Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.19 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 1366 712677 712583 2026-09-14T01:30:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712677 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Basa program''' nyaéta [[basa jieunan]] nu bisa dipaké keur [[Control#Science and Technology|ngadalikeun]] paripolah hiji mesin, utamana [[komputer]].<ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=33636 ISO 5127]—Information and documentation—Vocabulary, clause 01.05.10, defines a programming language as: an artificial language for expressing programs</ref> Basa program, saperti [[basa alami]], dihartikeun ku aturan ''[[sintaks]]is'' jeung ''[[semantik]]'' keur ngajelaskeun struktur jeung hartina. Loba basa program nu mibanda sababaraha wanda dina nuliskeun ''sintaks'' jeung ''semantik''; sababaraha basa program ngan dihartikeun ku sawanda dina cara maké sacara resmi. Basa program dipaké keur mantuan ''komunikasi'' dina raraga ngokolakeun pangaweruh tur némbongkeun ''[[algoritma]]'' kalawan présisi. Sababaraha pangarang méré watesan nu leuwih heureut yén "basa program" nyaéta basa nu bisa dipaké keur ngagambarkeun ''sakabéh'' ''algoritma'' nu mungkin;<ref>In mathematical terms, this means the programming language is [[Turing-complete]] {{cite book | last=MacLennan | first=Bruce J. | title=Principles of Programming Languages | page=1 | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0-19-511306-3 }}</ref> kadangkala watesan "[[computer language|basa komputer]]" dipaké keur basa jieunan nu leuwih heureut. [[Alphabetical list of programming languages|Rébuan basa program nu béda-beda]]<ref>[[as of 2006|As of May 2006]] [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ |date=2011-02-20 }} by [[Murdoch University]], [[Australia]] lists 8512 computer languages.</ref> geus dijieun, tur méh unggal taun ngahasilkeun basa program nu anyar. == Harti == Sifat penting keur nangtukeun pilihan basa program nyaéta: * ''Fungsi:'' Basa program nyaéta basa nu paké keur nulis [[computer program|program komputer]], kaasup pintonan ''[[komputer]]'' dina sababaraha [[computation|komputasi]]<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN|title=Bylaws of the Special Interest Group on Programming Languages of the Association for Computing Machinery|url=http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigplan/sigplan_bylaws.htm|accessdate=2006-06-19|year=2003}}, ''The scope of SIGPLAN is the theory, design, implementation, description, and application of computer programming languages - languages that permit the specification of a variety of different computations, thereby providing the user with significant control (immediate or delayed) over the computer's operation.''</ref> atawa [[algoritma]] sarta bisa ogé salaku alat kadali luar saperti [[Computer printer|printer]], robot<ref name="robots">{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.brown.edu/people/tld/courses/cs148/02/programming.html |title=Programming Robots |accessdate=2006-09-23 |last=Dean |first=Tom |date= |year=2002 |work=Building Intelligent Robots |publisher=Brown University Department of Computer Science}}</ref>, jeung nu séjénna. * ''Target:'' Basa program béda jeung [[natural language|basa alami]] yén dina basa alami ngan dipaké keur antar manusa, ari dina basa program ngawenangkeun jalma keur nyieun parentah kana mesin. Sababaraha basa program dipaké keur alat ngadalikeun nu séjénna. Contona program [[PostScript]] remen dijieun ku basa program séjénna keur ngadalikeun [[computer printer|printer]] atawa tampila. * ''Konsep:'' Basa program mibanda sababaraha kompnen keur ngartikeun tur ngokolakeun [[data structure|struktur data]] atawa ngadalikeun [[control flow|kaputusan aliran]]. * ''Kakuatan éksprési:'' [[theory of computation|Téori komputasi]] misahkeun basa ku itungan nu bisa ditembongkeun (tempo [[Chomsky hierarchy|hirarki Chomsky]]). Sakabéh basa [[Turing complete|''Turing'' lengkep]] bisa dipaké kana runtuyan [[algoritma]] nu sarua. [[SQL|ANSI/ISO SQL]] jeung [[Charity programming language|Charity]] conto basa Turing teu lengkep nu ilahar disebut basa program.<ref>{{cite web | author=Digital Equipment Corporation | title=Information Technology - Database Language SQL (Proposed revised text of DIS 9075) | url=http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt | work=ISO/IEC 9075:1992, Database Language SQL | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Charity Development Group|title=The CHARITY Home Page|url=http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html|month=December|year=1996|accessdate=2006-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718010551/http://pll.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/charity1/www/home.html |date=2006-07-18 }}, ''Charity is a categorical programming language...'', ''All Charity computations terminate.''</ref> Basa non-komputasi, saperti [[markup language|basa markup]] siga [[HTML]] atawa [[formal grammar]] siga [[Backus–Naur form|BNF]], ilaharna teu disebut basa program. Ilaharna basa program ditambahkeun kana basa non-itungan ieu. == Kaperluan == Kaperluan utama basa program nyaéta keur méré paréntah kana komputer. Saperti, basa program béda jeung éksprési jalma nu mana merlukeun présisi nu luhur tur lengkep. Waktu ngagunakan hiji basa alam keur ngobrol jeung jalma séjén, pangarang jeung nu ngobrol bisa bingung tur nyieun saeutik kasalahan, sarta duana masih bisa ngarti. béda jeung komputer nu sarua jeung naon anu diparéntahkeun ka manéhna, teu bisa ngarti kana kode nu nyieun program "nu dimaksud" keur nulis. Kombinasi harti basa, [[computer program|program]], jeung asupan program kudu sacara husus ngartikeun paripolah luar nu bakal kajadian lamun éta program dijalankeun. Loba basa geus dirancang ti anggalna, dirobah pikeun minuhan kabutuhan anyar, digabungkeun jeung basa séjén, sarta pamustunganana ditinggalkeun. Sanaos aya usaha pikeun ngararancang hiji basa komputer "universal" anu bisa dipaké pikeun sakabéh tujuan, aranjeunna sadayana gagal ditampi dina peran ieu.<ref>IBM in first publishing PL/I, for example, rather ambitiously titled its manual ''The universal programming language PL/I'' (IBM Library; 1966). The title reflected IBM's goals for unlimited subsetting capability: ''PL/I is designed in such a way that one can isolate subsets from it satisfying the requirements of particular applications.'' ({{cite web | url=http://eom.springer.de/P/p072885.htm | title= Encyclopaedia of Mathematics » P » PL/I | work=SpringerLink | accessdate=June 29 | accessyear=2006}}). [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[UNCOL]] had similar early goals.</ref> Kabutuhan pikeun rupa-rupa basa komputer bijil tina rupa-rupa basa kontéks anu digunakeunana : * Program dibasajankeun ''skrip'' leutik anu ditulis ku individu anu mikaresep nepi ka sistem ageung anu ditulis ku ratusan programer. * Kaahlian ''programmer'' bénten-bénten ti kawit anu ngabaladah kéneh anu ngutamikeun kasederhanaan tina sagalarupina, nepi ka saurang ''pakar'' anu ngaraos ''nyaman'' ku ''kompleksitas'' anu kawilang luhur. * Program kedah nyaimbangkeun kacepetan, ukuran, jeung kasederhanaan dina ieu sistem ti kawit ''[[mikrokontroler]]'' nepi ka ''[[superkomputer]]''. * Program bisa diserat sakali jeung henteu dirobih salami sababaraha generasi, atawa bisa ngrandapan ''modifikasi'' anu ampir ''konstan''. * Panungtung, programmer panginten ngan benten dina pangaresepna: aranjeuna bisa waé tos lumrah ngabahas masalah jeung ngalaksanakeunna dina basa anu tos ditangtoskeun. {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]]. The éarliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer. As new programming languages have developed, féatures have been added that let programmers express idéas that are more removed from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the needs of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer. This lets them write more programs in the same amount of time.<ref>Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.: ''The Mythical Man-Month,'' Addison-Wesley, 1982, pp. 93-94</ref> [[Natural language and computation|Natural language processors]] have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. [[Edsger Dijkstra]] took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of méaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish."<ref>Dijkstra, Edsger W. [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD06xx/EWD667.html On the foolishness of "natural language programming."] EWD667.</ref> [[Alan Perlis]] was similarly dismissive of the idéa.<ref>Perlis, Alan, [http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html Epigrams on Programming] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117034445/http://www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/users/klaeren/epigrams.html |date=1999-01-17 }}. SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9, September 1982, pp. 7-13</ref> == Elements == === Syntax === [[Gambar:Python_add5_parse.png|thumb|right|396px|[[Parse tree]] of Python code with inset tokenization]] [[Gambar:Python_add5_syntax.svg|thumb|right|292px|[[Syntax highlighting]] is often used to aid programmers in the recognition of elements of source code. The language you see here is [[Python (programming language)|Python]]]] A programming language's surface form is known as its [[syntax]]. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more [[visual programming language|graphical]] in nature, using spatial relationships between symbols to specify a program. The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The méaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics. Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax. Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of [[regular expression]]s (for [[lexical analysis|lexical]] structure) and [[Backus-Naur Form]] (for [[context-free grammar|grammatical]] structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]: <code> expression ::= atom | list<br /> atom ::= number | symbol<br /> number ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+<br /> symbol ::= ['A'-'Z'<nowiki>'</nowiki>a'-'z'].*<br /> list ::= '(' expression* ')'<br /> </code> This grammar specifies the following: * an ''expression'' is either an ''atom'' or a ''list''; * an ''atom'' is either a ''number'' or a ''symbol''; * a ''number'' is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign; * a ''symbol'' is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and * a ''list'' is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more ''expressions'' inside it. The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '<code>12345</code>', '<code>()</code>', '<code>(a b c232 (1))</code>' Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit [[undefined behavior]]. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a méaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it. Using [[natural language]] as an example, it may not be possible to assign a méaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false: * "[[Colorless green ideas sleep furiously]]." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted méaning. * "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a méaning that cannot be true. The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because <tt>p</tt> is a [[null pointer]], the operations <tt>p->réal</tt> and <tt>p->im</tt> have no méaning): complex *p = NULL; complex abs_p = sqrt (p->réal * p->réal + p->im * p->im); The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the [[Chomsky hierarchy]]. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are [[context-free grammar]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation |url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_0534956513 | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 2.2: Pushdown Automata, pp.101–114.</ref> === Type system === {{details|Type system}} {{details|Type safety}} A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into ''types'', how it can manipulate those types and how they interact. This generally includes a description of the [[data structure]]s that can be constructed in the language. The design and study of type systems using formal mathematics is known as ''[[type theory]]''. Internally, all [[data]] in modérn digital computers are stored simply as zeros or ones ([[Binary numeral system|binary]]). ==== Typed versus untyped languages ==== A language is ''typed'' if operations defined for one data type cannot be performed on values of another data type.<ref name="typing">{{cite web | url=http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html#sec-types | author=Andrew Cooke | title=An Introduction to Programming Languages | accessdate=June 30 | accessyear=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521224046/http://www.acooke.org/andrew/writing/lang.html#sec-types |date=2008-05-21 }}</ref> For example, "<code>this text between the quotes</code>" is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no méaning. Most modérn programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation. In some languages, the méaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a runtime [[Exception handling|exception]]. A special case of typed languages are the ''single-type'' languages. These are often scripting or markup languages, such as [[Rexx]] or [[SGML]], and have only one data type — most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data. In contrast, an ''untyped language'', such as most [[assembly language]]s, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.<ref name="typing"/> High-level languages which are untyped include [[BCPL]] and some varieties of [[Forth (programming language)|Forth]]. In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of [[type theory]] (verifying or rejecting ''all'' operations), most modérn languages offer a degree of typing.<ref name="typing"/> Many production languages provide méans to bypass or subvert the type system. ==== Static versus dynamic typing ==== In ''[[static typing]]'' all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time). For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.<ref name="typing"/> Statically-typed languages can be ''manifestly typed'' or ''[[type inference|type-inferred]]''. In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable [[declaration (computer science)|declarations]]). In the second case, the compiler ''infers'' the types of expressions and declarations based on context. Most mainstréam statically-typed languages, such as [[C Plus Plus|C++]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]], are manifestly typed. Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstréam languages, such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] and [[ML programming language|ML]]. However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, [[Java (programming language)|Java]] and [[C Sharp|C#]] both infer types in certain limited cases.<ref>Specifically, instantiations of [[generic programming|generic]] types are inferred for certain expression forms. Type inference in Generic Java—the research language that provided the basis for Java 1.5's bounded [[parametric polymorphism]] extensions—is discussed in two informal manuscripts from the [[Types mailing list]]: [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00849.html Generic Java type inference is unsound] ([[Alan Jeffrey]], 17 Dec 2001) and [http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~sweirich/types/archive/1999-2003/msg00921.html Sound Generic Java type inference] ([[Martin Odersky]], 15 Jan 2002). C#'s type system is similar to Java's, and uses a similar partial type inference scheme.</ref> ''Dynamic typing'', also called ''latent typing'', determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with ''runtime values'' rather than ''textual expressions''.<ref name="typing"/> As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions. Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution. However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[JavaScript]], and [[Python (programming language)|Python]] are dynamically typed. ==== Weak and strong typing ==== ''Weak typing'' allows a value of one type to be tréated as another, for example tréating a string as a number.<ref name="typing"/> This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at [[compile time]]. ''Strong typing'' prevents the above. Attempting to mix types raises an error.<ref name="typing"/> Strongly-typed languages are often termed ''type-safe'' or ''[[type safety|safe]]''. Type safety can prevent particular kinds of program faults occurring (because constructs containing them are flagged at compile time). An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as [[Perl]], [[JavaScript]], and [[C++]] which permit a large number of implicit type conversions; Perl in particular can be characterized as a dynamically typed programming language in which type checking can take place at runtime. See [[type system]]. This capability is often useful, but occasionally dangerous; as it would permit operations whose objects can change type on demand. ''Strong'' and ''static'' are generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs. Some use the term ''strongly typed'' to méan ''strongly, statically typed'', or, even more confusingly, to méan simply ''statically typed''. Thus [[C (programming language)|C]] has been called both strongly typed and wéakly, statically typed.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-4.html | title=Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme (February 20, 1998) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cardelli85understanding.html | title=On Understanding Types, Data Abstraction, and Polymorphism | author=[[Luca Cardelli]] and [[Peter Wegner]] | work=Manuscript (1985) | accessdate=June 9 | accessyear=2006}}</ref>. === Execution semantics === Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. The ''execution semantics'' of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. For example, the semantics may define the [[evaluation strategy|strategy]] by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which [[control structure]]s conditionally execute statements. === Core library === {{details|Standard library}} Most programming languages have an associated [[library (computer science)|core library]] (sometimes known as the 'Standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output. A language's core library is often tréated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have tréated it as a separate entity. Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required. The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language. Indeed, some languages are designed so that the méanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library. For example, in [[Java (programming language)|Java]], a string literal is defined as an instance of the <tt>java.lang.String</tt> class; similarly, in [[Smalltalk]], an [[anonymous function]] expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's <tt>BlockContext</tt> class. Conversely, [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library. == Practice == A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming. The most important of these artifacts are the language ''specification'' and ''implementation''. === Specification === {{details|Programming language specification}} The '''specification''' of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that language [[programmer|users]] and [[programming language implementation|implementors]] can use to determine the behavior of a [[computer program|program]], given its [[source code]]. A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following: * An explicit definition of the syntax and semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in [[natural language]] (e.g., the [[C language]]), or a [[formal semantics of programming languages|formal semantics]] (e.g., the [[Standard ML]] <ref>{{cite book | last = Milner | first = R. | authorlink = Robin Milner | coauthors = [[Mads Tofte|M. Tofte]], [[Robert Harper (computer scientist)|R. Harper]] and D. MacQueen. | title = The Definition of Standard ML (Revised) | publisher = MIT Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-262-63181-4 }}</ref> and [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]]<ref>{{cite web|first=Richard |last=Kelsey|coauthors=William Clinger and Jonathan Rees|title=Section 7.2 Formal semantics|work=Revised⁵ Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme|url = http://www.schemers.org/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-10.html#%_sec_7.2| year=1998|month=February|accessdate=2006-06-09}}</ref> specifications). * A description of the behavior of a [[compiler|translator]] for the language (e.g., the [[C++]] and [[Fortran]] specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language. * A ''reference'' or ''model'' implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., [[Prolog]] or [[Rexx|ANSI REXX]]<ref>[[ANSI]] — Programming Language Rexx, X3-274.1996</ref>). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation. === Implementation === {{details|Programming language implementation}} An '''implementation''' of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software. There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: ''[[compiler|compilation]]'' and ''[[interpreter (computing)|interpretation]]''. It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique. The output of a [[compiler]] may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter. In some implementations that maké use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting. For instance, some implementations of the [[BASIC programming language]] compile and then execute the source a line at a time. Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software. One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is [[just-in-time compilation]]. Here the [[virtual machine]] monitors which sequences of [[bytecode]] are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware. == History == [[Gambar:Programming language textbooks.jpg|thumb|230px|right|A selection of textbooks that teach programming, in languages both popular and obscure. These are only a few of the thousands of programming languages and dialects that have been designed in history.]] {{details|History of programming languages}} === Early developments === The first programming languages predate the modérn computer. The 19th century had "programmable" [[loom]]s and [[player piano]] scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of [[domain-specific programming language]]s. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]] and [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machine]]s provided mathematical abstractions for expressing [[algorithm]]s; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.<ref>Benjamin C. Pierce writes: :". . . the lambda calculus has seen widespread use in the specification of programming language features, in language design and implementation, and in the study of type systems." {{cite book | last=Pierce | first=Benjamin C. | authorlink=Benjamin C. Pierce | title=Types and Programming Languages | publisher=[[MIT Press]] | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-262-16209-1 | pages=52 }}</ref> In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were créated. The computers of the éarly 1950s, notably the [[UNIVAC I]] and the [[IBM 701]] used [[Machine code|machine language programs]]. [[First-generation programming language|First generation]] machine language programming was quickly superseded by a [[Second-generation programming language|second generation]] of programming languages known as [[Assembly language]]s. Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of [[macro instruction]]s, was followed by the development of three higher-level programming languages: [[FORTRAN]], [[Lisp programming language|LISP]], and [[COBOL]]. Updated versions of all of these are still in general use, and importantly, éach has strongly influenced the development of later languages.<ref name="influences">{{cite web | url=http://www.oreilly.com/news/graphics/prog_lang_poster.pdf | type=pdf | title=History of programming languages | author=[[O'Reilly Media]] | accessdate=October 5 | accessyear=2006 }}</ref> At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as [[Algol 60]] was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol.<ref name="influences"/> The format and use of the éarly programming languages was héavily influenced by the [[Computer programming in the punch card era|constraints of the interface]]. <ref>Frank da Cruz. [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/cards.html IBM Punch Cards] [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/index.html Columbia University Computing History].</ref> === Refinement === The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of idéas in the very first [[Third-generation programming language]]s: * [[APL (programming language)|APL]] introduced ''[[array programming]]'' and influenced [[functional programming]].<ref>Richard L. Wexelblat: ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press, 1981, chapter XIV.</ref> * [[PL/I]] (NPL) was designed in the éarly 1960s to incorporate the best idéas from FORTRAN and COBOL. * In the 1960s, [[Simula programming language|Simula]] was the first language designed to support ''[[object-oriented programming]]''; in the mid-1970s, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]] followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language. * [[C (programming language)|C]] was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a ''[[systems programming]]'' language, and remains popular.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~flab/languages.html | author=François Labelle | title=Programming Language Usage Graph | work=[[Sourceforge]] | accessdate=June 21 | accessyear=2006 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617055109/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/%7Eflab/languages.html |date=2006-06-17 }}. This comparison analyzes trends in number of projects hosted by a popular community programming repository. During most years of the comparison, C leads by a considerable margin; in 2006, Java overtakes C, but the combination of C/C++ still leads considerably.</ref> * [[Prolog programming language|Prolog]], designed in 1972, was the first ''[[logic programming]]'' language. * In 1978, [[ML programming language|ML]] built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering ''[[static typing|statically typed]] [[functional programming]]'' languages. éach of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modérn languages count at léast one of them in their ancestry. The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of ''[[structured programming]]'', and whether programming languages should be designed to support it.<ref>{{Citation | title=The Semicolon Wars | journal=American Scientist | first1=Brian | last1=Hayes | volume=94 | issue=4 | year=2006 | pages=pp. 299-303}}</ref> [[Edsger W. Dijkstra|Edsger Dijkstra]], in a famous 1968 letter published in the [[Communications of the ACM]], argued that [[GOTO]] statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dijkstra|first=Edsger W.|authorlink=Edsger Dijkstra|title=Go To Statement Considered Harmful|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=11|issue=3|month=March|year=1968|pages=147–148|url=http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/|accessdate=2006-06-29}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703050443/http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ |date=2007-07-03 }}</ref> The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The [[Computer programming in the punch card era|card deck]] for an éarly [[Fourth-generation programming language|4GL]] was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a [[Third-generation programming language|3GL deck]]. === Consolidation and growth === The 1980s were yéars of relative consolidation. [[C Plus Plus|C++]] combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized [[Ada programming language|Ada]], a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called [[Fifth generation computer|"fifth generation" languages]] that incorporated logic programming constructs<ref>Tetsuro Fujise, Takashi Chikayama Kazuaki Rokusawa, Akihiko Nakase (December 1994). "KLIC: A Portable Implementation of KL1" ''Proc. of FGCS '94, ICOT'' Tokyo, December 1994. [http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html KLIC is a portable implementation of a concurrent logic programming language ][[KL1]]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925132105/http://www.icot.or.jp/ARCHIVE/HomePage-E.html |date=2006-09-25 }}</ref>. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the idéas invented in the previous decade. One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an incréased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of ''modules'', or large-scale organizational units of code. [[Modula-2]], Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as [[PL/I]], alréady had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to [[generic programming]] constructs.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jim Bender|url=http://readscheme.org/modules/|title=Mini-Bibliography on Modules for Functional Programming Languages|work=ReadScheme.org|accessdate=2006-09-27|date=March 15th, 2004}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924085057/http://readscheme.org/modules/ |date=2006-09-24 }}</ref> The rapid growth of the [[Internet]] in the mid-1990's créated opportunities for new languages. [[Perl]], originally a Unix scripting tool first reléased in 1987, became common in dynamic [[Web site]]s. [[Java (programming language)|Java]] came to be used for server-side programming. These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages. Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and reséarch. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity ([[mixin]]s, [[Delegation (programming)|delegates]], [[aspect-oriented programming|aspects]]), and database integration. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} The [[4GL]]s are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as [[SQL]], which manipulates and returns [[set]]s of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. [[Perl]], for example, with its '[[here document]]' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming<ref>Wall, ''Programming Perl'' ISBN 0-596-00027-8 p.66</ref>. === Measuring language usage === It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage méans varies by context. One language may occupy the gréater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, [[COBOL]] is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large [[Mainframe computer|mainframes]]; [[Fortran (programming language)|FORTRAN]] in engineering applications; [[C (programming language)|C]] in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. Various methods of méasuring language popularity, éach subject to a different bias over what is méasured, have been proposed: * counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language<ref>[http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language]</ref> * the number of books sold that téach or describe the language<ref>[http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html Counting programming languages by book sales]</ref> * estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public séarches<ref>Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001</ref> * counts of language references found using a web séarch engine. == Taxonomies == {{details|Categorical list of programming languages}} There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language. Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new idéas in circulation at the time. Idéas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then léap suddenly across familial gaps to appéar in an entirely different family. The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes. For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple [[Thread (computer science)|threads]] in parallel). [[Python (programming language)|Python]] is an object-oriented [[scripting language]]. In broad strokes, programming languages divide into ''[[programming paradigm]]s'' and a classification by ''intended domain of use''. Paradigms include [[procedural programming]], [[object-oriented programming]], [[functional programming]], and [[logic programming]]; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic. An [[assembly language]] is not so much a paradigm as a direct modél of an underlying machine architecture. By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html|title=TUNES: Programming Languages}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020203251/http://tunes.org/wiki/programming_20languages.html |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wirth|first=Niklaus|authorlink=Niklaus Wirth|title=Recollections about the development of Pascal|journal=Proc. 2nd [[ACM SIGPLAN]] conference on history of programming languages|pages=333–342|year=1993|url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=155378|accessdate=2006-06-30}}</ref> A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use [[English language]] keywords, while a [[Categorical list of programming languages#Non-English-based languages|minority do not]]. Other languages may be classified as being [[Esoteric programming language|esoteric]] or not. == See also == {{portal|Computer science}} {{wikibooks|Computer programming}} {{wiktionarypar|programming language}} * [[List of programming languages]] * [[Comparison of programming languages]] * [[Literate programming]] * [[Invariant based programming]] * [[Programming language dialect]] * [[Programming language theory]] * [[Computer science]] and [[List of basic computer science topics]] * [[Software engineering]] and [[List of software engineering topics]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == * Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: ''Essentials of Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2001. * David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: ''Programming Linguistics'', The MIT Press 1990. * Shriram Krishnamurthi: ''Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation'', [http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/ online publication]. * Bruce J. MacLennan: ''Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation'', Oxford University Press 1999. * John C. Mitchell: ''Concepts in Programming Languages'', Cambridge University Press 2002. * Benjamin C. Pierce: ''Types and Programming Languages'', The MIT Press 2002. * Ravi Sethi: ''Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs'', 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996. * Michael L. Scott: ''Programming Language Pragmatics'', Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005. * Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): ''History of Programming Languages'', Academic Press 1981. == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 Bottles of Beer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209194347/http://99-bottles-of-beer.net/ |date=2010-02-09 }} A collection of implementations in many languages. * [http://www.levenez.com/lang/history.html Computer Languages History graphical chart] * [http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl Dictionary of Programming Languages] * [http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ History of Programming Languages (HOPL)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ |date=2011-02-20 }} * [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/ Open Directory - Computer Programming Languages] * [http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ Syntax Patterns for Various Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510185903/http://merd.sourceforge.net/pixel/language-study/syntax-across-languages/ |date=2008-05-10 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060513071849/http://www.ulb.ac.be/di/rwuyts/INFO020_2003/grogono-evolution.pdf The Evolution of Programming Languages] by Peter Grogono {{Programming language}} {{Computer language}} [[Kategori:Jejer basa pamrograman| ]] [[Kategori:Basa komputer]] egu8fxzm99an5tp6rug6gj5vnfs6qre 0 5264 712678 650162 2026-09-14T01:54:32Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712678 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Content Protection for Recordable Media and Pre-Recorded Media''' (CPRM / CPPM) nyaéta hiji mékanisme oukeun ngadalikeun pangrékaman, pamindahan jeung panghapusan média digital dina hiji parangkat rumah tangga, saperti [[komputer pribadi]], atawa [[pamuter digital]] séjénna. CPRM sering disebut ogé minangka "[[Digital rights management]]" (atawa "DRM") nu dikembangkeun ku [[4C Entity]], LLC ([[IBM]], [[Intel]], [[Matsushita]] jeung [[Toshiba]]). <!-- CPRM has received nowhere near the attention of privacy rights advocates and the public as has [[Windows Media DRM]] scheme and the [[Content Scrambling System]] (CSS), [[FairPlay]] or the other similar schemes. The system was [[Software cracking|cracked]] early and is essentially moribund. Free and pay software that bypasses the "protection" is widely available (it should be noted that bypassing CPRM/CPPM appears to be a violation of the [[DMCA]]). The CPRM / CPPM Specification defines a renewable [[cryptography|cryptographic]] method for protecting entertainment content when recorded on physical media. The currently implemented method utilize the [[Cryptomeria cipher]] (C2). The types of physical media supported include, but are not limited to, recordable [[DVD]] media and [[Flash memory]] (note that the available 0.9 revision includes only the portions of the specification covering DVD media). The most widespread use of CPRM is arguably in [[Secure Digital card]]s. A controversial proposal to embed CPRM in [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]] hard drives was abandoned after popular outcry in [[2001]]. However, [[as of 2006]], CPRM is widely deployed in the popular [[Secure Digital card]] consumer-electronics Flash memory format with little notice from electronic personal-rights advocates (e.g. Electronic Frontier Foundation, q.v. below). It is probably significant that although CPRM-capable storage formats such as Secure Digital are now widely available, the use of CPRM in these formats is not mandatory. Users are able to ignore the rights-management features entirely if they so choose, and for example can freely copy [[MP3]] music files to and from personal music players or [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDAs]] based on Secure Digital cards with no restrictions. Only special CPRM-enabled media formats, which do not yet seem to have achieved market visibility, will impose copying restrictions. The use of the CPRM specification and access to the intellectual property and cryptographic materials required to implement it requires a license from [[4C Entity]], LLC. The license includes a facsimile key for the product which uses CPRM/CPPM technology. --> == Tumbu Luar == * {{en}} [http://www.eff.org the Electronic Frontier Foundation ] Keur informasi macem-macem privasi éléktronika jeung komputer sarta isu "DRM". * {{en}} [http://www.4centity.com/tech/cprm/ Ramatloka 4C Entity CPRM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616031400/http://www.4centity.com/tech/cprm/ |date=2006-06-16 }} * {{en}} [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/01/10/everything_you_ever_wanted/ 2001 Artikel régister kana CPRM dina drive ATA] * {{en}} [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ Ngarti kana Recordable & Rewritable DVD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204073515/http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ |date=2012-02-04 }} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Manajemén Hak Digital]] nvzzestv0evfpefkztd1v45lswu5r66 0 24973 712680 710191 2026-09-14T02:08:29Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712680 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ Perluna '''runtuyan basa program''' nyaéta keur nyatet [[programming language|basa program]] nu aya, boh nu ayeuna dipaké atawa pernah dipaké, diruntuykeun dumasar kana abjad. Runtuyan séjénna dumasar kana: #Abjad #[[Categorical list of programming languages|Kategori]] #[[Timeline of programming languages|Sajarah]] #[[Generational list of programming languages|Generasi]] Catetan: ''Dialek [[BASIC]] geus dipindahkeun sacara misah'''[[List of BASIC dialects]]'''''. {{CompactTOC4}} ==0-9== *[[1C]] products internal script *[[2.PAK]] *[[20-GATE]] *[[473L Query]] *[[51-FORTH]] ==A== *[[A+ (programming language)|A+]] *[[A++]] *[[A Sharp (.NET)|A# .NET]] *[[A Sharp (Axiom)|A# (Axiom)]] *[[A-0 (programming language)|A-0]] *[[ABAP]] *[[ABC (programming language)|ABC]] *[[ABC ALGOL]] *[[ABLE (programming language)|ABLE]] *[[ABSET]] *[[ABSYS]] *[[ACC programming language|ACC]] *[[Accent (programming language)|Accent]] *[[DASL - Distributed Application Specification Language|Ace DASL]] *[[LGP-30#ACT-III programming language|ACT-III]] *[[Action!]] *[[Action Code Script|ACS]] *[[ActionScript]] *[[Actor (programming language)|Actor]] *[[Ada (programming language)|Ada]] *[[ADMINS]] - Automated Data Methods for Information Naming Systems [http://www.admins.com/homepage1.