974.</ref>. ** énzim nu nambahkeun gugus [[amida]] ka [[hormon péptida]], antukna leuwih stabil<ref>Eipper BA, Milgram SL, Husten EJ, Yun HY, Mains RE: Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase: a multifunctional protein with catalytic, processing, and routing domains. Protein Sci 2:489–497, 1993.</ref><ref>Eipper BA, Stoffers DA, Mains RE: The biosynthesis of neuropeptides: peptide alpha-amidation. Annu Rev Neurosci 15:57–85, 1992.</ref>. ** énzim nu ngamodulasi métabolismeu [[tirosin]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Englard S, Seifter S |title=The biochemical functions of ascorbic acid |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_1986_6/page/365 |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=6 |issue= |pages=365-406 |year=1986 |pmid=3015170 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.06.070186.002053}}</ref><ref>Lindblad B, Lindstedt G, Lindstedt S: The mechanism of enzymic formation of homogentisate from p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. J Am Chem Soc 92:7446–7449, 1970.</ref>. [[Jaringan biologis]] anu ngagundukkeun vitamin C leuwih ti 100 kali kadarna dina plasma getih nyaéta [[kelenjar adrénal]], [[pituitari]], [[timus]], [[corpus luteum]], jeung [[rétina]]<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v8/n5/full/nm0502-445.html New view at C] Matthias A. Hediger , ''Nature Medicine'' 8, 445 - 446 (2002) doi:10.1038/nm0502-445 <blockquote>"''Plasma vitamin C concentrations are maintained between 10 and 160 μM, and any excess of the vitamin is excreted by the kidney. In contrast, the vitamin is concentrated to at least 100 times the plasma level in specific tissues such as the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thymus, retina, corpus luteum, and a variety of neuronal cell types.''"</blockquote></ref>. Nu ngagundukkeun antara 10 n.k. 50 kalina nyaéta [[otak]], [[limpa]], [[bayah]], [[téstis]], [[kelenjar limfe]], [[ati]], [[tiroid]], [[mémbran mukosa|mukosa]] [[usus leutik]], [[leukosit]], [[pangkréas]], [[ginjal]], jeung [[kelenjar ciduh]].<!-- === Biosynthesis === [[Image:Ascorbic-acid-3D-vdW.png|thumb|200px|left|Model of a vitamin C [[molecule]]. Black is [[carbon]], red is [[oxygen]], and white is [[hydrogen]]]] The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize their own vitamin C, through a sequence of four [[enzyme]]-driven steps, which convert [[glucose]] to vitamin C.<ref name="UKFSA Risk" /> The glucose needed to produce ascorbate in the liver (in [[mammals]] and [[perching birds]]) is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bánhegyi G, Mándl J |title=The hepatic glycogenoreticular system |journal=Pathol Oncol Res |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=107-10 |year=2001 |pmid=11458272}}</ref> In [[reptiles]] and [[birds]] the biosynthesis is carried out in the [[kidney]]s. Among the animals that have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C are [[simian]]s, [[guinea pig]]s, the [[red-vented bulbul]],and [[Megabat|fruit-eating bats]].<ref name=" UKFSA Risk"/> Most notably, humans have no capability to manufacture vitamin C. The cause of this phenomenon is that the last enzyme in the synthesis process, [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], cannot be made by the listed animals because the gene for this enzyme, [[Pseudogene]] ΨGULO, is defective.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ascorbic Acid: Subcellular Biochemistry | url = https://archive.org/details/subcellularbioch0025unse | author = Harris, J. Robin | publisher = Springer | isbn = 0306451484 | year = 1996 | pages = p. 35}}</ref> The [[mutation]] has not been lethal because vitamin C is abundant in their food sources, with many of these species' natural diets consisting largely of fruit. Most [[simian]]s consume the vitamin in amounts 10 to 20 times higher than that recommended by governments for humans.<ref>Milton, K. (1999) "Nutritional characteristics of wild primate foods: do the diets of our closest living relatives have lessons for us?" Nutrition. 1999 Jun;15(6):488-98.</ref> This discrepancy constitutes the basis of the controversy on current recommended dietary allowances (see [[Vitamin C#Evolutionary_rationales|Vitamin C as a macronutrient - Evolutionary rationales]]). It has been noted that the loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down [[uric acid]]. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong [[reducing agent]]s. This has led to the suggestion that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Proctor P |title=Similar functions of uric acid and ascorbate in man? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1970-11-28_228_5274/page/868 |journal=Nature |volume=228 |issue=5274 |pages=868 |year=1970 |pmid=5477017|doi=10.1038/228868a0}}</ref> Ascorbic acid can be [[oxidised]] (broken down) in the human body by the enzyme [[ascorbic acid oxidase]]. An adult [[goat]], a typical example of a vitamin C-producing animal, will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and the biosynthesis will increase "many fold under stress".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/197x/stone-i-orthomol_psych-1979-v8-n2-p58.htm |title=Eight Decades of Scurvy. The Case History of a Misleading Dietary Hypothesis |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last=Stone |first=Irwin |authorlink=Irwin Stone |coauthors= |date=July 16, 1978 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=''Biochemical research in the 1950’s showed that the lesion in scurvy is the absence of the enzyme, L-Gulonolactone oxidase (GLO) in the human liver (Burns, 1959). This enzyme is the last enzyme in a series of four which converts blood sugar, glucose, into ascorbate in the mammalian liver. This liver metabolite, ascorbate, is produced in an unstressed goat for instance, at the rate of about 13,000 mg per day per 150 pounds body weight (Chatterjee, 1973). A mammalian feedback mechanism increases this daily ascorbate production many fold under stress (Subramanian et al., 1973)}}</ref> Trauma or injury has also been demonstrated to also use up large quantities of vitamin C in humans.<ref>{{cite journal| author = C. Long, et al. | title = Ascorbic acid dynamics in the seriously ill and injured. | journal = Journal of Surgical Research | volume = 109 | issue = 2 | pages= 144–148| doi = 10.1016/S0022-4804(02)00083-5 }} <blockquote>"''Our results show that plasma ascorbic acid levels following trauma and during infection are extremely low and are not normalized with 300 or even 1000 mg/day supplemented TPN.''"</blockquote></ref> Some [[microorganism]]s such as the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' have been shown to be able to synthesize vitamin C from [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]].<ref name="yeastAA">{{cite web |url=http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/publications/annualreports/02Indiv/20Ascorb.pdf |title=Ascorbic acid biosynthesis in higher plants and micro-organisms |accessdate=2007-02-20||author=R.D. Hancock & R. Viola |publisher=Scottish Crop Research Institute}} <blockquote>"''Our results demonstrate that yeast cells are capable of direct fermentation of <small>L</small>-galactose to <small>L</small>-AA. However, given that <small>L</small>-galactose is an extremely rare and expensive sugar a process using <small>L</small>-galactose as a starting material could never be economical. In order to overcome this problem, we are currently developing new yeast strains with extended metabolic competence for the synthesis of <small>L</small>-galactose directly from inexpensive substrates.''"</blockquote> </ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=|title=Biosynthesis of <small>L</small>-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) by Saccharomyces cerevisiae |accessdate=2007-02-19 |journal=FEMS Microbiol Lett.|volume=186|issue=2|pages=245-50|author=Hancock RD, Galpin JR, Viola R.|pmid=10802179}}</ref> === Deficiency === [[Scurvy]] is an [[avitaminosis]] resulting from lack of vitamin C, as without this vitamin, the synthesised [[collagen]] is too unstable to meet its function. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all [[mucous membrane]]s. The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, [[suppuration|suppurating wounds]] and loss of [[teeth]] and, eventually, death. The human body can store only a certain amount of vitamin C.,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002404.htm |title=Vitamin C |accessdate=2007-03-09 |date=[[2007-01-02]] |first=William |last =McGee |publisher=National Institutes of Health }}</ref> and so the body soon depletes itself if fresh supplies are not consumed. === Discovery of ascorbic acid === [[Image:GyorgyiNIH.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Albert Szent-Györgyi, pictured here in 1948, was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for the discovery of vitamin C]] In 1912, the [[Polish-American]] biochemist [[Casimir Funk]], while researching deficiency diseases, developed the concept of [[vitamins]] to refer to the nutrients which are essential to health. Then, from 1928 to 1933, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] research team of [[Joseph L Svirbely]] and [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] and, independently, the [[United States|American]] [[Charles Glen King]], first isolated vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid. For this, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pitt.edu/history/1932.html |title=Pitt History - 1932: Charles Glen King |accessdate=2007-02-21 |quote=In recognition of this medical breakthrough, some scientists believe that King deserved a Nobel Prize. |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh]] }}</ref> In 1928 the Arctic anthropologist [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] attempted to prove his theory of how the [[Eskimo]]s are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet, despite the disease striking European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the natives get their vitamin C from fresh meat that is minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an exclusively minimally-cooked meat diet while under medical supervision; they remained healthy. Between 1933 and 1934, the British chemists Sir [[Walter Norman Haworth]] and Sir [[Edmund Hirst]] and, independently, the Polish chemist [[Tadeus Reichstein]], succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass-production of vitamin C. Only Haworth was awarded the 1937 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for this work, but the process for vitamin C retained Reichstein's name. In 1934 [[Hoffmann–La Roche]] became the first pharmaceutical company to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of [[Redoxon]]. In 1957 the American [[J.J. Burns]] showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their [[liver]] to produce the active [[enzyme]] [[L-gulonolactone oxidase|<small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase]], which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize vitamin C.<ref>Burns, J. J., and Evans, C., J. Biol. Chem., 200, 125 (1953).</ref><ref>Burns, J. J., Peyser, P., and Maltz, A., Science, 124, 1148 (1956).</ref> American biochemist [[Irwin Stone]] was the first to exploit vitamin C for its food preservative properties. He later developed the theory that humans possess a mutated form of the <small>L</small>-gulonolactone oxidase coding gene. == Daily requirements == The [[North America]]n [[Dietary Reference Intake]] recommends 90 [[orders of magnitude (mass)|milligram]]s per day and no more than 2 grams per day (2000 milligrams per day).<ref name="US RDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/296/webtablevitamins.pdf |title=US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) |accessdate=2007-02-19 |date= |author= |publisher= }}</ref> Other related species sharing the same inability to produce vitamin C and requiring exogenous vitamin C consume 20 to 80 times this reference intake.<ref name="Primates"/><ref name="paulingevolution"/> There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.<ref name="PR Newswire">{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/07-06-2004/0002204911 |title=Linus Pauling Vindicated; Researchers Claim RDA For Vitamin C is Flawed |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[6 July]], [[2004]] |publisher=PR Newswire }}</ref> It is generally agreed that a balanced diet without supplementation contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy in an average healthy adult, while those who are pregnant, smoke tobacco, or are under stress require slightly more.