Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.20 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 2197 712769 703159 2026-09-20T02:21:12Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Mamalia | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|167|0|[[Trias Akhir]]–Ayeuna; 225 or 167–0 Ma| earliest=225|PS= Lihat [[Mamalia#variasi|discussion of dates]] di téks}} <!-- Ambondro, Amphilestes and Amphitherium are dated about 167 Ma, providing the date for the monotreme-therian divergence. Adelobasilius and Tikitherium are dated 225 Ma, the date used for the first known mammals as determined morphologically . --> |image = <imagemap> File:Mammal Diversity 2011.png|300px rect 0 0 176 125 [[lalay vampir]] rect 0 120 176 240 [[Sétan Tasmania]] rect 0 240 176 380 [[bajing rubah]] rect 0 380 176 500 [[platipus]] rect 0 500 176 600 [[paus bungkuk]] rect 0 760 176 620 [[armadillo raksasa]] rect 355 0 176 125 [[opossum Virginia]] rect 355 120 176 240 [[manusa]] rect 355 240 176 380 [[pangolin tangkal]] rect 355 380 176 500 [[colugo]] rect 355 500 176 600 [[beurit huma irung bentang]] rect 355 760 176 620 [[zébra dataran]] rect 530 0 350 125 [[kanguru abu wétan]] rect 530 120 350 240 [[anjing laut gajah kalér]] rect 530 240 350 380 [[gajah Afrika]] rect 530 380 350 500 [[elk]] rect 530 500 350 600 [[Panda]] rect 530 760 350 620 [[Curut gajah hideung kasar]] </imagemap> | display_parents = 5 | taxon = Mammalia | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Subkelompok hirup | subdivision = {{collapsible list| * Subkelas [[Yinotheria]] ** Infrakelas [[Australosphenida]] *** Ordo [[Monotreme|Monotremata]] * Subkelas [[Theriiformes]] ** Infrakelas [[Holotheria]] *** Superlegion [[Trechnotheria]] **** Legion [[Cladotheria]] ***** Supercohort [[Theria]] ****** Cohort [[Marsupialia]] ******* Superordo [[Ameridelphia]] ******** Ordo [[Didelphimorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Paucituberculata]] ******* Superordo [[Australidelphia]] ******** Ordo [[Microbiotheria]] ******** Ordo [[Dasyuromorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Notoryctemorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Peramelemorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Diprotodontia]] ****** Cohort [[Placentalia]] ******* Superordo [[Xenarthra]] ******** Ordo [[Cingulata]] ******** Ordo [[Pilosa]] ******* Superordo [[Afroinsectiphilia]] ******** Ordo [[Afrosoricida]] ******** Ordo [[Macroscelidea]] ******** Ordo [[Tubulidentata]] ******* Superordo [[Paenungulata]] ******** Ordo [[Hyracoidea]] ******** Ordo [[Sirenia]] ******** Ordo [[Proboscidea]] ******* Superordo [[Euarchontoglires]] ******** Ordo [[Scandentia]] ******** Ordo [[Lagomorpha]] ******** Ordo [[Rodentia]] ******** Ordo [[Dermoptera]] ******** Ordo [[Primates]] ******* Superordo [[Laurasiatheria]] ******** Ordo [[Eulipotyphla]] ******** Ordo [[Chiroptera]] ******** Ordo [[Cetartiodactyla]] ******** Ordo [[Perissodactyla]] ******** Ordo [[Pholidota]] ******** Ordo [[Carnivora]] }} }} '''Mamalia''' nyaéta [[kelas (biologi)|kelas]] [[sato]] [[vertebrata]] nu utamana dicirikeun ku ayana [[kalenjar susu]], nu na [[bikang]] ngahasilkeun susu pikeun asupan orokna; ayana [[bulu]]; sarta mibanda awak éndotérmis atawa "[[getih haneut]]". Uteuk ngatur sistim sirkulasi jeung éndotérm, kaasup [[jantung]] nu boga opat kamar. Mamalia ngawengku leuwih ti 5,000 [[genus]], nu nyebar di 425 [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] jeung 46 [[Ordo]], najan hal ieu gumantung kana [[klasifikasi ilmiah]] nu dipaké. Sacara [[filogenetik]], '''mamalia''' diwatesan salaku sakabéh turunan karuhun umum ([[basa Inggris|Ing.]] ''common ancestor'') mamalia [[monotrema]] (nyaéta ''[[echidna]]'') jeung ''[[therian]]'' (''[[plaséntal]]'' jeung ''[[marsupial]]''). == Ciri-ciri == Najan lolobana mah sato mamalia téh ngaborojolkeun anakna, aya ogé sababaraha ([[monotrema]]) nu [[endog (biologi)|endogan]]. Kitu deui sato nu ngaborojolkeun anakna, teu kabéh kaasup anggota mamalia, kayaning [[gupi]] jeung [[hiu hulu palu]]. Ku kituna, anakan téh teu bisa dijadikeun patokan sato mamalia. Najan sakabéh mamalia éndotérmik, tapi [[manuk]] nu teu kaasup mamalia gé éndotérmik. Ciri sato mamalia mah nyaéta ayana [[kelenjar susu]] (''mammary gland''), hiji ciri nu aya di mamalia. Monotréma tuluy misah ti mamalia séjénna ku sabab teu boga puting, tapi kalenjar susuna mah aya. Mamalia boga tilu [[tulang]] dina unggal [[ceuli]]na sarta hiji (huntu) dina unggal sisi [[rahang]] handap; sakabéh [[vertebrata]] séjén nu ceulian boga hiji tulang dina ceulina sarta sahanteuna tilu dina unggal sisi rahangna. Sagolongan [[therapsid]] nu disebut [[cynodont]] boga tilu tulang dina rahangna, sandi utama rahangna mangrupa huntu, sedengkeun nu lianna pikeun nyalurkeun sora. Tulang rahang tambahan dina vertebrata lianna diduga mangrupa homolog jeung malleus jeung incus dina ceuli mamalia. Sakabéh [[uteuk]] mamalia boga [[néokortéks]] nu mangrupa salah sahiji ciri mamalia. <!-- Mammals have [[skin|integumentary systems]] made up of three layers: the outermost [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]], the [[dermis]], and the [[hypodermis]]. This characteristic is not unique to mammals, but is found in all [[vertebrates]] The [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]] is typically ten to thirty cells thick, its main function being to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is fifteen to forty times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of [[adipose tissue]]. Its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species. Most mammals are [[Landform|terrestrial]], but a number are [[aquatic]], including [[sirenia]] ([[manatee]]s and [[dugong]]s) and the cetaceans ([[dolphin]]s and [[whale]]s). Whales are the [[largest organism|largest of all animals]]. There are semi-aquatic species such as [[Pinniped|seal]]s which come to land to breed but spend the majority of the time in water. True [[flight]] has evolved only once in mammals, the [[bat]]s; mammals such as [[flying squirrel]]s and [[flying lemur]]s are actually gliding animals. No mammals have hair naturally blue or green in colour. Some cetaceans, along with the [[mandrill]]s appear to have shades of blue skin. Many mammals are indicated as having blue hair or fur, but in all cases, it will be found to be a shade of grey. The [[two-toed sloth]] can seem to have green fur, however, this colour is caused by [[algae]] growths. --> == Asal-usul == Mamalia téh kaasup ''[[amniote]]'', hususna ''[[synapsid]]'', nu ditémbongoeun ku bentuk tangkorakna, hususna ku ayana liang tunggal dina unggal sisi tempat napelna otot rahang nu disebut ''[[temporal fenestra]]''. Pikeun babandingan, [[dinosaurus]], manuk, jeung lolobana réptil]] mah [[diapsid]], nu boga dua ''temporal fenestrae'' dina unggal sisi tangkorakna; sedengkeun [[kuya]] nu teu boga ''temporal fenestra'', kaasup [[anapsid]]. ''Synapsid'' tuluy nurunkeun prékursor mamalia munggaran, [[therapsida]], nyaéta [[eucynodontus]] 220 [[jtk (unit)|Ma]] (''mega annum'', ''juta taun kaliwat'') dina yuga [[Triasik]]. [[Ceuli]] pra-mamalia mimiti mekar dina ahir Permian nepi ka awal Triasik, ku tumuwuhna tilu tulang lembut ([[incus]], [[malleus]], jeung [[stapes]]) di jero tangkorak; dibarengan ku transformasi [[rahang]] handap jadi tulang tunggal. Mamalia lianna, kaasup réptil jeung synapsid jeung therapsida pra-mamalia, boga sababaraha tulang dina rahang handap nu sabagian dipaké pikeun ngadéngé; sarta tulang ceuli-tunggal dina tangkorakna. Transisi ieu dijadikeun bukti évolusi mamalia tina réptil: tina tulang ceuli tunggal, sarta sababaraha tulang rahang handap (misalna [[pelycosaur]], ''[[Dimetrodon]]'') jadi "tulang rahang pangrungu" nu leuwih leutik (misalna [[cynodont]], ''[[Probainognathus]]''), sarta tungtungna mamalia tulén nu boga tuli tulang ceuli dina tangkorakna sarta rahang handap tunggal. Ku kituna, pelycosaurus jeung cynodontus kadang disebut "[[réptil kawas mamalia]]", najan ieu téh teu bener, sabab kiwari mah nu dua éta téh dianggap kaasup [[synapsid]], lain réptil. Dina Yuga [[Mésozoik]], mamalia mekar jadi opat golongan utama: ''[[multituberculate]]'' (Allotherium), [[monotreme]], [[marsupial]], jeung [[placental]]. ''Multituberculate'' lastari dina yuga [[Oligosin]], kira 30 jtk, tapi golongan lianna mah hirup nepi ka kiwari. Dina yuga Mésoziok mah lolobana mamalia téh tetep leutik kawas [[cucurut]], tapi tuluy morontod sarta beuki mekar dina [[mangsa kapunahan Cretaceous-Tersiér]] 65 jtk. <!-- The names "[[Prototheria]]", "[[Metatheria]]" and "[[Eutheria]]" expressed the theory that [[Placentalia]] were descendants of [[Marsupialia]], which were in turn descendants of [[Monotremata]], but this theory has been refuted. However, Eutheria and Metatheria are often used in [[paleontology]], especially with regards to mammals of the Mesozoic. Mammal evolutionary progression is below: * [[Agnatha|Jawless fish]]: [[Cambrian]] period to mid [[Ordovician]] periods * [[Bony fish]]: mid-Ordovician period to late [[Devonian]] period * [[Amphibians]]: late Devonian period to early [[Carboniferous]] period * [[Reptiles]]: late Carboniferous period * [[Pelycosaurs]] (synapsids, or "mammal-like reptiles"): late Carboniferous period to very early [[Triassic]] period * [[Therapsids]]: Early [[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] [[Cretaceous]]? (includes dicynodonts, dinocephalia, etc.) * [[Cynodonts]]: [[Permian]]-[[Cretaceous]] [[Paleocene]]? * [[Mammaliformes]]: Mid-[[Triassic]] to Early [[Oligocene]](includes non-therian mammals) * Mammals: mid-Jurassic period to today (Monotremes, Metatheria, and Eutheria)--> === Yuga Mésozoik === Mamalia awal mah lolobana laleutik kawas [[cucurut]], nu ngahakanan [[serangga]]. Tapi, dina Januari 2005, kalawarta ''[[Nature]]'' ngalaporkeun kapanggihna dua [[fosil]] [[Repenomamus]] umur 130 juta taun, panjangna leuwih ti saméter, nu salah sahijina ngandung anak dinosaurus dina beuteungna (''Nature'', Jan. 15, 2005 [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v433/n7022/full/433116b_fs.html]). Taun 2004, tim nu dipingpin ku Dr. Ji Qiang ti [[Universitas Nanjing]] jeung [[Akademi Élmu Géologi Cina]], manggih fosil akuatik kawas mamalia nu umurna 164 juta taun, panjangna 50&nbsp;cm, nu spésiésna can kanyahoan. Papanggihan ieu dilaporkeun dina kalawarta [[Science]] édisi Pébruari 2006 (''Science'', 24 Péb 2006 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/311/5764/1068b]). Nu kaasup mamalia awal, di antarana: * ''[[Eozostrodon]]'': Triasik jeung [[Jurasik]] * ''[[Deltatheridium]]'': [[Cretaceous]] * ''[[Jeholodens]]'': mid-Cretacéous * ''[[Megazostrodon]]'': ahir Triasik jeung awal [[Jurasik]] * ''[[Triconodonta]]'': Triasik ka Cretacéous * ''[[Zalambdalestes]]'': ahir Cretacéous Najan mamalia geus aya marengan [[dinosaurus]], mimiti ngadominasina mah sanggeus [[kapunahan masal]] dinosaurus 65 jtk, dina Yuga [[Sénozoik]]. === Yuga Paléosin === Dina yuga [[Paléosin]] (64–58 jtk-juta taun kaliwat), mamalia téh ngalobaan sanggeus lastarina [[dinosaurus]]. Mamalia leutik mirip [[rodénsia]] masih ngadominasi, tapi nu ukuran sedeng-badag gé beuki ngalobaan. * ''[[Ptilodus]]'': [[multituberculata]] * ''[[Pucadelphys andinus]]'': [[marsupial]] kawas opposum * ''[[Purgatorius]]'': mamalia mirip primata, [[plaséntal]] * ''[[Ectoconus]]'': mamalia kukuan awal, [[plaséntal]] == Klasifikasi == {{utama|klasifikasi mamalia}} <!-- [[George Gaylord Simpson]]'s classic "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals" (AMNH ''Bulletin'' v. 85, 1945) was the original source for the taxonomy listed here. Simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the [[20th century]]. Since Simpson's 1945 classification, the [[fossil record|paleontological record]] has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of [[cladistics]]. Though field work gradually made Simpson's classification outdated, it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals. ===Standardized textbook classification=== A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current [[mammalogy]] classroom textbooks. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is taken from [[#References|Vaughan et al. (2000)]]. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass [[Prototheria]]''' - monotremes: [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]s *'''Subclass [[Theria]]''' - live-bearing mammals **Infraclass [[Metatheria]] - marsupials **Infraclass [[Eutheria]] - placentals ===McKenna/Bell classification=== In 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, which has resulted in the "McKenna/Bell classification". [[#References|McKenna and Bell, ''Classification of Mammals: Above the species level,'' (1997)]] is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics, relationships, and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus. The new McKenna/Bell classification was quickly accepted by paleontologists. The authors work together as [[paleontologists]] at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], New York. McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and, with Bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia. The McKenna/Bell hierarchical listing of all of the terms used for mammal groups above the species includes extinct mammals as well as modern groups, and introduces some fine distinctions such as [[legion (biology)|legions]] and [[sublegions]] (ranks which fall between classes and orders) that are likely to be glossed over by the layman. The published re-classification forms both a comprehensive and authoritative record of approved names and classifications and a list of invalid names. Click on the highlighted link for a [http://nasa.utep.edu/chih/chklist/mammals/keys/mammtab.htm table comparing the traditional and the new McKenna/Bell classifications of mammals] [[Extinct]] groups are represented by †. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass [[Prototheria]]''': monotremes: [[platypus]]es and [[echidna]]s *'''Subclass [[Theriiformes]]''': live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives **Infraclass †[[Allotheria]]: multituberculates **Infraclass †[[Triconodonta]]: triconodonts **Infraclass [[Holotheria]]: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives ***Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals ****Cohort [[Marsupialia]]: marsupials *****Magnorder [[Australidelphia]]: [[Australia|Australian]] marsupials and the [[Microbiotheriidae|monito-del-monte]] *****Magnorder [[Ameridelphia]]: New World marsupials ****Cohort [[Placentalia]]: placentals *****Magnorder [[Xenarthra]]: xenarthrans *****Magnorder [[Epitheria]]: epitheres ******Grandorder [[Anagalida]]: [[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]], [[rodent]]s, and [[elephant shrew]]s ******Grandorder [[Ferae]]: [[carnivora]]ns, [[pangolin]]s, [[creodont]]s, and relatives ******Grandorder [[Lipotyphla]]: [[insectivora]]ns ******Grandorder [[Archonta]]: [[bat]]s, [[primate]]s, [[colugo]]s, and [[treeshrew]]s ******Grandorder [[Ungulata]]: ungulates *******Order [[Tubulidentata]] ''[[incertae sedis]]'': aardvark *******Mirorder [[Eparctocyona]]: [[condylarth]]s, [[whale]]s, and [[artiodactyla|artiodactyls]] *******Mirorder †[[Meridiungulata]]: South American ungulates *******Mirorder [[Altungulata]]: [[Perissodactyla|perissodactyls]], [[elephant]]s, [[manatee]]s, and [[hyrax]]es ===Molecular classification of placentals=== Molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years. The most recent classification systems based on molecular studies have proposed four groups or lineages of placental mammals. [[Molecular clock]]s suggest that these clades diverged from early common ancestors in the Cretaceous, but fossils have not been found to corroborate this hypothesis. These molecular findings are consistent with mammal [[zoogeography]]: The first divergence was that of the [[Afrotheria]] 110–100 mya. The Afrotheria proceeded to evolve and diversify in the isolation of the African-Arabian continent. The [[Xenarthra]], isolated in [[South America]], diverged from the [[Boreoeutheria]] approximately 100–95 mya. The Boreoeutheria split into the [[Laurasiatheria]] and [[Euarchontoglires]] between 95 and 85 mya; both of these groups evolved on the northern continent of [[Laurasia]]. After tens of millions of years of relative isolation, Africa-Arabia collided with Eurasia, exchanging Afrotheria and Boreoeutheria. The formation of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] linked [[South America]] and [[North America]], which facilitated the exchange of mammal species in the [[Great American Interchange]]. The traditional view that no placental mammals reached [[Australasia]] until about 5 million years ago when bats and [[Murinae|murine]] rodents arrived has been challenged by recent evidence and may need to be reassessed. It should however be noted that these molecular results are still controversial because they are not reflected by [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] data and thus not accepted by many systematists. * '''Group I: [[Afrotheria]]''' **Clade [[Afro-insectiphillia]] ***Order [[Macroscelidea]]: elephant shrews (Africa). ***Order [[Afrosoricida]]: tenrecs and golden moles (Africa) ***Order [[Tubulidentata]]: aardvark (Africa south of the Sahara). **Clade [[Paenungulata]] ***Order [[Hyracoidea]]: hyraxes or dassies (Africa, Arabia). ***Order [[Proboscidea]]: elephants (Africa, Southeast Asia). ***Order [[Sirenia]]: dugong and manatees (cosmopolitan tropical) *'''Group II: [[Xenarthra]]''' **Order [[Xenarthra]]: sloths and anteaters (Neotropical) and armadillos (Neotropical and Nearctic) *'''Clade [[Boreoeutheria]]''' **'''Group III [[Euarchontoglires]]''' ***Superorder [[Euarchonta]] ****Order [[Scandentia]]: treeshrews (Southeast Asia). ****Order [[Dermoptera]]: flying lemurs or colugos (Southeast Asia). ****Order [[Primates]]: lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes (cosmopolitan). ***Superorder [[Glires]] ****Order [[Lagomorpha]]: pikas, rabbits, hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas). ****Order [[Rodentia]]: rodents (cosmopolitan) **'''Group IV: [[Laurasiatheria]]''' ***Order [[Insectivora]]: moles, hedgehogs, shrews, solenodons ***Order [[Chiroptera]]: bats (cosmopolitan) ***Order [[Cetartiodactyla]]: cosmopolitan; includes former orders [[Cetacea]] (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and [[Artiodactyla]] (even-toed ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats). ***Order [[Perissodactyla]]: odd-toed ungulates ***Clade [[Ferae]] ****Order [[Pholidota]]: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia). ****Order [[Carnivora]]: carnivores (cosmopolitan) ===Classification system used in related articles=== In light of all the options available, the following classification system has been adopted for use in related articles. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass/Order [[Monotremata]]''': egg-laying mammals **Order [[Monotremata]]: [[echidna]]s and [[platypus]] *'''Subclass [[Marsupialia]]''': marsupials **Order [[Didelphimorphia]]: New World [[opossum]]s **Order [[Paucituberculata]]: [[shrew opossum]]s **Order [[Microbiotheria]]: Monito del Monte **Order [[Dasyuromorphia]]: marsupial carnivores **Order [[Notoryctemorphia]]: marsupial mole **Order [[Peramelemorphia]]: bandicoots and bilbies **Order [[Diprotodontia]]: koalas, wombats, kangaroos, possums, etc. *'''Subclass [[Placentalia]]''' **Order [[Xenarthra]]: sloths, anteaters, armadillos **Order [[Pholidota]]: pangolins **Superorder Glires ***Order [[Rodentia]]: rodents ***Order [[Lagomorpha]]: rabbits, hares, and pikas **Order [[Macroscelidea]]: elephant shrews **Superorder [[Archonta]]: ***Order [[Primates]]: primates ***Order [[Scandentia]]: treeshrews ***Order [[Chiroptera]]: bats ***Order [[Dermoptera]]: colugos **Order [[Insectivora]]: shrews, tenrecs, moles, hedgehogs, etc. **Order [[Carnivora]]: dogs, cats, weasels, seals, etc. **Superorder Ungulata: ungulates ***Order [[Tubulidentata]]: aardvark ***Order [[Hyracoidea]]: hyraxes ***Order [[Proboscidea]]: elephants ***Order [[Sirenia]]: manatees, dugong ***Order [[Perissodactyla]]: horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses ***Order [[Artiodactyla]]: even-toed ungulates ***Order [[Cetacea]]: whales --> == Uteuk mamalia == Otak mamalia téh sapuluh nepi ka saratus kali lipat leuwih gedé batan otak réptil modérn anu ukuranana sarua. Béda antara mamalia jeung dinosaurus malah leuwih nyolok deui. Ieu béda téh kacida gedéna sarta sipatna sistematis. Bisa disebutkeun yén manusa jeung lumba-lumba téh mangrupa mahluk hirup nu pangcalakanana di Bumi. == Rujukan == * '''Malcolm C. McKenna & Susan K. Bell'''. 1997. ''Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level.'' Columbia University Press, New York. ISBN 0-231-11013-8 * '''Ronald M. Nowak'''. 1999. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. éd. ka-6. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9 * '''Géorge Gaylord Simpson'''. 1945. "The principles of classification and a classification of mammals". ''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'', '''85''':1–350. * '''Springer, Mark S., Michael J. Stanhope, Ole Madsen, & Wilfried W. de Jong'''. 2004. "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree". Trends in Ecology and Evolution, '''19''':430–438. ([http://www.zi.ku.dk/evolbiology/courses/ME04/7_9/springer200-phyl.pdf pdf version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729033207/http://www.zi.ku.dk/evolbiology/courses/ME04/7_9/springer200-phyl.pdf |date=2016-07-29 }}) * '''Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, & Nicholas J. Capzaplewski'''. 2000. ''Mammalogy: Fourth Edition''. Saunders College Publishing, 565 pp. ISBN 0-03-025034-X (Brooks Cole, 1999) * '''Wilson, Don E., & Deéann M. Reeder (eds)'''. 1993. ''Mammal Species of the World''. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-217-9 == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/nafmsd.html North American Fossil Mammal Systematics Database.