Wikipedia suwiki https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tepas MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.20 first-letter Média Husus Obrolan Pamaké Obrolan pamaké Wikipedia Obrolan Wikipedia Gambar Obrolan gambar MédiaWiki Obrolan MédiaWiki Citakan Obrolan citakan Pitulung Obrolan pitulung Kategori Obrolan kategori Portal Obrolan portal TimedText TimedText talk Modul Pembicaraan Modul Acara Pembicaraan Acara 0 2197 712780 712769 2026-09-21T00:54:01Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 /* Uteuk mamalia */ nambahkeun referensi 712780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Automatic taxobox | name = Mamalia | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|167|0|[[Trias Akhir]]–Ayeuna; 225 or 167–0 Ma| earliest=225|PS= Lihat [[Mamalia#variasi|discussion of dates]] di téks}} <!-- Ambondro, Amphilestes and Amphitherium are dated about 167 Ma, providing the date for the monotreme-therian divergence. Adelobasilius and Tikitherium are dated 225 Ma, the date used for the first known mammals as determined morphologically . --> |image = <imagemap> File:Mammal Diversity 2011.png|300px rect 0 0 176 125 [[lalay vampir]] rect 0 120 176 240 [[Sétan Tasmania]] rect 0 240 176 380 [[bajing rubah]] rect 0 380 176 500 [[platipus]] rect 0 500 176 600 [[paus bungkuk]] rect 0 760 176 620 [[armadillo raksasa]] rect 355 0 176 125 [[opossum Virginia]] rect 355 120 176 240 [[manusa]] rect 355 240 176 380 [[pangolin tangkal]] rect 355 380 176 500 [[colugo]] rect 355 500 176 600 [[beurit huma irung bentang]] rect 355 760 176 620 [[zébra dataran]] rect 530 0 350 125 [[kanguru abu wétan]] rect 530 120 350 240 [[anjing laut gajah kalér]] rect 530 240 350 380 [[gajah Afrika]] rect 530 380 350 500 [[elk]] rect 530 500 350 600 [[Panda]] rect 530 760 350 620 [[Curut gajah hideung kasar]] </imagemap> | display_parents = 5 | taxon = Mammalia | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Subkelompok hirup | subdivision = {{collapsible list| * Subkelas [[Yinotheria]] ** Infrakelas [[Australosphenida]] *** Ordo [[Monotreme|Monotremata]] * Subkelas [[Theriiformes]] ** Infrakelas [[Holotheria]] *** Superlegion [[Trechnotheria]] **** Legion [[Cladotheria]] ***** Supercohort [[Theria]] ****** Cohort [[Marsupialia]] ******* Superordo [[Ameridelphia]] ******** Ordo [[Didelphimorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Paucituberculata]] ******* Superordo [[Australidelphia]] ******** Ordo [[Microbiotheria]] ******** Ordo [[Dasyuromorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Notoryctemorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Peramelemorphia]] ******** Ordo [[Diprotodontia]] ****** Cohort [[Placentalia]] ******* Superordo [[Xenarthra]] ******** Ordo [[Cingulata]] ******** Ordo [[Pilosa]] ******* Superordo [[Afroinsectiphilia]] ******** Ordo [[Afrosoricida]] ******** Ordo [[Macroscelidea]] ******** Ordo [[Tubulidentata]] ******* Superordo [[Paenungulata]] ******** Ordo [[Hyracoidea]] ******** Ordo [[Sirenia]] ******** Ordo [[Proboscidea]] ******* Superordo [[Euarchontoglires]] ******** Ordo [[Scandentia]] ******** Ordo [[Lagomorpha]] ******** Ordo [[Rodentia]] ******** Ordo [[Dermoptera]] ******** Ordo [[Primates]] ******* Superordo [[Laurasiatheria]] ******** Ordo [[Eulipotyphla]] ******** Ordo [[Chiroptera]] ******** Ordo [[Cetartiodactyla]] ******** Ordo [[Perissodactyla]] ******** Ordo [[Pholidota]] ******** Ordo [[Carnivora]] }} }} '''Mamalia''' nyaéta [[kelas (biologi)|kelas]] [[sato]] [[vertebrata]] nu utamana dicirikeun ku ayana [[kalenjar susu]], nu na [[bikang]] ngahasilkeun susu pikeun asupan orokna; ayana [[bulu]]; sarta mibanda awak éndotérmis atawa "[[getih haneut]]". Uteuk ngatur sistim sirkulasi jeung éndotérm, kaasup [[jantung]] nu boga opat kamar. Mamalia ngawengku leuwih ti 5,000 [[genus]], nu nyebar di 425 [[kulawarga (biologi)|kulawarga]] jeung 46 [[Ordo]], najan hal ieu gumantung kana [[klasifikasi ilmiah]] nu dipaké. Sacara [[filogenetik]], '''mamalia''' diwatesan salaku sakabéh turunan karuhun umum ([[basa Inggris|Ing.]] ''common ancestor'') mamalia [[monotrema]] (nyaéta ''[[echidna]]'') jeung ''[[therian]]'' (''[[plaséntal]]'' jeung ''[[marsupial]]''). == Ciri-ciri == Najan lolobana mah sato mamalia téh ngaborojolkeun anakna, aya ogé sababaraha ([[monotrema]]) nu [[endog (biologi)|endogan]]. Kitu deui sato nu ngaborojolkeun anakna, teu kabéh kaasup anggota mamalia, kayaning [[gupi]] jeung [[hiu hulu palu]]. Ku kituna, anakan téh teu bisa dijadikeun patokan sato mamalia. Najan sakabéh mamalia éndotérmik, tapi [[manuk]] nu teu kaasup mamalia gé éndotérmik. Ciri sato mamalia mah nyaéta ayana [[kelenjar susu]] (''mammary gland''), hiji ciri nu aya di mamalia. Monotréma tuluy misah ti mamalia séjénna ku sabab teu boga puting, tapi kalenjar susuna mah aya. Mamalia boga tilu [[tulang]] dina unggal [[ceuli]]na sarta hiji (huntu) dina unggal sisi [[rahang]] handap; sakabéh [[vertebrata]] séjén nu ceulian boga hiji tulang dina ceulina sarta sahanteuna tilu dina unggal sisi rahangna. Sagolongan [[therapsid]] nu disebut [[cynodont]] boga tilu tulang dina rahangna, sandi utama rahangna mangrupa huntu, sedengkeun nu lianna pikeun nyalurkeun sora. Tulang rahang tambahan dina vertebrata lianna diduga mangrupa homolog jeung malleus jeung incus dina ceuli mamalia. Sakabéh [[uteuk]] mamalia boga [[néokortéks]] nu mangrupa salah sahiji ciri mamalia. <!-- Mammals have [[skin|integumentary systems]] made up of three layers: the outermost [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]], the [[dermis]], and the [[hypodermis]]. This characteristic is not unique to mammals, but is found in all [[vertebrates]] The [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]] is typically ten to thirty cells thick, its main function being to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is fifteen to forty times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of [[adipose tissue]]. Its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species. Most mammals are [[Landform|terrestrial]], but a number are [[aquatic]], including [[sirenia]] ([[manatee]]s and [[dugong]]s) and the cetaceans ([[dolphin]]s and [[whale]]s). Whales are the [[largest organism|largest of all animals]]. There are semi-aquatic species such as [[Pinniped|seal]]s which come to land to breed but spend the majority of the time in water. True [[flight]] has evolved only once in mammals, the [[bat]]s; mammals such as [[flying squirrel]]s and [[flying lemur]]s are actually gliding animals. No mammals have hair naturally blue or green in colour. Some cetaceans, along with the [[mandrill]]s appear to have shades of blue skin. Many mammals are indicated as having blue hair or fur, but in all cases, it will be found to be a shade of grey. The [[two-toed sloth]] can seem to have green fur, however, this colour is caused by [[algae]] growths. --> == Asal-usul == Mamalia téh kaasup ''[[amniote]]'', hususna ''[[synapsid]]'', nu ditémbongoeun ku bentuk tangkorakna, hususna ku ayana liang tunggal dina unggal sisi tempat napelna otot rahang nu disebut ''[[temporal fenestra]]''. Pikeun babandingan, [[dinosaurus]], manuk, jeung lolobana réptil]] mah [[diapsid]], nu boga dua ''temporal fenestrae'' dina unggal sisi tangkorakna; sedengkeun [[kuya]] nu teu boga ''temporal fenestra'', kaasup [[anapsid]]. ''Synapsid'' tuluy nurunkeun prékursor mamalia munggaran, [[therapsida]], nyaéta [[eucynodontus]] 220 [[jtk (unit)|Ma]] (''mega annum'', ''juta taun kaliwat'') dina yuga [[Triasik]]. [[Ceuli]] pra-mamalia mimiti mekar dina ahir Permian nepi ka awal Triasik, ku tumuwuhna tilu tulang lembut ([[incus]], [[malleus]], jeung [[stapes]]) di jero tangkorak; dibarengan ku transformasi [[rahang]] handap jadi tulang tunggal. Mamalia lianna, kaasup réptil jeung synapsid jeung therapsida pra-mamalia, boga sababaraha tulang dina rahang handap nu sabagian dipaké pikeun ngadéngé; sarta tulang ceuli-tunggal dina tangkorakna. Transisi ieu dijadikeun bukti évolusi mamalia tina réptil: tina tulang ceuli tunggal, sarta sababaraha tulang rahang handap (misalna [[pelycosaur]], ''[[Dimetrodon]]'') jadi "tulang rahang pangrungu" nu leuwih leutik (misalna [[cynodont]], ''[[Probainognathus]]''), sarta tungtungna mamalia tulén nu boga tuli tulang ceuli dina tangkorakna sarta rahang handap tunggal. Ku kituna, pelycosaurus jeung cynodontus kadang disebut "[[réptil kawas mamalia]]", najan ieu téh teu bener, sabab kiwari mah nu dua éta téh dianggap kaasup [[synapsid]], lain réptil. Dina Yuga [[Mésozoik]], mamalia mekar jadi opat golongan utama: ''[[multituberculate]]'' (Allotherium), [[monotreme]], [[marsupial]], jeung [[placental]]. ''Multituberculate'' lastari dina yuga [[Oligosin]], kira 30 jtk, tapi golongan lianna mah hirup nepi ka kiwari. Dina yuga Mésoziok mah lolobana mamalia téh tetep leutik kawas [[cucurut]], tapi tuluy morontod sarta beuki mekar dina [[mangsa kapunahan Cretaceous-Tersiér]] 65 jtk. <!-- The names "[[Prototheria]]", "[[Metatheria]]" and "[[Eutheria]]" expressed the theory that [[Placentalia]] were descendants of [[Marsupialia]], which were in turn descendants of [[Monotremata]], but this theory has been refuted. However, Eutheria and Metatheria are often used in [[paleontology]], especially with regards to mammals of the Mesozoic. Mammal evolutionary progression is below: * [[Agnatha|Jawless fish]]: [[Cambrian]] period to mid [[Ordovician]] periods * [[Bony fish]]: mid-Ordovician period to late [[Devonian]] period * [[Amphibians]]: late Devonian period to early [[Carboniferous]] period * [[Reptiles]]: late Carboniferous period * [[Pelycosaurs]] (synapsids, or "mammal-like reptiles"): late Carboniferous period to very early [[Triassic]] period * [[Therapsids]]: Early [[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] [[Cretaceous]]? (includes dicynodonts, dinocephalia, etc.) * [[Cynodonts]]: [[Permian]]-[[Cretaceous]] [[Paleocene]]? * [[Mammaliformes]]: Mid-[[Triassic]] to Early [[Oligocene]](includes non-therian mammals) * Mammals: mid-Jurassic period to today (Monotremes, Metatheria, and Eutheria)--> === Yuga Mésozoik === Mamalia awal mah lolobana laleutik kawas [[cucurut]], nu ngahakanan [[serangga]]. Tapi, dina Januari 2005, kalawarta ''[[Nature]]'' ngalaporkeun kapanggihna dua [[fosil]] [[Repenomamus]] umur 130 juta taun, panjangna leuwih ti saméter, nu salah sahijina ngandung anak dinosaurus dina beuteungna (''Nature'', Jan. 15, 2005 [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v433/n7022/full/433116b_fs.html]). Taun 2004, tim nu dipingpin ku Dr. Ji Qiang ti [[Universitas Nanjing]] jeung [[Akademi Élmu Géologi Cina]], manggih fosil akuatik kawas mamalia nu umurna 164 juta taun, panjangna 50&nbsp;cm, nu spésiésna can kanyahoan. Papanggihan ieu dilaporkeun dina kalawarta [[Science]] édisi Pébruari 2006 (''Science'', 24 Péb 2006 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/311/5764/1068b]). Nu kaasup mamalia awal, di antarana: * ''[[Eozostrodon]]'': Triasik jeung [[Jurasik]] * ''[[Deltatheridium]]'': [[Cretaceous]] * ''[[Jeholodens]]'': mid-Cretacéous * ''[[Megazostrodon]]'': ahir Triasik jeung awal [[Jurasik]] * ''[[Triconodonta]]'': Triasik ka Cretacéous * ''[[Zalambdalestes]]'': ahir Cretacéous Najan mamalia geus aya marengan [[dinosaurus]], mimiti ngadominasina mah sanggeus [[kapunahan masal]] dinosaurus 65 jtk, dina Yuga [[Sénozoik]]. === Yuga Paléosin === Dina yuga [[Paléosin]] (64–58 jtk-juta taun kaliwat), mamalia téh ngalobaan sanggeus lastarina [[dinosaurus]]. Mamalia leutik mirip [[rodénsia]] masih ngadominasi, tapi nu ukuran sedeng-badag gé beuki ngalobaan. * ''[[Ptilodus]]'': [[multituberculata]] * ''[[Pucadelphys andinus]]'': [[marsupial]] kawas opposum * ''[[Purgatorius]]'': mamalia mirip primata, [[plaséntal]] * ''[[Ectoconus]]'': mamalia kukuan awal, [[plaséntal]] == Klasifikasi == {{utama|klasifikasi mamalia}} <!-- [[George Gaylord Simpson]]'s classic "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals" (AMNH ''Bulletin'' v. 85, 1945) was the original source for the taxonomy listed here. Simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the [[20th century]]. Since Simpson's 1945 classification, the [[fossil record|paleontological record]] has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of [[cladistics]]. Though field work gradually made Simpson's classification outdated, it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals. ===Standardized textbook classification=== A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current [[mammalogy]] classroom textbooks. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is taken from [[#References|Vaughan et al. (2000)]]. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass [[Prototheria]]''' - monotremes: [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]s *'''Subclass [[Theria]]''' - live-bearing mammals **Infraclass [[Metatheria]] - marsupials **Infraclass [[Eutheria]] - placentals ===McKenna/Bell classification=== In 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, which has resulted in the "McKenna/Bell classification". [[#References|McKenna and Bell, ''Classification of Mammals: Above the species level,'' (1997)]] is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics, relationships, and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus. The new McKenna/Bell classification was quickly accepted by paleontologists. The authors work together as [[paleontologists]] at the [[American Museum of Natural History]], New York. McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and, with Bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia. The McKenna/Bell hierarchical listing of all of the terms used for mammal groups above the species includes extinct mammals as well as modern groups, and introduces some fine distinctions such as [[legion (biology)|legions]] and [[sublegions]] (ranks which fall between classes and orders) that are likely to be glossed over by the layman. The published re-classification forms both a comprehensive and authoritative record of approved names and classifications and a list of invalid names. Click on the highlighted link for a [http://nasa.utep.edu/chih/chklist/mammals/keys/mammtab.htm table comparing the traditional and the new McKenna/Bell classifications of mammals] [[Extinct]] groups are represented by †. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass [[Prototheria]]''': monotremes: [[platypus]]es and [[echidna]]s *'''Subclass [[Theriiformes]]''': live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives **Infraclass †[[Allotheria]]: multituberculates **Infraclass †[[Triconodonta]]: triconodonts **Infraclass [[Holotheria]]: modern live-bearing mammals and their prehistoric relatives ***Supercohort Theria: live-bearing mammals ****Cohort [[Marsupialia]]: marsupials *****Magnorder [[Australidelphia]]: [[Australia|Australian]] marsupials and the [[Microbiotheriidae|monito-del-monte]] *****Magnorder [[Ameridelphia]]: New World marsupials ****Cohort [[Placentalia]]: placentals *****Magnorder [[Xenarthra]]: xenarthrans *****Magnorder [[Epitheria]]: epitheres ******Grandorder [[Anagalida]]: [[Lagomorpha|lagomorphs]], [[rodent]]s, and [[elephant shrew]]s ******Grandorder [[Ferae]]: [[carnivora]]ns, [[pangolin]]s, [[creodont]]s, and relatives ******Grandorder [[Lipotyphla]]: [[insectivora]]ns ******Grandorder [[Archonta]]: [[bat]]s, [[primate]]s, [[colugo]]s, and [[treeshrew]]s ******Grandorder [[Ungulata]]: ungulates *******Order [[Tubulidentata]] ''[[incertae sedis]]'': aardvark *******Mirorder [[Eparctocyona]]: [[condylarth]]s, [[whale]]s, and [[artiodactyla|artiodactyls]] *******Mirorder †[[Meridiungulata]]: South American ungulates *******Mirorder [[Altungulata]]: [[Perissodactyla|perissodactyls]], [[elephant]]s, [[manatee]]s, and [[hyrax]]es ===Molecular classification of placentals=== Molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years. The most recent classification systems based on molecular studies have proposed four groups or lineages of placental mammals. [[Molecular clock]]s suggest that these clades diverged from early common ancestors in the Cretaceous, but fossils have not been found to corroborate this hypothesis. These molecular findings are consistent with mammal [[zoogeography]]: The first divergence was that of the [[Afrotheria]] 110–100 mya. The Afrotheria proceeded to evolve and diversify in the isolation of the African-Arabian continent. The [[Xenarthra]], isolated in [[South America]], diverged from the [[Boreoeutheria]] approximately 100–95 mya. The Boreoeutheria split into the [[Laurasiatheria]] and [[Euarchontoglires]] between 95 and 85 mya; both of these groups evolved on the northern continent of [[Laurasia]]. After tens of millions of years of relative isolation, Africa-Arabia collided with Eurasia, exchanging Afrotheria and Boreoeutheria. The formation of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] linked [[South America]] and [[North America]], which facilitated the exchange of mammal species in the [[Great American Interchange]]. The traditional view that no placental mammals reached [[Australasia]] until about 5 million years ago when bats and [[Murinae|murine]] rodents arrived has been challenged by recent evidence and may need to be reassessed. It should however be noted that these molecular results are still controversial because they are not reflected by [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] data and thus not accepted by many systematists. * '''Group I: [[Afrotheria]]''' **Clade [[Afro-insectiphillia]] ***Order [[Macroscelidea]]: elephant shrews (Africa). ***Order [[Afrosoricida]]: tenrecs and golden moles (Africa) ***Order [[Tubulidentata]]: aardvark (Africa south of the Sahara). **Clade [[Paenungulata]] ***Order [[Hyracoidea]]: hyraxes or dassies (Africa, Arabia). ***Order [[Proboscidea]]: elephants (Africa, Southeast Asia). ***Order [[Sirenia]]: dugong and manatees (cosmopolitan tropical) *'''Group II: [[Xenarthra]]''' **Order [[Xenarthra]]: sloths and anteaters (Neotropical) and armadillos (Neotropical and Nearctic) *'''Clade [[Boreoeutheria]]''' **'''Group III [[Euarchontoglires]]''' ***Superorder [[Euarchonta]] ****Order [[Scandentia]]: treeshrews (Southeast Asia). ****Order [[Dermoptera]]: flying lemurs or colugos (Southeast Asia). ****Order [[Primates]]: lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes (cosmopolitan). ***Superorder [[Glires]] ****Order [[Lagomorpha]]: pikas, rabbits, hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas). ****Order [[Rodentia]]: rodents (cosmopolitan) **'''Group IV: [[Laurasiatheria]]''' ***Order [[Insectivora]]: moles, hedgehogs, shrews, solenodons ***Order [[Chiroptera]]: bats (cosmopolitan) ***Order [[Cetartiodactyla]]: cosmopolitan; includes former orders [[Cetacea]] (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and [[Artiodactyla]] (even-toed ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats). ***Order [[Perissodactyla]]: odd-toed ungulates ***Clade [[Ferae]] ****Order [[Pholidota]]: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia). ****Order [[Carnivora]]: carnivores (cosmopolitan) ===Classification system used in related articles=== In light of all the options available, the following classification system has been adopted for use in related articles. '''Class Mammalia''' *'''Subclass/Order [[Monotremata]]''': egg-laying mammals **Order [[Monotremata]]: [[echidna]]s and [[platypus]] *'''Subclass [[Marsupialia]]''': marsupials **Order [[Didelphimorphia]]: New World [[opossum]]s **Order [[Paucituberculata]]: [[shrew opossum]]s **Order [[Microbiotheria]]: Monito del Monte **Order [[Dasyuromorphia]]: marsupial carnivores **Order [[Notoryctemorphia]]: marsupial mole **Order [[Peramelemorphia]]: bandicoots and bilbies **Order [[Diprotodontia]]: koalas, wombats, kangaroos, possums, etc. *'''Subclass [[Placentalia]]''' **Order [[Xenarthra]]: sloths, anteaters, armadillos **Order [[Pholidota]]: pangolins **Superorder Glires ***Order [[Rodentia]]: rodents ***Order [[Lagomorpha]]: rabbits, hares, and pikas **Order [[Macroscelidea]]: elephant shrews **Superorder [[Archonta]]: ***Order [[Primates]]: primates ***Order [[Scandentia]]: treeshrews ***Order [[Chiroptera]]: bats ***Order [[Dermoptera]]: colugos **Order [[Insectivora]]: shrews, tenrecs, moles, hedgehogs, etc. **Order [[Carnivora]]: dogs, cats, weasels, seals, etc. **Superorder Ungulata: ungulates ***Order [[Tubulidentata]]: aardvark ***Order [[Hyracoidea]]: hyraxes ***Order [[Proboscidea]]: elephants ***Order [[Sirenia]]: manatees, dugong ***Order [[Perissodactyla]]: horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses ***Order [[Artiodactyla]]: even-toed ungulates ***Order [[Cetacea]]: whales --> == Uteuk mamalia == Otak mamalia téh sapuluh nepi ka saratus kali lipat leuwih gedé batan otak réptil modérn anu ukuranana sarua. Béda antara mamalia jeung dinosaurus malah leuwih nyolok deui. Ieu béda téh kacida gedéna sarta sipatna sistematis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=31}}</ref> Bisa disebutkeun yén manusa jeung lumba-lumba téh mangrupa mahluk hirup nu pangpinterna di bumi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=33}}</ref> == Rujukan == * '''Malcolm C. McKenna & Susan K. Bell'''. 1997. ''Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level.'' Columbia University Press, New York. ISBN 0-231-11013-8 * '''Ronald M. Nowak'''. 1999. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. éd. ka-6. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5789-9 * '''Géorge Gaylord Simpson'''. 1945. "The principles of classification and a classification of mammals". ''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'', '''85''':1–350. * '''Springer, Mark S., Michael J. Stanhope, Ole Madsen, & Wilfried W. de Jong'''. 2004. "Molecules consolidate the placental mammal tree". Trends in Ecology and Evolution, '''19''':430–438. ([http://www.zi.ku.dk/evolbiology/courses/ME04/7_9/springer200-phyl.pdf pdf version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729033207/http://www.zi.ku.dk/evolbiology/courses/ME04/7_9/springer200-phyl.pdf |date=2016-07-29 }}) * '''Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, & Nicholas J. Capzaplewski'''. 2000. ''Mammalogy: Fourth Edition''. Saunders College Publishing, 565 pp. ISBN 0-03-025034-X (Brooks Cole, 1999) * '''Wilson, Don E., & Deéann M. Reeder (eds)'''. 1993. ''Mammal Species of the World''. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-217-9 == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/nafmsd.html North American Fossil Mammal Systematics Database.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222135209/https://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/~alroy/nafmsd.html |date=2016-02-22 }} * [http://paleocene-mammals.de/ Paleocene Mammals], an excellent site covering the rise of the mammals * [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Evolution.shtml Evolution of Mammals], a brief intro to éarly mammals * [http://home.arcor.de/ktdykes/mesomamm.htm The Evolution of Mesozoic Mammals, a Rough Sketch] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618001545/http://home.arcor.de/ktdykes/mesomamm.htm |date=2013-06-18 }}, a nice informal introduction * [http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/news.html Carnegie Museum of Natural History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815052218/http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/news.html |date=2010-08-15 }}, some léading discoveries of éarly mammal fossils {{Mamalia}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Chordata]] [[Kategori:Sato nyusuan]] j3z925tfcvy1buvtogvr4txx0kt7hvh 0 2618 712788 712699 2026-09-21T01:50:41Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 nambahkeun subjudul 712788 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Charles Darwin.jpg|right|thumb|[[Charles Darwin]], lulugu téori évolusi dumasar kana [[seléksi alam]].]] Dina widang [[élmu hayat]], '''évolusi''' (''ᮆᮗᮧᮜᮥᮞᮤ'') hartina parobahan pasipatan [[organisme]] dina sababaraha turunan, kaasup lahirna [[spésiés]] anyar. Ku majuna [[genetika]] modérn taun [[1940-an]], évolusi diwatesan leuwih husus salaku parobahan frékuénsi [[alél]] dina hiji populasi ti hiji generasi ka generasi salajengna. Dina widang séjén, ''évolusi'' dipaké leuwih umum pikeun nujul prosés parobahan naon waé sapanjang waktu. Salah sahiji téori kohérén nu munggaran dina évolusi biologi diajukeun [[abad ka-19]] ku [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]. Ku medalna makalah babarengan antara [[Charles Darwin]] jeung [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] taun [[1858]], nu dituturkeun ku buku Darwin ''[[Origin of Species]]'' taun [[1859]], téori évolusi dumasar [[seléksi alam]] jadi beuki kaaku ku masarakat ilmiah sarta kaserep ku masarakat umum. Taun [[1930-an]], gawé bareng sababaraha élmuwan ngagabungkeun seléksi alam Darwin jeung téori [[héréditas]] nu diajukeun [[Gregor Mendel]] ngahasilkeun [[sintésis évolusi modérn]]. Dina sintésis modérn, "évolusi" dihartikeun salaku parobahan frékuénsi alél dina hiji ''[[gene pool]]''. Parobahan ieu bisa jadi alatan sababaraha mékanisme béda: [[seléksi alam]], ''[[genetic drift]]'', atawa parobahan struktur populasi (''[[gene flow]]''). <!-- ==Téori ilmiah== Téori nu jadi dadasar sintésis modérn mibanda tilu aspék: # [[Turunan umum]] sadaya [[organisme]] ti hiji karuhun tunggal. # The origin of novel [[trait]]s in a lineage. # The mechanisms that cause some traits to persist while others perish. {{tarjamahkeun|inggris}} The modern synthesis, like its Mendelian and Darwinian antecedents, is a scientific theory. In plain English, people use the word "theory" to signify "conjecture", "speculation", or "opinion". In contrast, a [[theory|scientific theory]] is a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] can be generated and be verified through [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. In this sense, "theory" and "fact" do not stand in opposition, but rather exist in a reciprocal relationship — for example, it is a "fact" that an [[apple]] dropped on earth will fall towards the center of the planet in a straight line, and the "theory" which explains it is the current theory of [[gravitation]]. Currently, the modern synthesis is the most [[predictive power|powerful]] theory explaining variation and speciation, and within the [[science]] of [[biology]], it has completely replaced other explanations for the origin of species, including [[creationism]] and [[Lamarckism]]. ===Karuhun organisme=== {|align=right |[[Image:Stromatolites.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|[[Stromatolit]] [[Pre-Cambrian]] dina Formasi Siyeh, [[Taman Nasional Glacier]]. Taun [[2002]], William Schopf ti [[Universitas California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] medalkeun makalah kontroversial dina jurnal ''[[Nature]]'', nu nyebutkeun yén formasi kawas kieu ngandung [[fosil]] mikroba [[ganggang]] nu umurna 3.5 miliar taun [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/space/SpaceRepublish_497964.htm]. Mun bener, ieu mangrupa mahluk hirup pangkolotna nu geus kapanggih.]] |- |[[Image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tangkal filogenetik]] [[tangkal évolusi|sadaya mahluk hirup]], dumasar data [[gén]] [[rRNA]], némbongkeun misahna domain tangkal [[baktéri]], [[arkaéa]], jeung [[eukariot]] sakumaha nu geus kungsi dikedalkeun ku [[Carl Woese]]. Tangkal nu diwangun ku gén lainna sacara umum méh sarupa. Pancakaki nu bener ngeunaan domain tangkal masih kénéh dipadungdengkeun.]] |- |[[Image:South - Djoum Chimps.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|Uji genetik némbongkeun yén [[manusa]] jeung [[simpanseu]] mibanda [[DNA]] nu pangmiripna. Dina hiji studi nalungtik 90000 [[pasang basa]], Morris Goodman ti [[Wayne State University]] manggihan yén manusa jeung simpanseu babagi 99,4% DNA-na [http://www.freep.com/news/nw/chimp20_20030520.htm] [http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/humans_chimps_same_genus.shtml].]] |- |[[Image:UreyMillerExperiment.jpeg|right|250px|thumbnail|This is a [[NASA]] recreation of the famous [[Miller-Urey experiment]]. In [[1953]], [[Stanley Miller]] and [[Harold Urey]] sealed the chemical precursors to life in a closed environment, and subjected them to conditions similar to primordial earth. The results of the experiment suggest that the chemicals necessary for life did tend to arise under those circumstances, supporting the theories of [[Abiogenesis]]]] |} {{mainarticle|Common descent}} A group of organisms is said to have [[common descent]] if they have a common ancestor. In [[biology]], the theory of universal common descent proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of [[morphology (biology)|morphologic]] similarities, such as the fact that all birds — even those which do not fly — have wings. Today, the theory of evolution has been strongly confirmed by the science of [[DNA]] genetics. For example, every living thing makes use of [[nucleic acid]]s as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty [[amino acid]]s as the building blocks for [[protein]]s. All organisms use the same [[genetic code]] (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to [[translation (genetics)|translate]] nucleic acid sequences into proteins. Because the selection of these traits is somewhat arbitrary, their universality strongly suggests common ancestry. In addition, [[abiogenesis]] — the generation of life from non-living matter — has never been observed, indicating that the [[origin of life]] from non-life is either extremely rare or only happens under conditions very unlike those of modern Earth. The 1953 [[Miller-Urey experiment]] suggests that conditions on the ancient earth may have permitted abiogenesis. Since abiogenesis is rare or impossible under modern conditions and the evolutionary process is exceedingly slow, the diversity and complexity of modern life requires that the Earth be very old, on the order of billions of years. This is compatible with [[geology|geological]] evidence that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the earth|4.6 billion years old]]. (See [[Timeline of evolution]].) Information about the early development of life includes input from the fields of geology and [[planetary science]]. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. A great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time. ====Bukti morfologis==== [[Fossil]]s are important for estimating when various lineages developed. As fossilization is an uncommon occurrence, usually requiring hard parts (like bone) and death near a site where [[sediment]]s are being deposited, the [[fossil record]] only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life. Fossil evidence of early life is sparse before the evolution of organisms with hard body parts, such as shell, bone, and teeth, but exists in the form of ancient microfossils and the fossilization of ancient burrows and a few soft-bodied organisms. Nevertheless, fossil evidence of prehistoric organisms has been found all over the Earth. The age of fossils can often be deduced from the geologic context in which they are found; and their absolute age can be verified with [[radiometric dating]]. Some fossils bear a resemblance to organisms alive today, while others are radically different. Fossils have been used to determine at what time a lineage developed, and can be used to demonstrate the continuity between two different lineages through ''[[transitional fossil]]s''. [[Paleontology|Paleontologist]]s investigate evolution largely through analysis of fossils. [[Phylogeny]], the study of the ancestry of species, has revealed that structures with similar internal organization may perform divergent functions. [[Vertebrate]] limbs are a common example of such ''homologous structures''. A [[vestigial organ|vestigial organ]] or structure may exist with little or no purpose in one organism, though they have a clear purpose in others. The human [[wisdom teeth]] and [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]] are common examples. ====Bukti runtuyan genetik==== Comparison of the genetic sequence of organisms reveals that organisms that are [[phylogeny|phylogenetically]] close have a higher degree of sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the [[chimpanzee]], 1.6% from [[gorilla]]s [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11170892], and 6.6% from [[baboon]]s[http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/13/5/813]. Sequence comparison is considered such a robust measure that it is sometimes used to correct mistakes in the phylogenetic tree, in instances where other evidence is scarce. Further evidence for common descent comes from genetic detritus such as [[pseudogene]]s, regions of DNA which are [[ortholog]]ous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10833048]. Since [[metabolism|metabolic]] processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is also done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged at different stages of development, so it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor. ====Asal-usul kahirupan==== {{artikel utama|Asal-usul kahirupan}} Not much is known about the earliest development of life. However, all existing organisms share certain traits, including the cellular structure, and the [[genetic code]]. Most scientists interpret this to mean all existing organisms share a common ancestor, which had already developed the most fundamental cellular processes, but there is no [[scientific consensus]] on the relationship of the three domains of life ([[Archea]], [[Bacterium|Bacteria]], [[Eukaryota]]) or the [[origin of life]]. Attempts to shed light on the earliest history of life generally focus on the behavior of [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[RNA]], and the behavior of [[complex system]]s. Though the origins of life are murky, other milestones in the evolutionary history of life are well-known. The emergence of oxygenic [[photosynthesis]] (around 3 billion years ago) and the subsequent emergence of an oxygen-rich, non-reducing atmosphere can be traced through the formation of [[banded iron]] deposits, and later [[red beds]] of iron oxides. This was a necessary prerequisite for the development of [[aerobic respiration|aerobic]] [[cellular respiration]], believed to have emerged around 2 billion years ago. In the last billion years, simple multicellular plants and animals began to appear in the oceans. Soon after the emergence of the first animals the [[Cambrian explosion]] (a period of unrivaled and remarkable, but brief, organismal diversity documented in the fossils found at the [[Burgess Shale]]) saw the creation of all the major body plans, or [[phyla]], of modern animals. About 500 million years ago, [[plant]]s and [[fungi]] colonized the land, and were soon followed by [[arthropod]]s and other animals, leading to the development of land [[ecosystem]]s with which we are familiar. ===Emergence of novel traits=== ====Mechanisms of inheritance==== In Darwin's time, scientists did not share broad agreement on how [[trait]]s were inherited. Today most inherited traits are traced to discrete, persistent entities called ''[[gene]]s'', encoded in linear molecules called ''[[DNA]]''. Though by and large faithfully maintained, DNA is both variable across individuals and subject to a process of change or [[mutation]] (described below). However, other non-DNA based forms of heritable variation exist. The processes that produce these variations leave the genetic information intact and are often reversible. This is called [[epigenetic inheritance]] and may include phenomena such as DNA methylation, [[prion]]s, and [[structural inheritance]]. Investigations continue into whether these mechanisms allow for the production of specific beneficial heritable variation in response to environmental signals. If this is shown to be the case, then some instances of evolution would lie outside of the typically Darwinian framework, which avoided any connection between environmental signals and the production of heritable variation. ====Mutation==== {{mainarticle|Mutation}} Darwin did not know the source of variations in individual organisms, but observed that it seemed to be by chance. Later work pinned much of this variation onto mutations. Mutations are permanent, transmissible changes to the [[genetic material]] (usually [[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) of a [[cell (biology)|cell]], and can be caused by "copying errors" in the genetic material during [[cell division]] and by exposure to [[radiation]], chemicals, or [[virus (biology)|viruses]], or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as [[meiosis]] or [[hypermutation]]. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into ''germline mutations,'' which can be passed on to progeny and ''somatic mutations'', which (when accidental) often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause [[cancer]]. Mutations introduce new genetic variation, without which evolution cannot proceed. [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|Neutral mutations]] do not affect the organism's chances of survival in its natural environment and can accumulate over time, which might result in what is known as [[punctuated equilibrium]], the modern interpretation of classic evolutionary theory. Most biologists believe that [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] occurs through the accumulation of many mutations of small effect. However, [[macromutation]] is an alternative process for adaptation which involves a single, very large scale mutation. ===Differential survival of traits=== While mutation can create new [[allele]]s, other factors influence the frequency of existing alleles. These factors mean that some characteristics will become more frequent while others diminish or are lost entirely. There are three known processes that affect the survival of a characteristic; or, more specifically, the frequency of an allele: * [[Genetic drift]] * [[Gene flow]] * [[Natural selection]] ====Natural selection==== {{mainarticle|Natural selection}} Natural selection is based on differential survival and reproduction rates as a result of the environment. Differential mortality is the survival rate of individuals before their reproductive age. If they survive, they are then selected further by differential fertility — that is, their total genetic contribution to the next generation. Natural selection can be subdivided into two categories: * [[Ecological selection]] occurs when organisms that survive and reproduce increase the frequency of their genes in the gene pool over those that do not survive. * [[Sexual selection]] occurs when organisms that are more attractive to the opposite sex because of their features reproduce more and increase the frequency of those features in the gene pool. Natural selection also operates on mutations in several different ways: * [[Purifying selection|Purifying]] or [[background selection]] eliminates deleterious mutations from a population. * [[Positive selection]] increases the frequency of a beneficial mutation. * [[Balancing selection]] maintains variation within a population through a number of mechanisms, including: ** [[Overdominance]] or [[heterozygote advantage]], where the [[heterozygote]] is more fit than either of the homozygous forms (famously exemplified by human [[sickle cell anemia]] conferring resistance to [[malaria]]) ** [[Frequency-dependent selection]], where the rare variants have a higher fitness. The central role of natural selection in evolutionary theory has given rise to a strong connection between that field and the study of [[ecology]]. Mutations that are not affected by natural selection are called [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|neutral mutations]]. Their frequency in the population is governed entirely by genetic drift and gene flow. It is understood that an organism's DNA sequence, in the absence of selection, undergoes a steady accumulation of neutral mutations. The [[probable mutation effect]] is the proposition that a gene that is not under selection will be destroyed by accumulated mutations. This is an aspect of [[genome degradation]]. * Selection of organisms for desirable characteristics, when done by humans, e.g. for [[agriculture]] or as pets, is called [[artificial selection]]. * [[James Mark Baldwin|Baldwinian]] evolution refers to the way human beings, as [[culture|cultured]] animals capable of symbolic (extrasomatic) learning, can change their environment, or the environment of any species, in such a way as to result in new selective forces. ====Genetic drift==== {{mainarticle|Genetic drift}} Genetic drift describes changes in allele frequency that cannot be ascribed to selective pressures, but are due instead to events that are unrelated to inherited traits. This is especially important in small mating populations, where chance fluctuations from generation to generation can be large. Such fluctuations in allele frequency between successive generations may result in some alleles disappearing from the population. Two separate populations that begin with the same allele frequency might, therefore, "drift" by random fluctuation into two divergent populations with different allele sets (for example, alleles that are present in one have been lost in the other). Rare sporadic events ([[volcano|volcanic]] explosion, [[meteor]] impact, etc.) might contribute to genetic drift by altering the allele frequency outside of "normal" selective pressures. Many aspects of genetic drift depend on the size of the population (generally abbreviated as N). In small populations, genetic drift can cause large changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next, whereas in large populations, changes in allele frequencies in each generation are usually very small. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in determining the fate of new mutations also depends on the population size and the strength of selection: when N times s (population size times strength of selection) is small, genetic drift predominates. When N times s is large, selection predominates. Thus natural selection is 'more efficient' in large populations, or equivalently, genetic drift is stronger in small populations. Finally, the time for an allele to become fixed in the population by genetic drift (that is, for all individuals in the population to carry that allele) depends on population size, with smaller populations requiring a shorter time to fixation. ====Gene flow==== [[Gene flow]] (or gene admixture) is the only mechanism whereby populations can become closer genetically while building larger gene pools. Migration of one population into another area occupied by a second population can result in gene flow. Gene flow operates when geography and culture are not obstacles. ===Microevolution and macroevolution=== [[Microevolution]] is a term used to refer to small-scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over the course of a few generations. These changes may be due to a number of processes: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, as well as natural selection. [[Population genetics]] is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution. Large-scale changes over longer periods of time are refered to as [[Macroevolution]]. This term refers to changes that result in substantially different organisms and is usually taken to refer to events that result in ''[[speciation]]'', the evolution of a new [[species]]. An absolute distinction between macroevolution and microevolution isn't normally drawn by biologists for a number of reasons, including the fact that there is no universal definition of what constitutes a 'macroevolutionary' change. Mutations to existing species resulting in entirely new species have been observed in the laboratory and in the field. The relation between microevolution and macroevolution can be summed up as such: macroevolution is the long-term result of many microevolutions that, over time, result in two populations of organisms so different that speciation can be said to have occurred. From a biological standpoint there is no true difference between macro and microevolution. The two terms were created by [[creationists]] to differentiate between visible and testable evolution and extrapolated and untestable macroevolution. ===Speciation and extinction=== [[Speciation]] is the creation of two or more species from one. There are various mechanisms by which this may take place. [[Allopatric speciation]] begins when subpopulations of