<ref name="US RDA" /> High doses (thousands of milligrams) may result in [[diarrhea]]. Proponents of alternative medicine (specifically [[orthomolecular medicine]])<ref name="Cathcart">{{cite web |url=http://www.orthomed.com/titrate.htm |title=Vitamin C, Titrating To Bowel Tolerance, [[Anascorbemia]], and Acute Induced Scurvy |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=1994 |first=Robert |last= Cathcart |authorlink=Robert Cathcart |publisher=Orthomed }}</ref> claim the onset of [[diarrhea]] to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. Both Cathcart<ref name="Cathcart"/> and Cameron have hypothesized that very [[sick]] [[patients]] with [[cancer]] or [[influenza]] do not display any evidence of [[diarrhea]] at all until ascorbate intake reaches levels as high as 200 [[grams]] (nearly half a pound). == Vitamin C as a macronutrient == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of vitamin C, promoting a great deal of added benefits. Drawing on a wide, <ref name="seanet">[http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ Ascorbate web] An historical compendium of 20th-Century medical & scientific literature attesting to the efficacy of Ascorbate</ref> but still inconclusive, body of evidence as to the benefits beyond those dosages recommended in the Dietary Reference Intakes, many pro-vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current [[Dietary Reference Intake]]. The movement is led by scientists and doctors such as Robert Cathcart, [[Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron]], [[Steve Hickey]], [[Irwin Stone]] and the twice [[Nobel Prize]] laureate [[Linus Pauling]] and the more controversial [[Matthias Rath]]. There is some scientific literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations.<ref name="PR Newswire"/><ref>{{cite journal |author = Forman, Robert |year=1981 |title=Medical Resistance To Innovation |journal=Medical Hypotheses |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=1009-1017 |url=http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/198x/forman-r-med_hypotheses-1981-v7-n8-p1009.htm |accessdate=2007-02-23 }}</ref> The [[biological halflife]] for vitamin C is fairly short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which high dose advocates say that mainstream researchers have failed to take into account. Researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] decided upon the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. == Therapeutic uses == {{main|Vitamin C megadosage|Megavitamin therapy|Orthomolecular medicine}} Since its discovery vitamin C has been considered by some enthusiastic proponents a "[[panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]", although this led to suspicions by others of it being over-hyped.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/kansa/vk/hemila/dovitami.pdf |title=Do vitamins C and E affect respiratory infections? |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=January 2006 |author=Hemilä, Harri |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] | format = PDF}}</ref> Other proponents of high dose vitamin C consider that if it is given "in the right form, with the proper technique, in frequent enough doses, in high enough doses, along with certain additional agents and for a long enough period of time,"<ref>{{cite book | last = Levy | first= Thomas E. | authorlink = Thomas E. Levy | title = Curing the Incurable: Vitamin C, Infectious Diseases, and Toxins | url = https://archive.org/details/curingincurablev0000levy_z9x7 | edition = | publisher = Livon Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 1-4010-6963-0 | pages = p. 36}}</ref> it can prevent and, in many cases, cure, a wide range of common and/or lethal diseases, notably the [[common cold]] and [[heart disease]],<ref>Rath MW, Pauling LC. {{US patent|5278189}} Prevention and treatment of occlusive cardiovascular disease with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein(a). USPTO. 11 Jan 1994.</ref> although the NIH considers there to be "fair scientific evidence against this use."<ref>{{cite web | title = Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | work = MedLine Plus | publisher = National Institute of Health | date = [[2006-08-01]] | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitaminc.html | accessdate = 2007-08-03 }}</ref> Some proponents issued controversial statements involving it being a cure for [[AIDS]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200605220885.html |title=Nigeria: Vitamin C Can Suppress HIV/Aids Virus |accessdate=2006-06-16 |date=[[2006-05-22]] |author= |publisher=allAfrica.com }}</ref> [[H5N1|bird flu]], and [[SARS]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hemilä H |title=Vitamin C and SARS coronavirus |journal=J Antimicrob Chemother |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=1049-50 |year=2003 |pmid=14613951 |url=http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/52/6/1049}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/aids/story/0,7369,1483821,00.html |title=Discredited doctor's 'cure' for Aids ignites life-and-death struggle in South Africa | accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=[[2005-05-14]] |author= Boseley, Sarah | publisher = [[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/THE_FOUNDATION/openletter_20060407.htm |title=Open letter from Dr. Matthias Rath MD to German Chancellor Merkel |accessdate=2007-02-21 |date=2005 |author=Rath, Matthias |publisher=Dr. Rath Health Foundation }}</ref> Probably the most controversial issue, the putative role of ascorbate in the management of AIDS, is still unresolved, more than 16 years after the landmark study published in the [[Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences]] (USA) showing that non toxic doses of ascorbate suppress [[HIV]] replication ''in vitro''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R, Pauling L |title=Suppression of human immunodeficiency virus replication by ascorbate in chronically and acutely infected cells |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=87 |issue=18 |pages=7245-9 |year=1990 |pmid=1698293}}</ref> Other studies expanded on those results, but still, no large scale trials have yet been conducted.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Comparative study of the anti-HIV activities of ascorbate and thiol-containing reducing agents in chronically HIV-infected cells |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume=54 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1231S-1235S |year=1991 |pmid=1720598}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=NF-kappa B-independent suppression of HIV expression by ascorbic acid |journal=AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=235-9 |year=1997 |pmid=9115810}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harakeh S, Jariwalla R |title=Ascorbate effect on cytokine stimulation of HIV production |journal=Nutrition |volume=11 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=684-7 |year= |pmid=8748252}}</ref> In an animal model of lead intoxication, vitamin C demonstrated "protective effects" on lead-induced nerve and muscle abnormalities<ref name="pmid12818354">{{cite journal |author=Hasan MY, Alshuaib WB, Singh S, Fahim MA |title=Effects of ascorbic acid on lead induced alterations of synaptic transmission and contractile features in murine dorsiflexor muscle |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_life-sciences_2003-07-11_73_8/page/1017 |journal=Life Sci. |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=1017-25 |year=2003 |pmid=12818354 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> In smokers, blood lead levels declined by an average of 81% when supplemented with 1000 mg of vitamin C, while 200 mg were ineffective, suggesting that vitamin C [[Dietary supplement|supplement]]s may be an "economical and convenient" approach to reduce lead levels in the blood.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dawson E, Evans D, Harris W, Teter M, McGanity W |title=The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=166-70 |year=1999 |pmid=10204833}}</ref> The [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] published a study which concluded, based on an analysis of blood lead levels in the subjects of the Third ''National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey'', that the independent, inverse relationship between lead levels and vitamin C in the blood, if causal, would "have public health implications for control of lead toxicity".<ref name="pmid10386552">{{cite journal |author=Simon JA, Hudes ES |title=Relationship of ascorbic acid to blood lead levels |journal=JAMA |volume=281 |issue=24 |pages=2289-93 |year=1999 |pmid=10386552 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> Vitamin C has limited popularity as a treatment for [[autism spectrum]] symptoms. A 1993 study of 18 children with ASD found some symptoms reduced after treatment with vitamin C,<ref name="pmid8255984">{{cite journal |author=Dolske MC, Spollen J, McKay S, Lancashire E, Tolbert L |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> but these results have not been replicated.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |year= 2005 |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |pages= 131–42 |title= Novel treatments for autistic spectrum disorders |author= Levy SE, Hyman SL |doi= 10.1002/mrdd.20062 |pmid= 15977319}}</ref> Small clinical trials have found that vitamin C might improve the [[sperm count]], sperm motility, and sperm morphology in infertile men<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akmal M, Qadri J, Al-Waili N, Thangal S, Haq A, Saloom K |title=Improvement in human semen quality after oral supplementation of vitamin C |journal=J Med Food |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=440-2 |year=2006 |pmid=17004914}}</ref>, or improve immune function related to the prevention and treatment of [[Senescence-associated diseases|age-associated diseases]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=de la Fuente M, Ferrández M, Burgos M, Soler A, Prieto A, Miquel J |title=Immune function in aged women is improved by ingestion of vitamins C and E |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-physiology-and-pharmacology_1998-04_76_4/page/373 |journal=Can J Physiol Pharmacol |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=373-80 |year=1998 |pmid=9795745}}</ref> However, to date, no large clinical trials have verified these findings. A preliminary study published in the Annals of Surgery found that the early administration of antioxidant supplementation using α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid reduces the incidence of organ failure and shortens ICU length of stay in this cohort of critically ill surgical patients.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nathens A, Neff M, Jurkovich G, Klotz P, Farver K, Ruzinski J, Radella F, Garcia I, Maier R |title=Randomized, prospective trial of antioxidant supplementation in critically ill surgical patients |journal=Ann Surg |volume=236 |issue=6 |pages=814-22 |year=2002 |pmid=12454520 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1422648}}</ref> More research on this topic is pending. Dehydroascorbic acid, the main form of oxidized Vitamin C in the body, was shown to reduce neurological deficits and mortality following [[stroke]], due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, while "the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) or vitamin C does not penetrate the blood-brain barrier".<ref name="ascorBBB"> {{cite journal |author=Huang J, Agus DB, Winfree CJ, Kiss S, Mack WJ, McTaggart RA, Choudhri TF, Kim LJ, Mocco J, Pinsky DJ, Fox WD, Israel RJ, Boyd TA, Golde DW, Connolly ES Jr. |title=Dehydroascorbic acid, a blood-brain barrier transportable form of vitamin C, mediates potent cerebroprotection in experimental stroke |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/20/11720 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=20 |pages=11720-11724 |year=2001 |pmid=11573006}}</ref> In this study published by the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in 2001, the authors concluded that such "a pharmacological strategy to increase cerebral levels of ascorbate in stroke has tremendous potential to represent the timely translation of basic research into a relevant therapy for thromboembolic stroke in humans". No such "relevant therapies" are available yet and no clinical trials have been planned. In January 2007 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved a Phase I toxicity trial to determine the safe dosage of intravenous vitamin C as a possible cancer treatment for "patients who have exhausted all other conventional treatment options."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news87833644.html |title=FDA OKs vitamin C trial for cancer |accessdate=2007-04-06 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=January 12, 2007 |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=[[Physorg.com]] |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=Federal approval of a clinical trial on intravenous vitamin C as a cancer treatment lends credence to alternative cancer care, U.S. researchers said.}}</ref> Additional studies over several years would be needed to demonstrate whether it is effective.