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070226075826/http://www.admins.com/homepage1.html |date=2007-02-26 }} *[[ADS/Online]] *[[AdvPL]] *[[Afnix (programming language)|Aleph]] *[[AIMMS]] *[[Cleverpath AION Business Rules Expert|AION]] *[[Alan (programming language)|Alan]] *ALC Assembly Language Common, IBM acronym for BAL [[Basic assembly language]] *[[Aldor]] *[[Alef (programming language)|Alef]] - concurrent language used in éarly versions of [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]] *[[Algae (programming language)|Algae]] *[[ALGO]] *[[ALGOL]] *[[Alice (programming language)|Alice]] *[[Alphard (programming language)|Alphard]] *[[AmigaE]] *[[AMOS BASIC|AMOS]] *[[AMPL (programming language)|AMPL]] *[[ApeScript]] *[[APL (programming language)|APL]] *[[AppleScript]] *[[Apply]] - A domain-specific language for image processing on parallel or conventional architectures *[[AREXX]] - [[Amiga]] version of [[REXX]] scripting language *[[Argos (programming language)|Argos]] *[[ARS plusplus|ARS++]] *[[AspectJ]] *[[Assembly language|Assembly]] *[[Abbreviated Test Language for Avionics Systems|ATLAS]] *[[Atlas Autocode]] *[[ATOLL (programming language)|ATOLL]] - Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language *[[Aubit-4GL]] *[[Autocoder]] *[[AutoHotkey]] *[[AutoIt]] *[[AutoLISP]] *[[Averest]] *[[AWK (programming language)|AWK]] - Also derivatives gawk, mawk, and nawk *[[Axiom computer algebra system|Axiom]] *[[Axiom-XL]] ==B== *[[B (programming language)|B]] *[[BACI]] *[[BASIC]] - Beginners All-purpose Symbollic Instruction Code - ''See also [[List of BASIC dialects]] [[List of BASIC dialects by platform|(by platform)]]'' *[[bc (programming language)|bc]] *[[bcompile]] *[[BCPL]] *[[BeanShell]] <!-- *[[Befunge]] belongs on the esoteric page --> *[[BETA]] *[[Bigwig (programming language)|Bigwig]] *[[Bistro (programming language)|Bistro]] *[[BLISS (programming language)|BLISS]] *[[Blitz Basic]] *[[Block And List Manipulation]] (BALM) *[[Blue programming language (Ada prototype)|Blue]] - Rejected prototype for [[Ada programming language|Ada]] *[[Blue (programming language)|Blue]] *[[Boo (programming language)|Boo]] *[[Bourne shell]] (sh) *[[Bourne-Again shell]] (bash) *[[Boxx]] *[[BPEL]] - Business Process Execution Language *[[Brainfuck]] *[[BUGSYS]] *[[BuildProfessional]] *[[BYOND]] ==C== *[[C (programming language)|C]] *[[C--]] *[[C-script]] *[[C++]] *[[C Sharp|C#]] *[[C shell]] (csh) *[[Caché ObjectScript]] - See also [[Caché Basic]] *[[Ocaml|Caml]] *[[Cayenne (programming language)|Cayenne]] *[[CeeBot]] *[[Cecil (programming language)|Cecil]] *[[Cesil]] *[[Cg (programming language)|Cg]] *[[Chapel (programming language)|Chapel]] *[[CHAIN (programming language)|CHAIN]] *[[Charity (programming language)|Charity]] *[[Chey (programming language)|Chey]] *[[CHILL]] *[[Chrome (programming language)|Chrome]] *[[ChucK]] *[[Cilk]] *[[CL (a Honeywell programming language)|CL]] *[[Clarion (programming language)|Clarion]] *[[Clean (programming language)|Clean]] *[[Clipper (programming language)|Clipper]] *[[CLIST]] - Programming language for online applications in the MVS TSO environment <!-- CLOS is under Common Lisp --> *[[CLU (programming language)|CLU]] *[[CMS-2 (programming language)|CMS-2]] *[[COBOL]] **[[CobolScript]] *[[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] *[[CODE (programming language)|CODE]] *[[ColdFusion Markup Language|ColdFusion]] *[[COMAL]] *[[Common Intermediate Language]] (CIL) *[[Common Lisp]] *[[Component Pascal]] *[[COMIT]] - List or string processing language *[[Concurrent Clean]] *[[Constraint Handling Rules]] *[[CORAL66]] *[[Corn (programming language)|Corn]] *[[CorVision]] *[[COWSEL]] *[[Combined Programming Language|CPL]] *[[Communicating Sequential Processes|CSP]] <!-- Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] is not a programming language --> *[[Csound]] *[[Cue (programing language)|Cue]] *[[Curl (programming language)|Curl]] *[[Curry (programming language)|Curry]] *[[Cyclone (programming language)|Cyclone]] *[[CypherScript (programming language)|Cypherscript]] ==D== *[[D (programming language)|D]] *[[DASL - Distributed Application Specification Language]] *[[DASL (programming language)|DASL - Datapoint's Advanced Systems Language]] *[[Dark Basic]] *[[Dataflex]] *[[Datalog]] *[[dBASE]] *[[Dc (Unix)|dc]] *[[Deesel]] (formerly G) *[[Dialect (programming language)|Dialect]] *[[DIGITAL Command Language|DCL]] *[[Delphi (programming language)|Delphi]] *[[Dialog Manager (programming language)|Dialog Manager]] *[[DIBOL]] *[[BYOND#The DM language|Dream Maker]] *[[Dylan (programming language)|Dylan]] ==E== *[[E programming language|E]] *[[Ease programming language|Ease]] *[[EPL|Easy PL/I]] *[[eC (Programming language)|eC (Ecere C)]] *[[eDeveloper]] *[[Edinburgh IMP]] *[[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]] *[[Elan programming language|Elan]] *[[elastiC]] *[[Elf programming language|Elf]] *[[Emacs Lisp]] *[[Enterprise Generation Language]] (EGL) *[[Epigram programming language|Epigram]] *[[Erlang programming language|Erlang]] *[[Escapade]] - server-side programming *[[Esterel]] *[[Euclid programming language|Euclid]] *[[Euphoria programming language|Euphoria]] *[[Euler programming language|Euler]] *[[EXEC]] *[[EXEC2]] ==F== *[[F programming language|F]] *[[F Sharp programming language|F#]] *[[Factor programming language|Factor]] *[http://www.falconpl.org/ Falcon] <!-- *[[False programming language|False]] belongs on the esoteric page --> *[[Felix programming language|Felix]] *[[Ferite]] <!-- FPC Pascal is under Pascal --> *[[FL programming language|FL]] *[[FLOW-MATIC]] *[[FOCAL]] *[[FOCUS]] *[[FOIL (programming language)|FOIL]] *[[FORMAC programming language|FORMAC]] *[[Formula language]] *[[Forth (programming language)|Forth]] *[[Fortran]] *[[Fortress programming language|Fortress]] *[[FoxPro]] *[[FP programming language|FP]] *[[Franz Lisp]] *[[Frink]] *[[Frontier programming language|Frontier]] ==G== *[[LabVIEW|G (LabVIEW)]] *[[General Algebraic Modeling System|GAMS]] *[[Game Maker Language|GML]] *[[Gambas]] *[[Gclisp]] *[[G-code]] *[[Gema programming language|Gema]] *[[GEMBASE]] *[[GENIE]] *[[Gibiane]] *[[GJ]] *[[Godiva programming language|Godiva]] *[[Gödel programming language|Gödel]] *GOTRAN see [[IBM 1620]] *[[GPSS]] *[[The Green Object Oriented Language|Green]] *[[Green programming language|Green]] - Prototype for [[Ada programming language|Ada]] *[[Groovy (programming language)|Groovy]] *[[Gypsy programming language|Gypsy]] *[[Emma P]] ==H== *[[H]] - Business processing language from NCR. *[[HAL/S]] - réal-time aerospace programming language *[[HAScript]] *[[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] *[[High Level Assembly]] (HLA) *[[Hoc (programming language)|Hoc]] *[[Hugo programming language|Hugo]] *[[HyperTalk]] <!-- HTML is a markup language, not a programming language --> *[[HTML/OS]] ==I== *[[ICI programming language]] *[[Icon programming language|Icon]] *[[IDL programming language]] *[[IMP programming language|IMP]] *[[Inform programming language|Inform]] *[[Information Processing Language]] (IPL) *[[Informix-4GL]] *[[INTERCAL]] *[[Io programming language|Io]] <!-- *[[IP Pascal]] belongs in the Pascal section --> *[[IPTSCRAE]] ==J== *[[J programming language|J]] *[[J Sharp|J#]] *[[Visual J++|J++]] *[[JADE programming language|JADE]] *[[Jaguar programming language|JAG]] *[[Jal programming language|Jal]] *[[Janus computer programming language|Janus]] *[[Java (programming language)|Java]] *[[JavaScript]] *[[Job Control Language|JCL]] *[[JoeBASIC]] *[[Join Java]] *[[JOSS]] *[[Joule programming language|Joule]] *[[JOVIAL]] *[[Joy programming language|Joy]] *[[JScript]] *[[J2EE]] * J2ME ==K== *[[K programming language|K]] *[[Kid's Programming Language]] (KPL) *[[Kiev programming language|Kiev]] *[[Kite (programming language)|Kite]] *[[Kogut]] *[[KRC]] *[[KRYPTON]] ==L== *[[L programming language|L]] *[[LabVIEW]] *[[Lagoona programming language|Lagoona]] *[[LANSA]] *[[Lasso programming language|Lasso]] *[[Lava programming language|Lava]] *[[Leda programming language|Leda]] *[[Lead]] *[[Legoscript]] *[[Leopard (programming language)|Leopard]] *[[Lexico]] *[[Lfyre]] *[[Limbo (programming language)|Limbo]] *[[Limnor]] *[[LINC]] *[[Lingo (programming language)|Lingo]] *[[Lisaac]] *[[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]] *[[Lite-C]] *[[Logo (programming language)|Logo]] *[[LPC (programming language)|LPC]] *[[Linden Scripting Language|LSL]] *[[LSE]] *[[Lua programming language|Lua]] *[[Lucid (programming language)|Lucid]] *[[Lush (programming language)|Lush]] *[[Lustre (programming language)|Lustre]] *[[LYaPAS]] ==M== *[[M4 (language)|M4]] *[[MAD programming language|MAD]] *[[MADCAP]] *[[MAGIC (programming language)|MAGIC]] - See [[eDeveloper]] *[[Magma computer algebra system|Magma]] <!-- *[[Malbolge]] belongs on the esoteric page --> *[[MapBasic]] *[[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] *[[MAPPER (Software)|MAPPER]] ([[Unisys|Unisys/Sperry]]) now part of BIS *[[M-A-R-E-K]] (Programming language) *[[MARK-IV (Software)|MARK-IV]] ([[Sterling Software|Sterling/Informatics]]) now VISION:BUILDER of CA *[[Mary programming language|Mary]] *[[Mathematica]] *[[Matlab]] *[[MATA]] *[[Maya programming language|Maya]] *[[Mercury programming language|Mercury]] *[[Mesa programming language|Mesa]] *[[METAL programming language|METAL]] * Michigan Algorithmic Decoder see [[MAD programming language]] *[[Microcode programming language|Microcode]] *[[MicroScript programming language|MicroScript]] *[[MillScript]] *[[MIMIC]] *[[Mindscript]] *[[Miranda programming language|Miranda]] *[[Miva]] *[[ML programming language|ML]] *[[Moby programming language|Moby]] *[[MODCAP]] *[[Model 204|Model 204 User Language]] *[[Modula]] *[[Modula-2]] *[[Modula-3]] *[[Mondrian programming language|Mondrian]] *[[Mortran]] *[[Moto programming language|Moto]] *[[MOUSE programming language|MOUSE]] *[[Common Intermediate Language|MSIL]] - Deprecated name for [[Common Intermediate Language]] *[[MUMPS programming language|MUMPS]] <!-- *[[MySQL]] Not a programming language. --> ==N== *[[Napier88]] *[[Natural programming language|Natural]] *[[Nemerle]] *[[NESL]] *[[Neuralware]] *[[NGL programming language|NGL]] *[[Nial]] <!-- *[[Nil Programming Language|Nil]] belongs on the esoteric page --> *[[Nice programming language|Nice]] *[[Nickle programming language|Nickle]] *[[Nosica]] *[[Not Quite C|NQC]] *[[Nu programming language]] ==O== *[[O xml|o:XML]] *[[Oberon programming language|Oberon]] *[[Objective Modula-2]] *[[Object Pascal]] *[[Objective-C]] *[[Objective Caml]] *[[Obliq]] *[[Occam programming language|occam]] *[[Occam-Pi|occam-π]] *[[GNU Octave|Octave]] *[[OmniMark]] *[[Opal programming language|Opal]] *[[Open programming language]] *[[OPS5]] *[[Organiser Programming Language]] (OPL) - cf. [[Psion Organiser]] *[[Oz programming language|Oz]] ==P== *[[Parser (programming language)|Parser]] *[[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] *[[Pawn (programming language)|Pawn]] *[[PBASIC]] *[[PEARL (programming language)|PEARL]] *[[Perl]] **[[Perl Data Language]] *[[Phoenix arabic programming language|Phoenix]] *[[PHP]] *[[Pico programming language|Pico]] *[[Piet programming language|Piet]] *[[Pike programming language|Pike]] *[[PIKT|Pikt]] *[[PILOT programming language|PILOT]] *[[Pizza programming language|Pizza]] *[[PL-11 programming language|PL 11]] *[[PL/0]] *[[PL/8]] *[[PL/B]] *[[PL/C]] *[[PL/I]] *[[PL/M]] *[[PLD]] *[[PL SQL|PL/SQL]] *[[Plankalkül]] *[[Pliant]] *[[Polymorphic Programming Language|PPL]] *[[POP-11]] *[[Poplog]] *[[Port-a-punch-FORTRAN programming language|PORTRAN]] *[[PostScript]] *[[POV-Ray]] *[[Ppc++]] *[[Processing (programming language)|Processing]] *[[Prograph]] *[[Progress 4GL]] *[[Prolog]] **[[Turbo Prolog]] *[[Promela]] *Proteus *[[Python (programming language)|Python]] ==Q== *[[Q programming language|Q]] <!-- *[[QBASIC]] belongs on the BASIC dialects page --> *[[QuakeC]] *[[Quantum programming|QPL]] *[[Quikcomp]] (for the Moonrobot XI) ==R== *[[R (programming language)|R]] *[[R Plus Plus|R++]] - Based on C++ and added semanteme description *[[Rascal programming language|Rascal]] *[[Ratfiv]] *[[Ratfor]] *[[RBScript]] *[[rc shell|rc]] *[[REALbasic]] *[[Really Easy Programming Language|REPL]] - réally éasy Programming Language *[[REBOL]] - Relative Expression Based Object Language *[[Red programming language (Ada prototype)|Red]] - Rejected prototype for [[Ada programming language|Ada]] *[[Redcode]] *[[REDO programming language|REDO]] *[[REFAL]] *[[Revolution programming language|Revolution]] *[[REXX]] *[[Rigal]] *[[Rlab]] *[[Robot Battle#Robot Coding|Robot Scripting Language]] (RSL) *[[IBM RPG|RPG]] (Report Program Generator) *[[RPL (programming language)|RPL]] *[[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] *[[RuneScript]] *[[Russell Programming Language]] ==S== *[[S programming language|S]] *[[S2 programming language|S2]] *[[S-PLUS|S+(S-PLUS or S4)]] *[[S-Lang]] *[[SAIL programming language|SAIL]] *[[SAKO]] *[[SAM76]] *[[SAS System|SAS]] *[[Sather programming language|Sather]] *[[Scala (programming language)|Scala]] *[[SCAR (programming language)|SCAR]] *[[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] *[[Script.NET]] *[[Sed programming language|Sed]] *[[Seed7]] *[[Self programming language|Self]] *[[SETL]] *[[SIGNAL programming language|SIGNAL]] *[[SiMPLE]] *[[SIMPOL]] *[[SIMSCRIPT]] *[[Simula]] *[[SISAL]] *[[Slate programming language|Slate]] *[[SLIP programming language|SLIP]] *[[SMALL|SMALL Machine Algol Like Language]] *[[Small programming language|Small]] *[[Smalltalk]] *[[SNOBOL|Snobol]] **[[SPITBOL compiler|SPITBOL]] *[[Snowball programming language|Snowball]] *[[SPARK programming language|SPARK]] *[[Spice (programming language)|Spice]] *[[Spin (programming language)|SPIN]] *[[SP/k programming language|SP/k]] *SPS (1620) see [[IBM 1620]] <!-- SQL is a query language, not a programming language --> *[[Squeak]] *[[SR programming language|SR]] *[[SSL programming language|SSL]] *[[Standard ML]] *[[Subtext programming language|Subtext]] *[[SuperCollider]] *[[Suneido programming language|Suneido]] *[[SYMPL]] *[[SyncCharts]] *[[Synergy/DE]] ==T== *[[T programming language|T]] *[[TACL]] *[[TACPOL programming language|TACPOL]] *[[TagsMe]] *[[TADS programming language|TADS]] *[[Transaction Application Language]] *[[Tcl]] *[[Transact SQL]] *[[teco programming language|teco]] *[[TELCOMP]] *[[Telon]] *[[Tempo programming language|Tempo]] *[[Titanium programming language|Titanium]] *[[TI-Basic]] *[[Today programming language|Today]] *[[Tom (pattern matching language)|Tom]] *[[TOM (object-oriented programming language)|TOM]] * Topspeed see [[Clarion]] *[[TorqueScript programming language|TorqueScript]] *[[tpu programming language|tpu]] *[[TRAC programming language|Trac]] *[[TTCN]] *[[Turing programming language|Turing]] *[[TUTOR programming language|TUTOR]] *[[Tutorial D]] *[[TXL programming language|TXL]] ==U== *[[Ubercode]] *[[Ultra 32]] *[[Unicon programming language|Unicon]] *[[Uniface (programming language)]] *[[UnrealScript programming language|UnrealScript]] <!-- Unified Modeling Language (UML) is not a programming language --> ==V== *[[Vala (programming language)|Vala]] *[[Visual DataFlex]] *[[Visual DialogScript]] *[[Visual FoxPro]] *[[Visual Objects]] *[[VBScript]] *[[Visual Basic]] Visual Beginners All - purpose Symbolic Instruction Code *[[Visual Basic .NET]] ==W== *[[Water programming language|Water]] *WATFOR see [[WATFIV (programming language)|WATFIV]] *[[WATFIV (programming language)|WATFIV]] *[[WAXHTML]] *[[WebQL]] *[[Whitespace (programming language)|Whitespace]] *[[Winbatch]] *[[WinDev]] *[[Windows PowerShell]] ==X== *[[X10 (programming language)|X10]] *[[XBL]] *[[xbScript]] - Also [[xBaseScript]] *[[xHarbour]] *[[XL (programming language)|XL]] <!-- XML is a markup language, not a programming language --> *[[XOTcl]] *[[XPL]] *[[XPL0]] *[[XQuery]] *[[XSLT]] - See [[XPath]] ==Y== *[[Y programming language|Y]] *[[YACC]] *[[YAFL]] *[[Yellow programming language (Ada prototype)|Yellow]] - Rejected prototype for [[Ada programming language|Ada]] *[[Yorick programming language|Yorick]] *[[Yunus programming language|Y]] ==Z== *[[Z++]] *[[Z notation]] - A program specification language, like [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]]. *[[ZPL programming language|ZPL]] *[[ZZT-oop]] *[[ZOPL]] *[[ZUG programming language|ZUG]] {{CompactTOC2}} ==See also== *[[Categorical list of programming languages]] *[[Programming language timeline|Chronological list of programming languages]] *[[Generational list of programming languages]] *[[List of markup languages]] *[[List of BASIC dialects]] ==External links== *[http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 Bottles of Beer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209194347/http://99-bottles-of-beer.net/ |date=2010-02-09 }} in many languages and variations providing comparable code samples. **A [http://www.westnet.com/mirrors/99bottles/beer.html variant] of the above *[http://www.roesler-ac.de/wolfram/hello.htm The Hello World Collection] of samples in 338 languages *[http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ Historical Roster of Computer Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/ |date=2011-02-20 }} *[http://www.thecorememory.com/ The Core Memory Project: NCR Computers of the 20th Century] [[Kategori:Daptar basa pamrograman|*]] f3be7l16476kz35ci6t6mioul5fvi3j 0 26792 712681 711609 2026-09-14T03:48:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712681 wikitext text/x-wiki <!--{{Infobox litium}}-->[[Gambar:Wie funktioniert eine Lithium-Schwefel-Batterie?.webm|jmpl|Litium]] '''Litium''' nyaéta [[unsur kimia]] nu lambangna '''Li''' sarta boga [[nomer atom]] 3, [[logam alkali]] lemes nu kelirna bodas pérak. Dina [[hawa jeung tekenan baku|kaayaan baku]], ieu unsur téh minangka [[logam]] panghampangna sarta unsur padet anu dénsitasna handap pisan. Sakumaha galibna logam alkali, litium téh réaktif pisan, gancang [[tai hiang]]an dina udara lembab. Ku kituna, litium diteundeunna sok dibulen ku [[minyak]]. Ceuk téori, litium (utamana ⁷Li) téh salah sahiji nu kabentuk dina kajadian ''[[Big Bang]]'', najan dina éta kajadian, litium nu kabentuk gancang udar deui. Pudar sarta prosés-prosés kabentukna litium dianggap penting dina ulikan [[astronomi]]. Litium téh unsur ka-33 panglobana di [[Marcapada]]<ref name=krebs>{{cite book | last = Krebs | first = Robert E. | year = 2006 | title = The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements : A Reference Guide | url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure0000kreb | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn. | isbn = 0-313-33438-2 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure0000kreb/page/47 47]-50}}</ref>, ngan ku sabab [[réaktivitas|réaktif pisan]], di alam ieu unsur ukur aya dina bentuk [[sanyawa kimia|sanyawaan]]. Litium aya dina sababaraha [[mineral]] [[pegmatit]], tapi ogé biasa diala tina [[taneuh liat]]; dina skala komérsil, logam litium diala tina [[éléktrolisis]] campuran [[litium klorida]] jeung [[kalium klorida]]. Litium aya di [[sagara]] jeung sababaraha [[organismeu]] dina jumlah renik. Litium teu boga pancen biologis dina awak manusa, pangaruh ion litium (Li⁺) kana saraf dimangpaatkeun pikeun ngastabilkeun ''mood''. Litium jeung sanyawaanana dipaké pikeun rupa-rupa pangabutuh, di antarana [[gelas]] jeung [[keramik]] tahan panas, [[alloy]] liat-hampang pikeun [[wahana wiyati]], jeung [[batré litium]]. Litium ogé penting dina dunya [[fisika inti]]: [[fisi inti]] atom litium mangrupa [[réaksi inti]] munggaran jieunan manusa, sedengkeun [[litium deuterida]] dipaké [[suluh]] dina [[fusi inti|fusi]] [[rarancang Teller-Ulam|pakarang térmonuklir]]. == Sajarah jeung étimologi == [[Petalit]] (silikat litium aluminum) munggaran didadarkeun taun [[1800]] ku élmuwan Brazil [[José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva]], nu manggihan éta mineral di hiji tempat [[nambang beusi]] di pulo [[Utö, Swédia|Utö]], [[Swédia]]. Unsur litiumna sorangan kakara [[papanggihan unsur kimia|kapanggih]] taun [[1817]] ku [[Johan August Arfwedson]], lajeng ku nu magang di laboratorium [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], nalika nalungtik bijih petalit. Ieu unsur ngabentuk sanyawaan nu sarupa jeung sanyawaan [[natrium]] jeung [[kalium]], najan karbonat jeung hidroksidana kurang [[kelarutan|gampang leyur]] sarta bisa nganétralkeun [[asam]] leuwih loba. Ku Berzelius, ieu unsur dingaranan "lithion", tina [[basa Yunani]] ''λιθoς'' (''lithos'', "batu"), pikeun ngagambarkeun kapanggihna dina mineral, béda jeung natrium jeung kalium nu kapanggihna tina jaringan [[tutuwuhan]]; ieu ngaran terus dibakukeun jadi "lithium". Arfwedson lajeng nunjukkeun yén unsur nu sarua aya ogé dina bijih mineral [[spodumen]] jeung [[lepidolit]]. Taun [[1818]], [[Christian Gmelin]] nunjukkeun yén garam litium ngahasilkeun warna beureum burahay dina seuneu, tapi boh Arfwedson atawa Gmelin gagal ngisolasi ieu unsur tina garamna.