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222135209/https://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/nafmsd.html |date=2016-02-22 }} * [http://paleocene-mammals.de/ Paleocene Mammals], an excellent site covering the rise of the mammals * [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Evolution.shtml Evolution of Mammals], a brief intro to éarly mammals * [http://home.arcor.de/ktdykes/mesomamm.htm The Evolution of Mesozoic Mammals, a Rough Sketch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618001545/http://home.arcor.de/ktdykes/mesomamm.htm |date=2013-06-18 }}, a nice informal introduction * [http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/news.html Carnegie Museum of Natural History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815052218/http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/news.html |date=2010-08-15 }}, some léading discoveries of éarly mammal fossils {{Mamalia}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Chordata]] [[Kategori:Sato nyusuan]] hpfgcsy0snskcissr1muu06djshfojh 0 2649 712772 708258 2026-09-20T02:22:27Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712772 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Leaf 1 web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Daun: loka utama lumangsungna fotosintésis na tutuwuhan.]] '''Fotosintésis''' nyaéta hiji prosés [[biokimia]]wi nalika [[tangkal|tutuwuhan]], [[ganggang]], jeung sababaraha rupa [[baktéri]] ngamangpaatkeun énergi cahya pikeun ngahasilkeun dahareun. Gemblengna mah, ampir sadaya mahluk hirupna gumantung kana énergi nu dihasilkeun tina fotosintésis, antukna fotosintésis penting pisan pikeun kahirupan di [[Marcapada]]. Fotosintésis ogé kacida pisan pentingna dina ngahasilkeun [[oksigén]] nu ngeusi [[atmosfir]] Bumi. Organisme-organisme nu ngahasilkeun énergi ngaliwatan fotosintésis disebut [[fototrof]]. == Fotosintésis na tutuwuhan == Tangkal sipatna [[autotrof]], nu hartina bisa nyieun dahareun langsung tina sanyawaan anorganik, teu kudu ngahakan organisme séjén atawa gumantung kana bahan nu diturunkeun ti organisme séjén. Nu paling penting, tatangkalan ngagunakeun gas [[karbon dioksida]] jeung [[cai]] pikeun ngahasilkeun gula jeung gas [[oksigén]]. Énergi keur prosés ieu datang tina fotosintésis. Pikeun ringkesna, kasaruaan gembleng produksi [[glukosa]] bisa digambarkeun kieu :6H₂O + 6CO₂ + cahya → C₆H₁₂O₆ (glukosa) + 6O₂ Glukosa dipaké dina rupa-rupa réaksi pikeun ngahasilkeun sanyawaan organik lianna, kayaning "bahan wangunan" [[selulosa]], atawa dipaké salaku suluh. Ieu lumangsung dina [[réspirasi]] nu kapanggih boh di sa[[sato]]an ataaw tutuwuhan. Garis badagna mah, prosés ieu téh sabalikna tina nu di luhur: glukosa jeung sanyawaan séjén meta jeung oksigén ngahasilkeun karbon dioksida, cai, jeung tanaga kimiawi. Tapi, prosés-prosés ieu téh ngaliwatan runtuyan hambalan nu pajeulit jeung béda detilna. [[Gambar:Leaf.jpg|thumb|250px|Daun gugur: di lebah daun ku [[klorofil]]na geus ruksak jadi konéng.]] Klorofil ieu dikandung dina hiji [[organél]] (rohangan na jero [[sél (biologi)|sél]]) nu disebut [[kloroplas]]. Najan sadaya bagian nu héjo na tatangkalan ngandung kloroplas, énergina mah lolobana dihasilkeun na [[daun]]. Sél-sél na jaringan interior daun disebut [[mésofil]], nu ngandung kira satengah juta kloroplas per [[miliméter]] pasagi daun. Beungeut daun rata dilapis ku [[kutikel]] nu ngandung [[lilin]] antukna teu tembus cai: ngajaga daun tina absorpsi cahya jeung nguapna cai sacara kaleuleuwihi. Lapisan [[épidermis]] nu transparan jeung teu warnaan tetep bisa nembuskeun cahya ka sél mésofil palisade tempat utama lumangsungna fotosintésis. Tutuwuhan héjo ngagunakeun cahaya beureum jeung wungu tina spéktrum panonpoé pikeun ngarecah cai, nyintésis karbohidrat, sarta ngalakukeun rupa-rupa kagiatan séjénna. Nanging, panonpoé ngaluarkeun cahaya konéng jeung héjo anu leuwih loba batan cahaya beureum atawa wungu. Tutuwuhan anu ngan ukur ngandelkeun klorofil salaku pigmén fotosintésisna bakal nolak panjang gelombang cahaya anu jumlahna paling loba éta. Sigana mah loba tutuwuhan anu ahirna "sadar" kana hal ieu sarta ngalakukeun adaptasi; pigmén séjénna—saperti karoténoid jeung fikobilin—geus ngalaman évolusi pikeun mantulkeun cahaya beureum bari nyerep cahaya konéng jeung héjo. == Fotosintésis na ganggang jeung baktéri == Ganggang (''algae'') téh rupa-rupa, ti organisme multisélular kawas ''[[kelp]]'' nepi ka sél tunggal [[mikroskop]]ik. Najan ganggang teu pajeulit kawas tatangkalan di darat, fotosintésisna mah lunmangsung sarua kénéh. Sadaya rupa ganggang ngahasilkeun oksigén, sarta lolobana autotrof. Tapi, aya ogé nu [[hétérotrof]]ik, gumantung bahan nu dihasilkeun ku organisme séjén. Baktéri fotosintétik teu boga kloroplas, fotosintésisna lumangsung dina jero sél. [[Sianobaktéria]] ngandung klorofil jeung oksigén dina cara nu sarua jeung kloroplas - malah kiwari loba nu nganggap yén kloroplas téh asalna tina sianobaktéria. Baktéri fotosintétik séjénna mibanda rupa-rupa pigmén nu disebut [[baktérioklorofil]] nu teu ngahasilkeun oksigén. Ganggang beureum ilaharna mindahkeun énergi cahaya panonpoé nu warnana héjo jeung konéng ka pigmén klorofil—anu, sanajan henteu nyerep éta cahaya sacara husus, boga peran penting dina ngarobah énergi cahaya jadi énergi kimia nalika prosés fotosintésis tutuwuhan. Alam henteu bisa kitu waé miceun klorofil tuluy ngagantina ku pigmén nu leuwih unggul; klorofil geus nyerep pisan kana inti kahirupan tutuwuhan. Tutuwuhan nu mibanda pigmén tambahan téh jelas leuwih éfisién, tapi klorofil tetep boga peran dina prosés fotosintésisna. Sanajan kontribusina ngurangan, éta peran tetep aya. == Na hambalan molekular == Fotosintésis ngahasilkeun énergi nu leuwih loba mun nyerep cahya nu panjang gelombangna tangtu. Dina tutuwuhan, aya dua [[fotosistim]] nu kajeujeut, nu paling aktif na panjang gelombang 700 jeung 680 [[nanométer|nm]]. Fotosintésis dimimitian nalika cahya ngaionisasi molekul klorofil, ngaleupaskeun dua [[éléktron]], nu dipindahkeun ngaliwatan [[rantay transpor éléktron]], sarupa jeung nu lumangsung na réspirasi. Énergina dipaké pikeun [[fotofosforilasi]] nu ngahasilkeun [[adénosin trifosfat]] (ATP), "mata uang" utama jero sél. Na fotosistim I, éléktron dipulangkeun ka klorofil, sedengkeun na fotosistim II dipaké pikeun nyetir réaksi :[[nikotinamida adénin dinukléotida|NADP]]⁺ + H⁺ + 2e⁻ → NADPH NADPH mangrupa [[agén pangréduksi]] utama jero sél nu nyadiakeun sumber éléktron énergetik pikeun réaksi séjén. Balukar tina ieu réaksi, klorofil jadi kakurangan éléktron, antukna kudu nyokot ti agén pangréduksi lianna. Na tutuwuhan jeung ganggang, fungsi ieu ditempatan ku cai, nu salajengna ngahasilkeun oksigén: :2 H₂O → O₂ + 4 H⁺ + 4 ''e''⁻ Catet yén oksigén ngan dihasilkeun tina cai, lain ti karbon dioksida nu dipaké ku tutuwuhan. Hal ieu munggaran diajukeun ku [[C. B. van Neil]] taun[[1930-an]], nu nalungtik baktéri fotosintétik. Misalna [[sianobaktéria]] nu ngagunakeun agén pangréduksi kayaning [[silfida]] jeung [[hidrogén]], antukna teu ngahasilkeun oksigén. Nu séjénna, kayaning halofil (Archéae) ngahasilkeun nu katelah mémbran bungur, tempat rodopsin baktéri bisa manén cahya pikeun ngahasilkeun énergi. -- Mémbran bungur mangrupa nu munggaran dipaké pikeun némbongkeun téori kémiosmotik: cahya nu neunggar mémbran ngajadikeun leyuran nu ngandung mémbran bungur pH-na nyirorot alatan proton dikompa kaluar ti mémbran! ATP jeung NADPH nu dihasilkeun tina fotosintésis nyetir rupa-rupa prosés biokimia. na tutuwuhan, nu onjoy pisan mah dina [[daur Calvin]], nu ngarobah karbon dioksida jadi [[ribulosa]] (lajeng jadi [[gula]] kayaning [[PGAL]], nu salajengna dirobah deui jadi [[glukosa]] jeung, kadang, [[protéin]]). Réaksi-réaksi ieu disebut [[réaksi bébas cahya]], atawa réaksi poék, sabab bisa lumangsung tanpa ayana cahya. Najan kitu, nalika oksigén dina kloroplas leuwih loba batan karbon dioksida, bisa lumnagsung ogé [[fotoréspirasi]] nu mangrupa jalur kontraproduktif, sabalikna tina produksi gula. == Papanggihan == Najan can sadaya hambalan na fotosintésis kaharti sacara gamblang, kasaruaan fotosintétik geus dipikanyaho ti taun [[1800-an]]. [[Jan van Helmont]] ngamimitian nalungtik prosés ieu panengah [[1600-an]] ku jalan ngukur [[massa]] taneuh na pot jeung massa tangkalna nalika tumuwuh. Anjeunna boga hipotésis yén parobahan massa taneuh nu saeutik tangtu balukar ayana cai, hiji-hijina zat nu ditambahkeun kana pot ku anjeunna. Sabagian mah hipotésis ieu téh bener - nambahanana massa tangkal leuwih loba datang ti karbon dioksida. Najan kitu, hipotésis ieu mangrupa tanda yén "kahakanan" tutuwuhan téh asalna tina asupan fotosintésis,lain tina taneuh. [[Joseph Priestley]], kimiawan, manggihan yén nalika anjeunna ngisolasi sawadah udara dina mangkok nu dibalikkeun, lajeng ngahurungkeun lilin di jerona, lilinna bakal téréh pareum. Anjeunna ogé lajeng ngabuktikeun yén beurit gé bisa "méakkeun" udara. Ti dinya lajeng kabuktikeun yén bagian udara nu béak ku lilin jeung beurit téh bisa dipulangkeun deui ku tutuwuhan. Taun [[1778]], [[Jan Ingenhousz]], dokter di Austrian Empress, ngulang ékspérimén Priestley. Anjeunna mendakan yén tutuwuhan nu bisa nulungan beurit nalika béakeun udara téh dipangaruhan ku ayana [[panonpoé]] jeung cahya. Taun [[1796]], [[Jean Senebier]], pastur Prancis, némbonkeun yén CO₂ nu ngeusi udara nu "béak" téa, diserep ku tutuwuhan na fotosintésis. Teu lami ti éta, [[Theodore de Saussure]] némbongkeun yén nambahanana massa tangkal nalika tumuwuh bisa jadi lain alatan nyerep CO₂ wungkul, tapi ogé ku ayana cai. Ti dinya lajeng digambarkeun réaksi dasar fotosintésis nepi ka ngahasilkeun dahareun (kawas glukosa). Élmuwan modérn ngawangun dadasar pangaweruh ngeunaan fotosintésis tina para élmuwan nu kasebut tadi, antukna lajeng bolékér rusiah-rusiah kaélmuan séjénna. Ékspérimén munggaran nu ngabuktikeun yén oksigén nu dihasilkeun dina fotosintésis tutuwuhan héjo asalna tina cai dipilampah ku [[Robin Hill]] taun [[1937]] jeung [[1939]]. Anjeunna némbongkeun yén isolat kloroplas ngaleupaskeun oksigén ku ayana agén pangréduksi teu alami kawas [[oksalat beusi]], [[férisianida]], atawa [[bénzoquinon]] sanggeus kasinaran. Réaksi Hill didadarkeun dina kasaruaan :2 H₂O + 2 A > (cahya, kloroplas) > 2 AH₂ + O₂, A mangrupa panampa éléktron. Ieu nunjukkeun yén panampa éléktron diréduksi sahingga ngahasilkeun oksigén. [[Samuel Ruben]] jeung Martin Camen ngagunakeun isotop pikeun ngabuktikeun yén oksigén nu dihasilkeun dina fotosintésis asalna tina cai. [[Melvin Calvin]] jeung baladna, Benson, ngaruntuykeun hambalan-hambalan dina fase poék (bébas cahya) na fotosintésis, antukna katelah Daur Calvin. Élmuwan nu meunangkeun [[Hadiah Nobel]], [[Rudolf Marcus]], ngabolékérkeun fungsi jeung pentingna rantay transpor éléktron. == Faktor-faktor nu mangaruhan fotosintésis == * inténsitas cahya jeung panjang gelombangna * kadar karbon dioksida * hawa/temperatur * cai * morfologi daun * kadar [[nitrogén]] na daun == Wincikanana == Jalur métabolik nu aya dina fotosintésis: * [[Réaksi caang]] * [[Réaksi poék]] == Sumber rujukan == * ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photosynthesis Photosynthesis]'', ti Wikipédia basa Inggris, disalin ping 29 Juni 2005. == Tempo ogé == * [[Fotosintésis artifisial]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050316052050/http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml |date=2005-03-16 }} [[Kategori:Biokimia]] [[Kategori:Botani]] [[Kategori:Fotosintésis]] [[Kategori:Métabolisme]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] aohuesnb7u23gm3inrj6ksi4vgfd4yk 0 3742 712771 706050 2026-09-20T02:22:00Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712771 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:herring2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Héring Atlantik]], ''Clupea harengus'': spésiés lauk panglobana di sakuliah dunya.]] '''Lauk''' atawa lauk cai mangrupa [[vertebrata]] poikilotermik (getih tiis) nu hirup di jero cai maké [[insang]]. Di dunya, lauk kabagi jadi leuwih ti 27 rébu [[spésiés]], nepi ka jadi golongan vertebrata nu loba rupana. Sacara taksonomis, lauk téh mangrupa hiji kelompok [[parafilétik]] nu hubungan di antarana paling mindeng dipadungdengkeun; babagian nu umum mah nyaéta jadi [[lauk tanpa rahang]] (kelas [[Agnatha]], 75 spésiés kaasup [[belut]] jeung ''[[hagfish]]''), [[lauk kartilagus]] (kelas [[Chondrichthyes]], aya 800 spésiés, kaasup [[hiu]]), sarta sésana dina kelas [[lauk ipis]] ([[Osteichthyes]]). Lauk téh mangrupa golongan sato anu ukuran awakna rupa-rupa pisan: ti [[hiu]] anu 16 m nepi ka [[impun]] anu ukur 2&nbsp;cm, malah loba kénéh anu ukuranana leuwih leutik ti impun. <!-- Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures to varying degrees. Endothermic [[teleosts]] (bony fishes) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of "primitive" mackerel (''Gasterochisma melampus''). All sharks in the family [[Lamnidae]] – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family [[Alopiidae]] (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to [[bluefin tuna]] and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C above ambient water temperatures. ''See also [[gigantothermy]]''. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased contractile force of muscles, higher rates of central [[nervous system]] processing, and higher rates of [[digestion]].--> == Ékologi == Urang bisa manggihan lauk ampir di sakabéh awak [[cai]] anu badag, boh di darat anu jerona ukur puluhan sénti nepi ka sagara anu jerona rébuan méter. <!-- Catching fish for the purpose of [[food]] or [[sport]] is known as [[fishing]]. The annual [[yield]] from all [[fishery|fisheries]] worldwide is about 100 [[million]] [[tonne]]s. [[Overfishing]] is a threat to many species of fish. On [[May 15]] [[2003]], the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported that all large [[ocean]]ic fish species worldwide had been so systematically over caught that fewer than 10% of 1950 levels remained. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030514.wfish1405/BNStory/National/] Particularly imperiled were [[shark]]s, Atlantic [[cod]], [[Bluefin tuna]], and Pacific [[sardine]]s. The authors recommended immediate drastic cutbacks in fish catches and reservation of ocean [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] worldwide. ==Fish as food== Fishes are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[shellfish]] are often called "fish" when used as food. For more details, see [[Fish (food)]]. [[Image:bbas2.jpg|thumb|''Centropristis striata'']]--> == Klasifikasi == Lauk mah ngabentuk kelompok parafilétik: sakabéh kumpulan (''[[clade]]'') nu ngandung lauk salawasna ngandung ogé [[tétrapoda]] nu lain lauk. Lauk digolongkeun kana sababaraha kelompok utama: * [[Conodonta]] * [[Hyperoartia]] ** [[Petromyzontidae]] (''[[lamprey]]'') * [[Pteraspidomorphi]] (lauk tanpa rahang kuna) * [[Thelodonti]] * [[Anaspida]] * [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] (lauk tanpa rahang kuna) ** [[Galeaspida]] ** [[Pituriaspida]] ** [[Osteostraci]] * [[Gnathostomata]] (jawed vertebrates) ** [[Placodermi]] ** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish) ** [[Acanthodii]] ** [[Osteichthyes]] (bony fish) *** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish) *** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish) **** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s) **** [[Dipnoi]] ([[lungfish]]) Pikeun klasifikasi anu leuwih lengkep, mangga tingal artikel [[vertebrata]]. == Uteuk lauk == Otak lauk téh teu gedé. Lauk miboga notokord atawa tulang tonggong, hiji ciri anu ogé kapanggih dina invertebrata handap. Lauk purba ogé miboga bareuh leutik di tungtung anterior tulang tonggong, anu fungsina salaku otak. Dina lauk anu leuwih maju, bareuh ieu mekar leuwih jauh, tapi beuratna teu ngaleuwihan hiji atawa dua gram. Dina sato anu leuwih luhur, bareuh ieu pakait jeung otak tukang, batang otak, atawa otak tengah. Otak kalolobaan lauk modéren utamana diwangun ku otak tengah, kalayan otak hareup anu leutik; sabalikna, dina amfibi jeung réptil modéren, otak hareup leuwih badag tibatan otak tengah. == Baca ogé == * [[Sato]] * [[Akuarium]] * [[Lauk sagara jero]] * [[Anatomi lauk]] * [[Migrasi lauk]] * [[Nguseup]] * [[Ihtiologi]] (ulikan ngeunaan lauk) * [[Daptar kulawarga lauk]] * [[Daptar ngaran umum lauk]] * [[Ostrakoderma]] - lauk munggaran * [[Lauk prasajarah]] == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Category:Actinopterygii}} * [http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/marine/antarcticfish 70South - information on Antarctic fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106033822/http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/marine/antarcticfish |date=2006-01-06 }} * [http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004061346/http://aworldoffish.com/ |date=2006-10-04 }} Species information and fish care * [http://www.fishbase.org Fish database] ([[FishBase]]) * Join Ray Mullet in the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/fish/ Fish Olympics]! * Project for children - [http://marine.rutgers.edu/~kils/BASS/mobile/INDEX.HTM build a fish mobile with a behavior] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040214155536/http://marine.rutgers.edu/~kils/BASS/mobile/INDEX.HTM |date=2004-02-14 }} * [http://www.aquatichouse.com Fish Keeping] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318142930/http://www.aquatichouse.com/ |date=2006-03-18 }} * [http://www.aquaticcommunity.com Site with one of the largest fish databases in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912233221/http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/ |date=2011-09-12 }} * [http://reelinthefish.net/interviews/jameskoliver.html Reelinthefish.net | Interview with Dr James K. Oliver, Reefbase Scientist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110173407/http://reelinthefish.net/interviews/jameskoliver.html |date=2006-01-10 }} * [http://fishy.us Fishy.Us] Articles & Particles * [http://hardrockforums.com/forums Saltwater & Freshwater Forums]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.catfishbirddog.com/fish/ Help on raising Aquarium Fish]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.fishdeals.com/ Aquarium Fish Education] * [http://find-a-seafood-recipe.com/ Fish and Seafood Recipes] Cooking With Fish * [http://www.easyreefer.com/ Reef aquarium community and learning center] * [http://www.fiberi.de German Educator in Fisheries, Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://oriol.mine.nu/software/Fish/ Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209081740/http://oriol.mine.nu/software/Fish/ |date=2006-02-09 }} Aquarium simulator for mac. * [http://www.arofanatics.com/ AroFanatics] Website one of the most popular fish-keeping forum. * [http://www.fishfriend.com/ The Aquarium Fish Tank Friend] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202095819/http://fishfriend.com/ |date=2006-02-02 }} * [http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/fish/ Information about fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316162627/http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/fish/ |date=2006-03-16 }} - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia * [http://www.mnoutdoors.org Minnesotas Foremost Fishing, Hunting, and Outdoor Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516064836/http://www.mnoutdoors.org/ |date=2006-05-16 }} - réad Stories, Download our Newsletter, Join our Club! {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Kategori:Chordata]] [[Kategori:Ékologi akuatik]] dluev8prdgwt6qquvglws2l8kc98lps 0 17332 712770 651692 2026-09-20T02:21:37Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Primata | fossil_range = Tungtung [[Kretasius]] - Kiwari | image = Olive baboon.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Babon Zaitun]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | subclassis = [[Eutheria]] | unranked_ordo = [[Euarchontoglires]] | superordo = [[Euarchonta]] | ordo = '''Primata''' | ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Kulawarga | subdivision = * 15, Tempo [[Primata#Klasifikasi jeung épolusi|klasifikasi]] }} '''Primata''' (L. ''prima'', kahiji) hartina sakabéh anggota [[ordo]] nu ilaharna patali jeung [[lemur]], [[monyét]], jeung [[kera]], kaasup [[manusa]].<ref name=Goodman2>{{cite journal | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | year = 1990 | volume = 30 | pages = 260–266 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2109087&dopt=Abstract | title = Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids | author = M. Goodman, D. A. Tagle, D. H. Fitch, W. Bailey, J. Czelusniak, B. F. Koop, P. Benson, J. L. Slightom}}</ref> Primata aya di sakuliah dunya, tapi lolobana mah (nu lain manusa) ayana di [[Amérika Tengah]] jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]], [[Aprika]], jeung [[Asia]] Kidul. Ordo primata sacara teu resmi dibagi deui kana tilu golongan utama: [[prosimian]], [[Monyét Dunya Anyar]], jeung monyét sarta kera [[Katarini|Dunya Kuna]]. Prosimian téh [[spésiés]] nu awakna ampir sarupa jeung proto-primata awal, misalna [[lemur]] [[Madagaskar]] jeung [[kapuloan Komoro]] nu kakurung ti dunya luar. Monyét Dunya Anyar ngawengku [[monyét kapucin]], [[monyét howler|howler]], jeung [[monyét bajing]] nu ukur aya di Amérika. Di saluarkeun manusa, [[simian]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] jeung kera mah ngeusi Aprika jeung Asia Kidul & Tengah, najan aya bukti fosil nu nunjukkeun yén spésiés-spésiés éta ogé kungsi aya di [[Éropah]]. Kiwari kacatet aya 190–448 [[spésiés]] primata hirup, gumantung kana klasipikasi anu dipaké. Di [[Asia]], kacatet aya 119 spésiés, satengahna aya di [[Indonésia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christian Roos, Ramesh Boonratana, Jatna Supriatna, John R. Fellowes, Colin P. Groves, Stephen D. Nash, Anthony B. Rylands, Russell A. Mittermeier|first=|date=2014|title=An updated taxonomy and conservation status review of Asian primates|url=|journal=Asian Primates Journal|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> == Dedegan == [[Gambar:Human.svg|right|thumb|180px|Dedegan manusa]] Sakabéh primata boga lima ramo ([[pentadaktili]]), pola huntu nu sarua, sarta [[widang awak]] nu primitip. Ciri pangbéda séjénna nyaéta ayana [[kuku]]. [[Jempol]] nu nyanghareup ka ramo lianna ogé mangrupa ciri primata, najan aya ogé sato séjén nu boga ciri kieu. <!--Nurutkeun téori épolusi mah, jempol nu nyanghareup, ramo nu panjang tapi kukuna pondok téh hasil tina kabiasaan karuhun muntang kana dahan, and has, in part, allowed some species to develop [[brachiation]] as a significant means of transportation. Forward-facing color [[binocular vision]] was also useful for the brachiating ancestors of humans, particularly for finding and collecting food, although recent studies suggest it was more useful in courtship. All primates, even those that lack the features typical of other primates (like [[loris]]es), share eye orbit characteristics, such as a [[postorbital bar]], that distinguish them from other taxonomic orders.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Catarrhini|Old World]] species (apes and some monkeys) tend to have significant [[sexual dimorphism]]. This is characterized most in size difference, with males being up to a bit more than twice as heavy as females. This dimorphism is a result of a [[polygyny|polygynous]] [[mating system]] where there is significant pressure to attract and defend multiple mates. [[New World monkeys|New World]] species form [[monogamy|pair bonds]], and so these species (including [[tamarin]]s and [[marmoset]]s) generally do not show a significant size difference between the sexes.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ==Habitat== Primates evolved from [[arboreal]] animals and many modern species live mostly in trees and hardly ever come to the ground. Other species are partially [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], such as [[baboon]]s and the [[Patas Monkey]]. Only a few species are fully terrestrial, such as the [[Gelada]] and [[Human]]s. Primates live in a diverse number of forested habitats, including [[rain forest]]s, [[mangrove]] forests, and [[montaine|mountain forest]]s to altitudes of over 3000 m. Although most species are generally shy of water, a few are fine swimmers and are comfortable in swamps and watery areas, including the [[Proboscis Monkey]], [[De Brazza's Monkey]] and [[Allen's Swamp Monkey]], which even developed small webbing between its fingers. Some primates, such the [[Rhesus Macaque]] and the [[Hanuman Langur]], are [[hemerophile]] species and cities and villages have become their typical habitat.<ref name="German">http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten</ref> == Classification and evolution== ===Close relations=== The Primate [[order (biology)|order]] lies in a tight clustering of related orders (the [[Euarchontoglires]]) within the [[Eutheria]], a subclass of [[Mammalia]]. Recent molecular genetic research on primates, [[flying lemur]]s, and [[treeshrew]]s has shown that the two species of flying lemur ([[Dermoptera]]) are more closely related to the primates than the treeshrews of the order [[Scandentia]], even though the treeshrews were at one time considered primates. These three orders make up the [[Euarchonta]] [[clade]]. This clade combines with the [[Glires]] clade (made up of the [[Rodentia]] and [[Lagomorpha]]) to form the Euarchontoglires clade. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Also, some scientists consider Dermoptera a suborder of Primates and call the "true" primates the suborder [[Euprimates]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} {{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75% | label1=[[Euarchontoglires]] | 1={{Clade | label1=[[Glires]] | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Rodentia]] (rodents) | 2=[[Lagomorpha]] (rabbits, hares, pikas)}} | label2=[[Euarchonta]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Treeshrew|Scandentia]] (treeshrews) | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Colugo|Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs) | 2={{Clade | 1=†[[Plesiadapiformes]] | 2=Primates}} }} }} }} }} ===Classification=== [[Image:Ring_tailed_lemurs.