a species become isolated geographically, for example by [[habitat fragmentation]] or migration. [[Sympatric speciation]] occurs when new species emerge in the same geographic area. [[Ernst Mayr]]'s [[peripatric speciation]] is a type of speciation that exists in between the extremes of allopatry and sympatry. Peripatric speciation is a critical underpinning of the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]]. [[Extinction]] is the disappearance of species (i.e. [[gene pool]]s). The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species. Extinction is not an unusual event in [[geological time]] — species are created by speciation, and disappear through extinction. ==Evolutionary biology== [[Evolutionary biology]] is a subfield of [[biology]] concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time. Evolutionary biology is a kind of meta field because it includes scientists from many traditional [[taxonomy|taxonomically]]-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally includes scientists who may have a specialist training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]] but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions in evolution. Evolutionary biology as an [[academic discipline]] in its own right emerged as a result of the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]]. It was not until the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], however, that a significant number of universities had departments that specifically included the term ''evolutionary biology'' in their titles. == History of evolutionary thought == {|align=right |[[Image:Origin of Species.jpg|right|thumbnail|160px|The 1859 edition of ''On the Origin of Species'']] |- |[[Image:Stephen Jay Gould.png|right|thumbnail|160px|[[Stephen Jay Gould]], who, along with [[Niles Eldredge]] proposed the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]] in 1972]] |} {{mainarticle|History of evolutionary thought}} The idea of biological evolution has existed since ancient times, notably among Hellenists such as [[Epicurus]], but the modern theory wasn't established until the 18th and 19th centuries, with scientists such as [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and [[Charles Darwin]]. While transmutation of species was accepted by a sizeable number of scientists before [[1859]], it was the publication of Charles Darwin's ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could persist: his theory of natural selection. Darwin was motivated to publish his work on evolution after receiving a letter from [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], in which Wallace revealed his own discovery of natural selection. As such, Wallace is sometimes given shared credit for the theory of evolution. Darwin's theory, though it succeeded in profoundly shaking scientific opinion regarding the development of life (and indeed resulted in a small social revolution), could not explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and Darwin's proposal of a [[heredity|hereditary]] mechanism ([[pangenesis]]) was not compelling to most biologists. It was not until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that these mechanisms were established. When [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work regarding the nature of inheritance in the late [[19th century]] was "rediscovered" in 1900, it led to a storm of conflict between Mendelians ([[Charles Benedict Davenport]]) and biometricians ([[Walter Frank Raphael Weldon]] and [[Karl Pearson]]), who insisted that the great majority of traits important to evolution must show continuous variation that was not explainable by Mendelian analysis. Eventually, the two models were reconciled and merged, primarily through the work of the biologist and statistician [[R.A. Fisher]]. This combined approach, applying a rigorous statistical model to Mendel's theories of inheritance via genes, became known in the 1930s and 1940s as the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]]. In the 1940s, following up on [[Griffith's experiment]], [[Oswald Avery|Avery]], [[Colin McCleod|McCleod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty|McCarty]] definitively identified [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)]] as the "transforming principle" responsible for transmitting genetic information. In [[1953]], [[Francis Crick]] and [[James Watson]] published their famous paper on the structure of DNA, based on the research of [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]]. These developments ignited the era of [[molecular biology]] and transformed the understanding of evolution into a molecular process: the [[mutation]] of segments of DNA (see [[molecular evolution]]). In the mid-[[1970s]], [[Motoo Kimura]] formulated the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]], firmly establishing the importance of [[genetic drift]] as a major mechanism of evolution. Debates have continued within the field. One of the most prominent outstanding debates is over the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], a theory propounded by [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] to explain the paucity of transitional forms between phyla. == Impact of the theory of evolution == {{mainarticle|Social implications of the theory of evolution}} [[Image:scopes trial.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Clarence Darrow]] and [[William Bryan]] chat during the 1925 [[Scopes Trial]] where J.Scopes was fined for teaching the theory of evolution.]] As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human [[society|societies]]. Some have vigorously opposed acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (''e.g.'' its implied rejection of the special creation of humans described in the [[Bible]]). In the [[United States]] this has led to a vigorous conflict between [[creation and evolution in public education]], though this appears to be largely a local phenomenon. ===Evolution and ethical systems=== The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as [[social Darwinism]], which holds that "the survival of the fittest" explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people and [[eugenics]], which claimed that human civilization was subverting natural selection by allowing the "less fit" to survive and "out-breed" the "more fit." After the atrocities of [[the Holocaust]] became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion (though it was never universally accepted by either). The notion that humans share ancestors with other animals has also affected how some people view the relationship between humans and other species. Many proponents of [[animal rights]] hold that if animals and humans are of the same nature, then rights cannot be distinct to humans. The theory has also been incorporated into other fields of knowledge, creating hybrids such as [[evolutionary psychology]] and [[sociobiology]]. ===Evolution and religion=== {{mainarticle|Creation-evolution controversy}} Before the serious study of geology as a science began, early in the 19th century, Western religions almost unanimously discounted or condemned any claims that life is the result of an evolutionary process, as did nearly all scientists. However, as geological evidence began to accumulate throughout the world, a number of scientists began to question whether a literal interpretation of the creation account in the Judeo-Christian [[Bible]] could be reconciled with their findings (and their implications). Certain religious geologists like Dean [[William Buckland]] in England, [[Edward Hitchcock]] in America and [[Hugh Miller]] in Scotland continued to explain the evidence in terms of a universal deluge, but after [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' in 1859, scientific opinion began to quickly swing away from literal interpretations of the Bible. This early debate about the literal validity of the Bible was not conducted behind closed doors and it unsettled educated opinion in both continents. Eventually it instigated a "counter-reformation" that took the form of a religious [[Revival (religious)|Revival]] in both continents in 1857-1860. Some groups, most prominently in the US, interpret [[sacred text|Scripture]] to mean that a [[supreme being]] directly created humans and other animals as separate species. This view is commonly referred to as [[creationism]], and continues to be defended by some religious groups, particularly among [[United States of America|American]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]]. In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Some religions have adopted a [[evolutionary creationism|theistic evolution]] viewpoint, where the [[God]] provides a [[divine spark]] that ignited the process of evolution, and (or) where the God has guided evolution. For example, the [[Roman Catholic Church]], beginning in [[1950]] with [[Pope Pius XII]]'s encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. ''"The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter."'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis_en.html]. In an [[October 22]], [[1996]], address to the [[Pontifical Academy of Science]], [[Pope John Paul II]] updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP961022.HTM]. (''For more see: [[evolution and the Roman Catholic Church]]''). In countries or regions where the majority of people hold strong religious beliefs, creationism has a much broader appeal than in countries where the majority of people hold [[secularism|secular]] beliefs. From the [[1920]]s to the present in the US, there has been a strong religious backlash to the teaching of evolution theory, particularly by evangelicals. Some creationists, such as Dr. [[Kent Hovind]], believe that evolution is the basis for [[Nazism]], [[Communism]], [[Marxism]], [[Mother Earth]] worship, [[racism]], and that "[[dinosaur]]s were in the [[Garden of Eden]], have always lived with man, were on [[Noah's ark|the ark]] with Noah, and a few may still be alive today in some parts of the world." ==References== *Darwin, Charles [[November 24]] [[1859]]. ''On the [[Origin of Species]] by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 502 pages. Reprinted: Gramercy (May 22, 1995). ISBN 0-517-12320-7 *Zimmer, Carl. ''Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea''. Perennial (October 1, 2002). ISBN 0-06-095850-2 *Larson, Edward J. ''Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory'' (Modern Library Chronicles). Modern Library (May 4, 2004). ISBN 0-679-64288-9 *Mayr, Ernst. ''What Evolution Is''. Basic Books (October, 2002). ISBN 0-465-04426-3 *Gigerenzer, Gerd, et al., ''The empire of chance: how probability changed science and everyday life'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). ==See also== {| border=0 cellpadding=0 |- valign=top | *[[anagenesis]] *[[argument from evolution]] *[[atavism]] *[[catagenesis]] *[[cladogenesis]] *[[Convergent evolution]] *[[evolutionary medicine]] *[[endosymbiont]] *[[evolutionary algorithm]] *[[Evolutionary art]] *[[evolution of sex]] *[[evolutionary tree]] *[[experimental evolution]] | &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; | *[[fitness landscape]] *[[genetic algorithm]] *[[gradualism]] *[[modern evolutionary synthesis]] *[[natural science]] *[[neutral theory of molecular evolution]] *[[niche construction]] *[[Nonhuman animals ethics]] *[[parallel evolution]] *[[quantum evolution]] *[[quasispecies model]] *[[scientific method]] *[[sexual selection]] *[[teratogenesis]] |} --> == Mutasi == Bahan dasar évolusi nyaéta mutasi—hususna, parobahan anu bisa diwariskeun dina runtuyan nukléotida tinangtu anu ngawangun paréntah pikeun pawarisan sipat di jero molekul DNA. Mutasi ogé bisa disababkeun ku radioaktivitas lingkungan atawa sinar kosmik ti luar angkasa. Salian ti éta, mutasi sering lumangsung sacara acak nalika aya pangaturan ulang nukléotida sacara spontan—hiji prosés anu sacara statistik teu bisa dihindarkeun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=21}}</ref> == Pamahaman ngeunaan évolusi == Manusa téh lain turunan langsung ti [[monyét]] atawa [[Simpanseu|simpanséu]], urang boga karuhun nu sarua jeung éta dua rupa [[primata]]. Éta karuhun téh tangtu leuwih mirip primata batan manusa modérn—malah lamun urang panggih jeung manéhna 25 juta taun ka tukang, urang pasti bakal nyebutna monyét atawa simpanséu. Sanajan manusa ngalaman évolusi ti primata, euweuh sasatoan nu ngalahirkeun spésiés anyar sacara instan. == Sumber rujukan == * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/evolution Evolution, ti Wikipédia basa Inggris], disalin ping 15 Juni 2005. == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ National Academies Evolution Resources] * [http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Main_Page EvoWiki] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124071433/http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Main_Page |date=2005-11-24 }} - A wiki dedicated to Evolution * [http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-selection/introduction.htm Evolution by Natural Selection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050501104626/http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-selection/introduction.htm |date=2005-05-01 }} - An introduction to the logic of the théory of evolution by natural selection * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/index.html Evolution] - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''. * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com - How Evolution Works] * [http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.Origins Archive] - see also [[talk.origins]] * [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Charles Darwin's writings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050206014650/http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ |date=2005-02-06 }} * [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/evolution.php Evolution News from Genome News Network (GNN)] * [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309063647/html/ National Academy Press: Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science] {{evolusi}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Biologi évolusi]] [[Kategori:Évolusi|Évolusi]] [[Kategori:Téori]] gi8crr1mrppg5odt45s89b09vaee8qa 0 2649 712782 712772 2026-09-21T01:00:50Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 nambahkeun referensi 712782 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Leaf 1 web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Daun: loka utama lumangsungna fotosintésis na tutuwuhan.]] '''Fotosintésis''' nyaéta hiji prosés [[biokimia]]wi nalika [[tangkal|tutuwuhan]], [[ganggang]], jeung sababaraha rupa [[baktéri]] ngamangpaatkeun énergi cahya pikeun ngahasilkeun dahareun. Gemblengna mah, ampir sadaya