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00441207?order=1 |title=Study of High-Dose Intravenous (IV) Vitamin C Treatment in Patients With Solid Tumors |accessdate=August 2, 2007 |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=The primary purpose of this study is to evaluate the safety and tolerability of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) given by injection into the vein. The second and third purpose of conducting this study is to observe any evidence of tumor response to the vitamin C and compare the level of fatigue (weakness), pain control, ability to do things, and quality of life, before and after vitamin C is given. (Phase I)|}}</ref> In February 2007, an uncontrolled study of 39 terminal cancer patients showed that, on subjective questionnaires, patients reported an improvement in health, cancer symptoms, and daily function after administration of high-dose intravenous vitamin C.<ref name="pmid17297243">{{cite journal |author=Yeom CH, Jung GC, Song KJ |title=Changes of terminal cancer patients' health-related quality of life after high dose vitamin C administration |journal=J. Korean Med. Sci. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=7-11 |year=2007 |pmid=17297243 |doi= |accessdate=2007-08-03}}</ref> The authors concluded that "''Although there is still controversy regarding anticancer effects of vitamin C, the use of vitamin C is considered a safe and effective therapy to improve the quality of life of terminal cancer patients''". == Adverse effects == While being harmless in most typical quantities, as with all substances to which the human body is exposed, vitamin C can still cause harm under certain conditions. === Common side-effects === Relatively large doses of vitamin C may cause [[indigestion]], particularly when taken on an empty stomach. When taken in large doses, vitamin C causes [[diarrhea]]. In one trial, doses up to 6 grams of ascorbic acid were given to 29 infants, 93 children of preschool and school age, and 20 adults for more than 1400 days. With the higher doses, toxic manifestations were observed in five adults and four infants. The signs and symptoms in adults were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, flushing of the face, headache, fatigue and disturbed sleep. The main toxic reactions in the infants were skin rashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je20.htm |title=Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents |accessdate=2007-04-13 |date=4 July 1973 |author= |publisher=World Health Organization }}</ref> === Possible side-effects === As vitamin C enhances iron absorption<ref name="pmid12450906">{{cite journal | author = Fleming DJ, Tucker KL, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Wilson PW, Wood RJ | title = Dietary factors associated with the risk of high iron stores in the elderly Framingham Heart Study cohort | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 76 | issue = 6 | pages = 1375-84 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12450906 | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/6/1375?ijkey=6566b8c0d5c56a4d01b961794eb78aff12b1c135&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha}}</ref>, [[iron poisoning]] can become an issue to people with rare [[iron overload disorder]]s, such as [[haemochromatosis]]. A genetic condition that results in inadequate levels of the enzyme [[glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] (G6PD), can cause sufferers to develop [[hemolytic anemia]] after ingesting specific oxidizing substances, such as very large dosages of vitamin C.<ref name="pmid11124756">{{cite journal | author = Cook JD, Reddy MB | title = Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2001-01_73_1/page/93 | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 93-8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11124756 | url http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/1/93?ijkey=eecc6c6024033b1dedbf32dd717cc5e08fd61f93&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha= }}</ref> For decades, large doses of vitamin C have been speculated to trigger [[oxalate]] formation and increase absorption of dietary oxalate, possibly causing [[kidney stone]]s.<ref name="pmid15987848">{{cite journal | author = Massey LK, Liebman M, Kynast-Gales SA | title = Ascorbate increases human oxaluria and kidney stone risk | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2005-07_135_7/page/1673 | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 135 | issue = 7 | pages = 1673-7 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15987848 | doi = }}</ref> However, this speculation may not be justified since there is no clear relationship between excess [[ascorbic acid]] intake and [[kidney stone]] formation. <ref name="pmid14498993">{{cite journal | author = Naidu KA | title = Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview. | journal = J. Nutr. | volume = 2 | issue 7 | year = 2003 | pages = | pmid = 14498993 | doi = }}</ref> During the first month of pregnancy, high doses of vitamin C may suppress the production of [[progesterone]] from the [[corpus luteum]].<ref name="pmid4467736">{{cite journal | author = Ovcharov R, Todorov S | title = [The effect of vitamin C on the estrus cycle and embryogenesis of rats] | language = Bulgarian | journal = Akusherstvo i ginekologii͡a | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 191-5 | year = 1974 | pmid = 4467736 | doi = }}</ref> Progesterone, necessary for the maintenance of a pregnancy, is produced by the corpus luteum for the first few weeks, until the placenta is developed enough to produce its own source. By blocking this function of the corpus luteum, high doses of vitamin C (1000+ mg) is theorized to induce an early miscarriage. In a group of spontaneously aborting women at the end of the first trimester, the mean values of vitamin C were significantly higher in the aborting group. However, the authors point out that this relationship may not necessarily be a causal one.<ref name="pmid988001">{{cite journal | author = Vobecky JS, Vobecky J, Shapcott D, Cloutier D, Lafond R, Blanchard R | title = Vitamins C and E in spontaneous abortion | journal = International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift für Vitamin- und Ernährungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition | volume = 46 | issue = 3 | pages = 291-6 | year = 1976 | pmid = 988001 | doi = }}</ref> === Chance of overdose === As discussed previously, vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. The [[LD50|LD₅₀]] (the dose that will kill 50% of a population) in rats is generally accepted to be 11.9 grams per kilogram when taken orally.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |url=http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html |title=Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid |accessdate= 2007-02-21 |date= [[2005-10-09]] | publisher= [[Oxford University]] }}</ref> The LD₅₀ in humans remains unknown, owing to [[medical ethics]] that preclude experiments which would put patients at risk of harm. However, as with all substances tested in this way, the LD₅₀ is taken as a guide to its toxicity in humans and no data to contradict this has been found. == Natural and artificial dietary sources == [[Image:Rosa canina hips.jpg|right|thumb|[[Rose hips]] are a particularly rich source of vitamin C]] The richest natural sources are fruits and vegetables, and of those, the [[camu camu]] fruit and the [[Kakadu plum]] contain the highest concentration of the vitamin. It is also present in some cuts of meat, especially liver. Vitamin C is the most widely taken [[nutritional supplement]] and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, crystals in capsules or naked crystals. Vitamin C is absorbed by the intestines using a sodium-ion dependent channel. It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms. The presence of large quantities of sugar either in the intestines or in the blood can slow absorption.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wilson JX |title=Regulation of vitamin C transport |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=25 |issue= |pages=105-25 |year=2005 |pmid=16011461 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092647}}</ref> === Plant sources === While plants are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on: the precise variety of the plant, the soil condition, the climate in which it grew, the length of time since it was picked, the storage conditions, and the method of preparation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uk.foedevarestyrelsen.dk/Nutrition/Vitamin_mineral_content_is_stable/forside.htm |title=The vitamin and mineral content is stable |accessdate=2007-03-07 |publisher=Danish Veterinary and Food Administration }}</ref> === Animal sources === [[Image:Goat.jpg|thumb|300px|Goats, like almost all animals, make their own vitamin C. An adult goat will manufacture more than 13,000 mg of vitamin C per day in normal health and levels manyfold higher when faced with stress.]] The overwhelming majority of species of animals and plants synthesise their own vitamin C, making some, but not all, animal products, sources of dietary vitamin C. Vitamin C is most present in the liver and least present in the muscle. Since muscle provides the majority of meat consumed in the western human diet, animal products are not a reliable source of the vitamin. Vitamin C is present in [[Breastfeeding#Benefits|mother's milk]] and, in lower amounts, in [[Milk#Nutritional benefits|raw cow's milk]], with [[pasteurized milk]] containing only trace amounts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saanendoah.com/compare.html |title= Comparing Milk: Human, Cow, Goat & Commercial Infant Formula |accessdate=2007-02-28 |date=8 January 2007 |first=Stephanie, Ph. D | last= Clark |publisher=[[Washington State University]] }}</ref> All excess Vitamin C is disposed of through the urinary system. === Food preparation === Vitamin C [[chemical decomposition|chemically decomposes]] under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Normally, boiling water at 100°C is not hot enough to cause any significant destruction of the nutrient, which only decomposes at 190°C, <ref name="Oxford"/> despite popular opinion. However, [[pressure cooking]], roasting, frying and [[grilling]] food is more likely to reach the [[decomposition temperature]] of vitamin C. Longer cooking times also add to this effect, as will copper food vessels, which [[catalyse]] the decomposition.<ref name="Oxford"/> Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is [[leaching]], where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C doesn't leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows [[broccoli]] seems to retain more than any other.<ref name=Combs>Combs GF. The Vitamins, Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001:245–272</ref> Research has also shown that fresh-cut fruit don't lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/123/115022.htm |title=Fresh-Cut Fruit May Keep Its Vitamins |accessdate=2007-02-25 |date=2 June 2006 |first=Miranda |last=Hitti |publisher=WebMD }}</ref> === Vitamin C supplements === [[Image:RedoxonVitaminC.jpg|thumb|right|Vitamin C is widely available in the form of tablets and powders. The [[Redoxon]] brand, launched in 1934 by [[Hoffmann-La Roche]], was the first mass-produced synthetic vitamin C.]] Vitamin C is the most widely taken dietary supplement.<ref> [http://www.thedietchannel.com/Vitamin-C.htm The Diet Channel] Vitamin C might be the most widely known and most popular vitamin purchased as a supplement.</ref> It is available in many forms including caplets, tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin formulations, in multiple antioxidant formulations, and crystalline powder. Timed release versions are available, as are formulations containing [[bioflavonoids]] such as quercetin, hesperidin and rutin. Tablet and capsule sizes range from 25 mg to 1500 mg. Vitamin C (as ascorbic acid) crystals are typically available in bottles containing 300 g to 1 kg of powder (a teaspoon of vitamin C crystals equals 5,000 mg). === Artificial modes of synthesis === Vitamin C is produced from [[glucose]] by two main routes. The [[Tadeusz Reichstein|Reichstein process]], developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] process, originally developed in [[China]] in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/2001/fulltext/456a4.2.pdf |title=The production of vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=2001 |publisher=Competition Commission }}</ref> Research is underway at the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]] in the interest of creating a strain of yeast that can synthesise vitamin C in a single fermentation step from [[galactose]], a technology expected to reduce manufacturing costs considerably.