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Ring-tailed Lemur]], a [[strepsirrhine]] primate]] In older classifications, the Primates were divided into two superfamilies: Prosimii and Anthropoidea. The Prosimii included all of the [[prosimian]]s: all of Strepsirrhini plus the tarsiers. The Anthropoidea contained all of the [[simian]]s. In modern, cladistic reckonings, the Primate order is also a true clade. The suborder [[Strepsirrhini]], the "[[rhinarium|wet-nosed]]" primates, split off from the primitive primate line about 63 [[mya (unit)|million years ago (mya)]]. The seven strepsirhine families are the four related [[lemur]] families and the three remaining families that include the [[loris]]es, the [[Aye-aye]], the [[galago]]s, and the [[potto]]s.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=111-184}}</ref> Some classification schemes wrap the [[Lepilemuridae]] into the [[Lemuridae]] and the [[Galagidae]] into the [[Lorisidae]], yielding a three-two family split instead of the four-three split as presented here.<ref name=MSW3/> Other lineages of lower primates inhabited Earth. During the [[Eocene]], most of the northern continents were dominated by two dominant groups, the [[adapid]]s and the [[omomyid]]s. The former is considered a member of Strepsirrhini, but it does not have a [[tooth-comb]] like modern lemurs. The latter was related closely to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. Adapids survived until 10 mya; omomyids on the other hand perished 20 million years earlier. The Aye-aye is difficult to place in Strepsirrhini.<ref name=MSW3/> Its family, Daubentoniidae, could be a lemuriform primate and its ancestors split from lemur line more recently than the lemurs and lorises split, about 50 mya. Otherwise it is sister to all of the other strepsirrhines, in which case in evolved away from the main strepsirrhine line between 50 and 63 mya. [[Image:EmperorTamarin.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Emperor Tamarin]], a [[New World monkey]]]] The suborder [[Haplorrhini]], the "dry-nosed" primates, is composed of two sister clades.<ref name=MSW3/> The [[prosimian]] tarsiers in family [[Tarsiidae]] (monotypic in its own infraorder [[Tarsiiformes]]), represent the most primitive division at about 58 mya. The [[Simiiformes]] infraorder contains the two parvorders: the [[New World monkey]]s in one, and the [[Old World monkey]]s, [[human]]s and the other [[ape]]s in the other.<ref name=MSW3/> This division happened about 40 mya. However about 30 mya, three groups split from the main haplorrhine lineage. One group stayed in Asia and are closest in kin to the "dawn monkey" ''[[Eosimias]]''. The second stayed in Africa, where they developed into the Old World primates. The third rafted to South America to become the New World monkeys. Mysteriously the aboriginal Asian Haplorrhini vanished from record once Africa collided with Eurasia 24 mya. Apes and monkeys spread into Europe and Asia. Close behind came lorises and tarsiers, also African castaways. The first hominid fossils were discovered in Northern Africa and date back 7 mya. Modern humans did not appear until 0.2 mya, eventually becoming the most prevalent primate and mammal on Earth. The discovery of new species happens at a rate of a few new species each year, and the evaluation of current populations as distinct species is in flux. [[Colin Groves]] lists about 350 species of primates in ''Primate Taxonomy'' in 2001.<ref name=PT>''Primate Taxonomy'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2001), Colin Groves (ISBN 1-56098-872-X )</ref> The recently published third edition of ''Mammal Species of the World'' (2005) lists 376 species.<ref name=MSW3/> But even MSW3's list falls short of current understanding as its collection cutoff was in 2003, and a number publications since MSW3 push the number of species up to 405. Notable new species not listed in MSW3 include the [[Bemaraha Woolly Lemur]] (''Avahi cleesei'') (named after [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actor]] and [[lemur]] enthusiast [[John Cleese]]) and the [[GoldenPalace.com Monkey]] (whose name was put up for auction). ====Extant primate families==== * '''ORDER PRIMATES''' ** '''Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]''': non-tarsier prosimians *** Infraorder [[Lemuriformes]] **** Superfamily [[Cheirogaleidae|Cheirogaleoidea]] ***** Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]: dwarf lemurs and mouse-lemurs (30 species) **** Superfamily [[Lemuroidea]] ***** Family [[Lemuridae]]: lemurs (19 species) ***** Family [[Lepilemuridae]]: sportive lemurs (22 species) ***** Family [[Indriidae]]: woolly lemurs and allies (14 species) *** Infraorder [[Aye-aye|Chiromyiformes]] **** Family [[Aye-aye|Daubentoniidae]]: Aye-aye (1 species) *** Infraorder [[Lorisiformes]] **** Family [[Lorisidae]]: lorises, pottos and allies (9 species) **** Family [[Galagidae]]: galagos (19 species) ** '''Suborder [[Haplorrhini]]''': tarsiers, monkeys and apes *** Infraorder [[tarsier|Tarsiiformes]] **** Family [[tarsier|Tarsiidae]]: tarsiers (8 species) *** Infraorder [[Simiiformes]] **** Parvorder [[Platyrrhini]]: New World monkeys ***** Family [[Cebidae]]: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeys (56 species) ***** Family [[Aotidae]]: night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (7 species) ***** Family [[Pitheciidae]]: titis, sakis and uakaris (41 species) ***** Family [[Atelidae]]: howler, spider and woolly monkeys (24 species) **** Parvorder [[Catarrhini]] ***** Superfamily [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecoidea]] ****** Family [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecidae]]: Old World monkeys (135 species) ***** Superfamily [[Hominoidea]] ****** Family [[Hylobatidae]]: gibbons or "lesser apes" (13 species) ****** Family [[Hominidae]]: humans and other great apes (7 species) ====Some prehistoric primates==== *''[[Adapis]]'', an adapid *''[[Australopithecus]]'', ape-like human ancestor *''[[Branisella boliviana]]'', an early New World monkey *''[[Dryopithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Eosimias]]'', an early catarrhine *''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', a possible ancestor of humans *''[[Aegyptopithecus zeuxis]]'', an early haplorrhine *''[[Pliopithecus]]'', ancestor of the modern gibbons *''[[Gigantopithecus]]'', the largest ape *''[[Godinotia]]'', an adapid *''[[Megaladapis]]'', a giant lemur *''[[Notharctus]]'', an adapid *''[[Plesiopithecus teras]]'', a relative of lorises and galagos *''[[Protopithecus brasiliensis]]'', a giant New World monkey *''[[Sivapithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Tielhardina]]'', the earliest haplorrhines *''[[Victoriapithecus]]'', an early Old World monkey *''[[Pierolapithecus catalaunicus]]'', a possible ancestor of large apes ==Primate hybrids== In ''The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication'' [[Charles Darwin]] noted: "Several members of the family of [[Lemur]]s have produced hybrids in the Zoological Gardens." Many [[gibbon]]s are hard to identify based on fur coloration and are identified either by song or genetics. These morphological ambiguities have led to [[hybrid]]s in zoos. Zoo gibbons usually come from the black market pet trade in Southeast Asia, which transported gibbons across countries all over the region. As a result, perhaps as much as 95% of zoo gibbons are of unknown geographic origin. As most zoos rely on morphological variation or labels that are impossible to verify to assign species and subspecies names, it is unfortunately common for gibbons to be misidentified and housed together. For example, some collections' supposedly pure breeding pairs were actually mixed pairs or hybrids from previous mixed pairs. The hybrid offspring were sent to other gibbon breeders and led to further hybridization in captive gibbons. Within-genus hybrids also occur in wild gibbons where the ranges overlap ([[Agile Gibbon]]s and [[Pileated Gibbon]]s x [[Lar Gibbon]]s, [[Agile Gibbon]]s x [[Müller's Bornean Gibbon]], [[Yellow-cheeked Gibbon]]s x [[Northern White-cheeked Gibbon]]s). Intergeneric gibbon hybridizations have only occurred in captivity. [[Silvery Gibbon]]s (''Hylobates moloch'') and Müller's Bornean Gibbon (''H. muelleri'') have hybridized with [[Siamang]]s (''Symphalangus syndactylus'') in captivity - a female Siamang produced hybrid "Siabon" offspring on 2 occasions when housed with a male gibbon; only one hybrid survived. [[Anubis Baboon]]s and [[Hamadryas Baboon]]s have hybridized in the wild where their ranges meet. A [[Rheboon]] is a captive-bred [[Rhesus Macaque]]/Hamadryas Baboon hybrid with a [[baboon]]-like body shape and [[macaque]]-like tail. Different macaque species can interbreed. In "The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication" Charles Darwin wrote: ''A Macacus, according to Flourens, bred in Paris; and more than one species of this genus has produced young in London, especially the Macacus rhesus, which everywhere shows a special capacity to breed under confinement. Hybrids have been produced both in Paris and London from this same genus.'' The [[Japanese Macaque]] (''Macaca fuscata'') has interbred with the introduced [[Taiwanese Macacque]] (''M. cyclopis'') when the latter escaped into the wild from private zoos. Various hybrid monkeys are bred within the pet trade, for example: * Hybrid [[capuchin monkey]]s e.g. [[Tufted Capuchin]] (''Cebus apella'') x [[Weeper Capuchin]] (''C. olivaceus'') * [[Liontail Macaque]] x [[Pigtail Macaque]] hybrids * [[Rhesus Macaque]] x [[Stumptail Macaque]] hybrids. Among [[Old World monkey]]s, natural hybridization is not uncommon. There numerous field reports of hybrid monkeys and detailed studies of zones where species overlap and hybrids occur. Among the great apes, [[Sumatran Orangutan|Sumatran]] and [[Bornean Orangutan|Bornean]] [[orangutan]]s are considered separate species with anatomical differences, producing sterile or poorly fertile hybrids. Hybrid orangutans are genetically weaker, with lower survival rates than pure animals. ==Legal status== [[Image:Monkey5.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Monkeys imported for experimentation in a crate. Credit: [[BUAV]]]] Humans are recognized as [[person]]s and protected in law by the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]<ref name=UN>[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html UN Declaration of Human Rights]</ref> and by all governments, though to varying degrees. Non-human primates are not classified as persons, which means their individual interests have no formal recognition or protection. The status of non-human primates has generated much debate, particularly through the [[Great Ape Project]]<ref name=GA>[http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html ''Declaration on Great Apes''], Great Ape Project</ref> which argues for their [[personhood]]. Thousands of primates are used every year around the world in scientific [[Animal testing|experiments]] because of their psychological and physiological similarity to [[human]]s. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[baboon]]s, [[marmoset]]s, [[macaque]]s, and [[green monkey]]s are most commonly used in these [[non-human primate experiments|experiments]]. In the [[European Union]], around 10,000 were used in 2004, with 4,652 experiments conducted on 3,115 non-human primates in the UK alone in 2005.<ref name=BUAV>[http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection - Primates]</ref> As of 2004, 3,100 non-human primates were living in captivity in the [[United States]], in [[zoo]]s, [[circus]]es, and [[Laboratory|laboratories]], 1,280 of them being used in experiments.<ref name=GA/> European campaign groups such as the [[BUAV]] are seeking a ban on all primate use in experiments as part of the [[European Union]]'s current review of existing law on animal experimentation. ==Laughter in primates== {{splitsection}} {{Merge|Laughter|date=December 2006}} [[Laughter]] might not be confined or unique to humans, despite Aristotle's observation that "only the human animal laughs". The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. However, some behavioural psychologists argue that self-awareness of one's situation, or the ability to identify with somebody else's predicament, are prerequisites for laughter, so animals are not really laughing in the same way that we do. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[gorillas]], and [[orangutans]] show laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognizable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. There are instances in which non-human primates have been reported to have expressed joy. One study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human babies and bonobos also known as pygmy chimpanzees were tickled. It found although the bonobo’s laugh was a higher frequency, the laugh followed the same spectrographic pattern of human babies to include as similar facial expressions. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age. <ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.discover.com/issues/apr-03/features/featlaugh/ | journal = Discover | author = Johnson, Steven | title = Emotions and the Brain | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | month = April | year = 2003}}</ref>--> == Évolusi primata == Lima puluh juta taun ka tukang, dina mangsa Éosen, jumlah primata—kaasup spésiés nu hirup di tangkal jeung nu hirup di taneuh—ngaronjat kalawan gancang. Antukna, évolusi garis katurunan primata ngahasilkeun manusa. Primata dina mangsa éta—saperti prosimian nu katelah *Tetonius*—mibanda nonjolan leutik dina tulang tangkorak bagian otak, nyaéta wewengkon tempat lobus frontal bakal mekar saterusna. Bukti fosil pangkolotna ngeunaan otak nu némbongkeun ciri-ciri nu rada mirip jeung manusa asalna ti dalapan belas juta taun ka tukang dina mangsa Miosen, nu bareng jeung munculna kera antropoid nu katelah *Proconsul*. *Proconsul* téh mahluk nu leumpang maké opat suku sarta hirup di tangkal; kamungkinan pisan mahluk ieu téh karuhun ti kera-kera badag modérn sarta, bisa jadi, karuhun *Homo sapiens*. *Proconsul* bisa jadi kacida miripna jeung gambaran urang ngeunaan karuhun babarengan antara kera jeung manusa. Bagian jero tangkorak *Proconsul* némbongkeun lobus frontal anu nonjol, nanging lipatan néokortéksna henteu mekar sapertos anu kapanggih dina kera modérn sareng manusa. == Uteuk primata == Otak primata rata-rata lebih besar sekitar dua sampai dua puluh kali lipat dari mamalia nonprimata dengan massa tubuh yang sama. == Baca ogé == * [[Téori arboréal]] * [[Primatologi]] == Rujukan == {{Wikispecies|Primates}} <references/> * {{note|PQ}}''Primates in Question'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2003), Robert W. Shumaker & Benjamin B. Beck (ISBN 1-58834-176-3 ) == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases] * [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu Primate Info Net] * [http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html Primates in scientific experimentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613190035/http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University] * [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram/spec_laugh.jpg&imgrefurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram.htm&h=382&w=784&sz=94&hl=en&start=6&tbnid=SzTd6o7BvU2mUM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DChimpanzee%2Blaughter%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DHPIA,HPIA:2006-24,HPIA:en%26sa%3DN Chimpanzee Facial Expression & Vocalizations] * [http://www.euprim-net.eu EUPRIM-Net: European Primate Network] * [http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm A chimpanzee laughter sample.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327034516/http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm |date=2009-03-27 }} * [http://sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/mammals/apevsmonkey.htm Ape differences from monkeys.] {{pondok}} {{Mamalia}} {{Primata}} [[Kategori:Primata]] l0hwwtvcytpcn9vbbook5idmul6yy51 0 19122 712768 684827 2026-09-20T02:20:45Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712768 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Brain Mri nevit.svg|thumb|Gambar uteuk hasil MRI]] Dina [[sato|sasatoan]], '''uteuk''', '''otak''', atawa ''encephalon'' ([[Basa Yunani|Yun.]] "di jero hulu"), mangrupa puseur pangaturan [[sistem saraf puseur]]. Di lolobana sato, uteuk téh ayana dina hulu, ditutup ku [[tangkorak]], sarta deukeut ka parabot [[persépsi visual|tempoan]] sénsori primér, [[ceuli|pangrungu]], [[ékuilibriosépsi]], [[pangrasa]], jeung [[olfaksi]].<ref name=”H. ”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=y0JRDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=otak&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4u5P-z7eHAxWnRmcHHVj7B7kQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=otak&f=false| title =Otak dan PerilakuH. Timotius| last =H. Timotius| first =Prof. Dr. Kris | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2018|ISBN=9789792963823|pages =52}} Disungsi 21 Juli 2024</ref> Di [[manusa]], uteuk téh organ pikeun mikir. [[Vertebrata]] lolobana boga uteuk, sedengkeun [[invertebrata]] uteukna dipuseurkeun atawa dina bentuk kumpulan [[ganglion]], anapon sato primitif sarupaning [[spons]] teu boga uteuk pisan. Uteuk téh wangunna pajeulit pisan. Misalna baé [[uteuk manusa]] nu ngandung leuwih ti 100 miliar [[neuron]], nu disambungkeun ka 10.000 neuron lianna. <!-- == Overview == Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between the [[gray matter]] and [[white matter]]. Gray matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) which connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a [[fat]]ty [[Electrical insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]] ([[oligodendroglia]] cells), giving the white matter its distinctive color. The outer layer of the brain is gray matter called [[cerebral cortex]]. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter ([[fasciculus|fasciculi]], fiber tracts), gray matter ([[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]]) and spaces filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] ([[Ventricular system|ventricles]]) are found. The brain innervates the [[head]] through [[cranial nerve]]s, and it communicates with the [[spinal cord]], which innervates the body through [[spinal nerve]]s. Nervous fibers transmitting signals from the brain are called [[efferent]] fibers. The fibers transmitting signals to the brain are called [[afferent]] (or sensory) fibers. Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of fibers). It is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components as [[cognition]], [[perception]], [[attention]], [[memory]] and [[emotion]]. The brain is also responsible for control of [[posture]] and [[motor control|movement]]s. It makes possible cognitive, [[motor learning|motor]] and other forms of [[learning]]. The brain can perform a variety of functions automatically, without the need for [[consciousness|conscious]] awareness, such as coordination of [[sensory system]]s (eg. [[sensory gating]] and [[multisensory integration]]), [[Animal locomotion|walking]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and [[spinal cord]]. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under spinal cord control alone. The brain undergoes transitions from [[Awake|wakefulness]] to [[sleep]] (and subtypes of these states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge consolidation, as the neurons appear to organize the day's stimuli during deep sleep by randomly firing off the most recently used neuron pathways; additionally, without sleep, normal subjects are observed to develop symptoms resembling mental illness, even auditory hallucinations). Every brain state is associated with characteristic [[brain waves]]. [[Neuron]]s are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas [[Glia|Glial cells]] perform supporting function. Brain cell metabolism consumes considerable amounts of energy. In addition to being electrically active, neurons constantly synthesize neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their properties (guided by [[gene expression]]) under the influence of their input signals. This [[plasticity]] underlies [[learning]] and [[adaptation]]. It is notable that some unused neuron pathways (constructions which have become physically isolated from other cells) may continue to exist long after the memory is absent from consciousness, possibly developing the subconscious. The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]]. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as [[biopsychology|biological psychology]]. This field of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it affects behavior. ==History== {{main|History of the brain}} Early human views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [[Middle Kingdom]] onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the [[heart]] that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], during the first step of mummification: ‘The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.’ Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in “memorizing something by heart”. The first thoughts of the field of [[psychology]] actually came from ancient philosophers, including [[Aristotle]]. As philosophers became more in tune with medical research over time, the idea of psychology emerged. From that point, different branches of [[psychology]] emerged with different individuals creating new ideas. ==Mind and brain== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} A distinction is often made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading to the [[mind-body problem]]. The brain is defined as the physical and biological [[matter]] contained within the [[skull]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as beliefs or desires. Some adhere to [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] [[dualistic]] approaches in which the mind exists independently of the brain in some way, such as a [[soul]] or [[epiphenomenalism|epiphenomenon]] or [[strong emergence|emergent]] phenomenon. Other dualisms maintain that the mind is a distinct ''[[physics|physical]]'' phenomenon, such as [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic field]], or a [[quantum mind|quantum effect]]. [[Materialistic]] options include beliefs that mentality is [[behaviorism|behavior]] or [[functionalism|function]] or, in the case of [[computationalism|computationalists]] and [[strong AI]] theorists, [[computer software]] (with the brain playing the role of [[computer hardware|hardware]]). [[Idealism]], the belief that all is mind, still has some adherents. At the other extreme, [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialist]]s believe minds do not exist at all, and mentalistic language will be replaced by neurological terminology. ==Comparative anatomy== [[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]] Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[arachnid]]s, and others), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]]s, and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s and [[hagfish]]).<ref name="butler">{{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Ann B. | title = Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head | journal = The Anatomical Record | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125 }}</ref> The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing.<ref name="butler"/> The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]].<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex).<ref name="martin">{{cite book | last = Martin | first = John H. | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas | edition = Second Edition | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-07-138183-X }}</ref> More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.<ref name="martin"/> In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called [[Sulcus (anatomy)|sulci]]. Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species. ===Invertebrates=== In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.<ref name="butler"/> The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the mechanosensory [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[Somatosensory system|touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex. In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,<ref name="butler"/> separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.