mahluk hirupna gumantung kana énergi nu dihasilkeun tina fotosintésis, antukna fotosintésis penting pisan pikeun kahirupan di [[Marcapada]]. Fotosintésis ogé kacida pisan pentingna dina ngahasilkeun [[oksigén]] nu ngeusi [[atmosfir]] Bumi. Organisme-organisme nu ngahasilkeun énergi ngaliwatan fotosintésis disebut [[fototrof]]. == Fotosintésis na tutuwuhan == Tangkal sipatna [[autotrof]], nu hartina bisa nyieun dahareun langsung tina sanyawaan anorganik, teu kudu ngahakan organisme séjén atawa gumantung kana bahan nu diturunkeun ti organisme séjén. Nu paling penting, tatangkalan ngagunakeun gas [[karbon dioksida]] jeung [[cai]] pikeun ngahasilkeun gula jeung gas [[oksigén]]. Énergi keur prosés ieu datang tina fotosintésis. Pikeun ringkesna, kasaruaan gembleng produksi [[glukosa]] bisa digambarkeun kieu :6H₂O + 6CO₂ + cahya → C₆H₁₂O₆ (glukosa) + 6O₂ Glukosa dipaké dina rupa-rupa réaksi pikeun ngahasilkeun sanyawaan organik lianna, kayaning "bahan wangunan" [[selulosa]], atawa dipaké salaku suluh. Ieu lumangsung dina [[réspirasi]] nu kapanggih boh di sa[[sato]]an ataaw tutuwuhan. Garis badagna mah, prosés ieu téh sabalikna tina nu di luhur: glukosa jeung sanyawaan séjén meta jeung oksigén ngahasilkeun karbon dioksida, cai, jeung tanaga kimiawi. Tapi, prosés-prosés ieu téh ngaliwatan runtuyan hambalan nu pajeulit jeung béda detilna. [[Gambar:Leaf.jpg|thumb|250px|Daun gugur: di lebah daun ku [[klorofil]]na geus ruksak jadi konéng.]] Klorofil ieu dikandung dina hiji [[organél]] (rohangan na jero [[sél (biologi)|sél]]) nu disebut [[kloroplas]]. Najan sadaya bagian nu héjo na tatangkalan ngandung kloroplas, énergina mah lolobana dihasilkeun na [[daun]]. Sél-sél na jaringan interior daun disebut [[mésofil]], nu ngandung kira satengah juta kloroplas per [[miliméter]] pasagi daun. Beungeut daun rata dilapis ku [[kutikel]] nu ngandung [[lilin]] antukna teu tembus cai: ngajaga daun tina absorpsi cahya jeung nguapna cai sacara kaleuleuwihi. Lapisan [[épidermis]] nu transparan jeung teu warnaan tetep bisa nembuskeun cahya ka sél mésofil palisade tempat utama lumangsungna fotosintésis. Tutuwuhan héjo ngagunakeun cahaya beureum jeung wungu tina spéktrum panonpoé pikeun ngarecah cai, nyintésis karbohidrat, sarta ngalakukeun rupa-rupa kagiatan séjénna. Nanging, panonpoé ngaluarkeun cahaya konéng jeung héjo anu leuwih loba batan cahaya beureum atawa wungu. Tutuwuhan anu ngan ukur ngandelkeun klorofil salaku pigmén fotosintésisna bakal nolak panjang gelombang cahaya anu jumlahna paling loba éta. Sigana mah loba tutuwuhan anu ahirna "sadar" kana hal ieu sarta ngalakukeun adaptasi; pigmén séjénna—saperti karoténoid jeung fikobilin—geus ngalaman évolusi pikeun mantulkeun cahaya beureum bari nyerep cahaya konéng jeung héjo.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=51}}</ref> == Fotosintésis na ganggang jeung baktéri == Ganggang (''algae'') téh rupa-rupa, ti organisme multisélular kawas ''[[kelp]]'' nepi ka sél tunggal [[mikroskop]]ik. Najan ganggang teu pajeulit kawas tatangkalan di darat, fotosintésisna mah lunmangsung sarua kénéh. Sadaya rupa ganggang ngahasilkeun oksigén, sarta lolobana autotrof. Tapi, aya ogé nu [[hétérotrof]]ik, gumantung bahan nu dihasilkeun ku organisme séjén. Baktéri fotosintétik teu boga kloroplas, fotosintésisna lumangsung dina jero sél. [[Sianobaktéria]] ngandung klorofil jeung oksigén dina cara nu sarua jeung kloroplas - malah kiwari loba nu nganggap yén kloroplas téh asalna tina sianobaktéria. Baktéri fotosintétik séjénna mibanda rupa-rupa pigmén nu disebut [[baktérioklorofil]] nu teu ngahasilkeun oksigén. Ganggang beureum ilaharna mindahkeun énergi cahaya panonpoé nu warnana héjo jeung konéng ka pigmén klorofil—anu, sanajan henteu nyerep éta cahaya sacara husus, boga peran penting dina ngarobah énergi cahaya jadi énergi kimia nalika prosés fotosintésis tutuwuhan. Alam henteu bisa kitu waé miceun klorofil tuluy ngagantina ku pigmén nu leuwih unggul; klorofil geus nyerep pisan kana inti kahirupan tutuwuhan. Tutuwuhan nu mibanda pigmén tambahan téh jelas leuwih éfisién, tapi klorofil tetep boga peran dina prosés fotosintésisna. Sanajan kontribusina ngurangan, éta peran tetep aya.<ref name=":1" /> == Na hambalan molekular == Fotosintésis ngahasilkeun énergi nu leuwih loba mun nyerep cahya nu panjang gelombangna tangtu. Dina tutuwuhan, aya dua [[fotosistim]] nu kajeujeut, nu paling aktif na panjang gelombang 700 jeung 680 [[nanométer|nm]]. Fotosintésis dimimitian nalika cahya ngaionisasi molekul klorofil, ngaleupaskeun dua [[éléktron]], nu dipindahkeun ngaliwatan [[rantay transpor éléktron]], sarupa jeung nu lumangsung na réspirasi. Énergina dipaké pikeun [[fotofosforilasi]] nu ngahasilkeun [[adénosin trifosfat]] (ATP), "mata uang" utama jero sél. Na fotosistim I, éléktron dipulangkeun ka klorofil, sedengkeun na fotosistim II dipaké pikeun nyetir réaksi :[[nikotinamida adénin dinukléotida|NADP]]⁺ + H⁺ + 2e⁻ → NADPH NADPH mangrupa [[agén pangréduksi]] utama jero sél nu nyadiakeun sumber éléktron énergetik pikeun réaksi séjén. Balukar tina ieu réaksi, klorofil jadi kakurangan éléktron, antukna kudu nyokot ti agén pangréduksi lianna. Na tutuwuhan jeung ganggang, fungsi ieu ditempatan ku cai, nu salajengna ngahasilkeun oksigén: :2 H₂O → O₂ + 4 H⁺ + 4 ''e''⁻ Catet yén oksigén ngan dihasilkeun tina cai, lain ti karbon dioksida nu dipaké ku tutuwuhan. Hal ieu munggaran diajukeun ku [[C. B. van Neil]] taun[[1930-an]], nu nalungtik baktéri fotosintétik. Misalna [[sianobaktéria]] nu ngagunakeun agén pangréduksi kayaning [[silfida]] jeung [[hidrogén]], antukna teu ngahasilkeun oksigén. Nu séjénna, kayaning halofil (Archéae) ngahasilkeun nu katelah mémbran bungur, tempat rodopsin baktéri bisa manén cahya pikeun ngahasilkeun énergi. -- Mémbran bungur mangrupa nu munggaran dipaké pikeun némbongkeun téori kémiosmotik: cahya nu neunggar mémbran ngajadikeun leyuran nu ngandung mémbran bungur pH-na nyirorot alatan proton dikompa kaluar ti mémbran! ATP jeung NADPH nu dihasilkeun tina fotosintésis nyetir rupa-rupa prosés biokimia. na tutuwuhan, nu onjoy pisan mah dina [[daur Calvin]], nu ngarobah karbon dioksida jadi [[ribulosa]] (lajeng jadi [[gula]] kayaning [[PGAL]], nu salajengna dirobah deui jadi [[glukosa]] jeung, kadang, [[protéin]]). Réaksi-réaksi ieu disebut [[réaksi bébas cahya]], atawa réaksi poék, sabab bisa lumangsung tanpa ayana cahya. Najan kitu, nalika oksigén dina kloroplas leuwih loba batan karbon dioksida, bisa lumnagsung ogé [[fotoréspirasi]] nu mangrupa jalur kontraproduktif, sabalikna tina produksi gula. == Papanggihan == Najan can sadaya hambalan na fotosintésis kaharti sacara gamblang, kasaruaan fotosintétik geus dipikanyaho ti taun [[1800-an]]. [[Jan van Helmont]] ngamimitian nalungtik prosés ieu panengah [[1600-an]] ku jalan ngukur [[massa]] taneuh na pot jeung massa tangkalna nalika tumuwuh. Anjeunna boga hipotésis yén parobahan massa taneuh nu saeutik tangtu balukar ayana cai, hiji-hijina zat nu ditambahkeun kana pot ku anjeunna. Sabagian mah hipotésis ieu téh bener - nambahanana massa tangkal leuwih loba datang ti karbon dioksida. Najan kitu, hipotésis ieu mangrupa tanda yén "kahakanan" tutuwuhan téh asalna tina asupan fotosintésis,lain tina taneuh. [[Joseph Priestley]], kimiawan, manggihan yén nalika anjeunna ngisolasi sawadah udara dina mangkok nu dibalikkeun, lajeng ngahurungkeun lilin di jerona, lilinna bakal téréh pareum. Anjeunna ogé lajeng ngabuktikeun yén beurit gé bisa "méakkeun" udara. Ti dinya lajeng kabuktikeun yén bagian udara nu béak ku lilin jeung beurit téh bisa dipulangkeun deui ku tutuwuhan. Taun [[1778]], [[Jan Ingenhousz]], dokter di Austrian Empress, ngulang ékspérimén Priestley. Anjeunna mendakan yén tutuwuhan nu bisa nulungan beurit nalika béakeun udara téh dipangaruhan ku ayana [[panonpoé]] jeung cahya. Taun [[1796]], [[Jean Senebier]], pastur Prancis, némbonkeun yén CO₂ nu ngeusi udara nu "béak" téa, diserep ku tutuwuhan na fotosintésis. Teu lami ti éta, [[Theodore de Saussure]] némbongkeun yén nambahanana massa tangkal nalika tumuwuh bisa jadi lain alatan nyerep CO₂ wungkul, tapi ogé ku ayana cai. Ti dinya lajeng digambarkeun réaksi dasar fotosintésis nepi ka ngahasilkeun dahareun (kawas glukosa). Élmuwan modérn ngawangun dadasar pangaweruh ngeunaan fotosintésis tina para élmuwan nu kasebut tadi, antukna lajeng bolékér rusiah-rusiah kaélmuan séjénna. Ékspérimén munggaran nu ngabuktikeun yén oksigén nu dihasilkeun dina fotosintésis tutuwuhan héjo asalna tina cai dipilampah ku [[Robin Hill]] taun [[1937]] jeung [[1939]]. Anjeunna némbongkeun yén isolat kloroplas ngaleupaskeun oksigén ku ayana agén pangréduksi teu alami kawas [[oksalat beusi]], [[férisianida]], atawa [[bénzoquinon]] sanggeus kasinaran. Réaksi Hill didadarkeun dina kasaruaan :2 H₂O + 2 A > (cahya, kloroplas) > 2 AH₂ + O₂, A mangrupa panampa éléktron. Ieu nunjukkeun yén panampa éléktron diréduksi sahingga ngahasilkeun oksigén. [[Samuel Ruben]] jeung Martin Camen ngagunakeun isotop pikeun ngabuktikeun yén oksigén nu dihasilkeun dina fotosintésis asalna tina cai. [[Melvin Calvin]] jeung baladna, Benson, ngaruntuykeun hambalan-hambalan dina fase poék (bébas cahya) na fotosintésis, antukna katelah Daur Calvin. Élmuwan nu meunangkeun [[Hadiah Nobel]], [[Rudolf Marcus]], ngabolékérkeun fungsi jeung pentingna rantay transpor éléktron. == Faktor-faktor nu mangaruhan fotosintésis == * inténsitas cahya jeung panjang gelombangna * kadar karbon dioksida * hawa/temperatur * cai * morfologi daun * kadar [[nitrogén]] na daun == Wincikanana == Jalur métabolik nu aya dina fotosintésis: * [[Réaksi caang]] * [[Réaksi poék]] == Sumber rujukan == * ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/photosynthesis Photosynthesis]'', ti Wikipédia basa Inggris, disalin ping 29 Juni 2005. == Tempo ogé == * [[Fotosintésis artifisial]] == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050316052050/http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml |date=2005-03-16 }} [[Kategori:Biokimia]] [[Kategori:Botani]] [[Kategori:Fotosintésis]] [[Kategori:Métabolisme]] [[Kategori:Biologi]] [[Kategori:Tutuwuhan]] 6cfhav0dym6s3abql4bw4gpf77k45cc 0 3742 712781 712771 2026-09-21T00:59:13Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 /* Uteuk lauk */ nambahkeun referensi 712781 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:herring2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Héring Atlantik]], ''Clupea harengus'': spésiés lauk panglobana di sakuliah dunya.]] '''Lauk''' atawa lauk cai mangrupa [[vertebrata]] poikilotermik (getih tiis) nu hirup di jero cai maké [[insang]]. Di dunya, lauk kabagi jadi leuwih ti 27 rébu [[spésiés]], nepi ka jadi golongan vertebrata nu loba rupana. Sacara taksonomis, lauk téh mangrupa hiji kelompok [[parafilétik]] nu hubungan di antarana paling mindeng dipadungdengkeun; babagian nu umum mah nyaéta jadi [[lauk tanpa rahang]] (kelas [[Agnatha]], 75 spésiés kaasup [[belut]] jeung ''[[hagfish]]''), [[lauk kartilagus]] (kelas [[Chondrichthyes]], aya 800 spésiés, kaasup [[hiu]]), sarta sésana dina kelas [[lauk ipis]] ([[Osteichthyes]]). Lauk téh mangrupa golongan sato anu ukuran awakna rupa-rupa pisan: ti [[hiu]] anu 16 m nepi ka [[impun]] anu ukur 2&nbsp;cm, malah loba kénéh anu ukuranana leuwih leutik ti impun. <!-- Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures to varying degrees. Endothermic [[teleosts]] (bony fishes) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of "primitive" mackerel (''Gasterochisma melampus''). All sharks in the family [[Lamnidae]] – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family [[Alopiidae]] (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to [[bluefin tuna]] and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C above ambient water temperatures. ''See also [[gigantothermy]]''. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased contractile force of muscles, higher rates of central [[nervous system]] processing, and higher rates of [[digestion]].--> == Ékologi == Urang bisa manggihan lauk ampir di sakabéh awak [[cai]] anu badag, boh di darat anu jerona ukur puluhan sénti nepi ka sagara anu jerona rébuan méter. <!-- Catching fish for the purpose of [[food]] or [[sport]] is known as [[fishing]]. The annual [[yield]] from all [[fishery|fisheries]] worldwide is about 100 [[million]] [[tonne]]s. [[Overfishing]] is a threat to many species of fish. On [[May 15]] [[2003]], the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported that all large [[ocean]]ic fish species worldwide had been so systematically over caught that fewer than 10% of 1950 levels remained. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030514.wfish1405/BNStory/National/] Particularly imperiled were [[shark]]s, Atlantic [[cod]], [[Bluefin tuna]], and Pacific [[sardine]]s. The authors recommended immediate drastic cutbacks in fish catches and reservation of ocean [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] worldwide. ==Fish as food== Fishes are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[shellfish]] are often called "fish" when used as food. For more details, see [[Fish (food)]]. [[Image:bbas2.jpg|thumb|''Centropristis striata'']]--> == Klasifikasi == Lauk mah ngabentuk kelompok parafilétik: sakabéh kumpulan (''[[clade]]'') nu ngandung lauk salawasna ngandung ogé [[tétrapoda]] nu lain lauk. Lauk digolongkeun kana sababaraha kelompok utama: * [[Conodonta]] * [[Hyperoartia]] ** [[Petromyzontidae]] (''[[lamprey]]'') * [[Pteraspidomorphi]] (lauk tanpa rahang kuna) * [[Thelodonti]] * [[Anaspida]] * [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] (lauk tanpa rahang kuna) ** [[Galeaspida]] ** [[Pituriaspida]] ** [[Osteostraci]] * [[Gnathostomata]] (jawed vertebrates) ** [[Placodermi]] ** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish) ** [[Acanthodii]] ** [[Osteichthyes]] (bony fish) *** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish) *** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish) **** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s) **** [[Dipnoi]] ([[lungfish]]) Pikeun klasifikasi anu leuwih lengkep, mangga tingal artikel [[vertebrata]]. == Uteuk lauk == Otak lauk téh teu gedé. Lauk miboga notokord atawa tulang tonggong, hiji ciri anu ogé kapanggih dina invertebrata handap. Lauk purba ogé miboga bareuh leutik di tungtung anterior tulang tonggong, anu fungsina salaku otak. Dina lauk anu leuwih maju, bareuh ieu mekar leuwih jauh, tapi beuratna teu ngaleuwihan hiji atawa dua gram. Dina sato anu leuwih luhur, bareuh ieu pakait jeung otak tukang, batang otak, atawa otak tengah. Otak kalolobaan lauk modéren utamana diwangun ku otak tengah, kalayan otak hareup anu leutik; sabalikna, dina amfibi jeung réptil modéren, otak hareup leuwih badag tibatan otak tengah.