<ref name="we-hist">{{cite web |last=Winter |first=Mark J |url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/hist.html |title=Chemistry : Periodic Table : lithium : historical information |accessmonthday=19 Ags. |accessyear=2007 |publisher=Web Elements }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318135754/http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/hist.html |date=2008-03-18 }}</ref><ref name=eote>{{cite book | year = 2004 | title = Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data - History - Processing - Applications | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofel0000engh | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 978-3527306664 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofel0000engh/page/287 287]-300}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/li.html 03 Lithium]</ref> Unsur litium kakara diisolasi taun [[1821]] ku [[William Thomas Brande]] ku cara [[éléktrolisis]] [[litium oksida]], cara nu saméméhna geus dipaké ku [[Sir Humphry Davy]] pikeun ngisolasi kalium jeung natrium<ref name=eote/><ref>[http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/t/i/timeline/source.html Timeline - DiracDelta Science & Engineering Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012054730/http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/t/i/timeline/source.html |date=2018-10-12 }}</ref>. Brande ogé medarkeun garam-garam litium, kayaning klorida, sarta nyoba ngitung beurat atomna. Taun [[1855]], [[Robert Bunsen]] jeung Augustus Matthiessen ngahasilkeun loba pisan logam tina éléktrolisis [[litium klorida]]. Logam kalium mimiti dijieun sacara komérsil taun [[1923]] ku hiji [[Metallgesellschaft AG]] maké téhnik éléktrolisis campuran litium klorida jeung [[kalium klorida]]<ref name=we-hist/><ref>[http://www.echeat.com/essay.php?t=29195 Free Essay Analysis of the Element Lithium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201162023/http://echeat.com/essay.php?t=29195 |date=2010-02-01 }}</ref>. == Pasipatan == [[Gambar:LithiumPelletsUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Pélét litium (dibungkus ku litium hidroksida bodas)]] Kawas [[logam alkali]] lianna, litium boga hiji [[éléktron valénsi]] nu siap leupas antukna jadi [[kation]]; dicirikeun ku [[éléktronégativitas]]na nu leutik. Hasilna, litium gampang pisan robah, réaktif pisan, sarta mibanda [[titik lééh]] jeung [[titik golak]] nu panghandapna batan logam lianna. Lemahna logam alkali dina meungkeut éléktron valénsi katébong pisan di litium, ku sabab ieu unsur téh nu [[radius atom|pangleutikna]], antukna paling éléktronégatifdina golongan alkali. Litium ogé boga [[hubungan diagonal]] jeung [[magnésium]], unsur nu mibanda radius atom jeung [[radius ionik|ionik]] anu sarupa. Duanana sarupa dina ngabentuk [[nitrida]] dina N₂, [[oksida]] mun kaduruk dina O₂, [[garam (kimia)|garam]] nu [[kelarutan]]ana sarua, sarta [[karbonat]] jeung [[nitrida]]na anu teu stabil mun kapanasan<ref name=kamienski>Kamienski et al. "Lithium and lithium compounds". ''Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology''. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Publikasi online '''2004'''. {{doi|10.1002/0471238961.1209200811011309.a01.pub2}}</ref>.<!-- Litium hipu pisan nepi ka bisa dikeureut ku péso, najan leuwih hésé batan ngeureut natrium. The fresh metal has a silvery-white color which only remains untarnished in dry air.<ref name=kamienski/> Lithium has about half the density of water, giving solid sticks of lithium metal the odd heft of a light-to-medium wood like [[pine]]. The metal floats highly in [[hydrocarbon]]s; in the laboratory, jars of lithium are typically composed of black-coated sticks held down in hydrocarbon mechanically by the jar's lid and other sticks. Lithium is greatly heat-resistant, possessing a low [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] and the highest [[specific heat capacity]] of any solid element. Lithium has also been found to be [[superconductive]] below 400 [[microkelvin|μK]]. This finding paves the way for further study of superconductivity, as lithium's [[atomic lattice]] is the simplest of all metals. --> == Kimia == Dina hawa nu lembab, logam litium gampang rumeuk kabulen ku [[litium hidroksida]] (LiOH jeung LiOH·H₂O), [[litium nitrida]] (Li₃N), jeung [[litium karbonat]] (Li₂CO₃ anu hideung, hasil [[rékasi kimia|réaksi]] sékundér antara LiOH jeung [[karbon dioksida|CO₂]])<ref name=kamienski/>. Mun dideukeutkeun kana seuneu, litium mencarkeun cahya burahay semu bungur, tapi mun diduruk seuneuna bodas caang. Litium bakal hurung sarta kaduruk dina oksigén mun keuna kana cai atawa saab. Ieu unsur téh hiji-hijina logam anu bisa ngalaman réaksi jeung nitrogén dina hawa rohangan.<!-- == Isotopes == {{main|Isotopes of lithium}} Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable [[isotope]]s ⁶Li and ⁷Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% [[natural abundance]]). Seven [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, the most stable being ⁸Li with a [[half-life]] of 838 [[millisecond|ms]] and ⁹Li with a half-life of 178.3&nbsp;ms. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6&nbsp;ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is ⁴Li which decays through [[proton emission]] and has a half-life of 7.58043x10^-23 s. ⁷Li is one of the [[primordial elements]] or, more properly, primordial isotopes, produced in [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] (a small amount of ⁶Li is also produced in stars). Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), [[metabolism]], and [[ion exchange]]. Lithium ion substitutes for [[magnesium]] and [[iron]] in octahedral sites in [[clay]] minerals, where ⁶Li is preferred to ⁷Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic ¹¹Li is known to exhibit a [[nuclear halo]]. == Natural occurrence == ''See also [[:category:Lithium minerals|Lithium minerals]].'' Lithium is widely distributed on Earth and is the 33rd most abundant element;<ref name=krebs/> however, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity. Estimates for [[crust (geology)|crustal]] content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.<ref name=kamienski/> In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of [[igneous]] rocks, with the largest concentrations in [[granite]]s. Granitic [[pegmatite]]s also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with [[spodumene]] and [[petalite]] being the most commercially-viable mineral sources for the element.<ref name=kamienski/> == Applications == Because of its [[specific heat]] capacity, the highest of all [[solid]]s, lithium is often used in heat transfer applications. It is an important ingredient in [[cathode]] materials, used in rechargeable and single-use [[Lithium battery|batteries]] because of its high [[electrochemical potential]], light weight, and high current density. Large quantities of lithium are also used in the manufacture of [[organolithium reagent]]s, especially [[n-butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] which has many uses in fine chemical and [[polymer]] synthesis. === Medical use === {{main|Lithium pharmacology}} Lithium salts were used during the 19th century to treat [[gout]]. Lithium salts such as [[lithium carbonate]] (Li₂CO₃), [[lithium citrate]], and [[lithium orotate]] are mood stabilizers. They are used in the treatment of [[bipolar disorder]], since unlike most other mood altering drugs, they counteract both [[mania]] and [[depression (mood)|depression]]. Lithium can also be used to augment other [[antidepressant]] drugs. It is also sometimes prescribed as a preventive treatment for [[migraine]] disease and [[cluster headache]]s. The active principle in these salts is the lithium ion Li⁺, which having a smaller diameter, can easily displace K⁺ and Na⁺ and even Ca⁺², in spite of its greater charge, occupying their sites in several critical neuronal enzymes and neurotransmitter receptors. Although Li⁺ cannot displace Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺, because of these ions small size and greater charge (higher charge density, hence stronger bonding), when Mg⁺² or Zn⁺² are present in low concentrations, and Li⁺ is present in high concentrations, the latter can occupy sites normally occupied by Mg⁺² or Zn⁺² in various enzymes. Therapeutically useful amounts of lithium (0.6 to 1.2 mmol/l) are only slightly lower than toxic amounts (>1.5 mmol/l), so the blood levels of lithium must be carefully monitored during treatment to avoid toxicity. Therefore, in theory, coadministration of 400 IU vitamin D, 1 g magnesium citrate (not the insoluble oxide or carbonate), 15 mg Zn (as gluconate or piccolinate, not the insoluble oxide) and 1 pill of [[vitamin B]] complex a day, should potentiate the effect of Li, {{Fact|date=December 2007}} in some cases allowing for the reduction of the therapeutic range to 0.5 to 0.9 mmol/l, of the daily dose of lithium carbonate and of the risk of toxicity. Common side effects include muscle tremors, twitching, [[ataxia]], hyperparathyroidism (bone loss, hypercalcemia, hypertension, etc,), kidney damage, [[nephrogenic diabetes insipidus]] (polyuria and polydipsia) and seizures. Many of the side-effects are a result caused by the increased elimination of potassium. === Other uses === * [[Lithium chloride]] and [[lithium bromide]] are extremely [[hygroscopic]] and frequently used as [[desiccant]]s. * [[stearic acid|Lithium stearate]] is a common all-purpose high-temperature [[lubricant]]. * Lithium is an [[alloy]]ing agent used to synthesize [[organic compound]]s. * Lithium is used as a [[flux (metallurgy)|flux]] to promote the fusing of metals during [[welding]] and [[soldering]]. It also eliminates the forming of oxides during welding by absorbing impurities. This fusing quality is also important as a flux for producing [[ceramic]]s, [[Vitreous enamel|enamels]], and [[glass]]. * Lithium is sometimes used in glasses and ceramics including the glass for the 200-inch (5.08&nbsp;m) [[telescope]] at [[Mt. Palomar]]. * [[Alloy]]s of the metal with [[aluminium]], [[cadmium]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]] are used to make high performance [[aircraft]] parts. * [[Lithium niobate]] is used extensively in telecommunication products, such as [[mobile phone]]s and [[optical modulator]]s, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium products are currently used in more than 60 percent of mobile phones.<ref>{{cite news |author=Spring, Martin |title=Two ways to play the lithium boom |url=http://www.moneyweek.com/file/32991/two-ways-to-play-the-lithium-boom.html |publisher=[[MoneyWeek]] |date=2007-01-08 |accessdate=2007-08-19}}</ref> * The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes a good choice for [[nonlinear optics|non-linear optics applications]]. * [[Lithium deuteride]] was the [[nuclear fusion|fusion fuel]] of choice in early versions of the [[Nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]]. When bombarded by [[neutron]]s, both ⁶Li and ⁷Li produce [[tritium]]—this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the [[Castle Bravo]] nuclear test. Tritium fuses with [[deuterium]] in a [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride still apparently plays a role in modern [[nuclear weapons]], as a fusion material. * Metallic lithium and its complex [[hydride]]s such as e.g. Li[AlH₄] are considered as high energy additives to [[rocket propellant]]s^[3]. * [[Lithium peroxide]], [[lithium nitrate]], lithium chlorate and [[lithium perchlorate]] are used and thought of as oxidizers in both rocket propellants and [[oxygen candle]]s to supply submarines and space capsules with oxygen.<ref>{{cite journal | author = K. Ernst-Christian | title = Special Materials in Pyrotechnics: III. Application of Lithium and its Compounds in Energetic Systems | year = 2004 | journal = [[Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics]] | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 67-80 | doi = 10.1002/prep.200400032}}</ref> * Lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined nuclear fusion reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Tritium does not occur naturally and will be produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will react with the lithium to produce more tritium. ⁶Li + n → ⁴He + ³H. Various means of doing this will be tested at the [[ITER]] reactor being built at Cadarache, France. * Lithium is used as a source for [[alpha particle]]s, or [[helium]] nuclei. When ⁷Li is bombarded by accelerated [[proton]]s, ⁸[[beryllium|Be]] is formed, which undergoes spontaneous fission to form two alpha particles. This was the first man-made [[nuclear reaction]], produced by Cockroft and Walton in [[1929]]. * [[Lithium hydroxide]] (LiOH) is an important compound of lithium obtained from lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃). It is a strong base, and when heated with a fat, it produces a lithium soap. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils and so is used commercially to manufacture lubricating greases. * It is also an efficient and lightweight purifier of air. In confined areas, such as aboard [[spacecraft]] and [[submarine]]s, the concentration of carbon dioxide can approach unhealthy or toxic levels. Lithium hydroxide absorbs the carbon dioxide from the air by reacting with it to form lithium carbonate. Any alkali hydroxide will absorb CO₂, but lithium hydroxide is preferred, especially in spacecraft applications, because of the low formula weight conferred by the lithium. Even better materials for this purpose include lithium peroxide (Li₂O₂) that, in presence of moisture, not only absorb carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also release oxygen. E.g. 2 Li₂O₂ + 2 CO₂ → 2 Li₂CO₃ + O₂. * Lithium metal is used as a [[reducing agent]] in some types of [[methamphetamine]] production, particularly in illegal amateur “meth labs.” == Production == Since the end of [[World War II]], lithium metal production has greatly increased. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous mineral such as those above, and is also extracted from the water of [[mineral springs]]. The metal is produced [[electrolysis|electrolytically]] from a mixture of fused lithium and [[potassium chloride]]. In [[1998]] it was about [[US dollar|US$]] 43 per [[Pound (mass)|pound]] ($95 per [[kilogram|kg]]).<ref name=ober>{{cite web |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/450798.pdf |title=Lithium |accessmonthday=August 19 |accessyear=2007 |last=Ober |first=Joyce A |format=pdf |pages = 77-78| publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> [[Chile]] is currently the leading lithium metal producer in the world, with [[Argentina]] next. Both countries recover the lithium from brine pools. In the [[United States]] lithium is similarly recovered from brine pools in [[Nevada]].<ref name=lanl>{{cite web |url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/3.html |title=Lithium |accessmonthday= August 19 |accessyear= 2007|date= December 15, 2003|publisher= [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]}}</ref> China may emerge as a significant producer of brine-based lithium carbonate towards the end of this decade. Potential capacity of up to 45,000 tonnes per year could come on-stream if projects in Qinghai province and Tibet proceed.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} == Precautions == Lithium metal, due to its alkaline tarnish, is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) can irritate the nose and throat; higher exposure to lithium can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs, leading to [[pulmonary edema]]. The metal itself is usually a handling hazard because of the caustic hydroxide produced when it is in contact with moisture causing an explosion. Lithium should be stored in a non-reactive compound such as [[naphtha]] or a hydrocarbon. === Regulation === Some jurisdictions limit the sale of [[lithium battery|lithium batteries]], which are the most readily available source of lithium metal for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to [[methamphetamine]] in the [[Birch reduction]] method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia. However, the effectiveness of such restrictions in controlling illegal production of methamphetamine remains indeterminate and controversial. Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft), because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when [[short circuit|short-circuited]], leading to overheating and possible [[explosion]]. However, most consumer lithium batteries have thermal overload protection built-in to prevent this type of incident, or their design inherently limits short-circuit currents. --> == Rujukan == <references /> == Tumbu kaluar == {{Commons|Lithium}} * [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ USGS: Lithium Statistics and Information] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175050/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ |date=2016-03-03 }} * [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Li/index.html WebElements.com – Lithium] * [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele003.html It's Elemental – Lithium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204222003/http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele003.html |date=2011-12-04 }} * [http://www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/rtkweb/1119.pdf Safety information on Lithium] * [http://www.bipolar-lives.com/lithium.html Information on Lithium and Bipolar Disorder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913140211/http://www.bipolar-lives.com/lithium.html |date=2008-09-13 }} * [http://www.mcis.soton.ac.uk/Site_Files/pdf/nuclear_history/Working_Paper_No_5.pdf University of Southampton, Mountbatten Centre for International Studies, Nuclear History Working Paper No5.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226213021/http://www.mcis.soton.ac.uk/Site_Files/pdf/nuclear_history/Working_Paper_No_5.pdf |date=2008-02-26 }} {{LogamAlkali}} {{Tabél périodik}} [[Kategori:Unsur kimia]] [[Kategori:Logam alkali]] [[Kategori :logam]] achh3nj8psll8y8cksiifcxila9quq2 0 28032 712679 707258 2026-09-14T01:55:59Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{redirect|Média optik|média transmisi keur cahaya|Médium (optika)}} {{Optical disc authoring}} [[Gambar:CD drive lens.jpg|thumb|200px|Lénsa optik nu maca [[compact disc]].]] Dina [[komputasi]], [[réproduksi sora]], jeung [[vidéo]], hiji '''cakram optik''' nyaéta hiji cakram nu rata tur buleud (biasana [[polikarbonat]]) tempat nyimpen [[data]] dina legok ''(pit)'' (atawa tonjolan ''(bump)'') dina beungeut ratana ''(flat surface)'' — nu ngaruntuy ''(sequential)'' ngawangun tapak ''(track)'' nu tuluy tinuluy ''(kontinyu)'' tur wangunna spiral nu ngagedéan ti tapak pangjerona ''(innermost track)'' tepi ka tapak pangluarna ''(outermost track)'', tepikeun ka nutupan sakabéh beungeut cakram. Data diaksés dina jero cakram nalika hiji bahan husus (seseringna mah [[aluminium]]) disorot ku [[dioda laser]]. Legok-legokna ngaganggu ampulna (refleksi) cahaya laser, nu ku sabab eta, lolobana cakram optik (kajaba cakram hideung dina [[konsol kaulinan vidéo]] ''(video game console)'' [[PlayStation]] asli), sacara husus boga panémbong ''(appearance)'' nu mangrupa-rupa kelir ''([[iridescent]])'' nu dijieun ku alur ''(groove)'' tina lapisan nu ngampulkeun ''(reflective layer)''. == Sajarah == {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} In 1961 and 1969, [[David Paul Gregg]] régistered a patent for the analog optical disc for vidéo recording, (US Patent 3,430,966). It is of special interest that US Patent 4,893,297, filed 1968, issued 1990, generated [[royalty income]] for Pioneer Corporation’s [[DVA]] until 2007 — encompassing the CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc systems. In the éarly 1960s, the Music Corporation of America bought Gregg's patents and his company, [[Gauss Electrophysics]]. Likewise, in 1969 Holland, [[Philips]] Reséarch [[physicists]] began their first optical vidéodisc experiments at Eindhoven. In 1975, Philips and MCA join efforts, and in 1978, commercially much too late, they presented their long-awaited [[laserdisc]] in Atlanta, Géorgia, USA MCA delivered the discs, Philips the players; the presentation was a technical and commercial failure; the Philips/MCA cooperation ended. In Japan and the U.S., [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] succeeded with the vidéodisc until the advent of the DVD. In 1979, Philips and [[Sony]], in consortium, successfully developed the [[compact disc]] in 1983. The [[Optical Storage Technology Association]] (OSTA) promote standardised optical storage méans. Although optical discs are more durable than éarlier audio-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily-use damage. Libraries and archives enact [[optical media preservation]] procedures to ensure continued usability in the computer's optical disc drive or corresponding disc player. === Generasi kahiji === Initially, optical discs were for storing music and computer software. The laser disc format stored analog vidéo signals, but, commercially, lost to the [[VHS]] vidéotape cassette, mainly its high cost and non-recordability; other first-generation disc formats are designed solely to store digital data. Most first-generation disc devices had an infrared laser réading héad. The minimum size of the laser spot is proportional to its wavelength, thus wavelength is a limiting factor against gréat information density, too little data can be stored so. The infrared range is beyond the long-wavelength end of the visible light spectrum, so, supports less density than any visible light colour. One example of high-density data storage capacity, achieved with an infrared laser, is 700MB of net user data for a 12&nbsp;cm compact disc. '''NOTE:''' other factors affecting data storage density are, for example, a multi-layered infrared disc would hold more data than an identical single-layer disc; whether CAV, CLV, or zoned-CAV; how the data are encoded; how much cléar margin at the center and the edge * [[Compact Disc]] (CD) * [[Laser disc]] * [[Magneto-optical disc]] ** [[mini disc]] === Generasi kadua === Second-generation optical discs were for storing gréat amounts of data, including broadcast-quality digital vidéo. Such discs usually are réad with a visible-light laser (usually red); the shorter wavelength and gréater [[numerical aperture]]<ref name="Crutchfield Advisor">[http://www.crutchfieldadvisor.com/S-UNO5yLxzuZf/learningcenter/home/hd_blu.html?page=2 Format War Update: Blu-ray Wins Over HD DVD<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> allow a narrower light béam, permitting smaller pits and lands in the disc. In the DVD format, this allows 4.7GB storage on a standard 12&nbsp;cm, single-sided, single-layer disc; alternately, smaller media, such as the [[MiniDisc]] and the [[DataPlay]] formats, can have capacity comparable to that of the larger, standard compact 12&nbsp;cm disc. * [[Hi-MD]] * [[DVD]] and derivatives ** [[DVD-Audio]] ** [[DualDisc]] ** [[DIVX|Digital Video Express]] (DIVX) * [[Super Audio CD]] * [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] * [[GD-ROM]] * [[Digital Multilayer Disk]] * [[DataPlay]] * [[Fluorescent Multilayer Disc]] * [[Phase-change Dual]] * [[Universal Media Disc]] === Generasi katilu === Third-generation optical discs are in development, méant for distributing [[HDTV|high-definition video]] and support gréater data storage capacities, accomplished with short-wavelength visible-light lasers and gréater numerical apertures. The Blu-ray disc uses blue-violet lasers of gréater aperture, for use with discs with smaller pits and lands, thereby gréater data storage capacity per layer.