<ref name="butler"/> The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain. ===Vertebrates=== {{Cerebrum map|Human Brain|caption=<small>The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (blue), temporal (green), occipital (red), and parietal lobes (yellow). The cerebellum (not colored) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.</small>}} The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences. Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]].<ref name="martin"/> The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each have two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small. Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilaterally symmetrical]] [[encephalization]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<ref name="martin"/> ====Vertebrate brain regions==== (''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'') [[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]] According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions: *[[Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain) **[[Myelencephalon]] **[[Metencephalon]] *[[Mesencephalon]] (midbrain) *[[Prosencephalon]] (forebrain) **[[Diencephalon]] **[[Telencephalon]] The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as: *[[Limbic system]] *[[Sensory system]]s **[[Visual system]] **[[Olfactory system]] **[[Gustatory system]] **[[Auditory system]] **[[Somatosensory system]] *[[Muscle|Motor system]] *[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]] ====Humans==== [[Image:Brain animated color nevit.gif|thumb|Animation showing the human brain with the lobes highlighted]] {{main|human brain}} The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[mammal]]s (indeed larger than in all animals, although only in mammals has the neocortex evolved to fulfill this kind of function). Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]]. ==Neurobiology== The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, [[neuron]]s and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons.<ref>{{cite book | title = Basic Histology: Text and Atlas | edition = 10th ed. | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira | coauthors = J. Carneiro }} (Statistic from page 161)</ref> These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], different types of action, and higher cognitive function. ===Histology=== {{Neuron map|[[Neuron]]}} Neurons are the cells that generate [[action potential]]s and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]]. In mammals, the brain is surrounded by [[connective tissue]]s called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood. The brain is bathed in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[Ventricular system|ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight if unsupported by the CSF. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the physical [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass. ===Function=== Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain. Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Visual perception|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]]. To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone. Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the [[pituitary gland]]. It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain. Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures. ===Brain pathology=== [[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]] Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage. Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals. Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus]]es and [[bacteria]]. Infection of the [[meninges]], the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and humans and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to avoid [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]]. Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]]. Certain brain disorders are treated by brain surgeons (neurosurgeons) while others are treated by neurologists and psychiatrists. ==Study of the brain== ===Fields of study=== [[Neuroscience]] seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. [[Psychology]] seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]]. ===Methods of observation=== {{main|neuroimaging}} ====Electrophysiology==== Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons. ====EEG==== By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity. ====MEG==== Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to measure the magnetic field directly in a technique known as [[magnetoencephalography]] (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution as EEG but much better spatial resolution, although admittedly not as good as fMRI. The main advantage over fMRI is a direct relationship between neural activation and measurement. ====fMRI and PET==== [[Image:Pnsagittal.jpg|thumb|A scan of the brain using fMRI]] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on '''BOLD'''; '''B'''lood '''O'''xygen '''L'''evel '''D'''ependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occur in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent various neuronal activities ([[metabolism]] of synaptic reuptake). Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] and [[oxygen]] metabolism as well as neurotransmitter activity in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region. ====Behavioral==== Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord. ====Anatomical==== [[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine. ===Other matters=== [[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. [[Artificial intelligence]] seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success. Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence. ==Brain as food== [[Image:Porkbrain.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pork brain, ready to be cooked]] Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous "[[Eggs and brains|Eggs n' Brains]]".<ref>{{cite web | author = Lukas, Paul | title = Inconspicuous Consumption: Mulling Brains | work = New York magazine | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''tête de veau'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of the [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cavelife.net/columns/2002columns/2002Mar13.html | author = Glover, William | title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau | work = Cave Life in France | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-mammal.html | work = Weird-Food.com | title = Weird Foods: Mammal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The Anyang tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.berggorilla.de/english/gjournal/texte/18culture.html | author = Meder, Angela | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine | work = Gorilla Journal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> [[Indonesia]]n cuisine specialty in [[Minangkabau]] cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk named [[gulai otak]] (beef brain curry). Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The first problem is that the makeup of the brain is 60% fat due to the [[myelin]] (which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.autisminfo.com/dorfman.htm | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting | author = Dorfman, Kelly | work = Diet and Autism | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> As an example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thewvsr.com/porkbrains.htm | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collinge | first = John | date = 2001 | title = Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 24 | pages = 519–50 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11283320 | id = PMID 11283320 }}</ref> Another prion disease called [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of [[immortality]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collins | first = S | coauthors = McLean CA, Masters CL | date = 2001 | title = Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome,fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | journal = Journal of Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | ages = 387–97 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11535002 | id = PMID 11535002 }}</ref> Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe]]an [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&displayonly=CHP | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S. | publisher = Counterpoint Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 1-58243-162-0 }}</ref> It is also well known in the hunting community that the brain of wild animals should not be consumed, due to the risk of [[chronic wasting disease]]. --> == Uteuk manusa == Orok lahir kalayan rasio massa uteuk kana massa awak anu kacida gedéna (kinten-kinten 12 persén). Uteuk—utamana kortéks sérébral—terus tumuwuh kalayan gancang dina tilu taun munggaran kahirupan, nyaéta mangsa diajar anu kacida gancangna. Nalika ngahontal umur genep taun, massa otak budak geus ngahontal 90 persén tina massa otak jalma dewasa. Rata-rata volume uteuk awéwé dewasa jaman ayeuna téh 150 séntiméter kubik leuwih leutik batan otak lalaki dewasa. Lamun bias budaya jeung cara ngasuh barudak diperhatikeun, teu aya bukti nu jelas ngeunaan ayana béda dina tingkat kecerdasan sacara umum antara lalaki jeung awéwé. Béda massa uteuk manusa sabarat 150 gram téh lain hal anu signifikan. Jalma dewasa anu ngalaman mikrosefali sarta boga ukuran otak nu leutik pisan bakal ngalaman gangguan kognitif anu parah; massa otakna ngan ukur antara 450 nepi ka 900 gram. Jelas pisan, lamun urang niténan massa otak anu beuki leutik, aya hiji wates kritis; lamun massa otak aya di handapeun wates éta, fungsina bakal kaganggu parah pisan dibandingkeun jeung fungsi otak manusa dewasa anu normal. Otak manusa (teu kaasup otak leutik, anu sigana mah henteu aub dina fungsi kognitif) ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar unsur panyambung anu disebut neuron. Otak leutik, anu perenahna di handapeun korteks serebral di bagian tukang sirah, ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar neuron deui. Manusa munggaran anu mibanda volume otak nu ampir sarua jeung manusa modérn nyaéta *Homo erectus*. Mangtaun-taun lilana, spésimén utama ''Homo erectus'' asalna ti Cina sarta diperkirakeun umurna geus satengah juta taun. Dina taun 1976, Richard Leakey ti National Museums of Kenya ngalaporkeun kapanggihna tangkorak ''Homo erectus'' nu kaayaanana ampir lengkep di lapisan batu nu umurna hiji satengah juta taun. Kusabab spésimén ''Homo erectus'' ti Cina kapanggih bareng jeung sésa-sésa seuneu unggun, bisa jadi karuhun urang geus bisa ngadalikeun seuneu ti saprak leuwih ti satengah juta taun ka tukang. == Sistem uteuk == Nalika urang niténan hiji objék di beulah katuhu, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang katuhu; kitu deui, nalika urang niténan objék di beulah kénca, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang kénca. Nanging, ku sabab ayana sambungan saraf optik, widang pandang katuhu diprosés di hémisfér kénca, sarta widang pandang kénca diprosés di hémisfér katuhu. Sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli katuhu utamana diprosés di hémisfér kénca otak, sarta sabalikna—sanajan henteu mutlak kitu, sabab sababaraha sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli kénca ogé diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Parobahan sisi fungsi (crossover) sapertos kieu henteu lumangsung dina indra pangambeu anu sipatna leuwih primitif; bau anu dideteksi ku liang irung kénca wungkul diprosés sapinuhna di hémisfér kénca. Nanging, informasi anu dikirimkeun antara otak jeung anggota awak téh ngalaman panyilangan: objék anu diraba ku leungeun kénca utamana dirasa atawa dipikawanoh di hémisfér katuhu otak, sedengkeun paréntah pikeun leungeun katuhu nulis diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Dina 90 persén manusa, puseur basa (kamampuh nyarita) perenahna di hémisfér kénca otak. Sistem jaringan anu rumit saperti ''corpus callosum'' némbongkeun yén interaksi antara dua belahan otak téh mangrupa fungsi anu penting pisan pikeun manusa. Hemisfer kénca otak ngolah informasi sacara runtuy; sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu ngolahna sacara sakaligus tur ngaksés sababaraha asupan dina waktu nu sarua. Hemisfer kénca jalan sacara séri, sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu jalan sacara paralel. Hemisfer kénca téh ibarat komputer analog. Pamikiran intuitif otak katuhu mampuh nangkep pola sarta hubungan anu kacida rumitna pikeun kahontal ku otak kénca, sarta bisa ogé ngadetéksi pola anu sabenerna mah teu aya. Sikep skeptis jeung kritis lain ciri has tina otak katuhu. Tujuan urang téh nyaéta pikeun nimu pola-pola tina alam (ngagunakeun otak katuhu), tapi loba pola hasil imajinasi anu henteu luyu jeung data. Ku kituna, unggal pola anu diusulkeun kudu dianalisis sacara kritis ku otak kénca. Usaha néangan pola tanpa analisis kritis—atawa sikep skeptis anu kaku tanpa usaha néangan pola—mangrupakeun pendekatan élmu pangaweruh anu henteu lengkep; pikeun ngahontal pangaweruh sacara éféktif, diperlukeun gawé bareng ti kadua fungsi otak éta. == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-07-121565-4}} * {{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0-471-98303-9}} * {{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0-07-118088-5}} === Rujukan === * ''[[:en:Brain|Brain]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris per 13 April 2007 <!--<div class="references-2column"> <references/> </div> --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Brain}} * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/Brain.htm How Your Brain Works] at [[HowStuffWorks]] * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325101705/http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html |date=2009-03-25 }} * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/ Brain Research News from ScienceDaily] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain/ Answers to several brain related questions of curious kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070427041606/http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain |date=2007-04-27 }} * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/brain Everything you wanted to know about the brain] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.biaq.com.au/ Fact sheets on brain injury - causes, effects and coping strategies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618221456/http://www.biaq.com.au/ |date=2008-06-18 }} * [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki]{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402002218/http://www.brainmaps.org/ |date=2020-04-02 }}, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000AF67F-28CD-1F30-9AD380A84189F2D7&pageNumber=1&catID=2 Scientific American Magazine (September 2003 Issue) Ultimate Self-Improvement] * [http://www.scienceclarified.com/Bi-Ca/Brain.html An orderly article about the brain] * [http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php Spastic cerebral palsy symptoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515232231/http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php |date=2007-05-15 }} * [http://www.brain.com Brain.com - Information on the brain] * [http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php Brain Research and Information Network (B.R.A.I.N.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703225441/http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php |date=2007-07-03 }} [[Kategori:Sistim saraf puseur]] [[Kategori:Organ]] r6w98j2drl8haj8a8qt6elzqpo61mhm 0 20235 712776 710682 2026-09-20T06:33:01Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} '''Organisasi Pangbébasan Macan Tamil Eelam''' ({{lang-en|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam; LTTE}}, Basa Tamil: ''தமிழீழ விடுதலைப் புலிகள்''), nu leuwih kasohor minangka '''Macan Tamil''' diadegkeun taun [[1976]] kalayan tujuan utama pikeun ngadegkeun nagara [[Tamil]] nu merdika jeung berdaulat di wetan kalereun [[Sri Langka]]. Pamingpin organisasi ieu nyaéta Pupuhu Nasionalis Tamil [[Velupillai Prabakharan]] nu ditéangan ku [[Interpol]] kalayan tuduhan "maehan, kajahatan terorganisasi, jeung terorisme" [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903121259/http://www.interpol.int/public/Data/Wanted/Notices/Data/1994/54/1994_9054.asp]. LTTE ngarekrut sabagian gedé kaderna ti organisasi militan Tamil séjén, nu hayang ngadegkeun nagara merdeka di weta kalereun Sri Langka. == Tumbu luar == * {{en}} [http://www.ltteps.org/ LTTE] * {{en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060903121259/http://www.interpol.int/public/Data/Wanted/Notices/Data/1994/54/1994_9054.asp Interpol] * {{en}} [http://www.tamilnation.org/ltte/ Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]{{Dead link|date=September 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Kategori:Kelompok séparatis]] [[Kategori:Sri Langka]] bmzyy4yi7034ddbgcl4twp73hgyfuzb 0 27223 712775 712518 2026-09-20T04:09:44Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | name = Hymenoptera | image = Hymenoptere(s).jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''[[Andrena]]'' sp. bikang | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Arthropoda]] | classis = [[Insékta]] | subclassis = [[Pterygota]] | infraclassis = [[Neoptera]] | superordo = [[Endopterygota]] | ordo = '''Hymenoptera''' | ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae|1758]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Subordo]] | subdivision = [[Apocrita]]<br /> [[Symphyta]] }} '''Hymenoptera''' mangrupa salah sahiji [[ordo (biologi)|ordo]] gedé [[insékta]] nu ngawengku [[Symphyta]] jeung [[Apocryta]] ([[seungseureudan]] jeung [[sireum]]). Ngaranna dicokot tina jangjang insékta nu ipis, nu diturunkeun tina [[basa Yunani Kuna]] ὑμήν (humẽn): mémbran jeung πτερόν (pteron): jangjang. [[Jangjang]] hareup jeung disambungkeun ku runtuyan kait nu disebut [[hamuli]]. Nu bikang boga jarum [[ovipositor]] husus pikeun ngasupkeun endog ka jero sayang liang. Ovipositor ieu robah jadi [[panyeureud (organ)|panyeureud]]. Ieu insékta ngalaman [[métamorfosis]] lengkep: hambalan [[larva]] mirip [[hileud]] jeung cicing dina kepongpong méméh sawawa (baca [[holométabolismeu]]). <!-- ==Sex determination== {{main|Haplodiploid sex-determination system}} Among the hymenopterans, sex is [[sex-determination system|determined]] by the number of [[chromosome]]s an individual possesses. Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent's respective [[gamete]]s), and so develop into [[diploid]] females, while unfertilized eggs only contain one set (from the mother), and so develop into [[haploid]] males; the act of fertilization is under the voluntary control of the egg-laying female. This phenomenon is called [[haplodiploidy]]. Note, however, that the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination may be more complex than simple chromosome number. In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles. In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male instead. This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives. Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee and wasp species. One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of [[eusociality]] within this order. ==Classification== ===Symphyta=== The suborder [[Symphyta]] includes the [[sawflies]], [[horntail]]s, and [[Orussidae|parasitic wood wasps]]. The group appears to be [[paraphyletic]], as it is often believed that the family [[Orussidae]] may be the group from which the Apocrita arose. They have an unconstricted junction between the thorax and abdomen, and the larvae of free-living forms are herbivorous, have legs, [[proleg]]s (on every segment, unlike [[Lepidoptera]]) ([[butterflies]] and [[moth]]s), and [[ocelli]]. ===Apocrita=== The wasps, bees, and ants together make up the suborder [[Apocrita]], characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist ([[petiole (insect)|petiole]]), also involving the fusion of the first abdominal segment to the [[thorax]]. Also, the larvae of all Apocrita do not have legs, prolegs, or ocelli. --> == Rujukan == * {{cite book|author=[[David Grimaldi|Grimaldi, D.]] and [[Michael S. Engel|Engel, M.S.]] |title=Evolution of the Insects|year=[[2005]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|id=ISBN 0-521-82149-5}} * {{cite book|author=[[Alex Rasnitsyn|Rasnitsyn, A.P.]] and Quicke, D.L.J.|title=History of Insects|year=[[2002]]|publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]]|id=ISBN 1-4020-0026-X |pages=242-254}} {{Reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == ;Umum * [http://www.hymis.eu/fotos/topical/topical.php?nav1=topical Hymenoptera Information System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209155542/http://www.hymis.eu/fotos/topical/topical.php?nav1=topical |date=2012-02-09 }} (German) * [http://www.cirrusimage.com/hymenoptera.htm Hymenoptera of North America - large format reference photographs, descriptions, taxonomy] * [http://www.hymenopterists.org/ International Society of Hymenopterists] * [http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK) * [http://www.lasius.narod.ru/ Ants Photo Gallery] (RU) * [http://palaeoentomolog.ru/english.html Fossil insects in Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518131000/http://palaeoentomolog.ru/english.html |date=2022-05-18 }} * [http://fossilinsects.net/index.html International Palaeoentomological Society] * [http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/selhome/sphecos/sph30ttl.htm Sphecos Forum for Aculeate Hymenopterra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924070018/http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/selhome/sphecos/sph30ttl.htm |date=2006-09-24 }} * [http://morphbank.net/Browse/ByImage/index.php?keywords=&tsnKeywords=hymenoptera&spKeywords=&viewKeywords=whole+body&localityKeywords=&listField1=imageId&orderAsc1=DESC&listField2=&orderAsc2=ASC&listField3=&orderAsc3=ASC&numPerPage=20&goTo=&resetOffset=&activeSubmit=2 Hymenoptera images on MorphBank, a biological image database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212734/http://morphbank.net/Browse/ByImage/index.php?keywords=&tsnKeywords=hymenoptera&spKeywords=&viewKeywords=whole+body&localityKeywords=&listField1=imageId&orderAsc1=DESC&listField2=&orderAsc2=ASC&listField3=&orderAsc3=ASC&numPerPage=20&goTo=&resetOffset=&activeSubmit=2 |date=2007-09-27 }} ;Sistematika * [http://hymenoptera.ucr.edu Hymenopteran Systematics] ;Béréndélan Régional * [http://www.ufrrj.br/institutos/ib/ento/tomo11.pdf Insetos dos Brazil] * [http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biosystematics/invertebrates/hymenoptera/ New Zealand Hymenoptera] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113190650/http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biosystematics/invertebrates/hymenoptera/ |date=2007-11-13 }} * [http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_wasps/index.htm Waspweb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070618182556/http://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_wasps/index.htm |date=2007-06-18 }} Gambar-gambar alus Hymenoptera [[Afrotropis]] [[Kategori:Endopterygota]] [[Kategori:gegeremet]] ohuruwsi50ku651oeyym6bj51mlpdbq 0 32901 712766 663292 2026-09-20T02:18:40Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712766 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Azərbaycan Marşı''' (''Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni'') téh [[lagu kabangsaan]] ti [[Azerbaijan]], judul aslina '''Mars Azerbaijan''' (''Azərbaycan marşı''). Rumpakana diserat ku bujangga [[Ahmad Javad]], jeung musikna disanggi ku komposer Azeri, [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]]. Lagu kabangsaan ieu diadopsi dina taun 1918 jeung bagian ti ''On the State Hymn of the Republic of Azerbaijan''.<ref>http://www.azerbaijan-un-geneva.az/azerbaijan.