<ref name="yeastAA" /> World production of synthesised vitamin C is currently estimated at approximately 110,000 tonnes annually. Main producers today are [[BASF]]/[[Takeda Chemical Industries|Takeda]], [[DSM (company)|DSM]], [[Merck KGaA|Merck]] and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd. of the [[People's Republic of China]]. China is slowly becoming the major world supplier as its prices undercut those of the US and European manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?n=63349-dsm-vitamin-c |title=DSM makes last stand against Chinese vitamin C |accessdate=2007-02-20 |date=[[2005-10-20]] |first=Dominique |last=Patton |publisher=nutraingredients }}</ref> --> == Rujukan == *''[[:en:Vitamin C|Vitamin C]]''. Wikipédia basa Inggris (5 Dés. 2007). {{Reflist|2}} == Bacaan salajengna == ;Jurnal * {{cite journal |author=Dolske, M.C., et al. |title=A preliminary trial of ascorbic acid as supplemental therapy for autism |journal=Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=765-74 |year=1993 |pmid=8255984 |doi=}} * {{cite journal |author=Green VA, Pituch KA, Itchon J, Choi A, O'Reilly M, Sigafoos J |title=Internet survey of treatments used by parents of children with autism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-developmental-disabilities_january-february-2006_27_1/page/70 |journal=Research in developmental disabilities |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=70-84 |year=2006 |pmid=15919178 |doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.002}} ;Pustaka *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C and the Common Cold |year=1970 |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Company |location= |isbn=071670160X}} *{{cite book |last=Pauling |first=Linus |authorlink=Linus Pauling |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu'' |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminccommonco0000paul |year=1976 |publisher=W H Freeman & Co |location= |isbn=0716703610}} *{{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Ewan |authorlink=Ewan Cameron (Vitamin C)|Ewan Cameron |coauthors=[[Linus Pauling]], |title=Cancer and Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/cancervitaminc00came |year=1979|publisher=Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine|location= |isbn=0393500004}} *{{cite book |last=Kent |first=Saul |authorlink=Saul Kent |coauthors= |title=Life Extension Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeextensionrev00kent |year=1980 |publisher=Morrow |location= |isbn= }} *{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Durk |authorlink=Durk Pearson|coauthors=Sandy Shaw|title=[[Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach]] |year=1982 |publisher=Warner Books |location= |isbn=0446387355 }} see Part IV, Chapter 7: Vitamin C *{{cite book |last=Pelton |first=Ross |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Mind Food and Smart Pills: How to Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging |url=https://archive.org/details/mindfoodsmartpil0000pelt |year=1986 |publisher=T & R Pub |location= |isbn=0936809000 }} see Chapter 3: Vitamin C, The Champion Free Radical Scavenger *{{cite book |last=Clemetson |first=C.A.B |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C |url=https://archive.org/details/vitaminc0001clem |year=1989 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0-8493-4841-2 }} Monograph - Volumes I, II, III. *{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Thomas E. |authorlink=Thomas E. Levy |coauthors= |title=Vitamin C Infectious Diseases, & Toxins |year=2002 |publisher=Xlibris |location= |isbn=1401069630}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.seanet.com/~alexs/ascorbate/ AscorbateWeb] — a collection of twentieth century medical & scientific literature on vitamin C in the tréatment and prevention of human diséase at séanet.com * [http://autism.healingthresholds.com/therapy/vitamin-c Healing Thresholds — Research on Vitamin C in the treatment of autism.] at héalingthresholds.com * {{US patent|5278189}} — "Prevention and treatment of occlusive [[cardiovascular disease]] with ascorbate and substances that inhibit the binding of lipoprotein (a)", Inventors: Matthias W. Rath and Linus C. Pauling * [http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/nutritionessentials/vitaminsandminerals/vitaminc/ vitamin C] at [[Food Standards Agency|United Kingdom Food Standards Agency]] * {{cite journal |author=Naidu KA |title=Vitamin C in human health and disease is still a mystery? An overview |journal=Nutrition journal |volume=2 |issue= |pages=7 |year=2003 |pmid=14498993 |doi=10.1186/1475-2891-2-7 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/2/1/7 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.acu-cell.com/vitc.html Vitamin C Requirements: Optimal Health Benefits vs Overdose] — a moderate dose advocacy site * [http://www.doctoryourself.com/vitciv.html For Doctors: Preparation of Vitamin C IV's] — by Andrew W. Saul, PhD. at doctoryourself.com * [http://www.orthomed.com/bird.htm Information regarding treatment of the Bird Flu with massive doses of ascorbate.] — by Robert Cathcart, M.D. at orthomed.com {{Vitamin}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Antioksidan]] [[Kategori:Asam organik]] [[Kategori:Vitamin]] [[Kategori:Koénzim]] 5vqkmq8wmcwub4wrlzscfq7zahhpfx7 0 34454 712531 544646 2026-09-05T17:44:29Z FerdinandoUSS 37368 712531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{KygOrphan|date=April 2017}} '''Pausahaan jasa''' nyaéta hiji pausahaan anu kagiatan poko operasional usahana boga tujuan keur meunangkeun ''pendapatan'' atawa ''penghasilan'' ku jalan ngajualan jeung nyadiakeun jasa-jasa.<ref name="buku1">Afifah, Evi Noor Dkk. 2006. Ekonomi Program IPS untuk SMA dan MA kelas XI. PT. Widya Utama:Jakarta. Halaman 223.</ref> Pausahaan jasa mangrupa pausahaan anu kagiatan utamana méré atawa ngajual jasa.<ref name="buku2">Mahfudz, Agus Dkk. 2009. Ekonomi untuk SMA/MA kelas XI. Pusat Perbukuan, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional:Jakarta. Halaman 194.</ref>#``| ==Karakteristik Pausahaan Jasa== Karakteristik tina kagiatan pausahaan jasa di antarana; (a) barang anu dijual atawa ditawarkeun nyaéta barang nu fisikna teu ngawujud, (b) teu miboga standar harga nu pasti, (c) bergerak dina widang pelayanan nu ngababarikeun, méré kanyamanan, atawa kani’matan ka [[konsumén]] nu ngabutuhkeunana, (d) teu bisa dipisahkeun, hartina euweuh pamisahan antara [[produksi]] jeung penjualan, nu hartina duanana dilakukeun sacara babarengan, (e) teu bisa disimpen hartina jasa henteu bisa disimpen pikeun dijual deui dina waktu nu béda.<ref name="buku1"/><ref name="buku2"/> ==Jenis Pausahaan Jasa== [[Gambar:Translink-R9250.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Jasa Transportasi Beus]] Sababaraha pausahaan anu bergerak dina nyadiakeun jasa nyaéta; (1) '''Jasa transportasi''', misalna pausahaan angkutan umum, [[taksi]], [[beus]], jeung penerbangan. (2) '''Jasa profési''', miasalna [[Kantor Akuntan Publik]] (KAP), konsultan pajak, jeung [[notaris]]. (3) '''Jasa hiburan''', misalna [[bioskop]], [[kebon binatang]], jeung taman wisata. (4) '''Jasa tempat tinggal''', misalna [[hotél]], [[motél]], jeung [[asrama]]. (5) '''Jasa réparasi jeung pemaliharaan''', misalna béngkél [[mobil]] jeung [[motor]], pencucian mobil jeung motor. (6) '''Jasa kecantikan''', misalna salon kecantikan.<ref name="buku1"/><ref name="buku1"/> ==Referensi== {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Pausahaan Jasa]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi]] h50pbx389yfx5f6zcq4q11j7wbeyr87 712534 712531 2026-09-05T17:45:52Z Enbi 37369 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/FerdinandoUSS|FerdinandoUSS]] ([[User talk:FerdinandoUSS|talk]]) (TwinkleGlobal) 712534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Pausahaan jasa''' nyaéta hiji pausahaan anu kagiatan poko operasional usahana boga tujuan keur meunangkeun ''pendapatan'' atawa ''penghasilan'' ku jalan ngajualan jeung nyadiakeun jasa-jasa.<ref name="buku1">Afifah, Evi Noor Dkk. 2006. Ekonomi Program IPS untuk SMA dan MA kelas XI. PT. Widya Utama:Jakarta. Halaman 223.</ref> Pausahaan jasa mangrupa pausahaan anu kagiatan utamana méré atawa ngajual jasa.<ref name="buku2">Mahfudz, Agus Dkk. 2009. Ekonomi untuk SMA/MA kelas XI. Pusat Perbukuan, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional:Jakarta. Halaman 194.</ref> ==Karakteristik Pausahaan Jasa== Karakteristik tina kagiatan pausahaan jasa di antarana; (a) barang anu dijual atawa ditawarkeun nyaéta barang nu fisikna teu ngawujud, (b) teu miboga standar harga nu pasti, (c) bergerak dina widang pelayanan nu ngababarikeun, méré kanyamanan, atawa kani’matan ka [[konsumén]] nu ngabutuhkeunana, (d) teu bisa dipisahkeun, hartina euweuh pamisahan antara [[produksi]] jeung penjualan, nu hartina duanana dilakukeun sacara babarengan, (e) teu bisa disimpen hartina jasa henteu bisa disimpen pikeun dijual deui dina waktu nu béda.<ref name="buku1"/><ref name="buku2"/> ==Jenis Pausahaan Jasa== [[Gambar:Translink-R9250.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Jasa Transportasi Beus]] Sababaraha pausahaan anu bergerak dina nyadiakeun jasa nyaéta; (1) '''Jasa transportasi''', misalna pausahaan angkutan umum, [[taksi]], [[beus]], jeung penerbangan. (2) '''Jasa profési''', miasalna [[Kantor Akuntan Publik]] (KAP), konsultan pajak, jeung [[notaris]]. (3) '''Jasa hiburan''', misalna [[bioskop]], [[kebon binatang]], jeung taman wisata. (4) '''Jasa tempat tinggal''', misalna [[hotél]], [[motél]], jeung [[asrama]]. (5) '''Jasa réparasi jeung pemaliharaan''', misalna béngkél [[mobil]] jeung [[motor]], pencucian mobil jeung motor. (6) '''Jasa kecantikan''', misalna salon kecantikan.<ref name="buku1"/><ref name="buku1"/> ==Referensi== {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Pausahaan Jasa]] [[Kategori:Ékonomi]] 1ttluyrzhbju149na0d3vzxzl5ek5ca 0 36325 712540 666484 2026-09-05T19:15:18Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712540 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''République du Sénégal'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Sénégal ||common_name = Sénégal |image_flag = Flag of Senegal.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Senegal.svg |image_map = Location Senegal AU Africa.svg |map_caption = Lokasi Sénégal dina [[Uni Afrika]] |national_motto = "Un Peuple, Un But, Une Foi" |national_anthem = ''[[Pincez Tous vos Koras, Frappez les Balafons]]'' |demonym = Senegalese |languages_type = [[Basa resmi]]<br>{{nobold|([[Basa nasional]])}} |languages = [[Basa Perancis|Perancis]]<br>([[Basa Wolof|Wolof]], [[Basa Soninke|Soninke]], [[Basa Seereer-Siin|Seereer-Siin]], [[Basa Fula|Fula]], [[Maninka]], [[Diola]]<ref>« La langue officielle de la République du Sénégal est le Français. Les langues nationales sont le Diola, le Malinké, le Pulaar, le Sérére, le Soninké, le Wolof et toute autre langue nationale qui sera codifiée. » − [http://www.gouv.sn/textes/const_detail.cfm?numero=TITREPREMIER Extrait du site officiel du Example gouvernement sénégalais] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060725231741/http://www.gouv.sn/textes/const_detail.cfm?numero=TITREPREMIER |date=2006-07-25 }}</ref>) |ethnic_groups = Wolof 43,3%<br>Pular 23,8%<br>Serer 14,7%<br>Jola 3,7%<br>Mandinka 3%<br>Soninke 1,1%<br>Éropa/Libanon 1%<br>nu lian 9,4% |capital = [[Dakar]] |latd=14 |latm=40 |latNS=N |longd=17 |longm=25 |longEW=W |largest_city = [[Dakar]] |government_type = [[Sistim semi-présidénsial|Républik semi-présidénsial]] |leader_title1 = [[Daptar Présidén Sénégal|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[:fr:Bassirou Diomaye Faye|Bassirou Diomaye Faye]] |leader_title2 = [[Perdana Mentri Sénégal|Perdana Mentri]] |leader_name2 = [[:fr:Ousmane Sonko|Ousmane Sonko]] |area_rank = ka-87 |area_magnitude = |area = 196.723 |areami² = 76.000 |percent_water = 2,1 |population_estimate = 18.384.660<ref name=cia>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |authorlink=CIA |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Senegal |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sg.