<ref name="Crutchfield Advisor"/> In practice, the effective, multimedia presentation capacity is improved with enhanced vidéo [[data compression]] [[codec]]s such as [[H.264]], and [[VC-1]]. * Nu dikirimkeun kiwari: ** [[Blu-ray Disc]] * Dina pengembangan: ** [[Forward Versatile Disc]] ** [[Versatile Multilayer Disc]] ** [[Ultra Density Optical]] ** [[LS-R]] === Generasi satuluyna === Format ieu aya sahareupeun cakram nu aya kiwari (generasi katilu), boga potensial leuwih ti sa-terabyte (1[[terabyte|TB]]) rohangan panyimpen data. * [[Tapestry Media]] * [[Holographic Versatile Disc]] * [[Protein-coated disc]] == Cakram optik nu bisa direkam jeung ditulisan == {{utama|Optical disc recording technologies}} == Spésifikasi == {| class="wikitable" |+ Gancang dasar (1×) jeung maksimum (kiwari) dumasar generasi !rowspan="2"| Generasi ! Dasar !colspan="2"| Maks |- ! (Mbit/det) ! (Mbit/det) ! × |- | Ka- (CD) | 1.17 | 65.62 || 56× <!-- speeds above 48x can result in [[CD shattering]], and so 48x and 52x are the most common maximum speeds for CD drives, though some drives have been sold at 56x [http://reviews.cnet.com/cd-drives/benq-656a-56x-cd/4505-3207_7-20383339.html] --> |- | Ka-2 (DVD) | 10.55 | 210.94 || 20× <!-- industry maximum speed currently at 20x [http://benq.com/products/Storage/?product=979&page=specifications] --> |- | Ka-3 (BD) | 36 | 432 || 12× <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=21958 |title=LG 6x Blu-ray Burner Available in Korea |publisher=CDRinfo.com}}</ref> |- |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Kapasitas jeung tata ngaran<ref>[http://www.mpeg.org/MPEG/DVD/Book_A/Specs.html MPEG: DVD, Book A – Physical parameters] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219232931/http://www.mpeg.org/MPEG/DVD/Book_A/Specs.html |date=2012-02-19 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.cinram.com/dvd/tech/dvdindetail.pdf DVD in Detail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031202171801/http://www.cinram.com/dvd/tech/dvdindetail.pdf |date=2003-12-02 }}</ref> !colspan="2" rowspan="2"| Tanda !rowspan="2"| Sisi !!rowspan="2"| Lapisan<br />(total) !! Gurat tengah !!colspan="2"| Kapasitas <!-- raw or user data? --> |- ! (cm) !! ([[Gigabita|GB]]) !!align=right| ([[Gibibita|GiB]]) |- | DVD-1 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 1.46 ||align=right| 1.36 |- | DVD-2 || title="single-sided, double-layer"| SS DL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 2.66 ||align=right| 2.47 |- | DVD-3 || title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 2.92 ||align=right| 2.72 <!--|- | DVD-4? ||title="double-sided, double- and single-layer"| DS DL/SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 3 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 4.12 ||align=right| 3.84--><!-- calculated, doubtful such discs ever existed --> |- | DVD-4 ||title="double-sided, double-layer"| DS DL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 4 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 5.32 ||align=right| 4.95 |- | DVD-5 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD-9 ||title="single-sided, double-layer"| SS DL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 8.54 ||align=right| 7.95 |- | DVD-10 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.74 |- | DVD-14 ||title="double-sided, double- and single-layer"| DS DL/SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 3 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 13.24 ||align=right| 12.32 <!--calculated from data above--> |- | DVD-18 ||title="double-sided, double-layer"| DS DL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 4 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 17.08 ||align=right| 15.90 |- | DVD-R 1.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 3.95 ||align=right| 3.68 |- | DVD-R 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD-R 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.75 |- | DVD-RW 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD-RW 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.75 |- | DVD+R 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD+R 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.75 |- | DVD+RW 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD+RW 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.75 |- | DVD-RAM 1.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 2.58 ||align=right| 2.40 |- | DVD-RAM 1.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 5.16 ||align=right| 4.80 |- | DVD-RAM 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 4.70 ||align=right| 4.37 |- | DVD-RAM 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 9.40 ||align=right| 8.75<!--*--> |- | DVD-RAM 2.0 ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 1.46 ||align=right| 1.36<!--*--> |- | DVD-RAM 2.0 ||title="double-sided, single-layer"| DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 2.65 ||align=right| 2.47<!--*--> |- | CD-ROM 74 min ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 0.682 ||align=right| 0.635 |- | CD-ROM 80 min ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 0.737 ||align=right| 0.687 |- | CD-ROM ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 0.194 ||align=right| 0.180 |- | DDCD-ROM ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 1.364 ||align=right| 1.270 |- | DDCD-ROM ||title="single-sided, single-layer"| SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 0.387 ||align=right| 0.360 |- | HD DVD<!-- -ROM/-R/-RW --> || SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 4.70 || |- | HD DVD || SS DL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 9.40 || |- | HD DVD || DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 9.40 || |- | HD DVD || DS DL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 4 ||align=right| 8 ||align=right| 18.80 || |- | HD DVD || SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 15.00 || |- | HD DVD || SS DL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 30.00 || |- | HD DVD || DS SL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 2 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 30.00 || |- | HD DVD || DS DL |align=right| 2 ||align=right| 4 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 60.00 || |- | HD DVD-RAM || SS SL |align=right| 1 ||align=right| 1 ||align=right| 12 ||align=right| 20.00 || |} == Rujukan == <references/> * {{cite web |title=Inventor of the Week Archive: The Digital Compact Disc |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=December, 1999 |url=http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/russell.html |accessdate=2007-07-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030417162935/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/russell.html |date=2003-04-17 }} * {{cite web |title=Scientist's invention was let go for a song |publisher=The Seattle Times |date=November 29, 2004 |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002103322_cdman29.html |accessdate=2007-07-13 |author=Brier Dudley }} * {{cite web |title=David Gregg and the Optical Disk |publisher=About.com |url=http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blopticaldisk.htm |accessdate=2007-07-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819105952/https://www.thoughtco.com/david-gregg-and-the-optical-disk-1992209 |date=2020-08-19 }} == Tumbu luar == * [http://www.osta.org Optical Storage Technology Association] * [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204073515/http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ |date=2012-02-04 }} by Hugh Bennett * [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R & CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett * [http://www.memorex.com/downloads/whitepapers/Reference%20Guide%20for%20Optical%20Media%209-9.pdf Reference guide for optical media] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711175011/http://www.memorex.com/downloads/whitepapers/Reference%20Guide%20for%20Optical%20Media%209-9.pdf |date=2009-07-11 }} by Terence O'Kelly (Memorex Inc.) {{Optical storage media}} [[Kategori:Panyimpen komputer]] [[Kategori:CD]] [[Kategori:DVD]] [[Kategori:Optical disc authoring]] [[Kategori:Optoéléktronika]] <!-- interwiki --> k07qoggx67seqr339ycj5stvv12tu7k 0 101990 712682 709190 2026-09-14T04:42:07Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Holiday|holiday_name={{lang|ar|رمضان}} <br />Ramadan|type=|longtype=[[Islam|Keagamaan]]|image=Welcome Ramadhan.jpg|image_size=250px|caption=Sahiji bulan sabit anu katingali di luhureun tangkal korma nalika surupna panon poe di [[Manama]], anu jadi ciri yen datangna bulan Ramadan di [[Bahrain]].|official_name=|observedby=Umat [[Muslim]]|begins=1 Ramadan|ends=29 atanapi 30 Ramadan|date=Beragam (mengikuti [[kalender Islam|kalender bulan Islam]])<ref name="ummalqura">{{cite web|url=http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm|title=The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia|access-date=7 Maret 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611040922/http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm|archive-date=11 Juni 2011|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621105742/http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/ummalqura.htm |date=2020-06-21 }}</ref>|celebrations=Komunitas [[sahur]], komunitas [[iftar]], dan komunitas [[salat]]|observances=* [[saum]] (puasa) * [[zakat]] dan [[sedekah]] * salat [[Tarawih]] * tadarus [[Alquran]] * [[tausiah]] * ngajauhan paripolah anu kurang merenah * ngadékor imah * masang lentera * [[ngabuburit]]|relatedto=[[Idulfitri]], [[Nuzulul Quran]], [[Lailatul Qadar]]|frequency=unggal 12 bulan (kalender bulan)}} [[Gambar:هلال_رمضان.jpg|jmpl|Bulan sabit dihias ku mangpirang pirang warna anu éndah cahayana dina bulan Ramadhan.]] '''Ramadhan''' atawa '''Romadon''' ( {{IPAc-en|ˌ|r|æ|m|ə|ˈ|d|ɑː|n}}; {{Lang-ar|رمضان}} {{IPA-ar|ramaˈdˤaːn|IPA}}; <ref group="note">Dalam pengucapan Arab, kata ini dapat diucapkan menjadi {{IPA|[rɑmɑˈdˤɑːn, ramadˤɑːn, ræmæˈdˤɑːn]}}, tergantung wilayah.</ref> ogé di[[romanisasi]]keun ku '''Ramazan''', '''Ramadhan''', atawa '''Ramathan''' ) mangrupa bulan kasalapan dina [[kalénder Islam]],<ref>[[BBC]] – [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/practices/ramadan_1.shtml ''Religions''] Retrieved 25 July 2012</ref> anu dirayakeun ku umat Islam di sakuliah dunya ku [[puasa]] (''[[saum]]'') jeung miélingkeun wahyu anu munggaran anu nepi ka Nabi [[Muhammad]]. nurutkeun kayakinan umat muslim.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/722486.shtml|title=Muslims worldwide start to observe Ramadan|year=2012|website=The Global Times Online|accessdate=28 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsfeedresearcher.com/data/articles_w30_3/ramadan-muslims-fasting.html|title=The Muslim World Observes Ramadan|year=2012|website=Power Text Solutions|accessdate=28 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211042928/http://newsfeedresearcher.com/data/articles_w30_3/ramadan-muslims-fasting.html |date=11 February 2021 }}</ref> Milangkala taunan ieu kacatur ku salah sahiji rukun Islam .<ref name="BBC 2012">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/religion/islam/ramadan.shtml|title=''Schools – Religions''|publisher=BBC|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> Bulan Ramadhan bakal lumangsung salila 29-30 poé dumasar kana paniténan bulan anyar (hilal), nurutkeun sababaraha aturan anu ditulis dina [[Hadis|hadits]] .<ref name="Bukhari">{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2466-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-124.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 031 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 124.|last=Bukhari-Ibn-Ismail|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Muslim">{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihmuslim/134-Sahih%20Muslim%20Book%2006.%20Fasting/10970-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number-2378.html|title=Sahih Muslim – Book 006 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 2378.|last=Muslim-Ibn-Habaj|first=Abul-Hussain|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> Kecap Ramadan asalna tina kecap akar basa Arab ''ramiḍa'' atawa ''ar-ramaḍ,'' anu hartina panas atawa kagaringan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihmuslim/134-Sahih%20Muslim%20Book%2006.%20Fasting/10952-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number-2391.html|title=Sahih Muslim – Book 006 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 2391.|last=Muslim-Ibn-Habaj|first=Abul-Hussain|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> Puasa Ramadhan hukumna nyaéta ''[[fardhu]]'' (wajib) pikeun muslim nu geus baleg, kajaba ngalaman halangan pikeun migawéna saperti gering, iinditan, geus kolot, nyandung, nyusu, [[Diabétes mélitus|diabét]] atawa [[Kareseban|haid]].<ref>Fasting (Al Siyam) – {{Lang|ar|الصيام}} – Page 18, el Bahay el Kholi, 1998</ref> Kawajiban pikeun puasa nalika bulan Ramadhan turun di bulan [[Sya'ban]] taun kadua sanggeus hijrah umat Islam ti [[Mekah]] ka [[Madinah]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201201/ramadan.in.the.farthest.north.htm|title=Saudi Aramco World: Ramadan in the Farthest North|publisher=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204183609/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201201/ramadan.in.the.farthest.north.htm|archivedate=2015-02-04|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 June 2015}}</ref> Bulan Ramadhan dimimitian ku ditangtukeunna bulan sabit salaku tanda ayana bulan anyar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://islamqa.info/en/5842|title=How to pray and fast in countries where the day or night is continuous|publisher=|accessdate=5 February 2017}}</ref> Nalika puasa ti isuk nepi ka burit, umat Islam dicaram dahar, nginum cairan naon waé, ngaroko, jeung ngawati. Kajaba ti eta, aranjeunna diparéntahkeun pikeun nyingkirkeun pagawéan dosa dina raraga nyampurnakeun pahala puasa, saperti ngomongkeun perkara anu goréng (kayaning ngahina, fitnah, moyok, ngawadul) jeung gelut.<ref>IslamQA, "It is not permissible for one who is fasting to insult anyone", URL: http://islamqa.info/en/37658</ref> Dahareun jeung inumeun bisa disadiakeun unggal poé, ti saacan meleték panonpoé (Fajr) nepi ka surup (Maghrib).<ref>Islam, Andrew Egan – 2002 – page 24</ref><ref>Dubai – Page 189, Andrea Schulte-Peevers – 2010</ref> Pendekatan spiritual (''tobat'') nalika bulan Ramadhan sibuk.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2465-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-125.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 031 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 125.|last=Bukhari-Ibn-Ismail|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170845/http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2465-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-125.html |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> Puasa pikeun umat Islam salami Ramadhan biasana direuah-reuah ku ngalobakeun [[solat]] sareng maca [[Qur'an|Alquran]] .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/abudawud/006-sat.php|title=Sunan Abu-Dawud – (The Book of Prayer) – Detailed Injunctions about Ramadan, Hadith 1370|last=[[Abu Dawud]]-Ibn-Ash'ath-AsSijisstani|first=Sulayman|website=Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement of The University of Southern California|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2391-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-199.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 031 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 199.|last=Bukhari-Ibn-Ismail|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170800/http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2391-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-199.html |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> Kakhususan bulan Ramadhan pikeun umat Islam kagambar dina Al-Quran [[Al Baqoroh|surat Al-Baqarah]] ayat 183 anu hartosna: "''Hei eling-eling jalma anu iman, wajib pikeun anjeun puasa sakumaha diwajibkeun ka jalma-jalma samemeh araranjeun sangkan anjeun jadi jalma anu taqwa."'' - (Al-Baqoroh 2: 183) == Patokan ceuk Étimologi == ''Ramadhan'' ( <ref name="a">{{Cite web|url=https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/Muharam|title=KBBI Daring|last=[[Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa]]|year=2016|website=kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id|location=Jakarta|accessdate=2018-06-30|ref=harv|edition=5}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924151735/https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/muharam |date=2022-09-24 }}</ref> asalna tina akar kecap <big><big>ر م ﺿ</big></big>, anu hartosna [[Panas|panas ereng-erengan]] . Urang Babilon, anu budaya na kantos ngadominasi pisan di kalér [[Semenanjung Arab|Jazirah Arob,]] nganggo kalénder ''luni-surya'' (ngitung taun dumasar kana bulan sareng panonpoé). [[Kalénder Islam|Bulan kasalapan]] sok ragrag nalika usum panas anu panas pisan. Ti enjing dugi ka sonten, batu gunung sareng pasir gurun dibeuleum ku panonpoé dina usum panas, anu siang na langkung lami tibatan wengi. Peutingna panas dina batu sareng pasir ngaleutikan sakedik, tapi acan ge tiis pisan, kabujeng enjing deui. Ieu kajantenan teras-terasan, sahingga saatos sababaraha minggu aya akumulasi panas anu kacida bangetna. Poéan ieu disebat bulan Ramadhan, bulan anu kacida panasna. Saatos masarakat [[Islam]] ngembangkeun kalénder dumasar bulan, anu rata-rata 11 dinten langkung pondok tibatan kalénder panonpoé, Ramadhan henteu teras-terasan kabeneran sareng usum panas. ''Masarakat langkung paham kana métaforis'' 'panas' Ramadhan (kiasan). Kusabab dina dinten Ramadhan jalma anu saum, tikoro na panas ku haus. Atanapi, dipiharep ayana ieu Ibadah dina Ramadhan, janten wasilah kana dihapusna pirang pirang dosa nu tiheula atawa nu bakal aya jaga. Tina kecap dasar ieu, kecap Ramadhan dipaké pikeun nunjukkeun sensasi panas nalika aya anu hanaang. Sasauran anu sanés nyebatkeun yén kecap Ramadhan dianggo kusabab dina bulan éta dosa diduruk ku amal hadé nalika [[Panonpoé|panonpoe]] ngabakar taneuh. Nanging, kecap Ramadan henteu tiasa dibingungkeun sareng Ramadhan. Ramadan (make dal) dina basa Arab hartosna jalma anu panonna nyeri bakal lolong. Salajengna éta panginten dina momen Ramadhan dimangpaatkeun ku pengikut Islam serius pikeun ngalembereh, nyusun sareng ngabarukeun kakuatan fisik, spiritual sareng tingkah laku, sakumaha panas ngagambarkeun hal anu tiasa ngalebur [[Matéri|maté]]<nowiki/>ri .