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028175225/http://www.azerbaijan-un-geneva.az/azerbaijan.php |date=2007-10-28 }}</ref> Sabagian ti lagu kabangsaan ieu dimuat dina bagian hareup uang 5 [[Manat Azerbaijan|manat]] Azerbaijan dikaluarkeun ti 2006.<ref>[http://www.cbar.az Central Bank of Azerbaijan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314050016/http://www.cbar.az/ |date=2010-03-14 }}. National currency: [http://www.cbar.az/pages/national-currency/banknotes/azn/ 5 manat]. – Retrieved on 25 February 2010.</ref> ==Rumpaka== Azərbaycan! Azərbaycan!<br> Ey qəhrəman övladın şanlı Vətəni!<br> Səndən ötrü can verməyə cümlə hazırız!<br> Səndən ötrü qan tökməyə cümlə qadiriz!<br> Üç rəngli bayrağınla məsud yaşa!<br> Üç rəngli bayrağınla məsud yaşa!<br> Minlərlə can qurban oldu,<br> Sinən hərbə meydan oldu!<br> Hüququndan keçən əsgər!<br> Hərə bir qəhrəman oldu!<br> Sən olasan gülüstan,<br> Sənə hər an can qurban!<br> Sənə min bir məhəbbət<br> Sinəmdə tutmuş məkan!<br> Namusunu hifz etməyə,<br> Bayrağını yüksəltməyə,<br> Namusunu hifz etməyə,<br> Cümlə gənclər müştaqdır!<br> Şanlı Vətən! Şanlı Vətən!<br> Azərbaycan! Azərbaycan!<br> Azərbaycan! Azərbaycan! ===Média (Instruméntal)=== [[File:National Anthem of the Republic of Azerbaijan instrumental.ogg]] == Catetan suku == {{reflist}} == Tempo ogé == * [[s:Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni|Read the full text]]''' on [[Wikisource]] * [[Lagu kabangsaan Azerbaijan SSR]] * [[Daptar lagu kabangsaan]] {{Lagu Kabangsaan ti Eropa}}<br/> {{Lagu Kabangsaan ti Asia}} {{Pondok}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Azerbaycan Marsi}} [[Kategori:Lagu kabangsaan]] [[Kategori:Simbul nasional Azerbaijan]] [[Kategori:Musik di Azerbaijan]] 05q0bce1bs6lek9vmsmawpwl4w4nw3a 0 37223 712767 487179 2026-09-20T02:18:53Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712767 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" |----- ! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightsteelblue" | Babagian Arménia |----- | colspan="3" align="center" | [[Gambar:Armenia map numbered.svg|250px]]<br /> |----- ! colspan="3" bgcolor="lightsteelblue" | Legenda |----- | ''Nomer'' || ''Babagian<br>administratif'' || ''Ibu kota'' |----- | 1 || [[Propinsi Aragatsotn|Aragatsotn]] || [[Ashtarak]] |----- | 2 || [[Propinsi Ararat|Ararat]] || [[Artaxata|Artashat]] |----- | 3 || [[Propinsi Armavir|Armavir]] || [[Armavir, Armenia|Armavir]] |----- | 4 || [[Propinsi Gegharkunik|Gegharkunik]] || [[Gavar]] |----- | 5 || [[Propinsi Kotayk|Kotayk]] || [[Hrazdan]] |----- | 6 || [[Propinsi Lori|Lori]] || [[Vanadzor]] |----- | 7 || [[Propinsi Shirak|Shirak]] || [[Gyumri]] |----- | 8 || [[Propinsi Syunik|Syunik]] || [[Kapan]] |----- | 9 || [[Propinsi Tavush|Tavush]] || [[Ijevan]] |----- | 10 || [[Propinsi Vayots Dzor|Vayots Dzor]] || [[Yeghegnadzor]] |----- | 11 || [[Yérévan]] || – |----- |} {{Armenia}} '''[[Arménia]]''' dibagi kana 11 [[babagian nagara|babagian administratif]], 10 di antawisna nyaéta [[propinsi]], kawanoh salaku ''marzer'' (մարզեր) atanapi dina bentuk tunggalna, ''[[marz (babagian nagara)|marz]]'' (մարզ) dina [[Basa Arménia]]. [[Yérévan]] miboga status husus salaku ibu kota nagara. Pupuhu éksekutif dina unggal 10 marz nyaéta ''marzpet'', ditunjuk ku pamaréntah Arménia. Di Yérévan, pupuhu éksekutifna nyaéta [[walikota]], ditunjuk ku présidén. == Propinsi == Di handap nyaéta daptar propinsi-propinsina kalawan populasi, aréa, jeung kapadetanna. Angka-angkana nyaéta ti Badan Statistik Nasional Républik Arménia. Perhatoskeun yén wewengkon Propinsi Gegharkunik ngawengku [[Dano Sevan]], nu miboga {{convert|1278|km2|sqmi}} ti téritorina. {|class="wikitable sortable" |-bgcolor="#efefef" ! Propinsi ! Populasi ! % ! Kapadetan |- |[[Yérévan]] |1.091.235 |36,3% |{{convert|5196.4|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Shirak|Shirak]] |257.242 | 8,6% |{{convert|96.0|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Armavir|Armavir]] |255.861 | 8,5% |{{convert|206.2|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Lori|Lori]] |253.351 | 8,4% |{{convert|66.8|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Ararat|Ararat]] |252.665 | 8,4% |{{convert|126.1|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Kotayk|Kotayk]] |241.337 | 8,0% |{{convert|114.9|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Gegharkunik|Gegharkunik]] |215.371 | 7,2% |{{convert|58.9|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Syunik|Syunik]] |134.061 | 4,5% |{{convert|29.8|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Aragatsotn|Aragatsotn]] |126.278 | 4,2% |{{convert|45.8|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Tavush|Tavush]] |121.963 | 4,1% |{{convert|39.1|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |- ||[[Propinsi Vayots Dzor|Vayots Dzor]] |53.230 | 1,8% |{{convert|22.1|/km2|/sqmi|abbr=on}} |} == Komunitas (''hamaynkner'') == {{utama|Daptar munisipalitas di Arménia}} Dina unggal propinsi nyaéta komunitas (''hamaynkner'', tunggal ''hamaynk''). Unggal komunitas nyaéta wangun pamaréntahan sorangan jeunf miboga 1 atanapi leuwih panyicingan (''bnakavayrer'', tunggal ''bnakavayr''). Panyicingan dikelompokkeun salaku kota (''kaghakner'', tunggal ''kaghak'') atanapi désa (''gyugher'', tunggal ''gyugh''). Dina 2007, Arménia miboga 915 komunitas, nu mana 49 dipertimbangkeun salaku kota jeung 866 sésana désa. Ibu kotana, Yérévan, ogé miboga status salaku hiji komunitas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Badan Administrasi Régional|url=http://www.gov.am/enversion/regional_7/regional.htm|publisher=Pamaréntah Républik Arménia|accessdate=2008-09-11|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080420205327/http://www.gov.am/enversion/regional_7/regional.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archivedate=2008-04-20}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420205327/http://www.gov.am/enversion/regional_7/regional.htm |date=2008-04-20 }}</ref> Tambihannana, Yérévan dibagi kana 12 distrik semi-otonom. == Tingali ogé == * [[ISO 3166-2:AM]] == Rujukan == {{reflist}} == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.armstat.am/ Badan Statistik Nasional Républik Arménia] {{Armenia topics}} {{Administrative divisions of Armenia}} {{Articles on first-level administrative divisions of European countries}} {{Articles on first-level administrative divisions of Asian countries}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Administrative Divisions Of Armenia}} [[Kategori:Babagian Arménia| ]] [[Kategori:Daptar babagian nagara|Armenia]] [[Kategori:Babagian nagara di Asia|Armenia]] [[Kategori:Babagian nagara di Éropa|Armenia]] [[Kategori:Daptar ngeunaan Arménia|Babagian administratif]] o7t9y8my6mt5l8r0io235mmuvmgiaov 0 40172 712774 712728 2026-09-20T02:42:21Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language |name=Dzongkha |nativename=[[File:Dzongkha-02.svg|56px]] |region= [[Butan]], [[Sikkim]] (India) |ethnicity=[[Ngalop]] |speakers=170.000 (2006) |ref=e17 |familycolor=Sino-Tibetan |fam2=([[rungkun basa Tibét-Burma|Tibét-Burma]]) |fam3=[[rungkun basa Tibét-Kanauri|Tibét-Kanauri]] |fam4=[[rungkun basa Bod|Bod]] |fam5=[[rungkun basa Tibét|Tibét]] |fam6=Dzongkha–Lhokä |script=[[Aksara Tibét]] |nation={{flag|Butan}} |agency=[[Komisi Pamekaran Dzongkha]] |dia1=[[Dialék Laya|Laya]] |dia2=[[Dialék Lunana|Lunana]] |dia3=Adap |iso1=dz|iso2=dzo |lc1=dzo|ld1=Dzongkha |lc2=adp|ld2=Adap |map=[[File:Dzongkha native language districts.svg|250px]]<br><center>Peta distrik di Butan di mana wewengkon anu urangna maké Basa Dzongkha salaku basa asli diwarnaan konéng.</center> |notice=Indic }} '''Dzongkha''' ({{bo-textonly|རྫོང་ཁ་|lang=dz}}; [[Alihaksara Wylie|Wylie]]: ''rdzong-kha'', <span >Jong-kă</span>), sok disebut ogé ''[[Ngalop]]kha,'' nyaéta basa resmi [[Butan]].<ref name=CoBE>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20(A5).pdf |format=PDF |title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan. Art. 1, § 8 |publisher=Government of Bhutan |date=2008-07-18 |accessdate=2011-01-01 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162637/http://www.constitution.bt/TsaThrim%20Eng%20%28A5%29.pdf |date=2011-07-06 }}</ref> Kecap "dzongkha" hartina "basa (''kha'') anu dipaké di ''dzong''". [[Dzong]] nyaéta biara anu rupana kawas bénténg anu raloba diwangun di Butan ku [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] dina [[abad ka-17]]. ==Pamakéan== Dzongkha sarta dialék-dialékna téh minangka basa asli di 8 distrik di Butan beulah kulon, nyaéta [[Wangdue Phodrang|Phodrang]], [[Punakha]], [[Thimphu]], [[Distrik Gasa|Gasa]], [[Distrik Paro|Paro]], [[Haa|Ha]], [[Distrik Dagana|Dagana]], jeung [[Chukha]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Dzongkha |first1= Van Driem |last1= George |author1-link= George van Driem |first2= Karma |last2= Tshering of Gaselô |series = Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region |volume= I |year= 1998 | publisher = Research CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, [[Leiden University]] |location= Leiden, The Netherlands |page = 3 |isbn= 90-5789-002-X }}</ref> Aya ogé sababaraha panyatur Dzongkha di [[Kalimpong]], India, anu baréto mangrupa bagian ti Butan, nanging kiwari asup kana [[Benggala Kulon]], India. Pangajaran Dzongkha wajib di sadaya sakola di Butan. Basa Dzongkha mangrupa ''[[lingua franca]]'' di sababaraha distrik di Butan beulah kidul jeung wétan di mana basa ieu sanés basa asli masarakatna. Pilem Butan taun 2003, ''[[Travellers and Magicians]]'', mangrupa salah sahiji conto pilem anu dimaénkeun dina basa Dzongkha. ==Panulisan== Basa Dzongkha ilaharna ditulis dina [[Aksara Tibét]] vérsi Butan nu disebut ''Joyi'' ''(mgyogs yig)'' jeung ''Joshum'' ''(mgyogs tshugs ma)''. Buku-buku dina basa Dzongkha sacara husus dicitak dina [[Aksara Ucan]]. ==Tingali ogé== {{Portal|Butan|Basa}} {{Contain Indic text}} *[[Angka Dzongkha]] *[[Basa di Butan]] ==Rujukan== <references /> <!-- this footnote seems to have been separated from its reference ¹ {{cite book | author=van Driem, George L. | title=Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region, Vol. 1, Dzongkha | location=Leiden | publisher=Research School CNWS | year=1998 | isbn=90-5789-002-X}} --> ==Pustaka== * {{cite book | first =George | last = van Driem | author-link =George van Driem | editor-last =Moseley | editor-first =Christopher | contribution = Endangered Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: South Bodish Languages | contribution-url = | title = Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages | year = 2007 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700711970/page/294 294]–295 | place = | publisher = Routledge | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780700711970 | doi = | isbn = 0-7007-1197-X }} * {{cite conference |last = van Driem |first = George L |authorlink = George van Driem |title = Language policy in Bhutan |publisher = |year = 1993 |location = SOAS, London |url = http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |accessdate = }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180911043324/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |date=2018-09-11 }} * {{cite book | last=van Driem| first= George L| authorlink=George van Driem |coauthors=Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab) | title=Dzongkha |series= Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region| publisher=Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies| location=Leiden | year=1998 | isbn=90-5789-002-X}} - A language textbook with three audio compact disks. *{{cite book |title=The Grammar of Dzongkha |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=1992 |publisher=RGoB, Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=Guide to Official Dzongkha Romanization |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=1991 |publisher= Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} *{{cite book |title=The First Linguistic Survey of Bhutan |last=van Driem |first=George |authorlink=George van Driem |year=n.d. |publisher= Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) |location=Thimphu, Bhutan |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission | authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Rigpai Lodap: An Intermediate Dzongkha-English Dictionary (<span lang="dz">འབྲིང་རིམ་རྫོང་ཁ་ཨིང་ལིཤ་ཚིག་མཛོད་རིག་པའི་ལོ་འདབ།</span>) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=2009 | isbn=978-99936-765-3-9 | url=http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Lodap_Rigpai%20Lodap.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission | authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Kartshok Threngwa: A Book on Dzongkha Synonyms & Antonyms (<span lang="dz">རྫོང་ཁའི་མིང་ཚིག་རྣམ་གྲངས་དང་འགལ་མིང་སྐར་ཚོགས་ཕྲེང་བ།</span>) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=2009 | id={{Listed Invalid ISBN|99936-663-13-6}} | url=http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Thesaurus.pdf }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117075318/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Thesaurus.pdf |date=2010-11-17 }} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission |authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=The New Dzongkha Grammar (rdzong kha'i brda gzhung gsar pa) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=1999 | id=}} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Commission |authorlink=Dzongkha Development Commission | title=Dzongkha Rabsel Lamzang (rdzong kha rab gsal lam bzang) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Commission | year=1990 | id=}} * {{cite book | author=Dzongkha Development Authority | title=English-Dzongkha Dictionary (ཨིང་ལིཤ་རྫོང་ཁ་ཤན་སྦྱར་ཚིག་མཛོད།) | location=Thimphu | publisher=Dzongkha Development Authority, Ministry of Education | year=2005}} * {{cite book | last=Imaeda| first=Yoshiro | authorlink=Yoshiro Imaeda | title=Manual of Spoken Dzongkha in Roman Transcription | location=Thimphu | publisher=Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV), Bhutan Coordinator Office | year=1990 | id=}} * Mazaudon, Martine. 1985. “Dzongkha Number Systems.” S. Ratanakul, D. Thomas & S. Premsirat (eds.). Southéast Asian Linguistic Studies presented to André-G. Haudricourt. Bangkok: Mahidol University. 124-57 * Mazaudon, Martine & Boyd Michailovsky. 1988. “Lost syllables and tone contour in Dzongkha (Bhutan).” David Bradley, Eugénie J.A. Henderson & Martine Mazaudon (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. (Pacific Linguistics, Series C-104). 115-36 * Mazaudon, Martine & Boyd Michailovsky. 1989. “Syllabicity and suprasegmentals: the Dzongkha monosyllabic noun.” D. Bradley et al. (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. Canberra. (Pacific Linguistics). 115-36 * Michailovsky, Boyd. 1989. “Notes on Dzongkha orthography.” D. Bradley et al. (eds.). Prosodic analysis and Asian linguistics: to honour R.K. Sprigg. Canberra. (Pacific Linguistics). 297-301 * Tournadre, Nicolas. 1996. “Comparaison des systémes médiatifs de quatre dialectes tibétains (tibétain central, ladakhi, dzongkha et amdo).” Z. Guentchéva (ed.). L’énonciation médiatisée. Louvain_Paris: Peeters (Bibliothéque de l’Information Grammaticale, 34). 195-214 * Watters, Stephen A. 1996. A preliminary study of prosody in Dzongkha. Arlington: UT at Arlington, Masters Thesis == Referensi ngeunaan Dzongkha == === Kekecapan === * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionary.php Online searchable dictionary (Dz-En, En-Dz, Dz-Dz)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923022932/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionary.php |date=2013-09-23 }} or [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html Online Dzonkha-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182104/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html |date=2010-08-22 }} - site ''[[Dzongkha Development Commission]]'' ([http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html en] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182059/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html |date=2010-08-22 }} - [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/ dz]) * [http://www.panl10n.net/english/outputs/DCT.pdf Dzongkha Computer Terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053822/http://www.panl10n.net/english/outputs/DCT.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf English-Dzongkha Pocket Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507123629/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/English-Dzongkha_Pocket_Dictionary.pdf |date=2016-05-07 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Rigpai_Lodap.pdf Rigpai Lodap: An Intermediate Dzongkha-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525005136/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Rigpai_Lodap.pdf |date=2013-05-25 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Thesaurus.pdf Kartshok Threngwa: A Book on Dzongkha Synonyms & Antonyms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525004121/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Thesaurus.pdf |date=2013-05-25 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Countries_and_Capitals_in_Dzongkha.pdf Names of Countries and Capitals in Dzongkha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503124433/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Countries_and_Capitals_in_Dzongkha.pdf |date=2013-05-03 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Translation-Guidebook.pdf A Guide to Dzongkha-Translation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503125034/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Dzongkha-Translation-Guidebook.pdf |date=2013-05-03 }}<small>(pdf)</small> === Tata basa === * [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html Dzongkha transliteration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711102721/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie.html |date=2021-07-11 }} - site ''[[National Library of Bhutan]]'' (en - [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711012551/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/wylie-DZ.html |date=2021-07-11 }}) * [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/script.html Dzongkha, The National Language of Bhutan] - site ''Dzongkha Linux'' ([http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/web1024X768/home.html en] - [http://dzongkha.sourceforge.net/html/dzo_web1024X768/home.html dz]) * [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Romanization of Dzongkha] * [http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_dzongkha01.html Dzongkha : Origin and Description] * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/dzongkha.php Dzongkha language, alphabet and pronunciation] * [http://www.panl10n.net/Presentations/Laos/RegionalConference/LanguageProcessingApps/Dzongkha_TTS.pdf Pioneering Dzongkha Text To Speech Synthesis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051548/http://www.panl10n.net/Presentations/Laos/RegionalConference/LanguageProcessingApps/Dzongkha_TTS.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}<small>(pdf)</small> * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.en.html Dzongkha Grammar & other materials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815015339/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.en.html |date=2013-08-15 }} - site ''[[The Dzongkha Development Commission]]'' (en - [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/index.html dz]) * [http://www.iling-ran.ru/langworld/transcript/Dzongkha.shtml Коряков Ю.Б. Практическая транскрипция для языка дзонг-кэ] * [http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/Old-publications/PDF-publications/Guide_to_Official_Dzongkha_Romanization.pdf Guide to Official Dzongkha Romanization - by Dr. George van Driem]<small>(pdf)</small> *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Choke-Dzongkha_Dictionary.pdf Classical Tibetan-Dzongkha Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722071156/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/PDF-publications/Choke-Dzongkha_Dictionary.pdf |date=2013-07-22 }}<small>(pdf)</small> ==Tumbu kaluar== {{InterWiki|code=dz}} *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html Komisi Pamekaran Dzongkha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182059/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/index.en.html |date=2010-08-22 }} Thimphu, Butan *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=dzo Ethnologue entry on Dzongkha] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html Dzongkha-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822182104/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/dictionaries/dz-en-dict/index.html |date=2010-08-22 }} *[http://podcast.com/show/6924/ Dzongkha podcast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807154426/http://www.podcast.com/show/6924/ |date=2011-08-07 }} *[http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.htm Dzongkha Romanization for Geographical Names] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/publications/index.en.html Free textbooks and dictionaries] published by [[Dzongkha Development Commission]] *[http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/PDF/National%20Policy%20and%20Strategy%20of%20Dzongkha%20%28web%29.pdf Bhutan National Policy and Strategy for Development and Promotion of Dzongkha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403063354/http://www.dzongkha.gov.bt/online/PDF/National%20Policy%20and%20Strategy%20of%20Dzongkha%20%28web%29.pdf |date=2015-04-03 }} * [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html Dzongkha Unicode] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712101944/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha.html |date=2021-07-12 }} - site ''[[The National Library of Bhutan]]'' (en - [http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html dz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201180859/http://www.library.gov.bt/IT/dzongkha-DZ.html |date=2019-12-01 }}) {{Languages of Bhutan}} [[Kategori:Basa di Butan]] [[Kategori:Basa nu ditulis maké aksara Tibét]] [[Kategori:Basa Dzongkha| ]] opk1i88gccdy88vs50s5zkbn8d4gtl3 0 41518 712759 632131 2026-09-19T22:49:02Z Viinasen tuttu 37437 File 712759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Orphan|date=April 2017}} [[File:R. Kelly mug shot.jpg|thumb|R. Kelly (2003)]] '''Robert Sylvester Kelly''' lahir bulan [[8 Januari]] [[1967]].<ref>https://music.yahoo.com/artist/r-kelly/</ref> '''R. Kelly''' lahir di [[Chicago]], Nalika umurna tujuh taun, '''R. Kelly''' jeung kulawargana pindah ka [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]] pikeun cicing di [[Amerika Serikat]]. ==Diskografi== ===Album=== *1992: ''Born into the 90's'' *1993: ''12 Play'' *1995: ''R. Kelly'' *1998: ''R.'' *2000: ''TP-2.com'' *2002: ''The Best of Both Worlds'' *2003: ''Chocolate Factory'' *2004: ''Happy People/U Saved Me'' *2004: ''Unfinished Business'' *2005: ''TP3.Reloaded'' *2007: ''Double Up'' *2009: ''Untitled'' *2010: ''Love Letter'' *2012: ''Write Me Back'' *2013: ''Black Panties'' *2015: '' The Buffet'' *2016: ''12 Nights of Christmas'' ==Rujukan== {{Reflist}} [[Kategori:Panyanyi Amérika Sarikat]] 26rau2mx2jqpxgvkur64sa27gptbt16 0 49800 712764 469027 2026-09-20T01:03:28Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Adam Sandler | image = Adam Sandler 2011 (Cropped).jpg | caption = Adan Sandler 1 Pébruari 2011 | birth_name = Adam Richard Sandler | alias = | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|9|9}} | birth_place = [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], [[Amérika Sarikat]] | residence = | occupation = {{Flat list| *Aktor *komédian *paulis naskah *produser pilem *musisi}} | education = | alma_mater = [[Tisch School of the Arts]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Jackie Sandler]]|2003}} | children = 2 | signature = | website = {{url|adamsandler.com}} }} '''Adam Richard Sandler''' (leuwih dipikawanoh: '''Adam Sandler'''; {{lahirmati|[[Brooklyn]], [[New York]], [[Amérika Sarikat]]|9|9|1966||||}}) nyaéta saurang [[aktor]], komédian, panulis naskah, produser pilem, sarta musisi asal [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="kapanlagi">{{cite web|title=Profil Selebriti - Adam Sandler|url=http://kapanlagi.com/hollywood/a/adam_sandler/|work=Kapan Lagi|accessdate=3/12/2016}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419171022/http://www.kapanlagi.com/hollywood/a/adam_sandler/ |date=2016-04-19 }}</ref> Adam ngamimitian karirna dina taun [[1989]].