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831041253/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sg.html |date=2020-08-31 }}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-66 |population_estimate_year = 2023 |population_census = 9.967.215 |population_census_year = 2002 |population_density = 69,7 |population_densitymi² = 180,4 |population_density_rank = ka-134 |GDP_PPP = $23,274&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=722&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=38&pr.y=13|title=Senegal|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=21 April 2010}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504032408/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=722&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=38&pr.y=13 |date=4 May 2011 }}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1.772<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal_rank = |GDP_nominal = $13,472&nbsp;milyar<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1.026<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = |sovereignty_type = [[Sajarah Sénégal|Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = ti [[Perancis]] bareng [[Sudan Perancis]] salaku [[Féderasi Mali]] |established_date1 = 20 Juni 1960 |sovereignty_type2 = Misah |established_event2 = ti [[Féderasi Mali]] |established_date2 = 20 Agustus 1960 |HDI = {{increase}}0,411 |HDI_rank = ka-144 |HDI_year = 2010 |HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">handap</span> |Gini = 41,3 |Gini_year = 1995 |Gini_category = <span style="color:#fc0;">sedeng</span> |currency = [[Franc CFA Afrika Kulon|Franc CFA]] |currency_code = XOF |country_code = |time_zone = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] |utc_offset = |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |drives_on = katuhu |cctld = [[.sn]] |calling_code = 221 |footnotes = }} '''Sénégal''' ({{lang-fr|le Sénégal}}), resmina '''Républik Sénégal''' (''République du Sénégal'', {{IPA-fr|ʁepyblik dy seneɡal|IPA}}), nyaéta hiji nagara di Afrika kulon. Ngaran nagara ieu dumasar kana [[Walungan Sénégal]] nu aya ka wétan jeung kalér. Sénégal wawatesan jeung Samudra Atlantik di kulon, [[Mauritania]] di kalér, [[Mali]] di wétan, jeung [[Guinéa]] sareng [[Guinéa-Bissau]] di kidul; di jero nagara ieu aya nagara [[Gambia]], nu ngan wawatesan jeung Sénégal sarta Samudra Atlantik. Sénégal miboga aréa méh {{convert|197000|km2}}, jeung miboga hiji populasi kira-kira 14 yuta. Iklimna tropis kalawan 2 usum: halodo jeung panghujan. [[Dakar]], ibu kota Sénégal, aya di beulah kulon nagara ieu, di [[Samenanjung Cap-Vert]]. Kira-kira 500 kilométer (300&nbsp;mil) tina, aya [[Kapuloan Tanjung Verde]]. Dina abad ka-17 jeung ka-18, raloba pos dagang, piboga rupa-rupa pihak, diwangun sapanjang basisir. Kota St. Louis jadi ibu kota ti [[Afrika Kulon Perancis]] (Afrique occidentale française, atawa AOF) saméméh dipindahkeun ka Dakar dina 1902. Dakar teras jadi ibu kota nagara ieu dina 1960 basa jaman kamerdikaan ti Perancis. ==Étimologi==<!--linked--> {{See also|Walungan Sénégal}} Nagara ieu dingaranan dumasar kana [[Walungan Sénégal]], nu asal ngaranna diparebutkeun. Hiji téori populér (diajukeun ku [[David Boilat]] dina 1853) nyaéta asalna ti prase [[Basa Wolof|Wolof]], ''suñu gaal'', nu hartina "kano urang" (atawa [[pirogue]]), dihasilkeun ti miskomunikasi antara palaut Portugis abad ka-15 jeung nelayan Wolof. Sajarawan modérn percaya yén ngaranna meureunan asalna ti [[Urang Zenaga]] [[Urang Berber|Berber]] nu ngadumukan sisi kalér walungan. Téori lianna nyaéa ngaran ieu diturunkeun ti kota jaman patengahan, "Sanghana" (atawa Isenghan, Asengan, Singhanah), dicaritakeun ku ahli géografi Arab, [[al-Bakri]] dina 1068, nu aya di muara walungan. Sanajan kitu, téori "kano urang" geus populér didukung di Sénégal modérn Senegal. Sababaraha [[urang Sérér]] ti pakidulan percaya yén ngaran walungan éta aslina diturunkeun ti saruntuyan kecap basa [[basa Sérér|Sérér]], "Sene" (ti Roge Sene, Déwa Ageung dina [[ageman Sérér]]) jeung "O Gal" (hartina "daérah cai"). ==Géografi== {{utama|Géografi Sénégal}} [[File:Casamance landscape.jpg|thumb|Lanskap [[Casamance]]]] Sénégal aya di bagian kulon ti buana [[Afrika]]. Nagara ieu aya di antara [[12° Lintang kalér|12°]] jeung [[17° lintang kalér]], jeung [[11° imbit kulon|11°]] jeung [[18° imbit kulon]]. Lanskap Sénégal diwangun ti utamina dataran sagara ti [[Sahel]] kulon nepi ka pasir di kidul-wétan. Titik pangluhurna di Sénégal, deukeut [[Nepen Diakha]], nyaéta dina {{convert|584|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Wates kalérna dibentuk ku [[Walungan Sénégal]], walungan lianna kaasup [[Walungan Gambia]] jeung [[Walungan Casamance|Casamance]]. Ibu kotana, Dakar aya di samenanjung [[Cap-Vert]], titik pangkulonna di buana Afrika. ==Babagian administratif== {{utama|Région di Sénégal|Departemén di Sénégal|Arrondissement di Sénégal}} Sénégal dibagi kana 14 région,<ref>[http://www.statoids.com/usn.html Statoids page on Senegal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719033107/http://www.statoids.com/usn.html |date=2011-07-19 }} (noting that three new regions were split off on 10 September 2008).</ref> masing-masingna diadministrasi ku hiji ''Conseil Régional'' ([[Déwan Régional (Sénégal)|Déwan Régional]]) dipilih ku rahayat dina tingkat ''Arrondissement''. Nagara ieu salajengna dibagi kana (total) 45 ''Départements'', 103 ''Arrondissements'' (duanana teu boga fungsi administratif) jeung ku ''Collectivités Locales'', nu milih pajabat administratif.<ref>[http://www.uael.sn/article.php3?id_article=32 List of current local elected officials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819053719/http://www.uael.sn/article.php3?id_article=32 |date=2007-08-19 }} from Union des ''Associations d’ Elus Locaux (UAEL) du Sénégal''. See also the law creating current local government structures: {{fr icon}}[http://www.demarches.gouv.sn/collectivites-locales/pdf/code-collec-locales-sen.pdf Code des collectivités locales] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511042009/http://www.demarches.gouv.sn/collectivites-locales/pdf/code-collec-locales-sen.pdf |date=2011-05-11 }}, Loi n° 96-06 du 22 mars 1996.</ref> Ibu kota région miboga ngaran nu sarua jeung régionna: [[File:Regions of Senegal.svg|center|300px|Région di Sénégal]] {{col|2}} * [[Région Dakar|Dakar]] * [[Région Diourbel|Diourbel]] * [[Région Fatick|Fatick]] * [[Région Kaffrine|Kaffrine]] * [[Région Kaolack|Kaolack]] * [[Région Kédougou|Kédougou]] * [[Région Kolda|Kolda]] * [[Région Louga|Louga]] * [[Région Matam|Matam]] * [[Région Saint-Louis|Saint-Louis]] * [[Région Sédhiou|Sédhiou]] * [[Région Tambacounda|Tambacounda]] * [[Région Thiés|Thiés]] * [[Région Ziguinchor|Ziguinchor]] </div> ===Kota utama=== [[File:Sg-map.png|thumb|275px|Peta Sénégal]] {{See also|Daptar kota di Sénégal}} Ibu kota Sénégal, Dakar, mangrupa kota panggedéna di Sénégal, kalawan populasi leuwih ti 2 yuta.<ref name="ANSD-population">{{cite web |url = http://www.ansd.org/SES2005.pdf |title = Situation économique et sociale du Sénégal |author = Agence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie |publisher = Government of Senegal |language = French |format = PDF |year = 2005 |accessdate = 18 November 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080625002308/http://www.ansd.org/SES2005.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 25 June 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615173338/http://www.ansd.org/SES2005.pdf |date=15 June 2007 }}</ref> Kota nu populasina panglobana kadua nyaéta [[Touba, Sénégal|Touba]], hiji ''communaute rurale'' ''[[de jure]]'' (komunitas désa), kalawan saparo yuta jiwa.<ref name="ANSD-population"/><ref name="CitiesinSenegal">{{cite web | url = http://popofcities.com/senegalCITY.htm | title = Cities in Senegal | last = Forsberg | first = Jan | accessdate = 18 November 2008 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227175529/http://popofcities.com/senegalCITY.htm |date=27 February 2012 }}</ref> ==Tempo ogé== * [[Tatanén di Sénégal]] * [[Universitas Cheikh Anta Diop]] Universitas Dakar * [[Confédération Sénégalaise du Scoutisme]] * [[Atikan di Sénégal]] * [[Hubungan luar nagri Sénégal]] * [[Mililtér Sénégal]] * [[Musik Sénégal]] * [[Tim nasional maén bal Sénégal]] * [[Telekomunikasi di Sénégal]] * [[Transportasi di Sénégal]] ==Rujukan== {{reflist|2}} ==Bacaan salajengna== * Babou, Cheikh Anta, ''Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853-1913'', (Ohio University Press, 2007) * Behrman, Lucy C, ''Muslim Brotherhood and Politics in Senegal'', (iUniverse.com, 1999) * Buggenhage, Beth A, ''Muslim Families in Global Senegal: Money Takes Care of Shame'', (Indiana University Press, 2012) * Bugul, Ken, ''The Abandoned Baobab: The Autobiography of a Senegalese Woman'', (University of Virginia Press, 2008) * Foley, Ellen E, ''Your Pocket is What Cures You: The Politics of Health in Senegal'', (Rutgers University Press, 2010) * Gellar, Sheldon, ''Democracy in Senegal: Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) * Glover, John, ''Sufism and Jihad in Modern Senegal: The Murid Order'', (University of Rochester Press, 2007) * Kane, Katharina, ''Lonely Planet Guide: The Gambia and Senegal'', (Lonely Planet Publications, 2009) * Kueniza, Michelle, ''Education and Democracy in Senegal'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) * Mbacké, Khadim, ''Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal'', (Markus Wiener Publishing Inc., 2005) * Ross, Eric S, ''Culture and Customs of Senegal'', (Greenwood, 2008) * Streissguth, Thomas, ''Senegal in Pictures'', (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009) * Various, ''Insight Guide: Gambia and Senegal'', (APA Publications Pte Ltd., 2009) * Various, ''New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity'', (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) * Various, ''Senegal: Essays in Statecraft'', (Codesria, 2003) * Various, ''Street Children in Senegal'', (GYAN France, 2006) ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Sisterlinks}} ; Pamaréntah *[http://www.gouv.sn Gouvernement du Sénégal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516093351/http://www.gouv.sn/ |date=2008-05-16 }}—Loka pamaréntah resmi {{fr icon}} *[http://www.osiris.sn/ Observatoire sur les systémes d'information, réseaux et inforoutes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308031632/http://osiris.sn/ |date=2011-03-08 }} {{fr icon}} ; Informasi umum *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064496.stm Propil Nagara] ti [[BBC News]] *{{CIA World Factbook link|sg|Senegal}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/senegal.htm Senegal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611191812/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/senegal.htm |date=2010-06-11 }} ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Senegal|Sénégal}} *{{wikiatlas|Senegal}} * [http://www.asso-diama-senegal.org Informasi di Sénégal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605221920/http://asso-diama-senegal.org/ |date=2013-06-05 }} ; Warta * [http://www.senregal.com/ SenRegal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220050717/http://senregal.com/ |date=2012-02-20 }} Warta, Musik ti Senegal *[http://www.seneweb.com Seneweb] warta {{fr icon}} * [http://allafrica.com/senegal/ Sénégal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218213423/http://allafrica.com/senegal/ |date=2009-02-18 }} ti [[AllAfrica.com]] ; Pelesir *{{wikivoyage|Senegal}} ; Nu lian *[http://www.syklontechnologies.com Syklon Technologies: Société de Services en Ingenierie Informatique au Sénégal et offshore] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218091006/http://syklontechnologies.com/ |date=2014-12-18 }} {{fr icon}} * [http://www.senegalphonebook.com/ Diréktori bisnis Sénégal] ti ''Africa Phonebooks'' *[http://www.senegalaisement.com/senegal/ethnies.html Grup étnis di Sénégal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210131718/http://www.senegalaisement.com/senegal/ethnies.html |date=2009-12-10 }} {{fr icon}} *[http://www.lafrique.com/afrique/articles/5/ L'Afrique – Sénégal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509123351/http://www.lafrique.com/afrique/articles/5/ |date=2008-05-09 }} Ratusan poto jeung artikel {{fr icon}} {{Senegal topics}} {{Navboxes | title = Géografi lokal | list = {{Countries of Africa}} }} {{Navboxes | title = Kaanggotaan internasional | list = {{African Union}} {{G15}} {{OIC}} {{South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Latinunion}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)}} }} {{Navboxes | title = Basa | list = {{Niger-Congo-speaking}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal}} [[Kategori:Sénégal| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu tepung wates jeung Samudra Atlantik]] [[Kategori:Komunitas Ékonomi Nagara Afrika Kulon]] [[Kategori:Nagara G15]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu kirang kawangun]] [[Kategori:Anggota La Francophonie]] [[Kategori:Anggota OSI]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1960]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] <!