<ref name="EoR">[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_40.html#HEADING54 Essentials of Ramadan, The Fasting Month] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909145216/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_40.html#HEADING54 |date=2006-09-09 }}</ref> == Sajarah == Surat 2, Ayat 185, Quran nyebatkeun:<blockquote>Bulan Ramadhan mangrupikeun turunna Al-Qur'an, pitunjuk pikeun umat manusa, sareng buktos ayana Nabi sareng Rosul, salaku pituduh hirup, sareng patokan (leres sareng salah). Sadayana umat Islam wajib puasa dina bulan éta, sareng saha waé anu gering atanapi iinditan, moal puasa sareng wajib ngarobih dina dinten anu sanés. Allah masihan anjeun rukhsoh sareng henteu hoyong kasusah pikeun anjeun. Pikeun awéwé kudu ngarengsekeun haid, saatos éta wajib ngagentosan saatos Ramadhan réngsé sareng anjeun kedah ngagungkeun Alloh anu masihan pituduh ka anjeun, sareng anjeun ogé kedah syukuran. [Quran Al-Baqarah: 185 ]</blockquote>Dipercanten yén [[Qur'an|Al]] -Qur'an mimiti diturunkeun ka [[Muhammad]] salami bulan Ramadhan anu parantos disebat "waktos anu saé". Wahyu munggaran ieu lungsur dina peuting [[Laélatulqodar|Lailatul Qadar]] (peuting kakuatan) nu salah sahiji tina lima peuting dina poé sapuluh panungtungan Ramadan.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Magnificence of Quran|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=AKmmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT29&dq=ramadan+quran+revealed&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=ramadan%2520quran%2520revealed&f=false|publisher=Darussalam Publishers|date=2006|first=Mahmood Bin Ahmad Bin Saaleh|last=Ad-Dausaree}}</ref> Numutkeun kana hadits, sadaya buku suci diturunkeun salami bulan Ramadhan. Shuhuf Ibrahim, Tauret, Jabur, Injil sareng [[Qur'an|Alquran]] diturunkeun dina tanggal 1, 6, 12, 13 <ref group="note">The hadith of Jabir ibn Abdullah mentions that the Gospel was sent down on the 18th of Ramadan. ^{{{Cite book|title=Loud Thoughts on Religion: A Version of the System Study of Religion. Useful Lessons for Everybody|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t6CvZJJt1PIC&q=fasting#v=snippet|publisher=Trafford Publishing|date=June 2013|isbn=9781490705217|first=Rafig Y.|last=Aliyev}}}</ref> sareng 24 Ramadhan masing-masing.<ref name="Rafig">{{Cite book|title=Loud Thoughts on Religion: A Version of the System Study of Religion. Useful Lessons for Everybody|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t6CvZJJt1PIC|publisher=Trafford Publishing|date=June 2013|isbn=9781490705217|first=Rafig Y.|last=Aliyev|page=129}}</ref> Dina Al Qur'an, puasa ogé fardhu keur agama sateuacan Islam, tur éta cara pikeun ngéngingkeun ''taqwa'', sieun ku ayana Gusti .<ref>{{Cite book|title=Explanation of the Three Fundamental Principles of Islam (Salafi): Sharh Usool ath-Thalatha of Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahaab|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=EbamAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT63#v=onepage&q&f=false|publisher=Salafi Books|first=Shaikh Saalih|last=al-Uthaymeen}}</ref> [Quran Al-Baqarah: 183 ] Allah SWT ngadawuh ka Nabi Muhammad yén puasa pikeun Anjeunna sanés inovasi anyar. Dina tauhid, éta mangrupikeun kawajiban anu dilaksanakeun ku jalma-jalma anu leres-leres ngaladén kana katauhidan gusti Allah.<ref>Quran Chapter 2, Revelation 183</ref> Jelma kapir [[Mekah]] ogé saum, tapi ngan dina dinten kasapuluh Muharram pikeun ngahapus dosa sareng ngajauhkeun halodo.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Loud Thoughts on Religion: A Version of the System Study of Religion. Useful Lessons for Everybody|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t6CvZJJt1PIC|publisher=Trafford Publishing|date=February 2013|isbn=9781490705217|first=Rafig Y.|last=Aliyev|page=128}}</ref> Katangtosan pikeun puasa salami bulan Ramadhan lungsur 18 bulan saatos Hijrah, nyaéta bulan Sya'ban dina taun kadua Hijrah taun 624 Masehi.<ref name="Rafig"/> Abu Zanad, panulis Arab ti Irak anu hirup saatos ngadegna agama Islam, kira-kira taun 747 Masehi, nyerat yén sahenteuna hiji komunitas Muslim anu cicing di al-Jazira (Irak kalér modéren) niténan Ramadan sateuacan ngalih kana Islam.<ref>See Ibn Qutaybah,op.cit.page 204; Cited by Sinasi Gunduz, The Knowledge of Life, Oxford University, 1994, p. 25, note 403: "Abu al-Fida, op-cit., p.148; Bar Habraeus, op.cit. p.266, Ibn Hazm claims that this fast is the fast of Ramadan (of the Muslims), but this is completely wrong."</ref> Numutkeun ka Philip Jenkins, Ramadhan sumping "tina disiplin ketat ti garéja Suriah".<ref>Jenkins, Philip (31 July 2006). The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South (p. 182). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Nanging, saran ieu dumasarkeun kana ideu orientalis yén Alquran nyalira ngagaduhan asal Siria, anu ditolak ku sarjana Muslim sapertos M. Al-Azami.<ref>Muhammad Mustafa al-Azami, "The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments", 2nd Edition (2008), Azami Publishing House</ref> == Mangsa penting == === Mimiti === [[Gambar:Ramadan100years1938-2037.png|jmpl|Tabél mimiti Ramadhan pikeun taun Gregorian antara 1938 sareng 2038.]] [[Kalénder Islam|Kalénder Hijriyah]] dumasar kana révolusi [[Bulan (satelit)|bulan]] anu ngurilingan [[Marcapada|jagat marcapada]] sareng awal unggal bulan ditangtukeun nalika hilal (sabit leutik) lumangsung. Cara nangtukeun momen hilal anu dianggo ayeuna nyaéta metode ningali ku panon taranjang (katelah rukyah) sareng ngagunakeun [[Astronomi|metode ngétang astronomi]] (katelah hisab). Persatuan Islam (persis) sareng Majelis Ulama Indonésia (MUI) nganggo kombinasi hisab sareng rukyah pikeun nangtoskeun hilal. Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) sareng Kamenterian Agama Républik Indonésia salaku Pamaréntah Indonésia nganggo metode rukyatul hilal; sedengkeun [[Muhammadiyah]] ngagunakeun '''''hisab hakiki wal wujudul hilal''''' salaku dasar pikeun nangtukeun hilal.<ref>T Djamaluddin, Fatwa MUI Membuka Jalan: Penyatuan Hari Raya Segera Terwujud</ref> Bédana metodeu ieu nyababkeun kamungkinan béda-béda dina hasil nangtoskeun iraha ngamimitian sareng nungtungan Ramadhan, sapertos kajantenan taun [[1998]] Maséhi (1418 H).<ref>[http://www.hilalsighting.org/papers/salman.pdf Hilal Sighting & Islamic Dates: Issues and Solution Insha'Allaah] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206015307/http://www.hilalsighting.org/papers/salman.pdf |date=2009-02-06 }}. Hilal Sighting Committee of North America ([http://www.hilalsighting.org/ website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831043652/http://www.hilalsighting.org/ |date=2009-08-31 }}). Retrieved 19 August 2009.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2466-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-124.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 031 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 124|last=Bukhari-Ibn-Ismail|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> === Wengi kamulyaan === ''Lailatul Qadar'' (wengi katangtosan), mangrupikeun wengi istimewa anu lumangsung dina bulan Ramadhan. Wengi ayeuna dicarioskeun dina [[Qur'an|Al Qur'an]] dina [[Al Qodar|Surah Al-Qadr]], éta langkung saé tibatan sarébu bulan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Neal|title=Islam: A Concise Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/islam00neal|publisher=Georgetown University Press|year=1999|location=Washington|doi=|id=|isbn=0-87840-224-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2465-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-125.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 031 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 125|last=Ibn-Ismail-Bukhari|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=28 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170845/http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/64-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2031.%20Fasting/2465-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-031-hadith-number-125.html |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> Waktos anu tepat wengi ieu kajantenan henteu dipikaterang tapi numutkeun sababaraha [[Hadis|cariosan]], wengi ieu tumiba dina 10 wengi terakhir Ramadhan, tepatna dina salah sahiji wengi ganjil, nyaéta wengi ka 21, 23, 25, 27 atanapi 29.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihbukhari/65-Sahih%20Bukhari%20Book%2032.%20Praying%20at%20Night%20In%20Ramadan%20(Taraweeh)/2479-sahih-bukhari-volume-003-book-032-hadith-number-238.html|title=Sahih Bukhari – Book 032 (Praying at Night during Ramadan), Hadith 238|last=Ibn-Ismail-Bukhari|first=AbdAllah-Muhammad|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=28 July 2012}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hadithcollection.com/sahihmuslim/134-Sahih%20Muslim%20Book%2006.%20Fasting/10668-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number-2632.html|title=Sahih Muslim – Book 006 (The Book of Fasting), Hadith 2632|last=Muslim-Ibn-Habaj|first=Abul-Hussain|website=hadithcollection.com|accessdate=28 July 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170848/http://hadithcollection.com/sahihmuslim/134-Sahih%20Muslim%20Book%2006.%20Fasting/10668-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number-2632.html |date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> Sababaraha umat Islam biasana nyobian ngareuah-reuah wengi ieu ku nyaring dina wengi-wengi tungtung bulan Ramadhan bari sholat sapeupeuting.<ref>[http://www.hidayatullah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=107&Itemid=60 Hidayatullah: Cara jitu memburu Lailatul Qadar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211123623/http://www.hidayatullah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=107&Itemid=60 |date=2012-02-11 }}</ref> === Tungtung === Akhir bulan Ramadhan direuah-reuah kalayan gumbira ku sadaya muslim di marcapada. Sore (wengi 1 [[Syawal|Shawwal]] ), anu biasana disebat wengi kameunangan, aranjeunna bakal nyarios takbir sasarengan. Di Indonésia, ritual ieu janten hal anu narik kusabab biasana penduduk Islam nyebatkeun takbir bari parade ngurilingan landeuh sareng desa, kadang-kadang ditambahan ku cara neunggeul drum sareng lampu kembang api atanapi ngahurungkeun lantera. Dinten énjingna dina kaping 1 Shawwal, anu dirayakeun salaku [[Idul Fitri]], duanana lalaki sareng awéwé muslim bakal ngariung di [[Masigit|masjid]] sareng alun-alun tempat shalat Idul Fitri bakal dilaksanakeun. [[Solat]] dilakukeun ku dua rakaat teras dipungkas ku dua khutbah dina lebaran. Milangkala éta teras dilanjengkeun ku acara silih hampura (''mushofahah'') di papada umat Islam, sareng dina waktos anu sasarengan ngeureunkeun séri kagiatan agama khusus anu aya dina Ramadhan.<ref name="EsinIslam">{{Cite web|url=http://www.esinislam.com/Articles201009/WritersArticles_AdilSalahi_0911.htm|title=Ruling on Voluntary Fasting After The Month Of Ramadan: Eid Day(s) And Ash-Shawaal|website=EsinIslam, Arab News & Information – By Adil Salahi|accessdate=23 May 2016}}</ref> == Kegiatan kaagamaan == [[Gambar:Fasting.JPG|kiri|jmpl|250x250px| Kaayaan nalika buka [[puasa]] ( ''iftar'' ) babarengan di mesjid.]] Kegiatan utama dina bulan Ramadhan nyaéta tangtos, puasa, sahur, buka puasa, solat peuting, ngalobakeun maca [[Qur'an|Al-Quran]], ngarayakeun dinten wahyu Al-Qur'an, sareng amal hadé anu sanés.<ref name="guardian">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/features/weekend/169233-muslims-observe-ramadan-clerics-explain-significance|title=Muslims observe Ramadan, clerics explain significance|website=Guardian News, Nigeria|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20140718041849/http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/features/weekend/169233-muslims-observe-ramadan-clerics-explain-significance|archivedate=2014-07-18|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hadithcollection.com/.../10999-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number%20-2361.html|title=Sahih Muslim Book 006, Hadith Number 2361.|website=Hadith Collection|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604202311/http://www.hadithcollection.com/.../10999-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number%20-2361.html|archivedate=2015-06-04|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 June 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604202311/http://www.hadithcollection.com/.../10999-sahih-muslim-book-006-hadith-number%20-2361.html |date=2015-06-04 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sunnah.com/bukhari/30/|title=Book of Fasting – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)|publisher=|accessdate=16 June 2015}}</ref> === Saum sasih siam === Saum/ Puasa pikeun urang Islam ( [[Basa Arab|Arab]] : <font size="4">صوم,</font> transliterasi: ''Shuwam)'' nyaéta nyengker tina tuangeun sareng inuman sareng sadaya padamelan anu tiasa ngabatalkeun kana puasa, ti subuh dugi ka surup [[panonpoé]], dina kaayaan anu tangtu, pikeun ningkatkeun kataqwaan jalma muslim. Puasa (saum) mangrupikeun salah sahiji tina lima rukun Islam. Saum ceuk lugot hartosna nyengker atanapi nyegah.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/birmingham/content/articles/2008/08/29/ramadhan_2008_feature.shtml Why Ramadan brings us together]; ''[[BBC]]'', 1 September 2008</ref><ref name="WP">[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/27/AR2008092702592_2.html?nav=rss_world Help for the Heavy at Ramadan], ''[[Washington Post]]'', 27 September 2008</ref><ref name="dieticiannour">{{Cite web|url=http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/072709p56.shtml|title=Understanding Muslim Fasting Practices|last=El-Zibdeh|first=Dr. Nour|website=todaysdietitian.com|accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> ==== Sahur ==== Sahur mangrupikeun istilah [[Islam]] anu ngarujuk kana kagiatan tuangna jalma [[Islam]] anu dilaksanakeun dina janari <ref>[http://deskripsi.com/s/sahur Deskripsi - Sahur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312045610/http://www.deskripsi.com/s/sahur |date=2017-03-12 }}</ref> pikeun anu ngalaksanakeun [[Saum|puasa]] salami Ramadhan. Sahur salaku sarapan cocog sareng Iftar salaku tuang, salami Ramadhan, ngagentos tilu tuangeun sadinten ( [[Mumuluk|sasarap]], tuang siang sareng tuangeun ),<ref>{{Citation|title=BBC - Schools - Religion - Islam|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/religion/islam/ramadan.shtml|access-date=11 April 2010}}</ref> sanaos di sababaraha tempat tuang tuang ogé dikonsumsi saatos Iftar pas magrib. ==== Iftar ==== Iftar ngarujuk kana ngaliwet anu waktosna nalika buka puasa salami bulan Ramadhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.interfaithdialog.org/dinners/dinner-of-abrahamic-traditions-2-2.html|title=Dinner of Abrahamic Traditions|website=interfaithdialog.org|language=Bahasa Inggris|accessdate=22 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310075955/http://www.interfaithdialog.org/dinners/dinner-of-abrahamic-traditions-2-2.html |date=10 March 2016 }}</ref> Iftar mangrupikeun hiji ibadah nalika bulan Ramadhan sareng sering dilakukeun ku hiji komunitas, sareng jalma-jalma kumpul pikeun buka [[Saum|puasa]] babarengan. Iftar dilakukeun pas saatos waktos Maghrib. Sacara tradisional, kurma mangrupikeun hal anu mimiti didahar nalika buka puasa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://imeu.net/news/article0014277.shtml|title=Ramadan in Palestine at the Institute for Middle East Understanding|website=imeu.net|language=Bahasa Inggris|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206013516/http://imeu.net/news/article0014277.shtml|archivedate=2008-12-06|dead-url=yes|accessdate=22 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206013516/http://imeu.net/news/article0014277.shtml |date=2008-12-06 }}</ref> Seueur umat Islam yakin yén masihan Iftar ka batur salaku bentuk amal pisan manpaatna sareng dilakukeun ku Nabi Muhammad.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/virtues-of-iftari.htm|title=Virtues of iftar|website=haqislam.org|language=Bahasa Inggris|accessdate=22 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726114037/http://www.haqislam.org/ramadan/virtues-of-iftari.htm |date=26 July 2009 }}</ref> === Solat Peuting === Nalika peuting, saberes sholat [[isya]], umat Islam teras-terasan ngalaksanakeun ibadah [[Tarawéh|tarawih]] . Doa khusus anu ngan ukur dilaksanakeun salami bulan Ramadhan. Solat tarawih, sanaos tiasa dilakukeun kalawan papisah, umumna dilakukeun berjamaah di [[Masigit|masjid]] . Kadang-kadang sateuacan dilaksanakeunnana sholat tarawih di tempat-tempat tertentu, diayakeun ceramah pondok pikeun ngalengkepan jamaah dina ngalaksanakeun ibadahna dina bulan éta. Saatos ngalaksanakeun solat tarawih, biasana langsung teraskeun sareng solat witir 3 siklus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islamhelpline.com/qa/tarawih-prayer-nafl-or-sunnah|title=Tarawih Prayer a Nafl or Sunnah|publisher=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118190826/http://www.islamhelpline.com/qa/tarawih-prayer-nafl-or-sunnah|archivedate=2015-11-18|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 June 2015}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118190826/http://www.islamhelpline.com/qa/tarawih-prayer-nafl-or-sunnah |date=2015-11-18 }}</ref> === Ngaos Al-Qur'an === Salaku tambahan kana amalan [[puasa]], kaseueuran umat Islam nyéépkeun waktos sateuacan buka puasa ku maos [[Qur'an|Alquran]] hiji [[juz]] unggal dinten. Biasana dibaca khusus dina kelompok atanapi sacara sewang-sewangan, tapi aya ogé anu mungkaskeun 30 Juz ku wasilah maos surat dina [[Tarawéh|solat Taraweh]] .{{Fact}} === Lungsurna Al-qur'an === Pirang-pirang nonoman jeung ulama ngagaduhan sasauran anu bénten ngeunaan kaping anu tangtos iraha lungsurna wahyu Al-Qur'an <ref name="nzqsofwah">[http://www.alsofwah.or.id/?pilih=rdnlihat&id=9 Nuzulul Quran Sebagai Peringatan atau Pelajaran]</ref> (''[[Nuzulul Quran]]'')''.'' Dina kasempetan ieu, [[Al 'Alaq|Surah Al-'Alaq]] ayat 1 dugi ka 5 diturunkeun nalika Nabi [[Muhammad]] aya di [[Gua Hira]] . Milangkala acara ieu biasana dilaksanakeun ku pangaosan di [[Masigit|masjid]] . Tapi peringatan ieu dianggap [[bid'ah]], sabab teu aya ti nabina. Mimiti ditangtoskeunna milangkala ''[[Nuzulul Quran]]'' di Indonesia nyaéta nalika Presiden Soekarno dipasihan saran ti Buya Hamka pikeun ngareuah-reuah wengian ''Nuzulul Quran,'' lantaran ngepas jeung poéan merdékana Indonesia. === Umroh === Upami Umroh dilakukeun dina bulan ieu, éta langkung seueur pahalana tibatan bulan-bulan anu sanés. Dina [[Hadis|Hadits]] disaurkeun "Umrah dina bulan Ramadhan sami sareng haji atanapi haji sareng kaula." (Diriwayatkeun ku: Bukhari sareng Muslim).<ref name="Umrah">[http://www.mediamuslim.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=306&Itemid=37 media muslim, umrah pada bulan ramadan]</ref> === Zakat fitrah === Zakat fitrah mangrupikeun [[Zakat|zakat anu]] dikaluarkeun khusus dina bulan Ramadhan atanapi paling akhir sateuacan réngsé shalat Idul Fitri. Unggal jalma muslim anu mampu wajib mayar zakat fitrah.<ref>Yasin, Ahmad Hadi. "[http://banten.dompetdhuafa.org/uploads/media/PANDUAN-ZAKAT-1433-web.pdf Panduan Zakat Praktis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506033725/http://banten.dompetdhuafa.org/uploads/media/PANDUAN-ZAKAT-1433-web.pdf |date=2019-05-06 }}." ''Jakarta: Dompet Dhuafa Republika'' (2011).</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://baznas.go.id/panduanzakat|title=BAZNAS - BADAN AMIL ZAKAT NASIONAL|last=root|website=baznas.go.id|language=en|accessdate=2019-05-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121185703/https://baznas.go.id/panduanzakat |date=2021-01-21 }}</ref> Jumlah zakat fitrah anu kedah dibayar sewang sewangan nyaéta hiji sha' tergantung kadaharan pokok di daérah anu bersangkutan.<ref>Mubarok, A., & Fanani, B. (2014). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdulloh_Mubarok/publication/320322246_PENGHIMPUNAN_DANA_ZAKAT_NASIONAL/links/59dd9ae6a6fdcc276fa39750/PENGHIMPUNAN-DANA-ZAKAT-NASIONAL.pdf PENGHIMPUNAN DANA ZAKAT NASIONAL (Potensi, Realisasi dan Peran Penting Organisasi Pengelola Zakat)]. ''Permana'', ''5''(2).</ref> Jumlah ieu, nalika dirobah, sami sareng 2,5 kilogram atanapi 3,5 liter béas. Anu nampi Zakat umumna didefinisikeun dina 8 kelompok (fakir, miskin, amil, [[mualaf]], budak, gharimin, fisabilillah, ibnu sabil) tapi numutkeun sababaraha ulama khusus, zakat fitrah kedah ngutamakeun dua kelompok anu mimiti, nyaéta anu fakir sareng anu miskin.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wordpress-268576-833073.cloudwaysapps.com/apa-itu-zakat/|title=Apa Itu Zakat? Penjelasan tentang Zakat dalam Islam|website=Lembaga Amil Zakat Dompet Dhuafa|language=en-US|accessdate=2019-05-06}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506033729/https://wordpress-268576-833073.cloudwaysapps.com/apa-itu-zakat/ |date=2019-05-06 }}</ref> Sasauran ieu dumasar kana alesan yén jumlah zakat leutik pisan sedengkeun salah sahiji tujuan tina ngaluarkeun zakat fitrah nyaéta supaya jalma-jalma anu miskin sareng anu miskin tiasa ilubiung dina ngarayakeun idul fitri. == Prakték budaya == [[Gambar:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Oproep_tot_het_gebed_op_vrijdag_via_de_trom_bij_de_moskee_Tulehu_TMnr_20018271.jpg|kiri|jmpl|300x300px| Neunggeul [[bedug]] di Indonésia]] [[Gambar:Lanterns_from_below.JPG|jmpl| Hiasan lantera ramé di [[Kairo]], [[Mesir]]]] [[Gambar:Ramadan_jerusalem_kmhad.jpg|jmpl| Ramadhan di Kota Lama&nbsp;[[Yerusalem]]]] Di sababaraha [[Dunya muslim|nagara Muslim]] ayeuna, lampu digantungkeun di alun-alun, sareng di jalan-jalan landeuh, pikeun ngareuah reuah ieu bulan. [[Lantera|Lentera]] mangrupikeun hiasan simbolis pikeun bulan Ramadhan. Di nagara-nagara berkembang, aranjeunna digantungkeun di jalan-jalan kota.