<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Sanggeus midang dina [[pilem]] ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' minangka peran pangrojong, Sandler tuluy ngabéntangan sawatara pilem favorit Hollywood sangkan total panghasilanna nepi kana 2 miliar [[USD]] di [[box office]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/people/?view=Actor&sort=sumgross&p=.htm |title=People Index |publisher=Boxofficemojo.com |accessdate=3/12/2016}}</ref> Peranna dina pilem komédi [[Going Overboard]] ([[1989]]) ogé dianggap minangka jalan kasuksésanna, tuluy nyusul tawara sajumlahing [[pilem]] anu kudu dibéntanganna.<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Adam suksés deui dina ngabéntangan [[Billy Madison]] ([[1995]]), tuluy [[pilem|pilem-pilem]] suksés lianna kayaning, [[Happy Gilmore]] ([[1996]]), [[The Wedding Singer]] ([[1998]]), [[The Waterboy]] ([[1998]]), [[Anger Management]] ([[2003]]), [[50 First Dates]] ([[2004]]), [[Spanglish]] ([[2004]]) jeung [[Click]] ([[2006]]).<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Liwat peranna minangka ''Michael Newman'' dina [[pilem]] [[Click]] ([[2006]]), Adam asup nominasi pikeun pameran komédi panghadéna [[Oscar]].<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Sedengkeun liwat [[Punch-Drunk Love]] ([[2003]]), Adam suksés ngaraih ''Golden Globe Awards'' pikeun kategori ''Best Aktor Comedy''.<ref name="kapanlagi"/> ==Filmografi== {{col|3}} *[[1989]] ''Going Overboard''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1992]] ''Shakes The Clown''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1993]] ''Coneheads''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1994]] ''Airheads''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1994]] ''Mixed Nuts ''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1995]] ''Billy Madison''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1996]] ''Happy Gilmore''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1996]] ''Bulletproof''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1998]] ''The Wedding Singer''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1998]] ''Dirty Work''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1999]] ''Big Daddy''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[1999]] ''Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2000]] ''Little Nicky''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2001]] ''The Animal''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2002]] ''Mr. Deeds''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2002]] ''Punch-Drunk Love''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2002]] ''Eight Crazy Nights''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2002]] ''A Day With The Meatball''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2002]] ''The Hot Chick''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2003]] ''Anger Management''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2003]] ''Pauly Shore Is Dead''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2003]] ''Stupidity''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2003]] ''The Couch''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2004]] ''50 First Dates''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2004]] ''Spanglish ''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2005]] ''The Longest Yard''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2006]] ''Click''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2007]] ''Reign Over Me ''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2007]] ''I Now Pronounce You Chuck And Larry''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2008]] ''You Don'T Mess With The Zohan''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2008]] ''Bedtime Stories''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2009]] ''Funny People''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2010]] ''Grown Ups''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2011]] ''Just Go With It''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2011]] ''Zookeeper''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2011]] ''Jack & Jill''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> *[[2012]] ''I Hate You, Dad''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> {{endDiv}} ==Rujukan== {{reflist}} {{biografi-pondok}} [[Kategori:Aktor Amérika Sarikat]] pmdst4mqxvh8z0idwtm8a0egk17g0ne 0 49803 712765 710480 2026-09-20T01:11:35Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | image = Adrianne Palicki at CCR Ontario 2024.jpg | caption = | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1983|5|6}} | birth_place = [[Toledo]], [[Ohio]], [[Amérika Sarikat]] | occupation = Aktris | years_active = 2003–kiwari }} '''Adrianne Palicki''' ({{lahirmati|[[Ohio]], [[Amérika Sarikat]]|6|5|1983||||}}<ref name="kapanlagi"/>) nyaéta saurang [[aktris]] asal [[Amérika Sarikat]].<ref name="toledo"/> Palicki dipikawanoh pisanna sanggeus merankeun [[Tyra Collette]] dina [[sérial tipi]] ''[[Friday Night Lights (sérial tipi)|Friday Night Lights]]'' ([[2006]]–[[2011]]).<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Palicki ngajalanan mangsa rumajana di [[Ohio]].<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Palicki kacatet minangka lulusan [[Whitmer Hight School]] di [[Tolédo]] taun [[2011]].<ref name="kapanlagi"/> Palicki mangrupa anak ti papasangan Nancy (née French) jeung Jeffrey Palicki.<ref name="toledo" /> Palicki boga lanceuk ngaranna Eric, saurang panulis buku komik.<ref name="comics" /> ==Filmografi== ===Pilem=== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Taun ! Pilem ! Peran ! Kamandang |- | [[2003]] | ''Getting Rachel Back''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Rachel | [[Pilem pondok|Pondok]] |- | 2003 | ''Rewrite''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | The Pretty Girl | Pondok |- | [[2005]] | ''[[Popstar (pilem)|Popstar]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Whitney Addison | |- | 2006 | ''Seven Mummies''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Isabelle | |- | [[2009]] | ''[[Women in Trouble]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Holly Rocket | |- | [[2010]] | ''[[Legion (pilem 2010)|Legion]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Charlie | |- | 2010 | ''[[Elektra Luxx]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Holly Rocket | |- | 2011 | ''Waves''<ref name="RT"/> | Girlfriend | Pondok |- | [[2012]] | ''[[Red Dawn (pilem 2012)|Red Dawn]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Toni Walsh | |- | [[2013]] | ''[[G.I. Joe: Retaliation]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | [[Lady Jaye]] | |- | 2013 | ''[[Coffee Town]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Becca | |- | [[2014]] | ''[[Dr. Cabbie]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Natalie Wilman | |- | 2014 | ''[[John Wick (film)|John Wick]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Ms. Perkins | |- |} === Tipi === {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Taun ! Judul ! Peran ! Kamandang |- | 2003 |''[[Lost in Space#Second television series|The Robinsons: Lost in Space]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Judy Robinson | Pilem tipi |- |- | 2004 | ''[[Smallville]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Kara/Lindsey Harrison | 1 episode: "Covenant" |- | 2004 | ''[[Quintuplets]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Jessica Geiger | 1 episode: "Love, Lies and Lullabies" |- | 2004 | ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'' | Miranda | 1 episode: "Formalities" |- | 2005 | ''[[North Shore (sérial tipi)|North Shore]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Lisa Ruddnick | 2 episodes |- | 2005–2009 | ''[[Supernatural (sérial tipi)|Supernatural]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Jessica Moore | 4 episodes |- | 2006 | ''[[Aquaman (TV program)|Aquaman]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Nadia | Pilot tipi |- | 2006 | ''[[South Beach (sérial tipi)|South Beach]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Brianna | 7 episode |- | 2006–2011 | ''[[Friday Night Lights (TV series)|Friday Night Lights]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Tyra Collette | 52 episode |- | 2007–2011 | ''[[Robot Chicken]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Various characters (sora) | 5 episode |- | 2009 | ''[[CSI: Miami]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Marisa Dixon | 1 episode: "Dead on Arrival" |- | 2009 | ''[[Titan Maximum]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Clare (sora) | 4 episode |- | 2010 | ''[[Family Guy]]''<ref name="RT"/> |(sora) | 1 episode: "Big Man on Hippocampus" |- |2010 |''[[Robot Chicken: Star Wars Episode III]]''<ref name="RT"/> |Padmé Amidala / Jessica / Woman (sora) |Pilem tipi |- | 2010 | ''[[Lone Star (sérial tipi)|Lone Star]]''<ref name="kapanlagi"/> | Cat Thatcher | 5 episode |- | 2011 | ''[[Criminal Minds]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Sydney Manning | 1 episode: "The Thirteenth Step" |- |2011 |''[[Wonder Woman (2011 TV pilot)|Wonder Woman]]''<ref name="RT"/> |[[Wonder Woman|Wonder Woman / Diana Prince]] | Pilot tipi teu dipintonkeun |- | [[2014]] | ''[[From Dusk till Dawn: The Series]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Vanessa Styles | Dumasar pilemna [[Robert Rodriguez]] |- | 2014 | ''[[About a Boy (TV series)|About a Boy]]''<ref name="RT"/> | Dr. Sam | ''Recurring'' (Usun 1), Pamundut (Usum 2) |- | 2014 | ''[[Drunk History]]''<ref name="RT"/> | [[Kate Warne]] | 1 episode: "Baltimore" |- | 2014–present | ''[[Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.]]''<ref name="RT"/> | [[Mockingbird (Marvel Comics)|Barbara "Bobbi" Morse]] | Seri regulér (usum 2–) 19 episode |- |} ==Rujukan== {{reflist|refs= <ref name="kapanlagi">{{cite web | url= http://kapanlagi.com/hollywood/a/adrianne_palicki/ | title= Profil Selebriti - Adrianne Palicki | first= | last= | date= | publisher= [[Kapan Lagi]] | accessdate= 3/12/2016 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423193258/http://www.kapanlagi.com/hollywood/a/adrianne_palicki/ |date=2015-04-23 }}</ref> <ref name="toledo">{{cite web | url= http://www.toledoblade.com/Movies/2010/01/17/Rising-star-Toledo-native-s-credits-include-acclaimed-TV-series-new-films-8216-Legion-quot-and-8216-Red-Dawn.html | title= Rising star: Toledo native's credits include acclaimed TV series, new films ‘Legion" and ‘Red Dawn' | first= Ryan E. | last= Smith | date= January 17, 2010 | publisher= [[The Blade (Toledo)|ToledoBlade.com]] | accessdate= October 7, 2011 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028192350/https://www.toledoblade.com/Movies/2010/01/17/Rising-star-Toledo-native-s-credits-include-acclaimed-TV-series-new-films-8216-Legion-quot-and-8216-Red-Dawn.html |date=October 28, 2020 }}</ref> <ref name="comics">{{cite news | url = http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121996084461381173.html | title = Get Serial! | first = Lauren | last = Mechling |date = August 29, 2008 | work = [[Wall Street Journal]] | accessdate = 12 Maret 2016}}</ref> <ref name="RT">{{cite news | url = http://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/adrianne_palicki/ | title = ADRIANNE PALICKI | first = | last = |date = | work = [[Rotten Tomatoes]] | accessdate = 12 Maret 2016}}</ref> }} ==Tutumbu kaluar== * {{twitter|adriannepalicki}} {{authority control}} {{biografi-pondok}} [[Kategori:Aktris Amérika Sarikat]] el2ftsfxyrul0v6krp2ti91jf27p4ms 0 49840 712758 611421 2026-09-19T19:25:53Z Imroxmx 37435 /* */ 712758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox royalty |name=Choe Suk-bin |image=Choi Suk-bin.jpg |birth_date=[[17 Désémber]] [[1670]] |birth_place= |death_date={{Death date and age|1718|04|9|1670|12|17}} |death_place=Istana Ihyeon, [[Koréa Kidul]] |spouse=[[Sukjong ti Joseon|Raja Sukjong ti Joseon]] |issue= [[Yeongjo ti Joseon]] |place of burial=Soryeongwon |succession = Selir Karajaan tingkat bin (1)|reign = 1699 - 9 April 1718|consort = yes|father = Choe Hyo-won |mother = Nyonya Hong|house = Haéju Choe}} {{Infobox Korean name | hangul = 숙빈 최씨 | hanja = {{linktext|淑|嬪|崔|氏}} | rr = Sukbin Choe-ssi | mr = Sukpin Ch'oessi | context = | img = | caption = }} {{Korean name|Choe}} '''Selir Karajaan Suk ti wangsa Haéju Choe''' (숙빈 최씨 ''Suk-bin Choe-ssi'') (gumelar [[17 Désémber]] [[1670]] - [[9 April]] [[1718]]) nyaéta salah sahiji selir [[Sukjong ti Joseon|Raja Sukjong ti Joseon]] anu dipikawanoh.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Selir Suk dilahirkeun taun [[1670]] poé kagenep bulan lunar kasabelas dina taun kasabelas pamaréntahan Raja [[Hyeonjong ti Joseon]].<ref name="Suk bin"/> Manéhna mangrupa anak ti Choe Hyo-won ([[1638]]–[[1672]]) jeung Nyonya Hong ti Namyang ([[1639]]–[[1673]]).<ref>After his death, Yeongjo upgraded him in status and bestowed on him the title of prime minister, an attempt of Yeongjo to upgrade his maternal family's status.</ref> Manéhna boga lanceuk lalaki, Choe Dong-ju, anu kawin jeung Nyonya An ti Sunheung, jeung hiji lanceuk awéwé anu kawin jeung Séo Jéon.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Manéhna asup istana keur yuswana 7 taun, tuluy jadi ''musuri'' (tukang nyeuseuh/budak istana).<ref name="Suk bin">"The Confucian Kingship in Korea, Yŏngjo and the Politics of Sagacity " by JaHyun Kim Habous page.57</ref> Raja Sukjong ningali manéhna keur ngadoa pikeun [[Ratu Inhyeon]] anu geus digulingkeun.<ref>The Confucian Kingship in Korea: Yŏngjo and the Politics of Sagacity By JaHyun Kim Haboush pag. 265</ref> Raja mimitina kagum, tuluy cinta ka manéhna.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Tuluy manéhna diangkat jadi selir '''Suk-won''' (selir karajaan tingkat 4) taun [[1693]] saenggeus ngalahirkeun pangéran anu pupus ngora.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Taun [[1694]], selir Choe diangkat deui tingkatna jadi '''Suk-ui''' (selir karajaan tingkat 2) saénggeus ngalahirkeun pangéran anu engkéna bakal jadi [[Yeongjo ti Joseon|Raja Yeongjo]].<ref name="Suk bin"/> Tuluy taun [[1699]] Selir Choe diangkat peringkatna jadi '''bin''' (selir karajaan tingkat 1) anu gelarna ditambahan '''Suk''', anu hartina murni.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Taun [[1703]], [[Ratu Inwon]] ngadopsi Pangéran Yéoning.<ref>The Confucian Kingship in Korea: Yŏngjo and the Politics of Sagacity page, 53.</ref> tuluy taun [[1718]] Selir Suk-bin pupus di [[Istana Ihyeon]], kabeneran ti taun nu sarua Sukjong turun tahta.<ref name="Suk bin"/> Choe Suk-bin dibéré status anumerta "Nyonya Hwagyeong, Selir Karajaan Suk ti Wangsa Choe".<ref name="Suk bin"/> == Kulawarga <ref name="Suk bin"/>== === Silsilah === *Uyut **Choe éok-ji **Choe Mal-jéong *Aki ti bapa **Choe Taé-il *Nini ti bapa **Nyonya pikeun ti Wangsa Pyéonggang Jang *Aki ti indung **Hong Gyé-nam *Nini ti indung **Nyonya Kim *Bapa **Choe Hyo-won ([[1638]]–[[1672]]) *Indung **Nyonya Hong ti [[Namyang]] *Lanceuk **Choe Dongju === Katurunan === Selir Suk jeung [[Sukjong ti Joséon|Raja Sukjong]] boga tilu urang anak: *Pangéran Yéongsu ([[1693]]), pupus ngora *Pangéran Yéoning ([[1694]]–[[1776]]), anu bakal jadi [[Yeongjo ti Joseon|Raja Yeongjo]] (maréntah [[1724]]–[[1776]]) *Saurang anak ([[1698]]), pupus ngora ==Gambaran média== * Digambarkeun ku [[Lee Mi-yeong]] taun [[1981]] [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]] serial TV ''Women of History: Jang Hui-bin''. * Digambarkeun ku [[Kyeon Mi-ri]] taun [[1988]] [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]] serial TV ''500 Years of Joseon: Queen Inhyeon''. * Digambarkeun ku [[Nam Joo-hee]] taun [[1995]] [[Seoul Broadcasting System|SBS]] serial TV ''Jang Hui-bin''. * Digambarkeun ku [[Park Ye-jin]] taun [[2002]] [[KBS2]] serial TV ''Royal Story: Jang Hui-bin''. * Digambarkeun ku [[Han Hyo-joo]] taun [[2010]] [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]] serial TV ''[[Dong Yi (sérial TV)]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Ga-on|title=Han Hyo-joo says she "hold fast" to her role in ''Dong Yi''|url=http://www.asiae.co.kr/news/view.htm?idxno=2010050716003369984|work=10Asia|accessdate=2013-02-03|date=7 May 2010}}</ref> * Digambarkeun ku [[Han Seung-yeon]] taun [[2013]] [[Seoul Broadcasting System|SBS]] serial TV ''[[Jang Ok-jung, Living by Love]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sunwoo|first=Carla|title=KARA's Han to work with Kim Tae-hee|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2966552|work=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|accessdate=2013-02-03|date=4 February 2013}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Inohong Dinasti Joséon]] [[Kategori:Nu babar taun 1670]] [[Kategori:Nu pupus taun 1718]] lbub6y6r34xeu8sq1q1hg254xu1fd96 100 50696 712755 473579 2026-09-19T13:36:21Z ~2026-50630-89 37433 712755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{GeoPortal}} '''[[Portal:Géografi|Géografi]]''' :'''Portal nurutkeun tina nagara''' :'''[[Portal:Afrika|Afrika]]'''<br /> :: [[Portal:Chad|Chad]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Démokratik Kongo|Kongo]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Ghana|Ghana]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Maroko|Maroko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Nigéria|Nigéria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Somalia|Somalia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Afrika Kidul|Afrika Kidul]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Uganda|Uganda]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Zimbabwé|Zimbabwé]] :'''[[Portal:Amérika Kalér|Amérika Kalér]]''', '''[[Portal:Amérika Kidul|Amérika Kidul]]''' dan '''[[Portal:Karibia|Karibia]]''' :: [[Portal:Kanada|Kanada]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Méksiko|Méksiko]] :: [[Portal:Argéntina|Argéntina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Brazil|Brazil]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Chili|Chili]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kuba|Kuba]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kolombia|Kolombia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Guatémala|Guatémala]]•&nbsp;[[Portal:Ékuador|Ékuador]]•&nbsp; [[Portal:Él Salvador|Él Salvador]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Haiti|Haiti]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jamaika|Jamaika]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Panama|Panama]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Péru|Péru]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Puérto Rico|Puérto Rico]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Uruguay|Uruguay]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Vénézuéla|Vénézuéla]] :'''[[Portal:Asia|Asia]]''' dan '''[[Portal:Timur Tengah|Timur Tengah]]''' :: [[Portal:Bangladésh|Bangladésh]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bengal|Bengal]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kamboja|Kamboja]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Chéchnya|Chéchnya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:China|China]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Siprus|Siprus]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:India|India]]&nbsp;• '''''[[Portal:Indonésia|Indonésia]]''''' ([[Portal:Sumatera|Sumatera]], [[Portal:Kalimantan|Kalimantan]], [[Portal:Minangkabau|Minangkabau]], [[Portal:Suku Batak Toba|Batak Toba]], [[Portal:Jawa|Jawa]], [[Portal:Maluku|Maluku]], [[Portal:Jabodétabék|Jabodétabék]], [[Portal:Sunda|Sunda]],[[Portal:Surakarta|Surakarta]])&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jepang|Jepang]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Koréa|Koréa]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Malaysia|Malaysia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Pakistan|Pakistan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Filipina|Filipina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Arab Saudi|Arab Saudi]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Singapura|Singapura]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]&nbsp • [[Portal:Taiwan|Taiwan]] &nbsp;• [[Portal:Thailand|Thailand]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Turki|Turki]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Viétnam|Viétnam]] ::[[Portal:Iran|Iran]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Irak|Irak]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Israél|Israél]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Yordania|Yordania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Libanon|Libanon]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Libya|Libya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Maroko|Maroko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Paléstina|Paléstina]] :'''[[Portal:Éropa|Éropa]]''' :: '''''[[Portal:Uni Éropa|Uni Éropa]]&nbsp;•''''' [[Portal:Bélgia|Bélgia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Britania Raya|Britania Raya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Céko|Republik Céko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Dénmark|Dénmark]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Éstonia|Éstonia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Finlandia|Finlandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Perancis|Perancis]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jérman|Jérman]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Yunani|Yunani]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Hungaria|Hungaria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Islandia|Islandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Irlandia|Irlandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Italia|Italia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Latvia|Latvia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Lithuania|Lithuania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Malta|Malta]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Walanda|Walanda]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Polandia|Polandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Portugal|Portugal]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Rumania|Rumania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Slovakia|Slovakia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Slovénia|Slovénia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Spanyol|Spanyol]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Swedia|Swedia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Albania|Albania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Arménia|Arménia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Azérbaijan|Azérbaijan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bélarus|Bélarus]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina|Bosnia jeung Herzegovina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kroasia|Kroasia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Georgia|Georgia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Lituania|Lituania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Macédonia|Republik Macédonia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Moldova|Moldova]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Norwégia|Norwégia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Rusia|Rusia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Swiss|Swiss]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Ukraina|Ukraina]] :'''[[Portal:Australia|Australia]]''' jeung '''[[Portal:Oséania|Oséania]]''' :: [[Portal:Australia|Australia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Micronésia|Micronésia]]&nbsp; • [[Portal:Sélandia Anyar|Sélandia Anyar]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Papua Nugini|Papua Nugini]] fs2mf4129i3isr09ezjswrsqyq6riuo 712756 712755 2026-09-19T17:39:06Z Morkoz 37145 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50630-89|~2026-50630-89]] ([[User talk:~2026-50630-89|talk]]) (TwinkleGlobal) 712756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{GeoPortal}} '''[[Portal:Géografi|Géografi]]''' :'''Portal