--Interwiki--> bag6z6u0zfoh7eoxtbq41ms8tpccxfg 0 36327 712538 710280 2026-09-05T17:56:12Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country |native_name = ''Repiblik Sesel<br />République des Seychelles<br />Republic of Seychelles'' |conventional_long_name = Républik Seychéll |common_name = Seychéll |image_flag = Flag of the Seychelles.svg |image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Republic of Seychelles.svg |symbol_type = Lambang |image_map = LocationSeychelles.png |national_motto = "Finis Coronat Opus" |national_anthem = ''[[Koste Seselwa]]'' |official_languages = <li>[[Basa Perancis]]<br /><li>[[Basa Inggris]]<br /><li>[[Kréol Seychéll]] |demonym = Seychellois, Seychelloise, Seselwa (Kréol) |capital = [[Victoria, Seychéll|Victoria]] |latd=4 |latm=37 |latNS=S |longd=55 |longm=27 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Victoria, Seychéll|Victoria]] |government_type = [[Républik]] |leader_title1 = [[Présidén Seychéll|Présidén]] |leader_name1 = [[Wavel Ramkalawan]]<ref>https://seychellen.com/en/wavel-ramkalawan-the-new-and-5th-president-of-the-seychelles/</ref> |leader_title2 = [[Wakil Présidén Seychéll|Wakil Présidén]] |leader_name2 = [[Ahmed Afif]] |area_rank = ka-197 |area_magnitude = 1 E+8 |area = 451 |areami² = 174 |percent_water = tiasa teu dipadulikeun |population_estimate = 84.000<ref name=unpop>{{cite journal | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1| version=2008 revision | format=.PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate= 12 March 2009}}</ref> |population_estimate_rank = ka-195 |population_estimate_year = 2009 |population_census = |population_census_year = |population_density = 186,2 |population_densitymi² = 482,7 |population_density_rank = ka-60 |GDP_PPP = $2,129 milyar<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=718&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=53&pr.y=7 |title=Seychelles|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref> |GDP_PPP_rank = ka-164 |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $24.837<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ka-37 |GDP_nominal = $919 yuta<ref name=imf2/> |GDP_nominal_rank = ka-168 |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $10.714<ref name=imf2 /> |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = ka-53 |sovereignty_type = [[Kamerdikaan]] |established_event1 = {{nowrap|ti [[Britania Raya]]}} |established_date1 = 29 Juni 1976 |HDI = {{increase}} 0,773 |HDI_rank = ka-57 |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI_category = <span style="color:green;">luhur</span> |currency = [[Rupee Seychéll]] |currency_code = SCR |country_code = |time_zone = [[Wanci Seychéll|SCT]] |utc_offset = +4 |time_zone_DST = ''teu kaobsérvasi'' |utc_offset_DST = +4 |drives_on = kénca |cctld = [[.sc]] |calling_code = 248 |footnotes = }} '''Seychéll''', resmina '''Républik Seychéll''' ({{lang-fr|République des Seychelles}}; {{lang-en|Republic of Seychelles}}; [[Kréol Seychéll|Kréol]]: ''Repiblik Sesel''), nyaéta hiji [[nagara kapuloan]] nu diwangun ti 115 pulo di [[Samudra Hindia]], kira-kira {{convert|1500|km|mi|0}} wétaneun daratan utama [[Afrika]], kalér wétaneun pulo [[Madagaskar]]. Nagara jeung téritori lian nu deukeut ti dieu contona [[Zanzibar]], [[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]], [[Komoro]], jeung [[Mayotte]]. Seychéll mangrupa [[Daptar nagara dumasar populasi|nagara Afrika nu populasina pangsaeutikna]] kalawan 86.525 jiwa.<ref>[http://goafrica.about.com/od/africatraveltips/a/africafacts.htm Geoafrica.about.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304125223/http://goafrica.about.com/od/africatraveltips/a/africafacts.htm |date=2012-03-04 }}</ref> == Subdivisi == {{utama|Distrik di Seychéll}} Seychéll dibagi kana 25 wewengkon administratif. 8 distrik ngawangun [[ibu kota]] nagara ieu jeung sok disebut salaku [[Victoria, Seychéll|Victoria]] Raya. 14 distrik nu lian mangrupa bagian désa ti pulo utamana, [[Mahé, Seychéll|Mahé]] kalawan 2 distrik di [[Praslin]] jeung 1 di [[La Digue]]. Sésa [[Kapuloan Luar (Seychéll)|Kapuloan Luar]] lianna sanés bagian ti distrik nanaon. {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} ;Victoria Raya *[[Bel Air, Seychéll|Bel Air]] *[[La Riviére Anglaise]] (''English River''; Walungan Inggris) *[[Les Mamelles]] *[[Mont Buxton]] *[[Mont Fleuri]] *[[Plaisance, Seychéll|Plaisance]] *[[Roche Caiman]] *[[Saint Louis, Seychéll|Saint Louis]] ;Praslin *[[Baie Sainte Anne]] (Anse Volbert) *[[Grand'Anse Praslin]] (Grande Anse) {{col-2}} ;Mahé Padésaan *[[Anse aux Pins]] *[[Anse Boileau]] *[[Anse Etoile]] *[[Au Cap]] *[[Anse Royale]] *[[Baie Lazare]] *[[Beau Vallon]] *[[Bel Ombre, Seychéll|Bel Ombre]] *[[Cascade, Seychéll|Cascade]] *[[Glacis, Seychéll|Glacis]] *[[Grand'Anse Mahé]] *[[Pointe La Rue]] *[[Port Glaud]] *[[Takamaka, Seychéll|Takamaka]] ;La Digue jeung sésa Kapuloan Jero lianna *[[La Digue]] (Anse Réunion) {{col-end}} == Tempo ogé == *[[Daptar inohong Seychéll]] *[[Mike Hoare]] == Rujukan == <!-- ---------------------------------------------------------- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a discussion of different citation methods and how to generate footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags ----------------------------------------------------------- --> {{reflist}} == Bacaan salajengna == * "The Edge of Eden" Helen Benedict * ''Aldabra'' Adrian Skerrett (Editor) * ''Birds of the Seychelles'' Adrian Skerrett, Ian Bullock, Tony Disley * ''The History of Slavery in Mauritius and the Seychelles, 1810–1875'' Moses D. E., Nwulia * ''Journey through Seychelles'' Mohamed Amin, Duncan Willets, Adrian Skerrett, Judith Skerrett * ''Political Castaways'' Christopher Lee * ''The Seychelles'' Michael Friedel * ''Seychelles'' Vincenzo Paolillo * ''Seychelles: Garden of Eden in the Indian Ocean'' Sarah Carpin * ''Paradise Raped'' James R. Mancham * ''Seychelles: The New Era'' France Albert René * ''Seychelles, What Next?'' Alain St. Ange * ''Seychelles Since 1770: History of a Slave and Post-Slavery Society'' Deryck Scarr * ''Seychelles, In Search of Democracy'' Alain St. Ange & Bernard Géorges * ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>Rivals in Eden' and 'Hard Times in Paradise<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' Bill McAteer * ''Seychelles, The Cry of A People'' Alain St. Ange * ''Reveil Seychellois'' (Life in Seychelles 1770–1903) Denise Johnstone == Tumbu kaluar == {{Sisterlinks}} ;Pamaréntah * [http://www.egov.sc/ SeyGov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110730070725/http://www.egov.sc/ |date=2011-07-30 }} Portal pamaréntah utami * [http://www.statehouse.gov.sc/ State House] Kantor Présidén Républik Seychéll * [http://www.sib.gov.sc/ Seychelles Investment Bureau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130154626/http://www.sib.gov.sc/ |date=2018-11-30 }} Lembaga pamaréntah pikeun ngapromosikeun invéstasi di Seychéll ;Umum * {{CIA_World_Factbook link|se|Seychelles}} * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/seychelles.htm Seychelles] ti ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Seychelles|Seychéll}} *{{wikiatlas|Seychelles}} * [http://www.islandconservationseychelles.com Island Conservation Society] * [http://www.natureseychelles.org Nature Seychelles] * [http://www.nation.sc The Seychelles Nation]—koran poéan lokal. ;Pelesir * [http://seychelles.travel Seychelles.travel]{{Dead link|date=June 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}—Portal pariwisata pamaréntah * [http://airseychelles.com Air Seychelles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706124735/http://www.airseychelles.com/ |date=2009-07-06 }}—Maskapé nasional Seychéll * [http://seychellestour.com Seychelles travel guide]—Portal pelesir * {{wikivoyage|Seychelles}} {{Seychelles topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Géografi |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Indian Ocean}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Kaanggotaan internasional |list = {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Seychell}} [[Kategori:Seychéll| ]] [[Kategori:Nagara di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Kapuloan di Samudra Hindia]] [[Kategori:Nagara Samudra Hindia]] [[Kategori:Wewengkon nu maké basa Inggris]] [[Kategori:Urut koloni Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara nu maké basa Perancis]] [[Kategori:Nagara kapuloan]] [[Kategori:Kapuloan di Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Uni Afrika]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasamakmuran Bangsa-Bangsa]] [[Kategori:Républik]] [[Kategori:Nu ngadeg taun 1976]] [[Kategori:Anggota Pasarikatan Bangsa-Bangsa]] {{nagara-geo-stub|Seychéll}} fpkkiw391uy9ep0a2nrt8pghd643rez 0 50355 712528 675975 2026-09-05T13:43:48Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[Gambar:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_museum_van_het_Koninklijk_Bataviaasch_Genootschap_van_Kunsten_en_Wetenschappen_Batavia_TMnr_60025931.jpg|thumb|Museum Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences Batavia (ayeuna Museum Nasional) dina taun [[1900]]-an]] '''Muséum Nasional Républik Indonésia''' atawa '''Muséum Gajah''', mangrupa hiji [[Musium|museum]] anu lokasina di [[Kota Jakarta Pusat|Jakarta Pusat]] persisna di Jalan Merdéka Barat 12. Muséum ieu mangrupa muséum mimiti jeung panggedéna di [[Asia Tenggara]].<ref>http://www.jakartahotel.info/2010/04/museum-gajah.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316052045/http://www.jakartahotel.info/2010/04/museum-gajah.html |date=2016-03-16 }}</ref> == Sajarah Museum Nasional == Cikal bakalna ieu [[Musium|museum]]  ngadeg taun [[1778]], pasna tanggal [[24 April]], bareng jeung ngadegna Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen. J.C.M. Radermacher, kokojo pagempungan, nyumbang hiji gedong  anu tempatna di Jalan Kalibesar  kalayan  koléksi buku jeung barang-barang budaya. Dina mangsa  pamaréntahan [[Inggris]] (1811-1816), [[Thomas Stamford Raffles|Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles]] anu ogé mangrupa diréktur di Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen maréntahkeun ngawangun geduog anyar  di Jalan Majapahit No. 3. Sabada kamerdékaan Indonésia, Lembaga Kebudayaan Indonésia  anu ngurus   muséum kasebut dipasrahkeun ka pamaréntah [[Indonésia|Républik Indonésia]], tanggal [[17 Séptémber|17 Septémber]] [[1962]]. Ti mimiti harita muséum diurus ku Diréktorat Jéndéral Kabudayaan,  Kamenterian Pendidikan jeung Kebudayaan. Taun [[2005]], Muséum Nasional diurus ku Kamenterian Kabudayaan jeung Pariwisata. Muséum Nasional kawentar kasebut Muséum Gajah karana meunang hadiah patung gajah bahan [[parunggu]] ti Raja Chulalongkorn  [[Thailand]]<ref>http://www.kompasiana.com/gneoga/mengintip-koleksi-museum-gajah_55284e006ea83456458b4571</ref>  taun [[1871]]  anu tuluy dipasang di hareupeun muséum. Sanajan kitu, mimiti  [[28 Méi|28 Mei]] [[1979]], ngaran resmi lembaga ieu Muséum Nasional Républik Indonésia. == Tempo ogé == * Pariwisata == Referensi == {{Reflist}} == Pranala luar == * [http://www.museumnasional.or.id/ www.museumnasional.or.id/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517111353/http://www.museumnasional.or.id/ |date=2021-05-17 }} [[Kategori:Wangunan sajarah di Jakarta]] 48jggfkcuauzv2oyf37z8m4ih0elcnm 0 50880 712545 660175 2026-09-06T05:15:37Z FAHRUN67 37165 /* Jaringan */ di halaman Wikipedia lainya 712545 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cahaya TV''' nyaéta stasion TV lokal di [[Indonésia]]. {{pondok}} {{Televisi Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Media Nusantara]] [[Kategori:Televisi]] [[Kategori:Jakarta Barat]] [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Indonésia]] ==Acara== * Hallo Banten * Hallo Indonesia * Voice On Air * Cahaya Shop * Reformece 21 * Cahaya Taqwa * Cahaya Kasih '''Acara yang pernah ditayangkeun''' * [[Boboiboy]] * [[Majalah Bobo On TV]] * [[Koran Sindo On TV]] * STB (Sangat Tidak Biasa) (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * [[Trungtung]] (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * Cahaya News English * Cahaya News Mandarin * Cahaya News Arabic * Hallo Tangerang * Hallo Serang * Smurf (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). == Jarigan Siaran == {| Class="wikitable " !width"200"|Stasion Televisi !width"100"|Frekuensi !width"50"|Ngaran Multiplexing Digital !width"10"|Pengapian Sirkuit MOS |- | [[CTV]] | 26 UHF | [[RTV]] Jakarta | Ya |- | [[Siger TV]] | 36 UHF | [[Antv]] Lampung | Ya |- | [[Cahaya TV]] | 32 UHF | [[Antv]] Pati | Tidak |- | CTV Semarang | 39 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Yogyakarta | 35 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Surabaya | 32 UHF | [[antv]] Surabaya | Ya |- | [[CTV Bandung]] | 38 UHF | [[antv]] Bandung | Ya |- | CTV Medan | 40 UHF | [[antv]] Medan | Ya |- Sigana aya sababaraha televisi anu teu dipidangkeun di televisi atanapi dipareuman, ngan 3 televisi anu teu tiasa dipareuman. Bagian-bagian tina televisi CTV: ==Referensi== a268fp1p5h2hzqis1l4r11dp93tqfl6 712546 712545 2026-09-06T05:18:49Z FAHRUN67 37165 /* Referensi */ ya GK tau 712546 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cahaya TV''' nyaéta stasion TV lokal di [[Indonésia]]. {{pondok}} {{Televisi Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Media Nusantara]] [[Kategori:Televisi]] [[Kategori:Jakarta Barat]] [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Indonésia]] ==Acara== * Hallo Banten * Hallo Indonesia * Voice On Air * Cahaya Shop * Reformece 21 * Cahaya Taqwa * Cahaya Kasih '''Acara yang pernah ditayangkeun''' * [[Boboiboy]] * [[Majalah Bobo On TV]] * [[Koran Sindo On TV]] * STB (Sangat Tidak Biasa) (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * [[Trungtung]] (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * Cahaya News English * Cahaya News Mandarin * Cahaya News Arabic * Hallo Tangerang * Hallo Serang * Smurf (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). == Jarigan Siaran == {| Class="wikitable " !width"200"|Stasion Televisi !width"100"|Frekuensi !width"50"|Ngaran Multiplexing Digital !width"10"|Pengapian Sirkuit MOS |- | [[CTV]] | 26 UHF | [[RTV]] Jakarta | Ya |- | [[Siger TV]] | 36 UHF | [[Antv]] Lampung | Ya |- | [[Cahaya TV]] | 32 UHF | [[Antv]] Pati | Tidak |- | CTV Semarang | 39 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Yogyakarta | 35 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Surabaya | 