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/slideshow/muslims-begin-fasting-start-ramadan-holy-month-16822614|title=Muslims begin fasting for Ramadan|website=ABC News|accessdate=6 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/the-spirit-of-ramadan-is-here-butbulanis-it-still-so-dark|title=The spirit of Ramadan is here, but why is it still so dark?|last=Taryam Al Subaihi|website=The National|accessdate=30 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shine.yahoo.com/decorate-ramadan-175400368.html|title=How to decorate for Ramadan|last=Cochran|first=Sylvia|website=Yahoo-Shine|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115184556/http://shine.yahoo.com/decorate-ramadan-175400368.html|archivedate=2013-01-15|dead-url=yes|accessdate=6 August 2012}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115184556/http://shine.yahoo.com/decorate-ramadan-175400368.html |date=2013-01-15 }}</ref> Lenter tradisi salaku hiasan anu pakait sareng Ramadhan dipercaya asalna ti jaman Khalifah [[Fatimiid|Fatimiyyah]] anu pusatna di [[Mesir]], di mana Khalifah [[Al-Mu'izz]] li-Dinillah disambut ku jalma-jalma anu nyekel lantera pikeun ngagungkeun kaputusanana. Ti saprak éta, lantera parantos dianggo pikeun ngahirupkeun masjid sareng imah di ibukota [[Kairo]] . Mal balanja, bisnis, sareng bumi jalma tiasa katingali ku béntang sareng gunung sabulan sareng rupa-rupa pangaruh cahaya ogé. Salaku nagara anu jumlah pendudukna muslim pangageungna di marcapada, [[Indonésia|Indonesia]] ngagaduhan macem-macem tradisi ramadan. Di [[Pulo Jawa]], seueur urang [[Urang Jawa|Jawa]] mandi di cinyusu suci nyiapkeun puasa, ritual anu katelah Padusa. [[Kota Semarang]] nandaan mimiti Ramadhan ku [[karnaval Dugderan]], anu ngalibatkeun pengendog Warak, [[Kuda|mahluk hibrid kuda]] - naga panginten diideuan ku [[Buraq]] . Di ibukota Cina anu dipangaruhan ku [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Cina]], kurupuk seuneu biasana dipaké pikeun ngahudangkeun jalma pikeun sholat subuh dugi ka abad ka-19. Dina panungtungan bulan Ramadhan, kaseueuran pagawé nampi bonus sasasih anu katelah Tunjangan Hari Raya (THR). Sababaraha jinis tuangeun anu kawéntar pisan salami Ramadhan, sapertos sapi di [[Acéh]], sareng [[Kéong|tutut]] di [[Jawa Tengah]] . Hidangan Iftar diumumkeun unggal wengi ku neunggeul [[bedug]] di mesjid. == Kaséhatan == Puasa Ramadhan aman pikeun jalma anu séhat, tapi anu ngagaduhan kaayaan médis kedah milari naséhat médis.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2010|title=Islamic fasting and health|url=|journal=Ann. Nutr. Metab.|volume=56|issue=4|pages=273–82|doi=10.1159/000295848|pmid=20424438}}</ref> Mangsa puasa biasana dikaitkeun sareng leungitna beurat anu sedeng, tapi beurat condong datang deui saatosna.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2014|title=Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url=|journal=Public Health Nutr|volume=17|issue=2|pages=396–406|doi=10.1017/S1368980012005046|pmid=23182306}}</ref> === Panyawat ginjal === Tinjauan literatur ku kelompok Iran nunjukkeun yén puasa salami Ramadhan tiasa nyababkeun [[Ginjal|tatu ginjal]] di pasién anu panyakit sedeng (GFR <60 ml / mnt) atanapi panyakit ginjal anu langkung parah, tapi henteu ngarugikeun pasién cangkok ginjal anu ngagaduhan fungsi anu saé atanapi paling ngawangun batu.<ref name="renal diseases mini review">{{Cite journal|date=August 2013|title=Ramadan fasting and patients with renal diseases: A mini review of the literature|journal=J Res Med Sci.|publisher=Official Journal of [[Isfahan University of Medical Sciences]]|volume=18|issue=8|pages=711–716|issn=1735-1995|pmc=3872613|pmid=24379850}}</ref> == Denda pikeun palanggaran == Di sababaraha nagara Muslim, gagal atanapi gancang ngalawan ngalawan kabiasaan sapertos kitu salami bulan Ramadhan dianggap kajahatan sareng dituntut sapertos kitu. Salaku conto, di [[Aljazair]], dina Oktober 2008 [[Biskra|pengadilan Biskra]] ngahukum genep jalma opat taun panjara sareng denda anu beurat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/10/07/57856.html|title=Algerians jailed for breaking Ramadan fast|website=Al Arabiya News}}</ref> Di [[Kuwait]], numutkeun undang-undang nomer 44 taun 1968, hukumanana nyaéta denda henteu langkung ti 100 dinar Kuwait, atanapi panjara henteu langkung ti sabulan, atanapi duanana hukuman, kusabab ditingali tuang, nginum atanapi ngaroko nalika siang siang salami Ramadhan .<ref>[http://www.moi.gov.kw/portal/vEnglish/pressrel.asp?objectid={220CBBC3-8EA9-4835-A491-C368B0689E55}&catid={506BD210-2218-41DE-9648-30A1C3AAD0F6}&year=&relid={57BF4B27-AAFB-4F61-9065-B013FA96A464} Press release by Kuwait Ministry Of Interior]</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=KD 100 fine, one month prison for public eating, drinking|newspaper=Friday Times|location=|language=<!-- English -->|publisher=Kuwait Times Newspaper|date=21 August 2009|url=http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=MTE3NDM5MzY5NA|access-date=17 November 2009|archive-date=2020-01-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107124956/http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=MTE3NDM5MzY5NA|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Di sababaraha daérah [[Uni Émirat Arab|Émirat Arab Bersatu]], tuang atanapi nginum di tempat umum salami Ramadhan dianggap mangrupikeun palanggaran ringan sareng dihukum dugi ka 150 jam jasa masarakat.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Salama|first=Samir|title=New penalty for minor offences in UAE|newspaper=Gulf News|location=Dubai, UAE|pages=|language=|publisher=Al Nisr Publishing LLC|date=16 July 2009|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/crime/new-penalty-for-minor-offences-in-uae-1.492892|access-date=17 November 2009}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301171003/http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/crime/new-penalty-for-minor-offences-in-uae-1.492892 |date=1 March 2010 }}</ref> Di [[Saudi Arabia|Arab Saudi anu caket]], anu ''dijelaskeun ku The Economist'' nganggap Ramadhan "langkung serius tibatan tempat sanés",<ref>{{Cite news|title=Ramadan in Saudi Arabia: Taking it to heart|url=http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21700396-kingdom-treats-holy-month-more-seriously-anywhere-else-taking-it|access-date=11 June 2016|work=[[The Economist]]|date=11 June 2016}}</ref> aya hukuman anu langkung parah, padahal di Malaysia, henteu aya hukuman sapertos kitu. Di [[Mesir]], penjualan [[alkohol]] dilarang salami Ramadhan.<ref>"[http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/48444/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-tourism-minister-confirms-alcohol-prohibiti.aspx Egypt's tourism minister 'confirms' alcohol prohibition on Islamic holidays beyond Ramadan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811064259/http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/48444/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-tourism-minister-confirms-alcohol-prohibiti.aspx |date=2013-08-11 }}," ''[[Al-Ahram]], 22 July 2012.''</ref> Dina 2014 di Kermanshah, [[Iran]], hiji non-Muslim dihukum pikeun ngaduruk roko sareng lima urang Muslim dikeruk kalayan 70 belang pikeun tuang salami Ramadhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2702774/Christian-sentenced-Iranian-judge-lips-burnt-cigarette-eating-Ramadan.html|title=Christian sentenced by Iranian judge to have his lips burnt with a cigarette for eating during Ramadan|website=Mail Online|accessdate=24 July 2014}}</ref> === Masalah hukum anu sanés === Sababaraha nagara gaduh hukum anu ngarobah jadwal damel salami Ramadhan. [[Uni Émirat Arab|Dina Undang-Undang Buruh Uni Émirat Arab]], jam kerja maksimum nyaéta 6 jam per dinten sareng 36 jam per minggu. [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Bahrain]] sareng [[Kuwait]] ngagaduhan hukum anu sami.<ref>[http://www.dlapiper.com/files/Publication/2cde821c-0999-49a7-a472-7b198caeb169/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/588752a7-2159-4538-8938-7da1610c0faa/DLA_Piper_Middle_East_Be_Alert_Ramadan.pdf Employment Issues During Ramadan – The Gulf Region] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404152029/http://www.dlapiper.com/files/Publication/2cde821c-0999-49a7-a472-7b198caeb169/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/588752a7-2159-4538-8938-7da1610c0faa/DLA_Piper_Middle_East_Be_Alert_Ramadan.pdf |date=2020-04-04 }}, DLA Piper Middle East.</ref> == Aspék ékonomi == [[Gambar:Iftar_in_Istanbul_Turkey.jpg|jmpl|333x333px| Iftar di [[Masjid Sultan Ahmed]] di [[Istanbul]], Turki]] Bulan Ramadhan di [[Indonésia]] sareng [[Organisasi Sabilulungan Islam|nagara-nagara anu mayoritas pendudukna Muslim]] sacara umum tiasa dikaitkeun sareng kakuatan kakuatan sareng paripolah konsumtif masarakat pikeun barang sareng jasa. Di Indonésia, ieu aya hubunganana pisan sareng kabiasaan [[pamaréntah]] sareng perusahaan swasta pikeun nyayogikeun tunjangan liburan (THR) ka para karyawanna. Kanaékan ieu kajantenan ampir di sadaya séktor ti transportasi, tuangeun, inuman dugi ka kabutuhan rumah tangga. Janten henteu umum pikeun tingkat inflasi ngahontal titik na anu pangluhurna salami bulan ieu.<ref>[http://www.republika.co.id/koran_detail.asp?id=55914&kat_id=15&kat_id1=&kat_id2= Republika: Ekonomi Ramadan, Muhammad Syafi'i Antonio]</ref> Fénoména ieu tiasa ditingali sacara jelas ku répormasi para padagang musiman anu ngajual rupa-rupa komoditi mimitian ti tuangeun dugi ka pakean di tempat umum, khususna di sisi jalan. Salian ti ngayakeun nyebar bazaar anu disponsoran ku pamaréntah, swasta, organisasi tertentu sareng organisasi non-pamaréntah. == Tingkat Dursila == Korelasi Ramadhan sareng tingkat kajahatan dicampur: sababaraha statistik nunjukkeun yén tingkat kajahatan turun salami Ramadhan, sedengkeun anu sanés nunjukkeun yén aranjeunna ningkat. Pangurangan tingkat kajahatan parantos dilaporkeun ku pulisi di sababaraha kota di [[Turki]] ( Istanbul <ref name="zaman">{{Cite web|url=http://www.todayszaman.com/national_crime-rate-falls-in-ramadan_254431.html|title=Crime rate falls during Ramadan|website=Today's Zaman|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028204709/http://www.todayszaman.com/national_crime-rate-falls-in-ramadan_254431.html|archivedate=2014-10-28|dead-url=yes|accessdate=15 July 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028204709/http://www.todayszaman.com/national_crime-rate-falls-in-ramadan_254431.html |date=2014-10-28 }}</ref> sareng Konya <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=crime-rate-drops-over-ramadan-2002-11-16|title=Crime rate drops over Ramadan|date=16 November 2002|access-date=24 June 2015|publisher=Turkish Daily News}}</ref> ) sareng Propinsi Wétan [[Saudi Arabia|Arab Saudi]] .<ref name="arabnews">{{Cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/459414|title=Eastern Province crime falls 40% during Ramadan|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref> Panilitian taun 2012 nunjukkeun yén tingkat kajahatan turunna salami Iranduring Ramadhan, sareng panurunanna sacara statistik signifikan.<ref name="irjabs">{{Citation|last=Tavakoli|first=Nasrin|title=Effect of spirituality on decreasing crimes and social damages: A case study on Ramadan|journal=International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences|pages=518–524|year=2012|url=http://www.irjabs.com/files_site/paperlist/r_325_121110001354.pdf}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319094157/https://irjabs.com/files_site/paperlist/r_325_121110001354.pdf |date=2021-03-19 }}</ref> Panilitian taun 2005 mendakan yén aya panurunan serangan, perampokan sareng kajahatan anu aya hubunganana sareng alkohol salami Ramadhan di Saudi Arabia, tapi ngan ukur panurunan anu signifikan sacara statistik dina kajahatan anu aya hubunganana sareng alkohol.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nauss.edu.sa/En/DigitalLibrary/ScientificTheses/Documents/Master_1425-1426_PS_ps26en.pdf|title=The effect of Ramadan on crime rates in Saudi Arabia, Hattab Ben Thawab Al-Sobaye|website=Naif Arab University for Social Sciences, Thesis publication|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809193119/http://www.nauss.edu.sa/En/DigitalLibrary/ScientificTheses/Documents/Master_1425-1426_PS_ps26en.pdf|archivedate=2014-08-09|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2017-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809193119/http://www.nauss.edu.sa/En/DigitalLibrary/ScientificTheses/Documents/Master_1425-1426_PS_ps26en.pdf |date=2014-08-09 }}</ref> Kanaékan tingkat kajahatan salami Ramadhan parantos dilaporkeun di [[Turki]],<ref name="tdn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/129-women-killed-in-six-months-in-turkey-lawmaker-says.aspx?pageID=238&nID=69005&NewsCatID=509|title=129 women killed in six months in Turkey, lawmaker says|website=Hurriyet Daily News|accessdate=12 July 2014}}</ref> [[Jakarta]],<ref name="jpost">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/08/19/crime-rates-increase-during-ramadhan.html|title=Crime rates increase during Ramadan|website=Jakarta Post|accessdate=15 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="globe">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/4-gold-shop-robbers-killed-2-caught-during-police-raids-across-the-city/326794/|title=4 Gold Shop Robbers Killed, 2 Caught During Police Raids Across the City|website=Jakarta Post|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/4-gold-shop-robbers-killed-2-caught-during-police-raids-across-the-city/326794&date=2011-07-12|archivedate=2011-07-12|dead-url=no|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="jakartacity">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/eng/news/2014/06/anticipating-crime-7500-policemen-put-on-standby-along-ramadan|title=Anticipating Crime, 7,500 Policemen Put on Standby Along Ramadan|website=Department of Communication, Informatics and Public Relations of Jakarta Capital City|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6R7ZlfPNC?url=http://www.jakarta.go.id/eng/news/2014/06/anticipating-crime-7500-policemen-put-on-standby-along-ramadan|archivedate=2014-07-16|dead-url=yes|accessdate=16 July 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724125947/http://www.jakarta.go.id/eng/news/2014/06/anticipating-crime-7500-policemen-put-on-standby-along-ramadan |date=2014-07-24 }}</ref> bagéan [[Aljazair|Algeria]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elwatan.com/archives/article.php?id_sans_version=87359|title=Comment le Ramadan bouleverse la vie des Algériens|website=El Watan, French|accessdate=16 July 2014}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118042113/http://www.elwatan.com/archives/article.php?id_sans_version=87359 |date=18 November 2011 }}</ref> [[Yaman]] <ref name="yemen">{{Cite web|url=http://www.yementimes.com/DefaultDET.aspx?i=1287&p=local&a=1|title=Yemen child trafficking to increase during Ramadan|website=Yemen Times|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yementimes.com%2FDefaultDET.aspx%3Fi%3D1287%26p%3Dlocal%26a%3D1&date=2011-04-04|archivedate=2011-04-04|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2017-04-21}} {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.ph/20110404051838/http://www.yementimes.com/DefaultDET.aspx?i=1287&p=local&a=1 |date=2011-04-04 }}</ref> sareng [[Mesir]] .<ref name="Egypt">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3746|title=Ramadan saw rise in violent domestic crimes|website=Daily News, Egypt|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3746&date=2011-07-12|archivedate=2011-07-12|dead-url=no|accessdate=2017-04-21}}</ref> Rupa-rupa mékanisme parantos diusulkeun pikeun pangaruh Ramadhan kana kajahatan: * Hiji sarjana Iran nyatakeun yén puasa salami bulan Ramadhan ngajantenkeun jalma gampang ngalakukeun kajahatan kusabab alesan spiritual.<ref name="aytolh">{{Cite web|url=http://www.yjc.ir/en/news/1619/ramadan-and-lower-crime-rates|title=''Ramadan and lower crime rates: The Ayatollah says that during Ramadan the number of criminal cases in the Judiciary diminish by a great degree''.|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6R7YSzyKn?url=http://www.yjc.ir/en/news/1619/ramadan-and-lower-crime-rates|archivedate=2014-07-16|dead-url=no|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref> Gamal al-Banna nyatakeun yén puasa tiasa setrés jalma, anu tiasa ngajantenkeun aranjeunna langkung seueur ngalakukeun kajahatan. Anjeunna ngritik umat Islam anu ngalakukeun kajahatan nalika puasa salami Ramadhan salaku "palsu sareng deet".<ref name="Egypt"/> * Pulisi di Saudi Arabia nunjukkeun pangirangan tingkat kajahatan kana "suasana spiritual anu aya di nagara ieu".<ref name="arabnews"/> * Di [[Jakarta]], [[Indonésia|Indonesia]], pulisi nyarios yén lalu lintas sepi sabab 7 juta jalma ninggalkeun kota pikeun ngarayakeun [[Idul Fitri]] hasilna ningkatna kajahatan jalanan. Hasilna, pulisi nyebarkeun tambahan 7.500 tanaga.<ref name="jakartacity"/> * Dina bulan Ramadhan, jutaan jamaah asup ka [[Saudi Arabia|Arab Saudi]] pikeun nganjang ka [[Mekah]] . Numutkeun ka ''Yaman Times'', jamaah haji sapertos kitu biasana amal zakat, sareng akibatna penyelundup ngusir budak-budak ti Yaman kanggo nyungkeun jalan di Arab Saudi.<ref name="yemen"/> == Ramadhan di daérah arktik == Panjang subuh dugi ka surupna beda-beda di sababaraha penjuru dunya numutkeun usum panas atanapi usum salju solstis. Kaseueuran umat Islam puasa 11-16 jam salami bulan Ramadhan. Nanging, di daérah arktik, waktos antara subuh sareng surup di Mekah langkung ti 22 jam dina usum panas. Salaku conto, dina 2014, umat Islam di Reykjavik, [[Islandia]], sareng Trondheim, Norwégia, puasa ampir 22 jam, sedengkeun umat Islam di [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], puasa ngan ukur sakitar 11 jam. Umat ​​Islam di daérah anu wengi atanapi siang teras-terasan ditingali salami bulan Ramadhan nuturkeun jam puasa di kota-kota caket dieu di mana puasa ditingali nalika subuh sareng surup. Minangka alternatipna, umat Islam tiasa nuturkeun jaman Mekah.<ref>See article "How Long Muslims Fast For Ramadan Around The World" -Huffingtonpost.co /31 July 2014 and article "Fasting Hours of Ramadan 2014" -Onislam.net / 29 June 2014 and article "The true spirit of Ramadan" -Gulfnews.com /31 July 2014</ref><ref>See article by Imam Mohamad Jebara "The fasting of Ramadan is not meant to punish" http://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/columnists/jebara-the-fasting-of-ramadan-is-not-meant-to-punish</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/03/ramadan-canada-arctic-fasting-hours-sunlight|title=Arctic Ramadan: fasting in land of midnight sun comes with a challenge|last=Kassam|first=Ashifa|website=|publisher=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=2016-07-06}}</ref> == Gawe di bulan Ramadhan == Umat Islam bakal tetep damel salami bulan Ramadhan. Nabi Muhammad nyarios yén penting pikeun ngajaga kasaimbangan antara ibadah sareng padamelan. Di sababaraha nagara Islam, sapertos Oman, jam damel disingkat salami bulan Ramadhan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofoman.com/article/36340/Oman/-Ramadan-working-hours-announced-in-Oman|title=Ramadan working hours announced in Oman|website=Times of Oman|accessdate=17 June 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624185407/http://timesofoman.com/article/36340/Oman/-Ramadan-working-hours-announced-in-Oman |date=24 June 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofoman.com/article/53294/Ramadan/Ramadan-working-hours-for-muslims-working-during-the-Holy-Month-announced-for-public-and-private-sec|title=Ramadan working hours announced for public and private sectors|website=Times of Oman|accessdate=17 June 2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624222635/http://timesofoman.com/article/53294/Ramadan/Ramadan-working-hours-for-muslims-working-during-the-Holy-Month-announced-for-public-and-private-sec |date=24 June 2016 }}</ref> Sering disarankeun supaya muslim anu damel ngabéjaan ka dununganana upami aranjeunna puasa, dipasihan kamungkinan patuh pikeun mangaruhan kinerja tempat damel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.workingmuslim.com/RamadanEmployeeGuide.pdf|title=The Working Muslim in Ramadan|year=2011|publisher=Working Muslim|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007181131/http://www.workingmuslim.com/RamadanEmployeeGuide.pdf|archivedate=2016-10-07|dead-url=yes|accessdate=2016-06-30}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007181131/http://www.workingmuslim.com/RamadanEmployeeGuide.pdf |date=2016-10-07 }}</ref> Tingkat di mana anu lalajo Ramadhon dijagaan ku akomodasi agama beda-beda ti unggal nagara. Kawijakan anu nempatkeun aranjeunna dina kerugian dibandingkeun padamel anu sanésna parantos patepung sareng klaim diskriminasi di [[Inggris]] sareng [[Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Serikat]] .