nurutkeun tina nagara''' :'''[[Portal:Afrika|Afrika]]'''<br /> :: [[Portal:Aljazair|Algeria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Chad|Chad]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Démokratik Kongo|Kongo]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Mesir|Mesir]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Ghana|Ghana]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Libya|Libya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Maroko|Maroko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Nigéria|Nigéria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Somalia|Somalia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Afrika Kidul|Afrika Kidul]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Uganda|Uganda]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Sahara Kulon|Sahara Kulon]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Zimbabwé|Zimbabwé]] :'''[[Portal:Amérika Kalér|Amérika Kalér]]''', '''[[Portal:Amérika Kidul|Amérika Kidul]]''' dan '''[[Portal:Karibia|Karibia]]''' :: [[Portal:Kanada|Kanada]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Amérika Sarikat|Amérika Sarikat]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Méksiko|Méksiko]] :: [[Portal:Argéntina|Argéntina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Brazil|Brazil]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Chili|Chili]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kuba|Kuba]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kolombia|Kolombia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Guatémala|Guatémala]]•&nbsp;[[Portal:Ékuador|Ékuador]]•&nbsp; [[Portal:Él Salvador|Él Salvador]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Haiti|Haiti]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jamaika|Jamaika]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Panama|Panama]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Péru|Péru]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Puérto Rico|Puérto Rico]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Uruguay|Uruguay]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Vénézuéla|Vénézuéla]] :'''[[Portal:Asia|Asia]]''' dan '''[[Portal:Timur Tengah|Timur Tengah]]''' :: [[Portal:Bangladésh|Bangladésh]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bengal|Bengal]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kamboja|Kamboja]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Chéchnya|Chéchnya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:China|China]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Siprus|Siprus]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:India|India]]&nbsp;• '''''[[Portal:Indonésia|Indonésia]]''''' ([[Portal:Sumatera|Sumatera]], [[Portal:Kalimantan|Kalimantan]], [[Portal:Minangkabau|Minangkabau]], [[Portal:Suku Batak Toba|Batak Toba]], [[Portal:Jawa|Jawa]], [[Portal:Maluku|Maluku]], [[Portal:Jabodétabék|Jabodétabék]], [[Portal:Sunda|Sunda]],[[Portal:Surakarta|Surakarta]])&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jepang|Jepang]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Koréa|Koréa]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Malaysia|Malaysia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Pakistan|Pakistan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Filipina|Filipina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Arab Saudi|Arab Saudi]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Singapura|Singapura]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Suriah|Suriah]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Taiwan|Taiwan]] &nbsp;• [[Portal:Thailand|Thailand]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Turki|Turki]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Viétnam|Viétnam]] ::[[Portal:Iran|Iran]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Irak|Irak]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Israél|Israél]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Yordania|Yordania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Libanon|Libanon]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Libya|Libya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Maroko|Maroko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Paléstina|Paléstina]] :'''[[Portal:Éropa|Éropa]]''' :: '''''[[Portal:Uni Éropa|Uni Éropa]]&nbsp;•''''' [[Portal:Bélgia|Bélgia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Britania Raya|Britania Raya]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Céko|Republik Céko]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Dénmark|Dénmark]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Éstonia|Éstonia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Finlandia|Finlandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Perancis|Perancis]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jérman|Jérman]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Yunani|Yunani]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Hungaria|Hungaria]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Islandia|Islandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Irlandia|Irlandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Italia|Italia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Latvia|Latvia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Lithuania|Lithuania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Malta|Malta]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Walanda|Walanda]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Polandia|Polandia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Portugal|Portugal]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Rumania|Rumania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Slovakia|Slovakia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Slovénia|Slovénia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Spanyol|Spanyol]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Swedia|Swedia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Albania|Albania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Arménia|Arménia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Azérbaijan|Azérbaijan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bélarus|Bélarus]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Bosnia jeung Hérzégovina|Bosnia jeung Herzegovina]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kroasia|Kroasia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Georgia|Georgia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Lituania|Lituania]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Republik Macédonia|Republik Macédonia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Moldova|Moldova]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Norwégia|Norwégia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Rusia|Rusia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Swiss|Swiss]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Ukraina|Ukraina]] :'''[[Portal:Australia|Australia]]''' jeung '''[[Portal:Oséania|Oséania]]''' :: [[Portal:Australia|Australia]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Micronésia|Micronésia]]&nbsp; • [[Portal:Sélandia Anyar|Sélandia Anyar]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Papua Nugini|Papua Nugini]] 3z8p0ryca1dqgby552k7uqzdlb6tm96 100 50698 712754 613892 2026-09-19T13:31:26Z ~2026-50630-89 37433 712754 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''[[Portal:Agama|Agama]]'''''&nbsp;• [[Portal:Spiritual|Spiritual]] :[[Agama Samawi]]/[[Agama|Agama Langit]] :: [[Portal:Katolik|Katolik]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kristen|Kristen]]&nbsp;• [https://www.neonics.co.th/thermometers/type-of-thermometers.html Type of thermometers]&nbsp;• '''[[Portal:Islam|Islam]]''' ([[Portal:Yahudi|Yahudi]]&nbsp;• :'''Kapercayaan [[Dharma]]''' :: [[Portal:Bahá'í|Bahá'í]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Buddha|Buddha]]&nbsp;• '''''[[Portal:Hindu|Hindu]]'''''&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jainismeu|Jainismeu]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Sikhismeu|Sikhismeu]] :'''Kapercayaan [[Taoismeu]]''' :: [[Portal:Confucianismeu|Confucianisme]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Shinto|Shinto]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Taoismeu|Taoismeu]] ) :'''Lianna''' :: [[Portal:Atéis|Atéis]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Mitologi|Mitologi]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Zoroastrianismeu|Zoroastrianismeu]] oux5inzxd7uydobkey2r0kdvd3v0biv 712757 712754 2026-09-19T17:39:13Z Morkoz 37145 Reverted 1 edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50630-89|~2026-50630-89]] ([[User talk:~2026-50630-89|talk]]) (TwinkleGlobal) 712757 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''[[Portal:Agama|Agama]]'''''&nbsp;• [[Portal:Spiritual|Spiritual]] :[[Agama Samawi]]/[[Agama|Agama Langit]] :: [[Portal:Katolik|Katolik]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Kristen|Kristen]]&nbsp;• [https://www.neonics.co.th/thermometers/type-of-thermometers.html Type of thermometers]&nbsp;• '''[[Portal:Islam|Islam]]''' ([[Portal:Al Qur'an|al-Qur'an]])&nbsp;• [[Portal:Yahudi|Yahudi]]&nbsp;• :'''Kapercayaan [[Dharma]]''' :: [[Portal:Bahá'í|Bahá'í]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Buddha|Buddha]]&nbsp;• '''''[[Portal:Hindu|Hindu]]'''''&nbsp;• [[Portal:Jainismeu|Jainismeu]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Sikhismeu|Sikhismeu]] :'''Kapercayaan [[Taoismeu]]''' :: [[Portal:Confucianismeu|Confucianisme]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Shinto|Shinto]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Taoismeu|Taoismeu]] ) :'''Lianna''' :: [[Portal:Atéis|Atéis]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Mitologi|Mitologi]]&nbsp;• [[Portal:Zoroastrianismeu|Zoroastrianismeu]] p0e9nmlsri82j49q62wi093bjsxmqmv 0 54456 712773 712221 2026-09-20T02:25:15Z InternetArchiveBot 25926 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 712773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox motorsport championship | name = Balap motor Grand Prix | logo = Moto Gp logo.svg | imagesize = 200px | caption = Logo resmi MotoGP | category = [[Balap motor]] | region = [[Internasional]] | inaugural2 = [[1949 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|1949]] | section1 = {{Infobox motorsport championship|child=yes | name = Kajuaraan Dunya MotoGP | constructors = [[Aprilia]], [[Ducati]], [[Honda]], [[KTM]], [[Suzuki]], [[Yamaha]] | tyres = [[Michelin]] | champion rider = 2016 {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Marc Márquez]] | constructor = [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] | current_season = Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2017 }} | section2 = {{Infobox motorsport championship|child=yes | name = Kajuaraan Dunya Moto2 | constructors = [[Kalex]], [[Suter Racing Technology|Suter]], [[Speed Up]], [[Tech 3]], [[KTM]] | tyres = [[Dunlop tyres|Dunlop]] | champion rider = 2016 {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Johann Zarco]] | constructor = [[Kalex]] | current_season = 2017 Moto2 season }} | section3 = {{Infobox motorsport championship|child=yes | name = Kajuaraan Dunya Moto3 | constructors = [[KTM]], [[Mahindra & Mahindra Limited|Mahindra]], [[Honda]], [[Peugeot Motorcycles|Peugeot]] | tyres = [[Dunlop tyres|Dunlop]] | champion rider = 2016 {{flagicon|RSA}} [[Brad Binder]] | constructor = [[KTM]] | current_season = 2017 Moto3 season }} | website = {{URL|http://www.motogp.com}} }} [[File:MotoGP final race.jpg|thumb|Balap motor Grand Prix]] '''Kajuaraan dunya balap motor Grand Prix''' mimiti diayakeun ku ''[[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]] ''(FIM) taun 1949.<ref name="sajarah"/> Harita sacara tradisional geus dilaksanakeun sababaraha balapan di masing-masing acara pikeun sagala rupa kelas motor, dumasar kapasitas mesin, sarta kelas pikeun ''sidecars'' (motor gandéngan nu ditapelkeun digigir).<ref name="sajarah"/> Kelas-kelas nu aya harita nyaéta 50 cc, 125 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc, sarta 500 cc pikeun motor nu ditumpakan ku sorangan, sarta 350 cc jeung 500 cc pikeun motor ''sidecars''.<ref name="sajarah"/> Taun 1950-an sarta sapanjang taun 1960-an, motor mesin 4 Tak pinunjul di sakuliah kelas.<ref name="sajarah"/> Dina panungtungan taun 1960-an, motor mesin 2 mimiti pinunjul di kelas-kelas leutik.<ref name="sajarah"/> Dina taun 1970-an motor mesin 2 Tak bener-bener nyingkahkeun mesin-mesin 4 Tak.<ref name="sajarah"/> Dina taun 1979, [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] ngusahakeun mesin 4 Tak di kelas utama kalayan nurunkeun motor NR500, tapi proyék ieu gagal, sarta dina taun 1983 [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] ngahontal kameunangan kalayan motor 500 cc 2 Tak.<ref name="sajarah"/> Dina taun 1983, kelas 350 cc pamustunganna dieureunkeun.<ref name="sajarah"/> Kelas 50 cc diganti ku kelas 80 cc dina taun 1984, antukna kelas nu mindeng didominasi ku purah balap ti [[Spanyol]] jeung [[Italia]] dieureunkeun taun 1990.<ref name="sajarah"/> Kelas ''sidecars'' ogé dieureunkeun tina kajuaraan dunya taun 1990-an, nu aya tinggal kelas 125 cc, 250 cc, sarta kelas 500 cc.<ref name="sajarah">{{cite news |title=Sejarah MotoGP |publisher=racemotogp.com |url=http://racemotogp.com/paddock/sejarah-motogp/ |accessdate=22 Juni 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718220727/http://racemotogp.com/paddock/sejarah-motogp/ |date=2017-07-18 }}</ref> ==Pedaran== Motor Grand Prix nyaéta mesin balap nu dijieun husus sarta teu dijual pikeun dibeuli ku masyarakat umum sarta teu meunang dipaké di jalan umum.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Ieu béda kalayan sababaraha kategori balap dumasar produksi, saperti [[Superbike World Championship|Superbike]] sarta [[Isle of Man TT Races]] nu ngaluarkeun motor vérsi modifikasi nu dijual atawa sadia pikeun umum.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Kiwari kajuaraan dibagi kana tilu kelas : MotoGP, Moto2 sarta Moto3.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Sakabéh kelas ngagunakeun mesin 4 Tak.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Taun 2010 kelas 250cc diganti ku kelas Moto2 600&nbsp;cc mesin 4 tak.<ref name="GradPrix"/> taun 2012 kelas 125cc diganti ku kelas Moto3 250cc mesin 4 tak kalayan wates beurat 65&nbsp;kg kalayan béngsin, sarta kapasitas mesin pikeun MotoGP dironjatkeun tina 800&nbsp;cc ka 1.000&nbsp;cc.<ref name="GradPrix">{{cite news|title=MotoGP|publisher=sportcentral.es|url=http://sportcentral.es/motogp|accessdate=22 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031023302/http://sportcentral.es/motogp/ |date=2016-10-31 }}</ref> Kajuaraan dunya balap motor Grand Prix [[FIM]] mimiti diorganisir ku ''[[''Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme''|Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme]]'' taun 1949.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Hak komérsial kiwari dipibanda ku [[Dorna Sports]], kalayan [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] minangka badan sanksi olahraga.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Tim-tim diwakilan ku ''International Road Racing Teams Association'' (IRTA) sarta produsén ku ''Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers Association'' (MSMA).<ref name="GradPrix"/> Aturan sarta parobahan tetekon diputuskeun antara opat éntitas, kalayan [[Dorna Sports|Dorna]] ngalakukeun ngumpulkeun sora sacara ''[[tie-breaking]]''.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Dina kasus modifikasi téknis, MSMA wenang sacara sapihak ngalakukeun atawa ngavéto parobahan kalayan sora buleud di antara para anggotanna.<ref name="organization">{{cite news |last=Noyes |first=Dennis |title=MOTOGP: Dorna CEO Advocates Limits on Electronics in MotoGP |publisher=SPEEDTV.com |date=2007-12-21 |url=http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp_dorna_ceo_advocates_limits_on_electronics_in_motogp/P2/ |accessdate=2008-03-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506131015/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp_dorna_ceo_advocates_limits_on_electronics_in_motogp/P2/ |archivedate=2008-05-06 |df= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506131015/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp_dorna_ceo_advocates_limits_on_electronics_in_motogp/P2/ |date=2008-05-06 }}</ref> Kaopat éntitas ieu ngawangun Komisi Grand Prix.<ref name="GradPrix"/> [[File:2006YamahaYZR-M1-001.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Motor Yamaha YZR-M1 MotoGP (2006)]] Balap motor Grand Prix kelas utama geus robah sacara dramatis dina sababraha taun panungtung.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Ti tengah-tengan taun 1970 nepi ka taun 2001, kelas utama balap motor Grand Prix ngarobah mesin 500 cc kalayan maksimal opat séher, teu paduli naha mesin éta [[two-stroke cycle|2-Tak]] atawa [[four-stroke cycle|4- Tak]].<ref name="GradPrix"/> Dina taun 2002, parobahan tetekon diwanohkeun.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Aturan kasebut ngidinan produsén milih antara mesin 2-Tak 500 cc atawa mesin 4-Tak ti 990 cc.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Pabrikan ogé diidinan pikeun ngagunakeun pilihan [[engine configuration|konfigurasi mesin]] maranéhna.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Sanajan waragad ngaronjat badag dina ngawangun mesin 4-Tak, lantaran kaleuwihan kapasitas 490cc.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Mesin 4-Tak bisa gancang pinunjul ti saingan 2-Tak.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Akibatna, taun 2003 euweuh mesin 2-Tak dina balapan MotoGP.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Kelas 125 cc jeung 250 cc masih maké mesin 2-Tak.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Dina taun 2007, kelas MotoGP kapasitas mesin maksimum dikurangan jadi 800 cc salila minimal lima taun.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Pikeun usum 2012 kapasitasna geus ngaronjat deu jadi 1.000 cc.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/motorbikes/8409225.stm|title=MotoGP increases engine size to 1,000&nbsp;cc in 2012|date=10 January 2010|publisher=''[[BBC Sport]]''}}</ref> [[File:Motogp-kal.png|thumb|Usum MotoGP nu has]] Kalender balap taun 2008 ngawengku 18 rintakan di 15 nagara nu béda (Qatar, Spanyol nu ngayakeun tilu rintakan, Portugal, China, Prancis, Itali, Britania Raya, Walanda, Jérman, Amérika dua rintakan, Républik Céko, San Marino, Jepang, Australia sarta Malaysia).<ref name="GradPrix"/> Eksklusif pikeun kelas MotoGP, aya ogé rintakan Amérika di [[Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca]] di [[Monterey, California]], pikeun kelas 800&nbsp;cc wungkul; ku sabab ''paddock'' teu cukup gedé pikeun dua kelas lianna.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Dina taun 2008, MotoGP diayakeun di [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] nu munggaran dina jalur nu anyar disiapkeun.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Katilu kelas kasebut dijadwalkeun balap tapi angin tarik sarta hujan antukna kelas 250 cc teu jadi balap.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Balapan MotoGP di Indianapolis ngalawan arah jarum jam, kalayan "''snake pit''" kompléks ngaliwatan garis ''start-finish'' saancan ka péngkolan hiji jalur pondok sarta asup bagéan tengah sirkuit.<ref name="GradPrix"/> ''Grid'' ngawengku tilu kolom (Opat pikeun kelas 125&nbsp;cc sarta kelas 250&nbsp;cc) sarta bisa asup sakitar 20 urang purah balap.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Posisi ''grid'' diputuskeun dina urutan kualifikasi kacepatan, kalayan nu panggancangna di posisi [[Pole position|pole]] atwa posisi kahiji.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Balapan lumangsung kira-kira 45 menit, setiap balapan mangrupa pagancang-gancang ti awal nepi ka ahir tanpa ngadu bahan beuleum atawa gilinding.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Taun 2005, tetekon bandéra pikeun MotoGP diwanohkeun.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Saméméhna, lamun mimiti balapan garing terus turun hujan, patugas ngébérkeun bandéra beurem (balapan eureun) sarta diteruskeun atawa dibalikan deui maké gilinding husus baseuh.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Ayeuna, nalika hujan turun, bandera bodas dikébérkeun, nandakeun yén purah balap bisa asup ''pit'' pikeun ngaganti motor nu béda gilindingna <ref>{{cite news |title=Barros Dominates Rain-Hit Contest in Portugal |publisher=world.honda.com|date=17 April 2005|url=http://world.honda.com/WGP/2005/02portugal/race/|accessdate=23 Juni 2017}}</ref> Sagédkngeun béda gilinding, motor cuaca baseuh mibanda rém rotor waja sarta ''[[brake pads]]'' nu béda tibatan rém karbon sarta pedal nu digunakeun dina motor 'garing'.<ref name="GradPrix"/> ku sabab rém karbon kudu kaayan panas supaya pungsina hadé, sedengkeun cai ngalantarankeun tiis.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Suspénsi ogé 'ngahipuan' rada naék ku sabab cuaca baseuh.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Nalika purah balap kacilakaan, patugas sirkuit ngébérkeun bandéra konéng, ngalarang ngaliwat ka daérah éta; bandéra konéng dikébérkeun.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Mun purah balap nu cilaka teu bisa diévakuasi kalayan salamet ti lintasan, balapan ditandaan kalayan bandéra beureum.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Aya dua jenis kacilakaan balap motor : [[lowsider|lowside]], kalayan purah balap awalna nuturkeun motorna (labuh bareng jeung motor), sarta nu leuwih bahaya [[highsider|highside]], kalayan purah balap nu ngacleng tina motor.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Ngaronjatkeun ngagunakeun [[traction control system|kontrol traksi]] ngurangan kacilakaan ''highside''.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Hiji motor tingkat pangluhurna pikeun purah balap kira-kira méakeun waragad 3 nepi 3,5 juta dollar pikeun hiji usum balap.<ref>[http://www.sportbikes.net/forums/general-sportbikes/434433-idiots-guide-motogp-part-ii.html ''THE IDIOT’S GUIDE TO MOTOGP: How to increase costs and decrease speed (Part II)''] sportbikes.net Moto GP News 3 January 2006.</ref> Minangka alatan [[Global financial crisis of 2008–2009|krisi finansial 2008–2009]], MotoGP geus ngalaman parobahan dina usaha ngurangan waragad.<ref name="GradPrix"/> Di antarana ngurangan sési latihan poé Juma'ah, ngalarang suspénsi aktif, kontrol sarta rém karamik komposit, manjangkeun umur mesin, sarta ngurangan sési pangujian.<ref>{{cite news |title=FIM announce changes to 2009 regulations |publisher=MotoGP.com |date=2009-02-18 |url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/FIM+announce+changes+to+2009+regulations+0 |accessdate=23 Juni 2017 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908150013/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2009/FIM+announce+changes+to+2009+regulations+0 |date=2012-09-08 }}</ref> ==Purah balap== Purah balap nguriling dunya pikeun balapan dina séri Kajuaraan Dunya FIM taunan.<ref name = "purahbalap"/>   Kajuaraan ieu loba pamilonna ti [[Italia]] jeung [[Spanyol]], loba purah balap nu pinunjul ti nagara ieu di awal abad ka-21.<ref name = "purahbalap"/> Pikeun usum balapan taun 2011, 25 purah balap ti delapan nagara milu balap di kajuaraan kelas utama.<ref name = "purahbalap">{{cite web|title=MotoGP World Championships Upcoming Events of 2017|url=http://vipsuperbiker.com/motogp-world-championships-upcoming-events-of-2017/|publisher=vipsuperbiker.com|accessdate=26 Juni 2017}}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ===Juara=== Hadiah Kajuaraan Dunya dibikeun ka purah balap paling suksés dina hiji usum, saperti nu ditangtukeun ku sistim peunteun dumasar hasil Grand Prix.<ref name = "juara"/> Juara Dunya satiap kategori wajib pikeun milu upacara resmi FIM.<ref name = "juara">{{cite web|title=MotoGP Reglement 2016|url=http://www.motorsport-total.com/motorrad/MotoGP-Reglement-2016.pdf|publisher=motorsport-total.com|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}}{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Giacomo Agostini]] nyaéta juara paling suksés dina sajarah Grand Prix, kalayan 15 gelar (8 di kelas 500&nbsp;cc sarta 7 di kelas 350&nbsp;cc).