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=43}}</ref> == Baca ogé == * [[Sato]] * [[Akuarium]] * [[Lauk sagara jero]] * [[Anatomi lauk]] * [[Migrasi lauk]] * [[Nguseup]] * [[Ihtiologi]] (ulikan ngeunaan lauk) * [[Daptar kulawarga lauk]] * [[Daptar ngaran umum lauk]] * [[Ostrakoderma]] - lauk munggaran * [[Lauk prasajarah]] == Tumbu kaluar == {{commons|Category:Actinopterygii}} * [http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/marine/antarcticfish 70South - information on Antarctic fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106033822/http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/marine/antarcticfish |date=2006-01-06 }} * [http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004061346/http://aworldoffish.com/ |date=2006-10-04 }} Species information and fish care * [http://www.fishbase.org Fish database] ([[FishBase]]) * Join Ray Mullet in the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/fish/ Fish Olympics]! * Project for children - [http://marine.rutgers.edu/~kils/BASS/mobile/INDEX.HTM build a fish mobile with a behavior] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040214155536/http://marine.rutgers.edu/~kils/BASS/mobile/INDEX.HTM |date=2004-02-14 }} * [http://www.aquatichouse.com Fish Keeping] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318142930/http://www.aquatichouse.com/ |date=2006-03-18 }} * [http://www.aquaticcommunity.com Site with one of the largest fish databases in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912233221/http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/ |date=2011-09-12 }} * [http://reelinthefish.net/interviews/jameskoliver.html Reelinthefish.net | Interview with Dr James K. Oliver, Reefbase Scientist] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060110173407/http://reelinthefish.net/interviews/jameskoliver.html |date=2006-01-10 }} * [http://fishy.us Fishy.Us] Articles & Particles * [http://hardrockforums.com/forums Saltwater & Freshwater Forums]{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.catfishbirddog.com/fish/ Help on raising Aquarium Fish]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.fishdeals.com/ Aquarium Fish Education] * [http://find-a-seafood-recipe.com/ Fish and Seafood Recipes] Cooking With Fish * [http://www.easyreefer.com/ Reef aquarium community and learning center] * [http://www.fiberi.de German Educator in Fisheries, Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery]{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://oriol.mine.nu/software/Fish/ Fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209081740/http://oriol.mine.nu/software/Fish/ |date=2006-02-09 }} Aquarium simulator for mac. * [http://www.arofanatics.com/ AroFanatics] Website one of the most popular fish-keeping forum. * [http://www.fishfriend.com/ The Aquarium Fish Tank Friend] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202095819/http://fishfriend.com/ |date=2006-02-02 }} * [http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/fish/ Information about fish] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316162627/http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/fish/ |date=2006-03-16 }} - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia * [http://www.mnoutdoors.org Minnesotas Foremost Fishing, Hunting, and Outdoor Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516064836/http://www.mnoutdoors.org/ |date=2006-05-16 }} - réad Stories, Download our Newsletter, Join our Club! {{tarjamahkeun|Inggris}} [[Kategori:Chordata]] [[Kategori:Ékologi akuatik]] e5fd09822abn87o1b5ss5743ggwmjyk 0 17332 712783 712770 2026-09-21T01:15:14Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 /* Uteuk primata */ nambahkeun referensi 712783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Primata | fossil_range = Tungtung [[Kretasius]] - Kiwari | image = Olive baboon.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Babon Zaitun]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] | regnum = [[Sato|Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mamalia]] | subclassis = [[Eutheria]] | unranked_ordo = [[Euarchontoglires]] | superordo = [[Euarchonta]] | ordo = '''Primata''' | ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Kulawarga | subdivision = * 15, Tempo [[Primata#Klasifikasi jeung épolusi|klasifikasi]] }} '''Primata''' (L. ''prima'', kahiji) hartina sakabéh anggota [[ordo]] nu ilaharna patali jeung [[lemur]], [[monyét]], jeung [[kera]], kaasup [[manusa]].<ref name=Goodman2>{{cite journal | journal = Journal of Molecular Evolution | year = 1990 | volume = 30 | pages = 260–266 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2109087&dopt=Abstract | title = Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids | author = M. Goodman, D. A. Tagle, D. H. Fitch, W. Bailey, J. Czelusniak, B. F. Koop, P. Benson, J. L. Slightom}}</ref> Primata aya di sakuliah dunya, tapi lolobana mah (nu lain manusa) ayana di [[Amérika Tengah]] jeung [[Amérika Kidul|Kidul]], [[Aprika]], jeung [[Asia]] Kidul. Ordo primata sacara teu resmi dibagi deui kana tilu golongan utama: [[prosimian]], [[Monyét Dunya Anyar]], jeung monyét sarta kera [[Katarini|Dunya Kuna]]. Prosimian téh [[spésiés]] nu awakna ampir sarupa jeung proto-primata awal, misalna [[lemur]] [[Madagaskar]] jeung [[kapuloan Komoro]] nu kakurung ti dunya luar. Monyét Dunya Anyar ngawengku [[monyét kapucin]], [[monyét howler|howler]], jeung [[monyét bajing]] nu ukur aya di Amérika. Di saluarkeun manusa, [[simian]], [[Monyét Dunya Kuna]] jeung kera mah ngeusi Aprika jeung Asia Kidul & Tengah, najan aya bukti fosil nu nunjukkeun yén spésiés-spésiés éta ogé kungsi aya di [[Éropah]]. Kiwari kacatet aya 190–448 [[spésiés]] primata hirup, gumantung kana klasipikasi anu dipaké. Di [[Asia]], kacatet aya 119 spésiés, satengahna aya di [[Indonésia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Christian Roos, Ramesh Boonratana, Jatna Supriatna, John R. Fellowes, Colin P. Groves, Stephen D. Nash, Anthony B. Rylands, Russell A. Mittermeier|first=|date=2014|title=An updated taxonomy and conservation status review of Asian primates|url=|journal=Asian Primates Journal|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> == Dedegan == [[Gambar:Human.svg|right|thumb|180px|Dedegan manusa]] Sakabéh primata boga lima ramo ([[pentadaktili]]), pola huntu nu sarua, sarta [[widang awak]] nu primitip. Ciri pangbéda séjénna nyaéta ayana [[kuku]]. [[Jempol]] nu nyanghareup ka ramo lianna ogé mangrupa ciri primata, najan aya ogé sato séjén nu boga ciri kieu. <!--Nurutkeun téori épolusi mah, jempol nu nyanghareup, ramo nu panjang tapi kukuna pondok téh hasil tina kabiasaan karuhun muntang kana dahan, and has, in part, allowed some species to develop [[brachiation]] as a significant means of transportation. Forward-facing color [[binocular vision]] was also useful for the brachiating ancestors of humans, particularly for finding and collecting food, although recent studies suggest it was more useful in courtship. All primates, even those that lack the features typical of other primates (like [[loris]]es), share eye orbit characteristics, such as a [[postorbital bar]], that distinguish them from other taxonomic orders.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Catarrhini|Old World]] species (apes and some monkeys) tend to have significant [[sexual dimorphism]]. This is characterized most in size difference, with males being up to a bit more than twice as heavy as females. This dimorphism is a result of a [[polygyny|polygynous]] [[mating system]] where there is significant pressure to attract and defend multiple mates. [[New World monkeys|New World]] species form [[monogamy|pair bonds]], and so these species (including [[tamarin]]s and [[marmoset]]s) generally do not show a significant size difference between the sexes.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ==Habitat== Primates evolved from [[arboreal]] animals and many modern species live mostly in trees and hardly ever come to the ground. Other species are partially [[Terrestrial animal|terrestrial]], such as [[baboon]]s and the [[Patas Monkey]]. Only a few species are fully terrestrial, such as the [[Gelada]] and [[Human]]s. Primates live in a diverse number of forested habitats, including [[rain forest]]s, [[mangrove]] forests, and [[montaine|mountain forest]]s to altitudes of over 3000 m. Although most species are generally shy of water, a few are fine swimmers and are comfortable in swamps and watery areas, including the [[Proboscis Monkey]], [[De Brazza's Monkey]] and [[Allen's Swamp Monkey]], which even developed small webbing between its fingers. Some primates, such the [[Rhesus Macaque]] and the [[Hanuman Langur]], are [[hemerophile]] species and cities and villages have become their typical habitat.<ref name="German">http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten</ref> == Classification and evolution== ===Close relations=== The Primate [[order (biology)|order]] lies in a tight clustering of related orders (the [[Euarchontoglires]]) within the [[Eutheria]], a subclass of [[Mammalia]]. Recent molecular genetic research on primates, [[flying lemur]]s, and [[treeshrew]]s has shown that the two species of flying lemur ([[Dermoptera]]) are more closely related to the primates than the treeshrews of the order [[Scandentia]], even though the treeshrews were at one time considered primates. These three orders make up the [[Euarchonta]] [[clade]]. This clade combines with the [[Glires]] clade (made up of the [[Rodentia]] and [[Lagomorpha]]) to form the Euarchontoglires clade. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Also, some scientists consider Dermoptera a suborder of Primates and call the "true" primates the suborder [[Euprimates]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} {{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75% | label1=[[Euarchontoglires]] | 1={{Clade | label1=[[Glires]] | 1={{Clade | 1=[[Rodentia]] (rodents) | 2=[[Lagomorpha]] (rabbits, hares, pikas)}} | label2=[[Euarchonta]] | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Treeshrew|Scandentia]] (treeshrews) | 2={{Clade | 1=[[Colugo|Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs) | 2={{Clade | 1=†[[Plesiadapiformes]] | 2=Primates}} }} }} }} }} ===Classification=== [[Image:Ring_tailed_lemurs.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Ring-tailed Lemur]], a [[strepsirrhine]] primate]] In older classifications, the Primates were divided into two superfamilies: Prosimii and Anthropoidea. The Prosimii included all of the [[prosimian]]s: all of Strepsirrhini plus the tarsiers. The Anthropoidea contained all of the [[simian]]s. In modern, cladistic reckonings, the Primate order is also a true clade. The suborder [[Strepsirrhini]], the "[[rhinarium|wet-nosed]]" primates, split off from the primitive primate line about 63 [[mya (unit)|million years ago (mya)]]. The seven strepsirhine families are the four related [[lemur]] families and the three remaining families that include the [[loris]]es, the [[Aye-aye]], the [[galago]]s, and the [[potto]]s.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=111-184}}</ref> Some classification schemes wrap the [[Lepilemuridae]] into the [[Lemuridae]] and the [[Galagidae]] into the [[Lorisidae]], yielding a three-two family split instead of the four-three split as presented here.<ref name=MSW3/> Other lineages of lower primates inhabited Earth. During the [[Eocene]], most of the northern continents were dominated by two dominant groups, the [[adapid]]s and the [[omomyid]]s. The former is considered a member of Strepsirrhini, but it does not have a [[tooth-comb]] like modern lemurs. The latter was related closely to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. Adapids survived until 10 mya; omomyids on the other hand perished 20 million years earlier. The Aye-aye is difficult to place in Strepsirrhini.<ref name=MSW3/> Its family, Daubentoniidae, could be a lemuriform primate and its ancestors split from lemur line more recently than the lemurs and lorises split, about 50 mya. Otherwise it is sister to all of the other strepsirrhines, in which case in evolved away from the main strepsirrhine line between 50 and 63 mya. [[Image:EmperorTamarin.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Emperor Tamarin]], a [[New World monkey]]]] The suborder [[Haplorrhini]], the "dry-nosed" primates, is composed of two sister clades.<ref name=MSW3/> The [[prosimian]] tarsiers in family [[Tarsiidae]] (monotypic in its own infraorder [[Tarsiiformes]]), represent the most primitive division at about 58 mya. The [[Simiiformes]] infraorder contains the two parvorders: the [[New World monkey]]s in one, and the [[Old World monkey]]s, [[human]]s and the other [[ape]]s in the other.<ref name=MSW3/> This division happened about 40 mya. However about 30 mya, three groups split from the main haplorrhine lineage. One group stayed in Asia and are closest in kin to the "dawn monkey" ''[[Eosimias]]''. The second stayed in Africa, where they developed into the Old World primates. The third rafted to South America to become the New World monkeys. Mysteriously the aboriginal Asian Haplorrhini vanished from record once Africa collided with Eurasia 24 mya. Apes and monkeys spread into Europe and Asia. Close behind came lorises and tarsiers, also African castaways. The first hominid fossils were discovered in Northern Africa and date back 7 mya. Modern humans did not appear until 0.2 mya, eventually becoming the most prevalent primate and mammal on Earth. The discovery of new species happens at a rate of a few new species each year, and the evaluation of current populations as distinct species is in flux. [[Colin Groves]] lists about 350 species of primates in ''Primate Taxonomy'' in 2001.<ref name=PT>''Primate Taxonomy'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2001), Colin Groves (ISBN 1-56098-872-X )</ref> The recently published third edition of ''Mammal Species of the World'' (2005) lists 376 species.