<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lewissilkinemployment.com/en-gb/insights-knowledge/insights-knowledge/a/knowledge/ramadan-employment-issues/|title=Lewis Silkin – Ramadan – employment issues|last=Lewis Silkin|website=lewissilkinemployment.com|accessdate=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.findlaw.com/free_enterprise/2014/06/reasonable-accommodations-for-ramadan-lessons-from-2-eeoc-cases.html|title=Reasonable Accommodations for Ramadan? Lessons From 2 EEOC Cases|website=Free Enterprise|accessdate=21 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-6-10a.cfm|title=EEOC And Electrolux Reach Settlement In Religious Accommodation Charge Brought By Muslim Employees|website=eeoc.gov|accessdate=21 July 2015}}</ref> == Lilana waktu puasa == Waktos puasa ditangtoskeun ku waktos ti naék dugi ka surup, janten posisi [[Panonpoé|matahari]] di bumi mangaruhan panjang waktos jalma puasa. Kusabab nagara anu ngagaduhan [[Tropis|iklim tropis]] di daérah [[Hatulistiwa|katulistiwa]] ngagaduhan durasi saimbang (sakitar 12 jam siang sareng sakitar 12 wengi), durasi puasa cenderung stabil ti taun ka taun. Hal anu béda dialaman ku nagara-nagara di beulahan bumi kalér sareng beulahan bumi beulah kidul anu ngalaman "robih ekstrim", nyaéta nalika usum puasa usum janten pondok (kirang ti 12 jam) sedengkeun usum panas bakal ningkat (langkung ti 12 jam). Ieu mangrupikeun conto data ngeunaan lilana waktu puasa nalika beulahan bumi kalér ngalaman usum panas. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="40%" !Nagara ! Panjangna gancang (jam) |- |{{Flag|Amerika Serikat}}</img>{{Flag|Amerika Serikat}} | 15 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sumut.pojoksatu.id/2016/06/05/inilah-7-negara-dengan-durasi-puasa-tercepat-di-dunia/|title=Inilah 7 Negara dengan Durasi Puasa Tercepat di Dunia|website=sumut.pojoksatu.id|language=Bahasa Indonesia|accessdate=21 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422032849/http://sumut.pojoksatu.id/2016/06/05/inilah-7-negara-dengan-durasi-puasa-tercepat-di-dunia/ |date=22 April 2017 }}</ref> |- |{{Flag|Antartika}}</img>{{Flag|Antartika}} | 8 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://segiempat.com/kps/anéh-unik-kps/tahukah-anda/negara-durasi-puasa-terpendek/|title=Negara dengan Durasi Berpuasa Terpendek di Dunia|website=segiempat.com|language=Bahasa Indonesia|accessdate=21 April 2017}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |- |{{Flag|Argentina}}</img>{{Flag|Argentina}} | 9{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Arab Saudi}}</img>{{Flag|Arab Saudi}} | 14{{Fact}} |- |Arktik | 22 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.anakregular.com/2015/06/waktu-puasa-terpanjang-dan-terpendek-di.html|title=Waktu Puasa Terpanjang dan Terpendek di Dunia|website=anakregular.com|language=Bahasa Indonesia|accessdate=21 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421195613/http://www.anakregular.com/2015/06/waktu-puasa-terpanjang-dan-terpendek-di.html |date=21 April 2017 }}</ref> |- |{{Flag|Australia}}</img>{{Flag|Australia}} | 9 (beulah kidul){{Fact}}<br /><br /><br /><br /><nowiki></br></nowiki>11 (beulah kalér){{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Brasil}}</img>{{Flag|Brasil}} | 12{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Britania Raya}}</img>{{Flag|Britania Raya}} | 18{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Indonesia}}</img>{{Flag|Indonesia}} | 13 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2014/06/durasi-puasa-di-indonesia-tahun-ini|title=Durasi Puasa di Indonesia Tahun Ini|website=nationalgeographic.co.id|language=Bahasa Indonesia|accessdate=21 April 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421194925/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2014/06/durasi-puasa-di-indonesia-tahun-ini |date=21 April 2017 }}</ref> |- |{{Flag|Finlandia}}</img>{{Flag|Finlandia}} | 20{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Islandia}}</img>{{Flag|Islandia}} | 21{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Jepang}}</img>{{Flag|Jepang}} | 15{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Jerman}}</img>{{Flag|Jerman}} | 17{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Norwegia}}</img>{{Flag|Norwegia}} | 20{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Rusia}}</img>{{Flag|Rusia}} | 20{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Selandia Baru}}</img>{{Flag|Selandia Baru}} | 9{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Swedia}}</img>{{Flag|Swedia}} | 20{{Fact}} |- |{{Flag|Tiongkok}}</img>{{Flag|Tiongkok}} | 15{{Fact}} |} == Tingali ogé == * [[Rukun Islam]] * [[Saur|Sahur]] * [[Iftar]] * [[Puasa]] == Catetan == {{Reflist}} == Rujukan == {{Reflist|2}} == Tautan Éksternal == * {{Id}} [http://www.dakwatuna.com/sajian-khusus-ramadan/ Kajian-kajian Khusus Seputar Ramadan]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{En icon}} [http://fairy.mahdzan.com/story/204.asp Fairy Mahdzan, the Spirit of Ramadan at the Pasar Malam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906012113/http://fairy.mahdzan.com/story/204.asp |date=2006-09-06 }} * {{Id}} [http://ahlussunnah.web.id/audio/index.php?cat=Haji-Puasa-Zakat AUDIO ISLAM ONLINE, Kajian & Tanya-Jawab seputar Bulan Ramadan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012005242/http://ahlussunnah.web.id/audio/index.php?cat=Haji-Puasa-Zakat |date=2007-10-12 }} djnrs1qyxhnt3sbevdksd8iucg5f9vd 10 108847 712684 712594 2026-09-14T07:23:18Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712684 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly> {{userbox | float = right | border-s = 2 | border-c = #008080ff | info-c = #00d8ffff | id-c = | id-fc = | id-s = | id-w = 50 | id = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|35px]] | info-fc = | info-s = 9 | info-lh = 1.5em | info = Pamaké mangrupakeun pamilon '''[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026]]''' }} [[Kategori:Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|{{PAGENAME}}]]</includeonly> <noinclude> {{Documentation}} [[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026]] </noinclude> amhyj5gsr6xn7g8fduayagiiqg78c3g 712686 712684 2026-09-14T07:26:46Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712686 wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly> {{userbox | float = right | border-s = 2 | border-c = #008080ff | info-c = #d5efff | id-c = | id-fc = | id-s = | id-w = 50 | id = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|35px]] | info-fc = | info-s = 9 | info-lh = 1.5em | info = Pamaké mangrupakeun pamilon '''[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026]]''' }} [[Kategori:Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|{{PAGENAME}}]]</includeonly> <noinclude> {{Documentation}} [[Kategori:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026]] </noinclude> kzrow9oypb4zkk5srrhj8qtht4vvtrc 10 108848 712685 712593 2026-09-14T07:26:31Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Documentation subpage}} == Penggunaan == Tambahkeun templat ie dina halaman pengguna anjeun: <pre> {{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}} </pre> Hasilna: {{userbox | float = right | border-s = 2 | border-c = #008080ff | info-c = #d5efff | id-c = | id-fc = | id-s = | id-w = 50 | id = [[File:Logo Bulan Wiki Junghuhn transparan - 03.png|35px]] | info-fc = | info-s = 9 | info-lh = 1.5em | info = Pamaké mangrupakeun pamilon '''[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026]]''' }} <includeonly>{{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|sandbox | | <!-- Tambahkan kategori dibawah baris ini, untuk interwiki gunakan Wikidata --> }}</includeonly> styh4dgcyw2loj5ib9lgts3eqo5zkom 1728 108853 712673 712667 2026-09-13T16:45:55Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 + 712673 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> <templatestyles src="Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css" /> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Tepas'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|<span class="teks">'''Daftar artikel'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|<span class="teks">'''Média'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Hasil|<span class="teks">'''Hasil'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. ==Tujuan== Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta: *Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam. *Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital. *Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup. ==Geura miluan== *Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga. *Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol "Register for Event"/"Daftar untuk Acara" di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung. <center> {{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu. <center> {| style="border: none; border-collapse: collapse;" |- |<syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" copy>{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}</syntaxhighlight> |} </center> ==Katangtuan artikel== *Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''. *Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap''' *Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''. *Artikel miboga rujukan anu cukup, krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum. *Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula maké gaya basa anu saé. <!--*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] *kawijakan panitia sipatna final sarta teu bisa diganggu gugat.--> ==Daptar artikel== Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rekoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (mangga pilarian judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh). {{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}} ==Ngirim artikel== *Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu. <center> {{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Panitia ngagunakaeun pakakas Fountain. Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu]. ==Aprésiasi== *Pamilon anu tiasa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Katangtuan artikel|katangtuan artikel]] bakal meunangkeun medali digital nu dipidangkeun di kaca sawala pamilon. *Suvenir husus pikeun pamilon nu ngadamel artikel alus tur hadé nu disadiakeun ku Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung. ==Penyelenggara== <div class="panitia">Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda</div> <center style="margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px">kalawan dirojong ku:</center> [[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]] 3wtgzrkkp3g2d3tk4zrpk3rl3mdwrpc 712676 712673 2026-09-13T16:53:37Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712676 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> <templatestyles src="Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css" /> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Tepas'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|<span class="teks">'''Daftar artikel'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|<span class="teks">'''Média'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Hasil|<span class="teks">'''Hasil'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. ==Tujuan== Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta: *Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam. *Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital. *Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup. ==Geura miluan== *Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga. *Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol "Register for Event"/"Daftar untuk Acara" di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung. <center> {{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu. <center> {| style="border: none; border-collapse: collapse;" |- |<syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" copy>{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}</syntaxhighlight> |} </center> ==Katangtuan artikel== *Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''. *Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap''' *Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''. *Artikel miboga rujukan anu cukup, krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum. *Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula maké gaya basa anu saé. <!--*Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] *kawijakan panitia sipatna final sarta teu bisa diganggu gugat.--> ==Daptar artikel== Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rekoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (mangga pilarian judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh). {{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}} ==Ngirim artikel== *Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu. <center> {{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Panitia ngagunakaeun pakakas Fountain. Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu]. ==Aprésiasi== *Pamilon anu tiasa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Katangtuan artikel|katangtuan artikel]] bakal meunangkeun medali digital nu dipidangkeun di kaca sawala pamilon. *Suvenir husus pikeun pamilon nu ngadamel artikel alus tur hadé nu disadiakeun ku Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung. ==Penyelenggara== <div class="panitia">Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda</div> <center style="margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px">kalawan dirojong ku:</center> [[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]] 4b50erl58k7ld2w7nf96413papisyv4 712683 712676 2026-09-14T05:20:38Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712683 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <gallery mode="packed" heights="300px"> File:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn Banner.png </gallery> <templatestyles src="Citakan:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/styles.css" /> {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" style="margin-bottom: 0;" |- style="white-space: nowrap;" |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Tepas'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|<span class="teks">'''Daftar artikel'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Berkas|<span class="teks">'''Média'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|<span class="teks">'''Sawala'''</span>]] |class="up"| |class="hateup"|[[Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Hasil|<span class="teks">'''Hasil'''</span>]] |}<br> <div style="font-family:Trebuchet MS"> {{Cquote|Ngaguar Élmu, Ngarawat Alam, Nyepeng Basa.|author=Anonim}} </div><br> Anjeun apal yén [[Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn]], naturalis légéndaris ti Jérman, kacida reueusna ka Parahiyangan nepi ka milih neundeun napas panungtungna di suku Gunung Jayagiri, Lémbang? Élmuwan anu miboga jujuluk '''"Humboldt ti Jawa"''' ieu teu ukur hasil ngabudidayakeun tangkal kina nepi ka nyalametkeun jutaan nyawa tina panyakit malaria, tapi ogé jadi jalma kahiji anu metakeun gunung-gunung seuneu di Jawa kalawan wincik ngaliwatan sudut pandang sastrawan sarta élmuwan. Bulan Wiki Junghuhn aya minangka inisiasi gerakan nulis kolaboratif di proyék Wikipédia basa Sunda pikeun ngarangkén deui carita, papanggihan, sarta tapak lacak sajarah Junghuhn langsung dina basa indung masarakat Parahiyangan. Proyék ieu lain saukur nambahan akumulasi artikel, tapi ogé jadi sasak digital anu ngahubungkeun warisan sains abad ka-19 jeung generasi ngora Sunda kiwari. <div class="panyeluk">Hayu, langsung bae ngiringan kagiatan ieu jeung tulis artikel anjeun!</div> ==Tujuan== Proyék Bulan Wiki Junghuhn ieu miboga tujuan, nyaéta: *Nambahan artikel anyar sarta ngalengkepan eusi ngeunaan Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn, géologi, volkanologi, botani, fitogéografi, kartografi, topografi, météorologi, klimatologi, étnografi, antropologi, fotografi, jeung seni lukis alam. *Ngadorong pamakéan basa Sunda pikeun nyebarkeun informasi ilmiah, sajarah, jeung kaanékaragaman hayati sangkan tetep éksis di éra digital. *Ngadokuméntasikeun tapak lacak kontribusi Junghuhn di Tanah Jawa ka dunya digital sangkan gampang diaksés ku balaréa jeung generasi kahareup. ==Cara miluan== *Pastikeun akun anjeun geus [[Husus:AsupLog|asup log]] ka Wikipédia. Atawa [[Husus:NyieunRekening|jieun akun]] heula upama anjen acan boga. *Daftarkeun diri anjeun ku cara klik tombol "Register for Event"/"Daftar untuk Acara" di luhur kaca. Atawa klik tombol biru di handap ieu. anjeun bisa ilubiung iraha wae salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung. <center> {{Clickable button 2|Husus:RegisterForEvent/4582|Daftar ayeuna|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Satuluyna, tambahkeun citakan di handap ieu dina kaca pamaké anjeun ngarah loba pamaké séjén nu ngareuah-reuah kagiatan ieu. <center> {| style="border: none; border-collapse: collapse;" |- |<syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" copy>{{Pamilon Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026}}</syntaxhighlight> |} </center> *Prung, tulis artikel anjeun. Tingali [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel|Daftar artikel]] pikeun rékomendasi artikel nu bisa dijieun. <!--==Katangtuan umum== *Selama mengikuti kegiatan ini peserta tunduk pada kebijakan dan pedoman yang berlaku di Wikipedia. *kawijakan panitia sipatna final sarta teu bisa diganggu gugat.--> ==Katangtuan artikel== *Artikel dijieun ku anjeun sorangan salila kagiatan ieu lumangsung, nyaéta ti '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1789470000 15 Séptémber, 11.00 UTC (18.00 WIK)]''' nepika '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793444340 31 Oktober 2026, 10.59 UTC (17.59 WIK)]'''. *Panjang artikel pang saeutikna nyaéta '''3.000 bita''' jeung '''300 kecap''' *Artikel ditulis maké kaidah basa Sunda anu hadé tur bener. Perhatikeun tanda baca, hurup déngdék, éjahan, jeung kapitalisasi. Sarua jeung artikel lianna di Wikipédia Sunda, ieu artikel ogé kudu ditulis maké '''basa loma'''. *Artikel miboga rujukan anu cukup, krédibel, jeung beunang dipercaya, sakumaha katangtuan rujukan dina aturan Wikipédia sacara umum. *Artikel henteu murni hasil narjamahkeun ku mesin panarjamah. Anjeun kudu migawé parafrasa heula jeung maké gaya basa anu saé. *Artikel anu dijieun maké bantuan AI kudu nyumponan [[w:id:Wikipedia:ARTIKELAI|katangtuan anu lumaku]] di Wikipédia Indonésia. *saupama anjeun aya kasusah dina hal teknis atawa kawijakan, anjeun bisa tanya ka [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Juri|salah sahiji panita]]. anjeun oge bisa ngajukeun patalekna di [[Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026|kaca sawala]] anu disadiakeun. ==Daptar artikel== Di handap ieu mangrupakeun rekoméndasi artikel-artikel nu tiasa dijieun (mangga pilarian judul artikel nu bareureum kénéh). {{Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026/Daftar artikel}} ==Ngirim artikel== *Kumpulkeun artikel ku cara klik tombol di handap ieu. <center> {{Clickable button 2|url=https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26/add|Kumpulkeun artikel|class=mw-ui-progressive}} </center> *Panitia ngagunakaeun pakakas Fountain. Anjeun bisa ninggali hasil tulisan anjeun ditarima atawa aya koréksi dina [https://fountain.toolforge.org/editathons/bwj26 tutumbu ieu]. ==Aprésiasi== *Pamilon anu tiasa nyieun 2 (dua) artikel nu luyu kana [[Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026#Katangtuan artikel|katangtuan artikel]] bakal meunangkeun medali digital nu dipidangkeun di kaca sawala pamilon. *Suvenir husus pikeun pamilon nu ngadamel artikel alus tur hadé nu disadiakeun ku Komunitas Wikimedia Bandung. ==Panitia== ===Penyelenggara=== <div class="panitia">Sukarélawan Wikipédia basa Sunda</div> <center style="margin:2%; font-family:Montserrta; font-size:18px">kalawan dirojong ku:</center> [[File:Logo Komunitas Bandung.svg|200px|center|link=meta:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Bandung Community]] ===Juri=== *[[Obrolan pamaké:Pijri Paijar|Pijri Paijar]] *[[Obrolan pamaké:Hasnanf|Hasnanf]] *[[Obrolan pamaké:Akbar Soepadhi|Akbar Soepadhi]] thwulu80empk9o0rnvqt80t4e8g88nd 1729 108862 712674 2026-09-13T16:49:41Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 + 712674 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Kaca Sawala Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026==</noinclude> <div align="center"> <inputbox> type=comment hidden=yes editintro= preload= default=Obrolan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026 buttonlabel=Tulis sawala! width=55 </inputbox> {{clear}} qwc896tr0g2xcye8ycxv6gvw9rnvaxe 712675 712674 2026-09-13T16:50:34Z Akbar Soepadhi 23282 712675 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>==Kaca Sawala Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026==</noinclude> <div align="center"> <inputbox> type=comment hidden=yes editintro= preload= default=Pembicaraan Acara:Bulan Wiki Junghuhn 2026 buttonlabel=Tulis sawala! width=55 </inputbox> {{clear}} pxvbk005fg7g1hea4m31w5tshd0hn43