<ref name = "Agostini">{{cite web|title=Giacomo Agostini|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Giacomo+Agostini|publisher=motogp.com|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316213403/http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Giacomo+Agostini |date=2015-03-16 }}</ref> [[Michael Doohan|Mick Doohan]], nu meunang 12 tina 15 (80%) balapan 500&nbsp;cc di [[1997 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|Usum Balap motor Grand Prix 1997]] ogé pantes diajénan.<ref name = "Doohan">{{cite web|title=Mick Doohan|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Mick+Doohan|publisher=motogp.com|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025022347/http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Mick+Doohan |date=2012-10-25 }}</ref> [[Valentino Rossi]] mangrupa purah balap kontémporér nu paling suksés, geus meunang salapan gelar kaasup genep gelar Moto GP, di kelas 500&nbsp;cc, 250&nbsp;cc jeung 125&nbsp;cc.<ref>{{cite web|last=MotoGP|title=Valentino Rossi|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Valentino+Rossi|work=MotoGP Rider Profiles|publisher=Dorna Sports S.L.|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501074112/http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Valentino+Rossi |date=2013-05-01 }}</ref> Juara purah balap ayeuna ([[2016 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season|2016]]) nyaéta [[Marc Márquez]].<ref name = "Marquez">{{cite web|title=Marc Marquez|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Marc+Marquez|publisher=motogp.com|accessdate=28 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504014159/http://www.motogp.com/en/riders/Marc+Marquez |date=2012-05-04 }}</ref> ==Sirkuit MotoGP== [[File:MotoGP world map.png|thumb|300px|Peta MotoGP. Nagara-nagara nu ditandaan kalayan kelir héjo jadi tuan rumah grand prix panungtung, maranéhna nu beureum geus jadi tuan rumah MotoGP mangsa kaliwat.]] Usum balap [[Balap motor Grand Prix usum 2017|MotoGP 2017]] ngawengku 18 balapan di sirkuit di 15 nagara nu béda ([[Spanyol]] opat kali rintakan ngayakeun balapan).<ref name=prov2015>{{cite news|title=2015 provisional MotoGP™ calendar announced|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/2015+provisional+MotoGP+calendar+announced|date=26 September 2014|accessdate=26 September 2014|work=motogp.com|publisher=[[Dorna Sports]]}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008015819/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/2015+provisional+MotoGP+calendar+announced |date=8 October 2014 }}</ref> *{{QAT}}, [[Doha]], [[Losail International Circuit]] *{{ARG}}, [[Autódromo Termas de Río Hondo]] *{{USA}}, [[Austin]], [[Circuit of the Americas]] *{{SPA}}, [[Jerez de la Frontera]], [[Circuito de Jerez]] *{{FRA}}, [[Le Mans]], [[Circuit Bugatti]] *{{ITA}}, [[Scarperia]], [[Mugello Circuit]] *{{SPA}}, [[Montmelo]], [[Circuit de Catalunya]] *{{NLD}}, [[Assen]], [[TT Circuit Assen]] *{{GER}}, [[Chemnitz]], [[Sachsenring]] *{{AUT}}, [[Spielberg]], [[Red Bull Ring]] *{{CZE}}, [[Brno]], [[Masaryk Circuit]] *{{UK}}, [[Silverstone]], [[Silverstone Circuit]] *{{SMR}}, [[Rimini]], [[Misano World Circuit Marco Simoncelli]] *{{SPA}}, [[Alcañiz]], [[Ciudad del Motor de Aragón|Motorland Aragon]] *{{JPN}}, [[Motegi, Tochigi|Motegi]], [[Twin Ring Motegi]] *{{AUS}}, [[Phillip Island]], [[Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit]] *{{MAS}}, [[Sepang]], [[Sepang Circuit]] *{{SPA}}, [[Valencia]], [[Circuit Ricardo Tormo]] ==Spésifikasi== ===Kelas MotoGP=== [[File:Casey Stoner 2011 Brno 1.jpg|thumb|[[Casey Stoner]] di MotoGP [[Brno]]]] Kacepatan pangtarikna pikeun motor MotoGP dina kategori 125 cc nyaéta 249,76&nbsp;km / jam (155,19&nbsp;mph) ku Valentino Rossi taun 1996 pikeun Aprilia sarta kacepatan pangtarikna dina sajarah MotoGP nyaéta 368.6 km/h, ku Jorge Martin, nalika FP2 Grand Prix Mugello 2026.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://resources.motogp.com/files/results/2015/QAT/MotoGP/RAC/AverageSpeed.pdf?v1_9b1c9216| title=Race Top Speed & Average|date=2015-03-29|work=MotoGP.com |accessdate=2014-06-02}}</ref> Tanggal 11 December, 2009, Komisi Grand Prix ngabéwarakeun yén kelas MotoGP baris dironjatkeun jadi mesin 1.000 cc mimiti usum 2012. Maksimum diwates nepi ka 1.000 cc, séher maksimum diwates nepi ka opat, sarta ''bore'' maksimum nepi ka {{convert|81|mm|abbr=in}}.<ref name="1000again">{{cite web |url=http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/1/5275/Motorcycle-Article/MotoGP-Goes-Back-to-1,000&nbsp;cc-in-2012.aspx |title=MotoGP Goes Back to 1,000 cc in 2012 |publisher=Motorcycle-usa.com |date= |accessdate=2014-05-27 }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Carmelo Ezpeleta, Céo [[Dorna Sports]], nunjukkeun yén parobahan nu diproyéksikeun ditarima ku tim kalayan hadé.<ref>[http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-rossi-quickest-as-sepang-test-concludes//P3/ " MOTOGP: Rossi Quickest As Sepang Test Concludes,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731152118/http://moto-racing.speedtv.com/article/motogp-rossi-quickest-as-sepang-test-concludes/P3 |date=2010-07-31 }} ''[[SPEEDtv.com]]'' (2010).</ref> Ti taun 2012, tim-tim nu teu asup salah sahiji produsén gedé bisa néangan status "''claiming rule team''" (CRT).<ref name = "CRT"/> CRT dimaksudkeun supaya tim independén bisa saingan kalayan waragad leuwih murah sarta nambah jumlah pamilon di MotoGP.<ref name = "CRT"/> CRT diuntungkeun tina paraturan nu kurang ketat ngunaan jumlah mesin nu bisa digunakeun dina hiji usum, sarta kalayan tunjangan bahan beuleum nu leuwih gedé salila balapan.<ref name = "CRT"/> Kalayan paraturan klaim, CRT satuju pikeun ngidinan nepi ka opat mesin per usum pikeun diklaim, sanggaeus balapan, ku salah sahiji tim produsén utama kalayan waragad masing-masing gedéna €20,000 kaasup persenéleng, atawa masing-masing €15,000 pikeun mesin wungkul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/Cecchinelli+on+2012+CRTs|title=Corrado Cecchinelli talks CRT regulations|date=2011-05-03|work=MotoGP.com|accessdate=30 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627114515/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2011/Cecchinelli+on+2012+CRTs |date=2013-06-27 }}</ref> Ti usum taun 2014, kelas CRT diturunkeun demi spésifikasi "''Open Class''" - ngidinan tim ngagunakeun pakakas kontrol ECU sarta pikeun ngaronjatkeun daya saing maranéhna.<ref name = "CRT">[http://motomatters.com/news/2013/10/17/motogp_rules_update_crt_name_dropped_rep.html MotoGP Rules Update: 'CRT' Name Dropped, Replaced With 'Open'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217064715/http://motomatters.com/news/2013/10/17/motogp_rules_update_crt_name_dropped_rep.html |date=2014-12-17 }} Motomatters, 17 October 2013 Retrieved 2014-12-17</ref> ===Kelas Moto2=== Moto2 (dipikawanoh ogé kelas 600cc class) nyaéta kelas 600&nbsp;cc 4-Tak, [[2010 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season#Moto2 introduction|diluncurkeun taun 2010]] pikeun ngagantikeun kelas tradisional 250&nbsp;cc 2-Tak.<ref name = "Mot2600"/> Mesin dipasok sacara éksklusif ku Honda,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://motomatters.com/news/2010/02/24/honda_moto2_engines_to_produce_125_bhp.html| title=Honda Moto2 Engines To Produce 125 BHP| publisher=motomatters.com| accessdate=30 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718164746/https://motomatters.com/news/2010/02/24/honda_moto2_engines_to_produce_125_bhp.html |date=2017-07-18 }}</ref> gilinding ku [[Dunlop Tyres|Dunlop]] sarta éléktronik kawates sarta ngan dipasok ku produsén nu ditunjuk ku FIM kalayan waragad maksimum nu ditetepkeun gedéna 650 EUR. Rém cakram karbon dilarang, ngan cakram rém waja nu diidinan.<ref name = "Mot2600"/> Sanajan kitu, euweuh watesan pikeun rangka.<ref name = "Mot2600"/> Ti taun 2010 jeung saterusna, ngan mesin 600&nbsp;cc 4-T Moto2 nu diidinan.<ref name = "Mot2600" >{{cite news | url=http://www.motorcyclenews.com/sport/motogp/2008/december/dec1108-moto2-600cc-rules-unveiled/ | title=Moto2 600cc four-stroke rules unveiled | publisher =motorcyclenews.com|accessdate = 30 Juni 2017 }}</ref> ===Kelas Moto3=== Kelas 125&nbsp;cc diganti taun [[2012 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season#Class changes|2012]] ku kelad Moto3.<ref name = "motot3"/> Kelas ieu diwatesan pikeun mesin opat seher kapasitas 250 cc kalayan ''bore'' maksimum {{convert|81|mm|abbr=in}}.<ref name = "motot3"/> Beurat total minimum pikeun motor sarta purah balap nyaéta {{convert|152|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name = "motot3"/> Purah balap kelas Moto3 teu meunang leuwih kolot ti 28 taun, atawa 25 taun pikeun purah balap anyar kontrak nu mimiti ngiluan sarta ''wild-cards''.<ref name = "motot3">{{cite web|url=https://www.srm-sachsenring.de/en/motogp-en/what-is-motogp|title=What is MotoGP|work=srm-sachsenring.de|accessdate=2014-06-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502034337/http://www.srm-sachsenring.de/en/motogp-en/what-is-motogp |date=2016-05-02 }}</ref> ===Spésifikasi mesin=== {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Spésifikasi !! MotoGP !! Moto2 !! Moto3 |- | {{rh}} | Pabrik || Rupa-rupa || [[Honda Racing Corporation|Honda]] || Rupa-rupa |- | {{rh}} | Konfigurasi || 75.5°-90° [[V4 engine|V4]]/[[Inline-four engine|Sagaris-opat]] || sagaris-opat || [[Single-cylinder engine|sa-séher]] |- | {{rh}} | Kapasitas || {{convert|1000|cc|cuin|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} || {{convert|600|cc|cuin|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} || {{convert|250|cc|cuin|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} |- | {{rh}} | Kombusi || colspan="3" | [[Four-stroke]] (ti taun 2012) |- | {{rh}} | Kelép || colspan="3" | [[Overhead camshaft|DOHC]], opat-kelép per séher |- | {{rh}} | Bahan beuleum || Tanpa timbal 100 [[Octane rating|octane]] (euweuh kontrol) || colspan="2" | [[Total S.A.|Total]] tanpa timbal 98 [[Octane rating|octane]] (saprak 2016) |- | {{rh}} | Sistim bahan beuleum || colspan="3" | [[Fuel injection|Bahan beuleum injéksi]] |- | {{rh}} | Aspirasi || colspan="3" | [[Naturally aspirated engine|Natural aspiration]] |- | {{rh}} | tanaga || {{convert|240|bhp|abbr=on}} || > {{convert|140|bhp|abbr=on}} || > {{convert|55|bhp|abbr=on}} |- | {{rh}} | Rasio Tanaga-ka-beurat || 1.51&nbsp;bhp/kg || ~1&nbsp;bhp/kg <ref name="Sports">{{Cite web|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/Inside+MotoGP/Bikes|title=Inside MotoGP™ · Bikes|last=Sports|first=Dorna|website=www.motogp.com|access-date=2016-04-02}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408201403/http://www.motogp.com/en/Inside+MotoGP/Bikes |date=2016-04-08 }}</ref> || ~0.6&nbsp;bhp/kg <ref name="Sports"/> |- | {{rh}} | Palumasan || colspan="3" | [[Wet sump]] |- | {{rh}} | Wates Rev || colspan="2" | 17,500 - 18,000 rpm || 14,000 rpm |- | {{rh}} | Kacepatan || {{convert|361|kph|mph|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} || {{convert|280|km/h|0|abbr=on}} || {{convert|231|kph|mph|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} |- | {{rh}} | Paniis || colspan="3" | Kompa cai tunggal |- | {{rh}} | Busi || colspan="3" | [[NGK]] |- |} ===Beurat=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:450px;" |+ Beurat minimum - Kelas MotoGP |- !Jumlah séher !2002 minimum !2007 minimum !2010 minimum |- !2 |{{convert|135|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|137|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|135|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |- !3 |{{convert|135|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|140.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|142.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |- !4 |{{convert|145|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|148|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|150|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |- !5 |{{convert|145|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|155.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|157.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |- !6 |{{convert|155|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|163|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |{{convert|165|kg|lb|abbr=on}} |} * Dina taun 2005, kapasitas [[fuel tank|téngki bahan beuleum]] dironjatkeun ti 20 léter ka 24 léter.<ref name = "tengki"/> * Dina taun 2006, kapasitas tengki bahan beuleum dikurangan saeutik ti 24 léter ka 22 léter.<ref name = "tengki"/> * Ti taun 2007 jeung saterusna, sarta pikeun jangka waktu minimal lima taun, FIM geus ngatur kelas MotoGP yén mesin 2-T geus teu diidinan.<ref name = "tengki"/> Kapasitas bahan beuleum maksimal jadi 21 léter.<ref name = "tengki" >{{cite news | url=http://www.bikesportnews.com/news/news-detail/motogp-fuel-limit-set-at-22-litres-for-2016| title=MotoGP fuel limit set at 22 litres for 2016 | publisher =bikesportnews.com|accessdate = 30 Juni 2017 }}</ref> *Ti taun 2007 ka taun 2011, mesin 4-Tak diwates nepi ka 800&nbsp;cc <ref name = "800cc" >{{cite news| url=http://www.sportrider.com/tags/motogp| title=MotoGP| publisher=sportrider.com| accessdate=30 Juni 2017}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727160148/http://www.sportrider.com/tags/motogp |date=2017-07-27 }}</ref> *Dina taun 2012 kapasitas mesin dironjatkeun jadi 1000cc<ref>{{cite web|title=MotoGP Basics|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/engines}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202190339/http://www.motogp.com/en/MotoGP+Basics/engines |date=2013-02-02 }}</ref> *Pikeun usum taun 2013 minimum beurat dironjatkeun ka {{convert|160|kg|lb|abbr=on}} <ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.crash.net/motogp/news/176551/1/why-the-motogp-weight-limit-changed.html| title=How the MotoGP weight increase happened| publisher =crash.net|accessdate = 30 Juni 2017 }}</ref> *Pikeun usum taun 2015 minimum beurat diturunkeun ka {{convert|158|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|title=MotoGP™ software development freeze for mid-2015|url=http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/09/14/motogp-software-development-freeze-for-mid-2015/165095}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141640/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/09/14/motogp-software-development-freeze-for-mid-2015/165095 |date=2015-04-02 }}</ref> ==Gilinding== Pikeun taun 2009, 2010 sarta 2011, panyadia gilinding Bridgestone ditunjuk ku FIM (kalayan Michelin teu nyadiaan gilinding pikeun MotoGP).<ref name = gilinding/> Bridgestone nyadiakeun pikeun sakabéh usum opat spesifikasi nu béda ti gilinding hareup, genep gilinding tukang, sarta hiji spésifikasi gilinding baseuh—kalayan tanpa spésifikasi kualifikasi.<ref name = gilinding/> Pikeun satiap rintakan Bridgestone disadiakeun ngan dua spésifikasi pikeun hareup jeung tukang.<ref name = gilinding/> Gilinding sacara acak dibagikeun ka purah balap pikeun ngajamin teu mihak ka salah sahiji purah balap.<ref name = gilinding >{{cite web |url=http://superbikeplanet.com/2009/Feb/090204a.htm |title=Bridgestone: How MotoGP Spec Tyres Will Work |accessdate=30 Juni 2017 |date=February 4, 2009 |publisher=SuperbikePlanet.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207011024/http://superbikeplanet.com/2009/Feb/090204a.htm |archivedate=February 7, 2009 |df= }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207011024/http://superbikeplanet.com/2009/Feb/090204a.htm |date=February 7, 2009 }}</ref> Jorge Lorenzo ngarojong tetekon mono gilinding.<ref>[http://www.motorcyclenews.com/MCN/sport/sportresults/MotoGP/2009/December/dec2809-Jorge-Lorenzo-satisfied-with-single-tyre-rule/?R=EPI-120980 ''Jorge Lorenzo satisfied with single tyre rule''] motorcyclenews</ref> Dina panungtung usum taun 2015, Bridgestone  ngundurkeun diri minangka panyadia gilinding resmi ka MotoGP.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/05/01/bridgestone-to-withdraw-from-motogp-after-the-2015-season/163974 | title = Bridgestone to withdraw from MotoGP™ after the 2015 season | accessdate = 30 Juni 2017| publisher = MotoGP.com}}</ref> Nurutkeun tender formal, produsen gilinding Perancis [[Michelin]] jadi panyadia resmi pikeun usum 2016, sarta pangujian di Aragon dimimitian sanggeus ahir usum 2015.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/05/23/michelin-to-become-motogp-official-tyre-supplier/164181 | title = Michelin to become MotoGP™ Official Tyre supplier | accessdate = 30 Juni 2017 | publisher = MotoGP.com }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321011736/http://www.motogp.com/en/news/2014/05/23/michelin-to-become-motogp-official-tyre-supplier/164181 |date=2016-03-21 }}</ref> ==Sistim peunteun== {| class="wikitable" |+ Sistim peunteun kiwari <ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.motogp.com/en/Inside+MotoGP/Points| title = Michelin to become MotoGP™ Official Tyre supplier| accessdate = 30 Juni 2017| publisher = MotoGP.com}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709093528/http://www.motogp.com/en/Inside+MotoGP/Points |date=2017-07-09 }}</ref> ! Posisi ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13 ! 14 ! 15 |- ! Peunteun | 25 | 20 | 16 | 13 | 11 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |} * ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|30em}} ==Tumbu kaluar== {{Commons category}} * {{Official website|http://www.motogp.com}} Balap motor Grand Prix {{MotoGP}} {{MotoGP teams}} {{Grand Prix motorcycle racing}} {{Main world championships}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Grand Prix Motorcycle Racing}} [[Kategori:Balap motor Grand Prix]] [[Kategori:Fédération International Motorcycle]] r5t1iiifmrke82jzkstpwc9qq5l3g0f 0 99335 712763 712188 2026-09-19T23:49:21Z ~2026-48142-55 37371 /* Daptar lagu */ 712763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Album | Name = Adiwarna | Type = Studio | Cover = | Artist = [[Siti Nurhaliza]] | Released = [[29 Juni]] [[1998]] | Recorded = [[1997]]-[[1998]] | Length = 46:45 | Label = Suria Records | Producer = Adnan Abu Hassan, LY, Azmeer, Johari Teh, Salman, Azlan Abu Hassan & Zuriani | Last album = ''[[Cindai]]''<br>(1997) | This album = '''''Adiwarna'''''<br>(1998) | Next album = ''Molek''<br>(1998) }} '''''Adiwarna''''' nyaéta album studio kaopat [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Albeum ieu dirilis dina taun [[1998]]. == Daptar lagu == # '''Purnama Merindu'''{{br}}Senilagu: Azmeer{{br}}Senikata: Lukhman S. # '''Sendiri'''{{br}}Senilagu: LY{{br}}Senikata: Baiduri # '''Kita Kan Bersama'''{{br}}Senilagu: Malek Osman{{br}}Senikata: Sham Amir Hussain # '''Tak Rela Berpisah Darimu'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ # '''Lagu Ku Di Hatimu'''{{br}}Senilagu: Salman{{br}}Senikata: [[Siti Nurhaliza]] # '''Diari Hatimu'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Ferdi Ferdian Khalid NS # '''Satu Cinta Dua Jiwa'''{{br}}Senilagu: Azlan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Ucu # '''Demi Kasih Sayang'''{{br}}Senilagu: LY{{br}}Senikata: Baiduri # '''Tak Boleh Lupa'''{{br}}Senilagu: Johari Teh{{br}}Senikata: Juwie # '''Gelora Asmara'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: Hazida {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza]] jdfotijc5hj70w7296ynjdzw277fg90 0 99352 712762 711462 2026-09-19T23:48:54Z ~2026-48142-55 37371 712762 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Album | Name = Cindai | Type = Studio | Cover = | Artist = [[Siti Nurhaliza]] | Genre = [[Melayu]] | Released = [[17 Nopémber]] [[1997]] | Recorded = [[1996]]-[[1997]] | Length = 45:02 | Label = Suria Records | Producer = Suhaimi Mohd Zain & S. Atan | Last album = ''[[Siti Nurhaliza 2]]''<br>(1997) | This album = '''''Cindai'''''<br>(1997) | Next album = ''[[Adiwarna]]''<br>(1998) }} '''''Cindai''''' mangrupikeun album studio katilu [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Albeum ieu dirilis dina taun [[1997]]. Cindai mangrupikeun usaha munggaran Siti pikeun ngahasilkeun albeum berirama [[Malaysia]] ([[Melayu]]). ==Daptar lagu== # '''Cindai'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Pak Ngah]]{{br}}Senikata: Hairul Anuar Harun # '''Laksamana Mati Dibunuh'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Janji'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Lela Manja'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Kaparinyo'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Es Lilin'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Damak'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Joget Pahang'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Patah Hati'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''Joget Berhibur'''{{br}}Senilagu: Rahim Jantan{{br}}Senikata: Siso Kopratasa {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza]] kdztuo1npqfwf9ppvqcsoztmpsh32ih 0 99392 712760 711472 2026-09-19T23:47:31Z ~2026-48142-55 37371 /* Daptar lagu */ 712760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Album | Name = Siti Nurhaliza | Type = Studio | Artist = [[Siti Nurhaliza]] | Cover = | Released = [[1 April]] [[1996]] | Recorded = [[1995]]-[[1996]] | Length = 47:01 | Genre = [[Musik pop|Pop]], [[Musik rock|Rock]], Slow Rock | Label = Suria Records | Producer = Adnan Abu Hassan, Fauzi Marzuki & Peter Fam | This album = '''''Siti Nurhaliza 1'''''<br>(1996) | Next album = ''[[Siti Nurhaliza 2]]''<br>(1997) }} '''''Siti Nurhaliza 1''''' nyaéta album studio munggaran [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Albeum ieu dileupaskeun dina taun [[1996]]. ==Daptar lagu== # '''Jawapan Di Persimpangan'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: Othman Zainuddin # '''Mahligai Asmara'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ # '''Jerat Percintaan'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: Othman Zainuddin / Hani MJ / Hazida # '''Antara Waktu Dan Usia'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ # '''Sempadan'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ # '''Sanggar Bayu'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Othman Zainuddin # '''Cari-Cari'''{{br}}Senilagu: Fauzi Marzuki{{br}}Senikata: Shahnaz # '''Bicara Luka'''{{br}}Senilagu: Fauzi Marzuki{{br}}Senikata: Amran Omar # '''Kerana Jelingan Mu'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Lukhman S. # '''Jalanan Berduri'''{{br}}Senilagu: Peter Fam{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza|1]] hxa68xm358w9l4hjabuzbimpgmlk950 0 99398 712761 711473 2026-09-19T23:48:24Z ~2026-48142-55 37371 /* Daptar lagu */ 712761 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Album | Name = Siti Nurhaliza | Type = Studio | Artist = [[Siti Nurhaliza]] | Cover = | Released = [[27 Januari]] [[1997]] | Recorded = [[1996]]-[[1997]] | Genre = [[Musik pop|Pop]], [[Musik rock|Rock]], Slow Rock, [[Melayu]] | Length = 53:58 | Label = Suria Records<br />Blackboard Indonesia | Producer = Adnan Abu Hassan, LY, Fauzi Marzuki, Xiao Wong, Zul Mahat, Helen Yap & David Foster | Last album = ''[[Siti Nurhaliza 1]]''<br>(1996) | This album = '''''Siti Nurhaliza 2'''''<br>(1997) | Next album = ''[[Cindai]]''<br>(1997) }} '''''Siti Nurhaliza 2''''' nyaéta album studio kadua [[Siti Nurhaliza]]. Albeum ieu dileupaskeun dina taun [[1997]]. ==Daptar lagu== # '''Aku Cinta Padamu/Betapa Ku Cinta Padamu'''{{br}}Senilagu: LY{{br}}Senikata: Baiduri # '''Wajah Kekasih'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ # '''Tirai Semalam'''{{br}}Senilagu: Fauzi Marzuki{{br}}Senikata: S. Amin Shahab # '''Demi Kasih Kita'''{{br}}Senilagu: [[Adnan Abu Hassan]]{{br}}Senikata: [[Siti Nurhaliza]] # '''Kesilapanku Keegoanmu'''{{br}}Senilagu: LY{{br}}Senikata: Baiduri # '''Khayalan Cinta'''{{br}}Senilagu: Xiao Wong{{br}}Senikata: Ucu # '''Usah Diragui'''{{br}}Senilagu: Zul Mahat{{br}}Senikata: Habsah Hassan # '''Rindu Diantara Kita'''{{br}}Senilagu: Adnan Abu Hassan{{br}}Senikata: Hani MJ / Ciang Teng # '''Bisikan Asmara'''{{br}}Senilagu: Helen Yap{{br}}Senikata: Amran Omar # '''Sri Mersing'''{{br}}Senilagu & Senikata: Copyright Controlled # '''The Colour of My Love'''{{br}}Senilagu: David Foster{{br}}Senikata: Arthur Ganov {{Authority control}} [[Kategori:Album]] [[Kategori:Siti Nurhaliza|2]] ik0i9crw5jdk33zguaw6v0yz5gbv1be