32 UHF | [[antv]] Surabaya | Ya |- | [[CTV Bandung]] | 38 UHF | [[antv]] Bandung | Ya |- | CTV Medan | 40 UHF | [[antv]] Medan | Ya |- Sigana aya sababaraha televisi anu teu dipidangkeun di televisi atanapi dipareuman, ngan 3 televisi anu teu tiasa dipareuman. Bagian-bagian tina televisi CTV: ==Referensi== {{reflist}} o4xme8tfs9sek9sb7j7t2wpt1sv1cac 712547 712546 2026-09-06T05:21:25Z FAHRUN67 37165 /* Jarigan Siaran */ sedikit 712547 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cahaya TV''' nyaéta stasion TV lokal di [[Indonésia]]. {{pondok}} {{Televisi Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Media Nusantara]] [[Kategori:Televisi]] [[Kategori:Jakarta Barat]] [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Indonésia]] ==Acara== * Hallo Banten * Hallo Indonesia * Voice On Air * Cahaya Shop * Reformece 21 * Cahaya Taqwa * Cahaya Kasih '''Acara yang pernah ditayangkeun''' * [[Boboiboy]] * [[Majalah Bobo On TV]] * [[Koran Sindo On TV]] * STB (Sangat Tidak Biasa) (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * [[Trungtung]] (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * Cahaya News English * Cahaya News Mandarin * Cahaya News Arabic * Hallo Tangerang * Hallo Serang * Smurf (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). == Jarigan Siaran == {| Class="wikitable " !width"200"|Stasiun Televisi !width"100"|Frekuensi !width"50"|Ngaran Multiplexing Digital !width"10"|Pengapian Sirkuit MOS |- | [[CTV]] | 26 UHF | [[RTV]] Jakarta | Ya |- | [[Siger TV]] | 36 UHF | [[Antv]] Lampung | Ya |- | [[Cahaya TV]] | 32 UHF | [[Antv]] Pati | Tidak |- | CTV Semarang | 39 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Yogyakarta | 35 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Surabaya | 32 UHF | [[antv]] Surabaya | Ya |- | [[CTV Bandung]] | 38 UHF | [[antv]] Bandung | Ya |- | CTV Medan | 40 UHF | [[antv]] Medan | Ya |- Sigana aya sababaraha televisi anu teu dipidangkeun di televisi atanapi dipareuman, ngan 3 televisi anu teu tiasa dipareuman. Bagian-bagian tina televisi CTV: ==Referensi== {{reflist}} 5vo6rcpuadgv8dlo6nr3v04tfp7r54z 712548 712547 2026-09-06T07:16:41Z FAHRUN67 37165 /* Jarigan Siaran */ ini salah 712548 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cahaya TV''' nyaéta stasion TV lokal di [[Indonésia]]. {{pondok}} {{Televisi Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Media Nusantara]] [[Kategori:Televisi]] [[Kategori:Jakarta Barat]] [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Indonésia]] ==Acara== * Hallo Banten * Hallo Indonesia * Voice On Air * Cahaya Shop * Reformece 21 * Cahaya Taqwa * Cahaya Kasih '''Acara yang pernah ditayangkeun''' * [[Boboiboy]] * [[Majalah Bobo On TV]] * [[Koran Sindo On TV]] * STB (Sangat Tidak Biasa) (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * [[Trungtung]] (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * Cahaya News English * Cahaya News Mandarin * Cahaya News Arabic * Hallo Tangerang * Hallo Serang * Smurf (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). == Jarigan Siaran == Sigana aya sababaraha televisi anu teu dipidangkeun di televisi atanapi dipareuman, ngan 3 televisi anu teu tiasa dipareuman. Bagian-bagian tina televisi CTV: {| Class="wikitable " !width"200"|Stasiun Televisi !width"100"|Frekuensi !width"50"|Ngaran Multiplexing Digital !width"10"|Pengapian Sirkuit MOS |- | [[CTV]] | 26 UHF | [[RTV]] Jakarta | Ya |- | [[Siger TV]] | 36 UHF | [[Antv]] Lampung | Ya |- | [[Cahaya TV]] | 32 UHF | [[Antv]] Pati | Tidak |- | CTV Semarang | 39 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Yogyakarta | 35 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Surabaya | 32 UHF | [[antv]] Surabaya | Ya |- | [[CTV Bandung]] | 38 UHF | [[antv]] Bandung | Ya |- | CTV Medan | 40 UHF | [[antv]] Medan | Ya |- ==Referensi== {{reflist}} gaq0k8x6x0lukhn2cwytehb8gxex00d 712549 712548 2026-09-06T08:59:00Z FAHRUN67 37165 ini salah 712549 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cahaya TV''' nyaéta stasion TV lokal di [[Indonésia]]. {{pondok}} {{Televisi Indonesia}} [[Kategori:Media Nusantara]] [[Kategori:Televisi]] [[Kategori:Jakarta Barat]] [[Kategori:Stasion televisi di Indonésia]] ==Acara== * Hallo Banten * Hallo Indonesia * Voice On Air * Cahaya Shop * Reformece 21 * Cahaya Taqwa * Cahaya Kasih '''Acara yang pernah ditayangkeun''' * [[Boboiboy]] * [[Majalah Bobo On TV]] * [[Koran Sindo On TV]] * STB (Sangat Tidak Biasa) (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * [[Trungtung]] (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). * Cahaya News English * Cahaya News Mandarin * Cahaya News Arabic * Hallo Tangerang * Hallo Serang * Smurf (Ayeuna di [[Rajawali Televisi|RTV]]). == Jarigan Siaran == Sigana aya sababaraha televisi anu teu dipidangkeun di televisi atanapi dipareuman, ngan 3 televisi anu teu tiasa dipareuman. Bagian-bagian tina televisi CTV: {| Class="wikitable " !width"200"|Stasion Televisi !width"100"|Frekuensi !width"50"|Ngaran Multiplexing Digital !width"10"|Pengapian Sirkuit MOS |- | [[CTV]] | 26 UHF | [[RTV]] Jakarta | Ya |- | [[Siger TV]] | 36 UHF | [[Antv]] Lampung | Ya |- | [[Cahaya TV]] | 32 UHF | [[Antv]] Pati | Tidak |- | CTV Semarang | 39 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Yogyakarta | 35 UHF | [[tvOne]] Semarang | Ya |- | CTV Surabaya | 32 UHF | [[antv]] Surabaya | Ya |- | [[CTV Bandung]] | 38 UHF | [[antv]] Bandung | Ya |- | CTV Medan | 40 UHF | [[antv]] Medan | Ya |- | |} ==Referensi== {{reflist}} iu6s8mtswnq5jsg8jk6wj81ycd3943x 0 104086 712529 632198 2026-09-05T17:42:27Z FerdinandoUSS 37368 /* */ 712529 wikitext text/x-wiki @adajja == Tujuan Produksi == Produksi miboga tujuan kawas ieu di handap. # Nyumponan pangabutuh [[manusa]] pikeun ngahontal karaharjaan. Kamakmuran bisa dihontal upami barang sareng jasa aya dina jumlah nyukupan. Jalma jeung pausahaan nu ngalaksanakeun hiji prosés produksi disebut produsén. # Ngahasilkeun Barang jeung Jasa. # Nyumponan pangabutuh para palaku [[Usaha mékanik|usaha]]. # Ngalegaan widang usaha. <ref>{{Cite news|title=Mengenal Tujuan Produksi, Pengertian Para Ahli, Fungsi, Serta Jenis-jenisnya|url=https://www.merdeka.com/trending/mengenal-tujuan-produksi-pengertian-para-ahli-fungsi-serta-jenis-jenisnya.html|work=[[Merdeka.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-10-14|last=Fa'izah|first=Addina Zulfa|editor-last=Fa'izah|editor-first=Addina Zulfa}}</ref> # Ngajaga lumangsungna pausahaan. # Ngaronjatkeun kualitas jeung kuantitas produksi. # Ngaganti barang-barang anu ruksak alatan dipaké atawa alatan bencana alam. == Wanda == * [[Gambar:Warung Pangkep Jeneponto.JPG|jmpl|247x247px|Warung salah sahiji wanda produksi dagang.]]Produksi ékstraktif, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu bahanna dicokot tina sumber daya alam anu aya di [[Marcapada|bumi]], barang-barang éta saterusna dijual ka pausahaan séjén pikeun diolah jadi barang anyar. Contona pertambangan, ngagali keusik, jsb. * Produksi jasa, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu boga tujuan pikeun ngajual jasa atawa kaahlian tangtu anu dipibanda. Produksi anu ngabantosan sareng ngagancangkeun prosés produksi tanpa ilubiung dina ngadamel barang sorangan. Contona perbankan, akuntansi, asuransi, jsb. * Produksi [[industri]], nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu boga tujuan pikeun ngarobah bahan baku jadi barang jadi atawa barang satengah jadi anu saterusna dijual ka konsumén. * Produksi [[Agrikultur|tatanén]], nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu ngamangpaatkeun sumber daya alam (tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan) pikeun ngahasilkeun produk anu dibutuhkeun ku masarakat sacara umum ku ngaliwatan tahapan pangurus anu bener jeung bener. Contona tatanén, perkebunan, peternakan, jsb. * Produksi angkutan nyaéta produksi anu miboga tujuan pikeun ngalayanan distribusi atawa mindahkeun barang ti produsén ka tempat anu pangdeukeutna ka konsumén. * Produksi dagang, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu miboga peran minangka penghubung antara produsen jeung konsumen. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Astuti|first=Novi Fuji|date=5 Oktober 2020|title=Produksi adalah Proses Menciptakan Barang dan Jasa, Perhatikan Jenis dan Tujuannya|url=https://www.merdeka.com/jabar/produksi-adalah-proses-menciptakan-barang-dan-jasa-perhatikan-jenis-dan-tujuannya-kln.html|work=[[Merdeka.com]]|language=id|access-date=2021-01-19|editor-last=Fuji|editor-first=Novi}}</ref> Ogé bisa dihartikeun salaku produksi anu ngumpulkeun sarta ngajual ulang produksi ka jalma anu ngabédakeun nyieun untung. Contona warung, supermarket, kios, jsb. == Sumber == * Sumber daya alam ieu dina dasarna ngan sagalana nu asalna ti alam. Gampang pikeun manggihan, sababaraha bisa diropéa sarta sababaraha teu bisa diropéa. Dina prosés produksi ieu, nengetan jumlah sumberdaya pohara penting. Ulah nepi ka produksi dilaksanakeun sawenang-wenang sarta ngabalukarkeun sumber daya alam leungit sanggeus produksi lumangsung. * SDM (Sumber Daya Manusa) dipaké pikeun ningkatkeun daya guna jeung jasa. Ngan manusa nu bisa ngaronjatkeun pamakéan atawa ajén hiji hal. Boh jasmani boh rohani. Dimimitian ti tenaga kerja terdidik, tenaga kerja terlatih. * Sumberdaya modal ngawengku pakakas atawa barang anu dihasilkeun. Ngan éta, hasil produksi dipaké deui pikeun ngahasilkeun hiji barang. Modal ieu dibeuli langsung ku produsén sanes ku konsumén. Biasana harga anu ditawarkeun langkung murah tibatan anu dijual ka konsumén. * Sumber daya ahli leuwih museur kana kaahlian manusa. Kaahlian anu dimaksud bisa ningkatkeun nilai jeung kuantitas produksi. Kaahlian ogé mibogs ajén anu kacida pentingna pikeun ngalaksanakeun prosés produksi. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Tysara|first=Laudia|date=2020-09-22|title=Produksi Adalah Proses Menciptakan Barang dan Jasa, Ketahui Tujuan serta Jenisnya|url=https://hot.liputan6.com/read/4362967/produksi-adalah-proses-menciptakan-barang-dan-jasa-ketahui-tujuan-serta-jenisnya|work=[[Liputan6.com]]|language=id|access-date=2021-01-19|editor-last=Fahrudin|editor-first=Nanang}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Ékonomi]] qtc1divcswl3uoz04e3s21judngbtl3 712533 712529 2026-09-05T17:45:40Z Enbi 37369 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/FerdinandoUSS|FerdinandoUSS]] ([[User talk:FerdinandoUSS|talk]]) (TwinkleGlobal) 712533 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:The Production of Clothing in Britain, 1914-1918 Q28688.jpg|jmpl|260x260px|Kagiatan Produksi Baju di Inggris taun 1914.]] '''Produksi''' mangrupa kagiatan anu dilaksanakeun pikeun nambahan ajén kana objék atawa nyieun objék anyar sangkan leuwih mangpaat dina nyumponan pangabutuh. Kagiatan nambahkeun kana mangpaat hiji obyék tapi teu ngarobah bentukna disebut produksi jasa. Sedengkeun kagiatan ngaronjatkeun mangpaat hiji barang ku cara ngarobah sipat jeung wangunna disebut produksi barang. <ref>{{Cite news|title=Produksi: Pengertian, Tujuan, dan Faktornya|url=https://www.kompas.com/skola/read/2020/07/07/203500169/produksi--pengertian-tujuan-dan-faktornya|work=[[Kompas.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-10-02|editor-last=Welianto|editor-first=Ari}}</ref> Produksi mangrupa dampak parobahan tina dua atawa leuwih input (sumberdaya) jadi hiji atawa leuwih kaluaran (produk). Ieu kagiatan dina ékonomi dinyatakeun dina fungsi produksi. Fungsi produksi némbongkeun jumlah maksimum output nu bisa dihasilkeun tina ngagunakeun sababaraha input maké [[téhnologi]] nu tangtu. Pikeun nalungtik aspék produksi, para ékonom ngagunakeun fungsi produksi salaku alat analitik. Konsépsi abstrak ngeunaan fungsi produksi anu dumasar kana nilai ngamungkinkeun para ékonom pikeun nganalisis rupa-rupa masalah saperti nangtukeun kontribusi panghasilan kana faktor produksi, pangaruh faktor produksi kana pertumbuhan ékonomi, parobahan téknologi sareng karakteristik pangangguran téknologi. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Sutanto|first=Himawan Arif|date=2015-03-05|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=-mvEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19&dq=produksi+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwii5emZ4KbuAhXMZCsKHe9ICIQQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=produksi%20adalah&f=false|title=Monograf: TINGKAT EFISIENSI PRODUKSI DAN PENDAPATAN USAHA KECIL (Studi pengolahan ikan Asin di Kota Pekalongan). Dilengkapi dengan Panduan Software Fruntier 4.1|location=Semarang|publisher=AWHN|isbn=978-602-285-052-6|pages=19|language=id}}</ref> Produksi nyiptakeun barang sareng jasa pikeun nyumponan kabutuhan manusa. Kagiatan produksi merlukeun faktor produksi saperti sumberdaya alam, tanaga kerja, [[modal]] jeung téknologi. Dina hakékatna, produksi nyaéta nyiptakeun atawa nambahan mangpaat atawa wujud, waktu jeung tempat kana faktor-faktor produksi sangkan leuwih mangpaat pikeun kaperluan manusa. Ku alatan éta, produksi museurkeun kana usaha pikeun ngahasilkeun leuwih pamakéan barang sarta jasa pikeun minuhan kaperluan loba jalma. Sacara umum, tujuan perusahaan sareng produksi, nyaéta pikeun kéngingkeun kauntungan anu maksimal. Jadi perlu ngararancang jeung ngitung sacara saksama kualitas produksina. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Triastuti|first=U. Yuyun|date=2020-09-17|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=IeMNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=produksi+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwii5emZ4KbuAhXMZCsKHe9ICIQQuwUwAnoECAUQCQ#v=onepage&q=produksi%20adalah&f=false|title=BUKU AJAR MANAJEMEN PRODUKSI JASA BOGA|location=Cirebon|publisher=Syntax Computama|isbn=978-623-6609-04-0|pages=3|language=id|access-date=2021-01-19|archive-date=2021-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128101834/https://books.google.co.id/books?id=IeMNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=produksi+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwii5emZ4KbuAhXMZCsKHe9ICIQQuwUwAnoECAUQCQ#v=onepage&q=produksi%20adalah&f=false|dead-url=yes}}</ref> == Tujuan Produksi == Produksi miboga tujuan kawas ieu di handap. # Nyumponan pangabutuh [[manusa]] pikeun ngahontal karaharjaan. Kamakmuran bisa dihontal upami barang sareng jasa aya dina jumlah nyukupan. Jalma jeung pausahaan nu ngalaksanakeun hiji prosés produksi disebut produsén. # Ngahasilkeun Barang jeung Jasa. # Nyumponan pangabutuh para palaku [[Usaha mékanik|usaha]]. # Ngalegaan widang usaha. <ref>{{Cite news|title=Mengenal Tujuan Produksi, Pengertian Para Ahli, Fungsi, Serta Jenis-jenisnya|url=https://www.merdeka.com/trending/mengenal-tujuan-produksi-pengertian-para-ahli-fungsi-serta-jenis-jenisnya.html|work=[[Merdeka.com]]|language=id|access-date=2020-10-14|last=Fa'izah|first=Addina Zulfa|editor-last=Fa'izah|editor-first=Addina Zulfa}}</ref> # Ngajaga lumangsungna pausahaan. # Ngaronjatkeun kualitas jeung kuantitas produksi. # Ngaganti barang-barang anu ruksak alatan dipaké atawa alatan bencana alam. == Wanda == * [[Gambar:Warung Pangkep Jeneponto.JPG|jmpl|247x247px|Warung salah sahiji wanda produksi dagang.]]Produksi ékstraktif, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu bahanna dicokot tina sumber daya alam anu aya di [[Marcapada|bumi]], barang-barang éta saterusna dijual ka pausahaan séjén pikeun diolah jadi barang anyar. Contona pertambangan, ngagali keusik, jsb. * Produksi jasa, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu boga tujuan pikeun ngajual jasa atawa kaahlian tangtu anu dipibanda. Produksi anu ngabantosan sareng ngagancangkeun prosés produksi tanpa ilubiung dina ngadamel barang sorangan. Contona perbankan, akuntansi, asuransi, jsb. * Produksi [[industri]], nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu boga tujuan pikeun ngarobah bahan baku jadi barang jadi atawa barang satengah jadi anu saterusna dijual ka konsumén. * Produksi [[Agrikultur|tatanén]], nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu ngamangpaatkeun sumber daya alam (tutuwuhan jeung sasatoan) pikeun ngahasilkeun produk anu dibutuhkeun ku masarakat sacara umum ku ngaliwatan tahapan pangurus anu bener jeung bener. Contona tatanén, perkebunan, peternakan, jsb. * Produksi angkutan nyaéta produksi anu miboga tujuan pikeun ngalayanan distribusi atawa mindahkeun barang ti produsén ka tempat anu pangdeukeutna ka konsumén. * Produksi dagang, nyaéta kagiatan produksi anu miboga peran minangka penghubung antara produsen jeung konsumen. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Astuti|first=Novi Fuji|date=5 Oktober 2020|title=Produksi adalah Proses Menciptakan Barang dan Jasa, Perhatikan Jenis dan Tujuannya|url=https://www.merdeka.com/jabar/produksi-adalah-proses-menciptakan-barang-dan-jasa-perhatikan-jenis-dan-tujuannya-kln.html|work=[[Merdeka.com]]|language=id|access-date=2021-01-19|editor-last=Fuji|editor-first=Novi}}</ref> Ogé bisa dihartikeun salaku produksi anu ngumpulkeun sarta ngajual ulang produksi ka jalma anu ngabédakeun nyieun untung. Contona warung, supermarket, kios, jsb. == Sumber == * Sumber daya alam ieu dina dasarna ngan sagalana nu asalna ti alam. Gampang pikeun manggihan, sababaraha bisa diropéa sarta sababaraha teu bisa diropéa. Dina prosés produksi ieu, nengetan jumlah sumberdaya pohara penting. Ulah nepi ka produksi dilaksanakeun sawenang-wenang sarta ngabalukarkeun sumber daya alam leungit sanggeus produksi lumangsung. * SDM (Sumber Daya Manusa) dipaké pikeun ningkatkeun daya guna jeung jasa. Ngan manusa nu bisa ngaronjatkeun pamakéan atawa ajén hiji hal. Boh jasmani boh rohani. Dimimitian ti tenaga kerja terdidik, tenaga kerja terlatih. * Sumberdaya modal ngawengku pakakas atawa barang anu dihasilkeun. Ngan éta, hasil produksi dipaké deui pikeun ngahasilkeun hiji barang. Modal ieu dibeuli langsung ku produsén sanes ku konsumén. Biasana harga anu ditawarkeun langkung murah tibatan anu dijual ka konsumén. * Sumber daya ahli leuwih museur kana kaahlian manusa. Kaahlian anu dimaksud bisa ningkatkeun nilai jeung kuantitas produksi. Kaahlian ogé mibogs ajén anu kacida pentingna pikeun ngalaksanakeun prosés produksi. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Tysara|first=Laudia|date=2020-09-22|title=Produksi Adalah Proses Menciptakan Barang dan Jasa, Ketahui Tujuan serta Jenisnya|url=https://hot.liputan6.com/read/4362967/produksi-adalah-proses-menciptakan-barang-dan-jasa-ketahui-tujuan-serta-jenisnya|work=[[Liputan6.com]]|language=id|access-date=2021-01-19|editor-last=Fahrudin|editor-first=Nanang}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Ékonomi]] e9nzqdaijf7z76m4hdu0how8t8gh962 2 108840 712542 712511 2026-09-06T03:46:20Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712542 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Tepas'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Artikel|<span style="color:#006699">'''Artikel'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Pamilon|<span style="color:#006699">'''Pamilon'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Obrolan Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> {{Infobox |above = Bulan Wiki Junghuhn |headerstyle = background:#d5efff |labelstyle = text-align:start |subheader = Kagiatan ngédit artikel daring |image = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|220px|logo kegiatan]] |header1 = Info |label2 = Ringkesan |data2 = {{Lorem ipsum|line}} |label4= Titimangsa |data4 = 15 September - 31 October 2026 |header5 = Kontak |label6 = |data6 = [[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Pijri Paijar}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Hasnanf}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Akbar Soepadhi}} |header7 = <!--Organizer--> |label8 = |data8 = <!--Komunitas Wikimedia Ciwidey-Cimahi--> }} Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. ==Tujuan== {{Lorem ipsum|short}} *{{Lorem ipsum|short}} *{{Lorem ipsum|1}} ==Cara miluan== {{Lorem ipsum|short}} ==Daftar artikel== {{Div col|2}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Géologi|Geology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Vulkanologi|Vulcanology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Botani|Botany}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kawah Putih}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Topografi|Topography}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Tangkuban Parahu|Tangkuban Perahu}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Lémbang, Bandung Kulon|Lembang}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Junghuhnia}} {{Div col end}} <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> </div> ==Penyelenggara== <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center; font-size: large;">'''Sukarelawan Wikipédia Sunda Ciwidey-Cimahi'''</div> kx8clps1hv7xmebrbbic510nmuxs8it 712543 712542 2026-09-06T03:51:08Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Tujuan */ 712543 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Tepas'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Artikel|<span style="color:#006699">'''Artikel'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Pamilon|<span style="color:#006699">'''Pamilon'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Obrolan Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> {{Infobox |above = Bulan Wiki Junghuhn |headerstyle = background:#d5efff |labelstyle = text-align:start |subheader = Kagiatan ngédit artikel daring |image = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|220px|logo kegiatan]] |header1 = Info |label2 = Ringkesan |data2 = {{Lorem ipsum|line}} |label4= Titimangsa |data4 = 15 September - 31 October 2026 |header5 = Kontak |label6 = |data6 = [[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Pijri Paijar}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Hasnanf}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Akbar Soepadhi}} |header7 = <!--Organizer--> |label8 = |data8 = <!--Komunitas Wikimedia Ciwidey-Cimahi--> }} Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. ==Tujuan== Proroyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta: *Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, botani, geologi.... *Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital. *Ngadokuméntasikeun lacak tapak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup. ==Cara miluan== {{Lorem ipsum|short}} ==Daftar artikel== {{Div col|2}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Géologi|Geology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Vulkanologi|Vulcanology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Botani|Botany}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kawah Putih}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Topografi|Topography}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Tangkuban Parahu|Tangkuban Perahu}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Lémbang, Bandung Kulon|Lembang}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Junghuhnia}} {{Div col end}} <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> </div> ==Penyelenggara== <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center; font-size: large;">'''Sukarelawan Wikipédia Sunda Ciwidey-Cimahi'''</div> gnfsmevjiqz2q8y0jbnb6dm7xekon6u 712544 712543 2026-09-06T03:53:09Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712544 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Tepas'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Artikel|<span style="color:#006699">'''Artikel'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn/Pamilon|<span style="color:#006699">'''Pamilon'''</span>]] | style="width: 5px; background: transparent;" | | style="width: 15em; border-top: .5em #006699 solid; background: #d5efff; padding: 10px; text-align: center; " |[[Obrolan Wikipédia:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn|<span style="color:#006699">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> {{Infobox |above = Bulan Wiki Junghuhn |headerstyle = background:#d5efff |labelstyle = text-align:start |subheader = Kagiatan ngédit artikel daring |image = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|220px|logo kegiatan]] |header1 = Info |label2 = Ringkesan |data2 = Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, naturalis asal Jérman anu meunang jujuluk "Humboldt ti Jawa", nyaéta jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung seuneu di Jawa sarta ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina pikeun ubar malaria nepi ka tutup umur di Lémbang. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn hadir minangka gerakan nulis kolaboratif di Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngadokumentasikeun sajarah jeung warisan sains Junghuhn dina basa indung pikeun generasi ngora. |label4= Titimangsa |data4 = 15 September - 31 October 2026 |header5 = Kontak |label6 = |data6 = [[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Pijri Paijar}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Hasnanf}}<br>[[File:Bullet-grey.png|5px]] {{u|Akbar Soepadhi}} |header7 = <!--Organizer--> |label8 = |data8 = <!--Komunitas Wikimedia Ciwidey-Cimahi--> }} Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. ==Tujuan== Proroyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta: *Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, botani, geologi.... *Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital. *Ngadokuméntasikeun lacak tapak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup. ==Cara miluan== {{Lorem ipsum|short}} ==Daftar artikel== {{Div col|2}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Géologi|Geology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Vulkanologi|Vulcanology}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Botani|Botany}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Kawah Putih}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Topografi|Topography}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Gunung Tangkuban Parahu|Tangkuban Perahu}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Lémbang, Bandung Kulon|Lembang}} # {{Tarjamahkeun artikel|Junghuhnia}} {{Div col end}} <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> </div> ==Penyelenggara== <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center; font-size: large;">'''Sukarelawan Wikipédia Sunda Ciwidey-Cimahi'''</div> d3jhkqiyxk2o0mguledxr9ijjsy3hn4