<ref name=MSW3/> But even MSW3's list falls short of current understanding as its collection cutoff was in 2003, and a number publications since MSW3 push the number of species up to 405. Notable new species not listed in MSW3 include the [[Bemaraha Woolly Lemur]] (''Avahi cleesei'') (named after [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actor]] and [[lemur]] enthusiast [[John Cleese]]) and the [[GoldenPalace.com Monkey]] (whose name was put up for auction). ====Extant primate families==== * '''ORDER PRIMATES''' ** '''Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]''': non-tarsier prosimians *** Infraorder [[Lemuriformes]] **** Superfamily [[Cheirogaleidae|Cheirogaleoidea]] ***** Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]: dwarf lemurs and mouse-lemurs (30 species) **** Superfamily [[Lemuroidea]] ***** Family [[Lemuridae]]: lemurs (19 species) ***** Family [[Lepilemuridae]]: sportive lemurs (22 species) ***** Family [[Indriidae]]: woolly lemurs and allies (14 species) *** Infraorder [[Aye-aye|Chiromyiformes]] **** Family [[Aye-aye|Daubentoniidae]]: Aye-aye (1 species) *** Infraorder [[Lorisiformes]] **** Family [[Lorisidae]]: lorises, pottos and allies (9 species) **** Family [[Galagidae]]: galagos (19 species) ** '''Suborder [[Haplorrhini]]''': tarsiers, monkeys and apes *** Infraorder [[tarsier|Tarsiiformes]] **** Family [[tarsier|Tarsiidae]]: tarsiers (8 species) *** Infraorder [[Simiiformes]] **** Parvorder [[Platyrrhini]]: New World monkeys ***** Family [[Cebidae]]: marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeys (56 species) ***** Family [[Aotidae]]: night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (7 species) ***** Family [[Pitheciidae]]: titis, sakis and uakaris (41 species) ***** Family [[Atelidae]]: howler, spider and woolly monkeys (24 species) **** Parvorder [[Catarrhini]] ***** Superfamily [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecoidea]] ****** Family [[Old World monkey|Cercopithecidae]]: Old World monkeys (135 species) ***** Superfamily [[Hominoidea]] ****** Family [[Hylobatidae]]: gibbons or "lesser apes" (13 species) ****** Family [[Hominidae]]: humans and other great apes (7 species) ====Some prehistoric primates==== *''[[Adapis]]'', an adapid *''[[Australopithecus]]'', ape-like human ancestor *''[[Branisella boliviana]]'', an early New World monkey *''[[Dryopithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Eosimias]]'', an early catarrhine *''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', a possible ancestor of humans *''[[Aegyptopithecus zeuxis]]'', an early haplorrhine *''[[Pliopithecus]]'', ancestor of the modern gibbons *''[[Gigantopithecus]]'', the largest ape *''[[Godinotia]]'', an adapid *''[[Megaladapis]]'', a giant lemur *''[[Notharctus]]'', an adapid *''[[Plesiopithecus teras]]'', a relative of lorises and galagos *''[[Protopithecus brasiliensis]]'', a giant New World monkey *''[[Sivapithecus]]'', an early ape *''[[Tielhardina]]'', the earliest haplorrhines *''[[Victoriapithecus]]'', an early Old World monkey *''[[Pierolapithecus catalaunicus]]'', a possible ancestor of large apes ==Primate hybrids== In ''The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication'' [[Charles Darwin]] noted: "Several members of the family of [[Lemur]]s have produced hybrids in the Zoological Gardens." Many [[gibbon]]s are hard to identify based on fur coloration and are identified either by song or genetics. These morphological ambiguities have led to [[hybrid]]s in zoos. Zoo gibbons usually come from the black market pet trade in Southeast Asia, which transported gibbons across countries all over the region. As a result, perhaps as much as 95% of zoo gibbons are of unknown geographic origin. As most zoos rely on morphological variation or labels that are impossible to verify to assign species and subspecies names, it is unfortunately common for gibbons to be misidentified and housed together. For example, some collections' supposedly pure breeding pairs were actually mixed pairs or hybrids from previous mixed pairs. The hybrid offspring were sent to other gibbon breeders and led to further hybridization in captive gibbons. Within-genus hybrids also occur in wild gibbons where the ranges overlap ([[Agile Gibbon]]s and [[Pileated Gibbon]]s x [[Lar Gibbon]]s, [[Agile Gibbon]]s x [[Müller's Bornean Gibbon]], [[Yellow-cheeked Gibbon]]s x [[Northern White-cheeked Gibbon]]s). Intergeneric gibbon hybridizations have only occurred in captivity. [[Silvery Gibbon]]s (''Hylobates moloch'') and Müller's Bornean Gibbon (''H. muelleri'') have hybridized with [[Siamang]]s (''Symphalangus syndactylus'') in captivity - a female Siamang produced hybrid "Siabon" offspring on 2 occasions when housed with a male gibbon; only one hybrid survived. [[Anubis Baboon]]s and [[Hamadryas Baboon]]s have hybridized in the wild where their ranges meet. A [[Rheboon]] is a captive-bred [[Rhesus Macaque]]/Hamadryas Baboon hybrid with a [[baboon]]-like body shape and [[macaque]]-like tail. Different macaque species can interbreed. In "The Variation Of Animals And Plants Under Domestication" Charles Darwin wrote: ''A Macacus, according to Flourens, bred in Paris; and more than one species of this genus has produced young in London, especially the Macacus rhesus, which everywhere shows a special capacity to breed under confinement. Hybrids have been produced both in Paris and London from this same genus.'' The [[Japanese Macaque]] (''Macaca fuscata'') has interbred with the introduced [[Taiwanese Macacque]] (''M. cyclopis'') when the latter escaped into the wild from private zoos. Various hybrid monkeys are bred within the pet trade, for example: * Hybrid [[capuchin monkey]]s e.g. [[Tufted Capuchin]] (''Cebus apella'') x [[Weeper Capuchin]] (''C. olivaceus'') * [[Liontail Macaque]] x [[Pigtail Macaque]] hybrids * [[Rhesus Macaque]] x [[Stumptail Macaque]] hybrids. Among [[Old World monkey]]s, natural hybridization is not uncommon. There numerous field reports of hybrid monkeys and detailed studies of zones where species overlap and hybrids occur. Among the great apes, [[Sumatran Orangutan|Sumatran]] and [[Bornean Orangutan|Bornean]] [[orangutan]]s are considered separate species with anatomical differences, producing sterile or poorly fertile hybrids. Hybrid orangutans are genetically weaker, with lower survival rates than pure animals. ==Legal status== [[Image:Monkey5.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Monkeys imported for experimentation in a crate. Credit: [[BUAV]]]] Humans are recognized as [[person]]s and protected in law by the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]<ref name=UN>[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html UN Declaration of Human Rights]</ref> and by all governments, though to varying degrees. Non-human primates are not classified as persons, which means their individual interests have no formal recognition or protection. The status of non-human primates has generated much debate, particularly through the [[Great Ape Project]]<ref name=GA>[http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html ''Declaration on Great Apes''], Great Ape Project</ref> which argues for their [[personhood]]. Thousands of primates are used every year around the world in scientific [[Animal testing|experiments]] because of their psychological and physiological similarity to [[human]]s. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[baboon]]s, [[marmoset]]s, [[macaque]]s, and [[green monkey]]s are most commonly used in these [[non-human primate experiments|experiments]]. In the [[European Union]], around 10,000 were used in 2004, with 4,652 experiments conducted on 3,115 non-human primates in the UK alone in 2005.<ref name=BUAV>[http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection - Primates]</ref> As of 2004, 3,100 non-human primates were living in captivity in the [[United States]], in [[zoo]]s, [[circus]]es, and [[Laboratory|laboratories]], 1,280 of them being used in experiments.<ref name=GA/> European campaign groups such as the [[BUAV]] are seeking a ban on all primate use in experiments as part of the [[European Union]]'s current review of existing law on animal experimentation. ==Laughter in primates== {{splitsection}} {{Merge|Laughter|date=December 2006}} [[Laughter]] might not be confined or unique to humans, despite Aristotle's observation that "only the human animal laughs". The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. However, some behavioural psychologists argue that self-awareness of one's situation, or the ability to identify with somebody else's predicament, are prerequisites for laughter, so animals are not really laughing in the same way that we do. [[Chimpanzee]]s, [[gorillas]], and [[orangutans]] show laughter-like vocalizations in response to physical contact, such as wrestling, play chasing, or tickling. This is documented in wild and captive chimpanzees. Chimpanzee laughter is not readily recognizable to humans as such, because it is generated by alternating inhalations and exhalations that sound more like breathing and panting. The differences between chimpanzee and human laughter may be the result of adaptations that have evolved to enable human speech. There are instances in which non-human primates have been reported to have expressed joy. One study analyzed and recorded sounds made by human babies and bonobos also known as pygmy chimpanzees were tickled. It found although the bonobo’s laugh was a higher frequency, the laugh followed the same spectrographic pattern of human babies to include as similar facial expressions. Humans and chimpanzees share similar ticklish areas of the body such as the armpits and belly. The enjoyment of tickling in chimpanzees does not diminish with age. <ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.discover.com/issues/apr-03/features/featlaugh/ | journal = Discover | author = Johnson, Steven | title = Emotions and the Brain | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | month = April | year = 2003}}</ref>--> == Évolusi primata == Lima puluh juta taun ka tukang, dina mangsa Éosen, jumlah primata—kaasup spésiés nu hirup di tangkal jeung nu hirup di taneuh—ngaronjat kalawan gancang. Antukna, évolusi garis katurunan primata ngahasilkeun manusa. Primata dina mangsa éta—saperti prosimian nu katelah ''Tetonius''—mibanda nonjolan leutik dina tulang tangkorak bagian otak, nyaéta wewengkon tempat lobus frontal bakal mekar saterusna. Bukti fosil pangkolotna ngeunaan otak nu némbongkeun ciri-ciri nu rada mirip jeung manusa asalna ti dalapan belas juta taun ka tukang dina mangsa Miosen, nu bareng jeung munculna kera antropoid nu katelah ''Proconsul''. ''Proconsul'' téh mahluk nu leumpang maké opat suku sarta hirup di tangkal; kamungkinan pisan mahluk ieu téh karuhun ti kera-kera badag modérn sarta, bisa jadi, karuhun ''Homo sapiens''. ''Proconsul'' bisa jadi kacida miripna jeung gambaran urang ngeunaan karuhun babarengan antara kera jeung manusa. Bagian jero tangkorak ''Proconsul'' némbongkeun lobus frontal anu nonjol, nanging lipatan néokortéksna henteu mekar sapertos anu kapanggih dina kera modérn sareng manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=85087}}</ref> == Uteuk primata == Sacara rata-rata, otak primata téh kira-kira dua nepi ka dua puluh kali leuwih gedé batan otak mamalia non-primata anu boga massa awak sarua.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=Jakarta|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=32}}</ref> == Baca ogé == * [[Téori arboréal]] * [[Primatologi]] == Rujukan == {{Wikispecies|Primates}} <references/> * {{note|PQ}}''Primates in Question'' (Smithsonian Institute Press, 2003), Robert W. Shumaker & Benjamin B. Beck (ISBN 1-58834-176-3 ) == Tumbu kaluar == * [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases] * [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu Primate Info Net] * [http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html Primates in scientific experimentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613190035/http://www.buav.org/campaigns/primates/index.html |date=2006-06-13 }} * [http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University] * [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram/spec_laugh.jpg&imgrefurl=http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/groups/research/chimpanzee-cognition/CCL/ethogram.htm&h=382&w=784&sz=94&hl=en&start=6&tbnid=SzTd6o7BvU2mUM:&tbnh=70&tbnw=143&prev=/images%3Fq%3DChimpanzee%2Blaughter%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DHPIA,HPIA:2006-24,HPIA:en%26sa%3DN Chimpanzee Facial Expression & Vocalizations] * [http://www.euprim-net.eu EUPRIM-Net: European Primate Network] * [http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm A chimpanzee laughter sample.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327034516/http://realaudio.service.emory.edu/ramgen/YERKES/PARR/laugh.rm |date=2009-03-27 }} * [http://sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/mammals/apevsmonkey.htm Ape differences from monkeys.] {{pondok}} {{Mamalia}} {{Primata}} [[Kategori:Primata]] amma4ww7p9jnfe0obhok5nm602tmz9s 0 19122 712779 712768 2026-09-21T00:42:15Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 nambahkeun subbab 712779 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Brain Mri nevit.svg|thumb|Gambar uteuk hasil MRI]] Dina [[sato|sasatoan]], '''uteuk''', '''otak''', atawa ''encephalon'' ([[Basa Yunani|Yun.]] "di jero hulu"), mangrupa puseur pangaturan [[sistem saraf puseur]]. Di lolobana sato, uteuk téh ayana dina hulu, ditutup ku [[tangkorak]], sarta deukeut ka parabot [[persépsi visual|tempoan]] sénsori primér, [[ceuli|pangrungu]], [[ékuilibriosépsi]], [[pangrasa]], jeung [[olfaksi]].<ref name=”H. ”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=y0JRDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=otak&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4u5P-z7eHAxWnRmcHHVj7B7kQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=otak&f=false| title =Otak dan PerilakuH. Timotius| last =H. Timotius| first =Prof. Dr. Kris | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2018|ISBN=9789792963823|pages =52}} Disungsi 21 Juli 2024</ref> Di [[manusa]], uteuk téh organ pikeun mikir. [[Vertebrata]] lolobana boga uteuk, sedengkeun [[invertebrata]] uteukna dipuseurkeun atawa dina bentuk kumpulan [[ganglion]], anapon sato primitif sarupaning [[spons]] teu boga uteuk pisan. Uteuk téh wangunna pajeulit pisan. Misalna baé [[uteuk manusa]] nu ngandung leuwih ti 100 miliar [[neuron]], nu disambungkeun ka 10.000 neuron lianna. <!-- == Overview == Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between the [[gray matter]] and [[white matter]]. Gray matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) which connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a [[fat]]ty [[Electrical insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]] ([[oligodendroglia]] cells), giving the white matter its distinctive color. The outer layer of the brain is gray matter called [[cerebral cortex]]. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter ([[fasciculus|fasciculi]], fiber tracts), gray matter ([[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]]) and spaces filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] ([[Ventricular system|ventricles]]) are found. The brain innervates the [[head]] through [[cranial nerve]]s, and it communicates with the [[spinal cord]], which innervates the body through [[spinal nerve]]s. Nervous fibers transmitting signals from the brain are called [[efferent]] fibers. The fibers transmitting signals to the brain are called [[afferent]] (or sensory) fibers. Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of fibers). It is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components as [[cognition]], [[perception]], [[attention]], [[memory]] and [[emotion]]. The brain is also responsible for control of [[posture]] and [[motor control|movement]]s. It makes possible cognitive, [[motor learning|motor]] and other forms of [[learning]]. The brain can perform a variety of functions automatically, without the need for [[consciousness|conscious]] awareness, such as coordination of [[sensory system]]s (eg. [[sensory gating]] and [[multisensory integration]]), [[Animal locomotion|walking]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and [[spinal cord]]. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under spinal cord control alone. The brain undergoes transitions from [[Awake|wakefulness]] to [[sleep]] (and subtypes of these states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge consolidation, as the neurons appear to organize the day's stimuli during deep sleep by randomly firing off the most recently used neuron pathways; additionally, without sleep, normal subjects are observed to develop symptoms resembling mental illness, even auditory hallucinations). Every brain state is associated with characteristic [[brain waves]]. [[Neuron]]s are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas [[Glia|Glial cells]] perform supporting function. Brain cell metabolism consumes considerable amounts of energy. In addition to being electrically active, neurons constantly synthesize neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their properties (guided by [[gene expression]]) under the influence of their input signals. This [[plasticity]] underlies [[learning]] and [[adaptation]]. It is notable that some unused neuron pathways (constructions which have become physically isolated from other cells) may continue to exist long after the memory is absent from consciousness, possibly developing the subconscious. The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]]. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as [[biopsychology|biological psychology]]. This field of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it affects behavior. ==History== {{main|History of the brain}} Early human views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [[Middle Kingdom]] onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the [[heart]] that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], during the first step of mummification: ‘The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.’ Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in “memorizing something by heart”. The first thoughts of the field of [[psychology]] actually came from ancient philosophers, including [[Aristotle]]. As philosophers became more in tune with medical research over time, the idea of psychology emerged. From that point, different branches of [[psychology]] emerged with different individuals creating new ideas. ==Mind and brain== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} A distinction is often made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading to the [[mind-body problem]]. The brain is defined as the physical and biological [[matter]] contained within the [[skull]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as beliefs or desires. Some adhere to [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] [[dualistic]] approaches in which the mind exists independently of the brain in some way, such as a [[soul]] or [[epiphenomenalism|epiphenomenon]] or [[strong emergence|emergent]] phenomenon. Other dualisms maintain that the mind is a distinct ''[[physics|physical]]'' phenomenon, such as [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic field]], or a [[quantum mind|quantum effect]]. [[Materialistic]] options include beliefs that mentality is [[behaviorism|behavior]] or [[functionalism|function]] or, in the case of [[computationalism|computationalists]] and [[strong AI]] theorists, [[computer software]] (with the brain playing the role of [[computer hardware|hardware]]). [[Idealism]], the belief that all is mind, still has some adherents. At the other extreme, [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialist]]s believe minds do not exist at all, and mentalistic language will be replaced by neurological terminology. ==Comparative anatomy== [[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]] Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[arachnid]]s, and others), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]]s, and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s and [[hagfish]]).<ref name="butler">{{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Ann B. | title = Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head | journal = The Anatomical Record | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125 }}</ref> The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing.<ref name="butler"/> The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]].<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex).<ref name="martin">{{cite book | last = Martin | first = John H. | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas | edition = Second Edition | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-07-138183-X }}</ref> More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.<ref name="martin"/> In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called [[Sulcus (anatomy)|sulci]]. Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species. ===Invertebrates=== In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.<ref name="butler"/> The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the mechanosensory [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[Somatosensory system|touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex. In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,<ref name="butler"/> separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.<ref name="butler"/> The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain. ===Vertebrates=== {{Cerebrum map|Human Brain|caption=<small>The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (blue), temporal (green), occipital (red), and parietal lobes (yellow). The cerebellum (not colored) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.</small>}} The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences. Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]].<ref name="martin"/> The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each have two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small. Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilaterally symmetrical]] [[encephalization]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<ref name="martin"/> ====Vertebrate brain regions==== (''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'') [[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]] According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions: *[[Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain) **[[Myelencephalon]] **[[Metencephalon]] *[[Mesencephalon]] (midbrain) *[[Prosencephalon]] (forebrain) **[[Diencephalon]] **[[Telencephalon]] The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as: *[[Limbic system]] *[[Sensory system]]s **[[Visual system]] **[[Olfactory system]] **[[Gustatory system]] **[[Auditory system]] **[[Somatosensory system]] *[[Muscle|Motor system]] *[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]] ====Humans==== [[Image:Brain animated color nevit.gif|thumb|Animation showing the human brain with the lobes highlighted]] {{main|human brain}} The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[mammal]]s (indeed larger than in all animals, although only in mammals has the neocortex evolved to fulfill this kind of function). Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]]. ==Neurobiology== The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, [[neuron]]s and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons.<ref>{{cite book | title = Basic Histology: Text and Atlas | edition = 10th ed. | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira | coauthors = J. Carneiro }} (Statistic from page 161)</ref> These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], different types of action, and higher cognitive function. ===Histology=== {{Neuron map|[[Neuron]]}} Neurons are the cells that generate [[action potential]]s and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]]. In mammals, the brain is surrounded by [[connective tissue]]s called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood. The brain is bathed in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[Ventricular system|ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight if unsupported by the CSF. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the physical [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass. ===Function=== Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain. Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Visual perception|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]]. To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone. Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the [[pituitary gland]]. It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain. Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures. ===Brain pathology=== [[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]] Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage. Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals. Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus]]es and [[bacteria]]. Infection of the [[meninges]], the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and humans and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to avoid [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]]. Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]]. Certain brain disorders are treated by brain surgeons (neurosurgeons) while others are treated by neurologists and psychiatrists. ==Study of the brain== ===Fields of study=== [[Neuroscience]] seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. [[Psychology]] seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]]. ===Methods of observation=== {{main|neuroimaging}} ====Electrophysiology==== Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons. ====EEG==== By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity. ====MEG==== Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to measure the magnetic field directly in a technique known as [[magnetoencephalography]] (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution as EEG but much better spatial resolution, although admittedly not as good as fMRI. The main advantage over fMRI is a direct relationship between neural activation and measurement. ====fMRI and PET==== [[Image:Pnsagittal.jpg|thumb|A scan of the brain using fMRI]] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on '''BOLD'''; '''B'''lood '''O'''xygen '''L'''evel '''D'''ependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occur in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent various neuronal activities ([[metabolism]] of synaptic reuptake). Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] and [[oxygen]] metabolism as well as neurotransmitter activity in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region. ====Behavioral==== Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord. ====Anatomical==== [[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine. ===Other matters=== [[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. [[Artificial intelligence]] seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success. Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence. ==Brain as food== [[Image:Porkbrain.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pork brain, ready to be cooked]] Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous "[[Eggs and brains|Eggs n' Brains]]".<ref>{{cite web | author = Lukas, Paul | title = Inconspicuous Consumption: Mulling Brains | work = New York magazine | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''tête de veau'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of the [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cavelife.net/columns/2002columns/2002Mar13.html | author = Glover, William | title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau | work = Cave Life in France | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-mammal.html | work = Weird-Food.com | title = Weird Foods: Mammal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The Anyang tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.berggorilla.de/english/gjournal/texte/18culture.html | author = Meder, Angela | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine | work = Gorilla Journal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> [[Indonesia]]n cuisine specialty in [[Minangkabau]] cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk named [[gulai otak]] (beef brain curry). Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The first problem is that the makeup of the brain is 60% fat due to the [[myelin]] (which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.autisminfo.com/dorfman.htm | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting | author = Dorfman, Kelly | work = Diet and Autism | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> As an example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thewvsr.com/porkbrains.htm | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collinge | first = John | date = 2001 | title = Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 24 | pages = 519–50 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11283320 | id = PMID 11283320 }}</ref> Another prion disease called [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of [[immortality]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collins | first = S | coauthors = McLean CA, Masters CL | date = 2001 | title = Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome,fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | journal = Journal of Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | ages = 387–97 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11535002 | id = PMID 11535002 }}</ref> Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe]]an [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&displayonly=CHP | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S. | publisher = Counterpoint Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 1-58243-162-0 }}</ref> It is also well known in the hunting community that the brain of wild animals should not be consumed, due to the risk of [[chronic wasting disease]]. --> == Uteuk manusa == Orok lahir kalayan rasio massa uteuk kana massa awak anu kacida gedéna (kinten-kinten 12 persén). Uteuk—utamana kortéks sérébral—terus tumuwuh kalayan gancang dina tilu taun munggaran kahirupan, nyaéta mangsa diajar anu kacida gancangna. Nalika ngahontal umur genep taun, massa otak budak geus ngahontal 90 persén tina massa otak jalma dewasa. Rata-rata volume uteuk awéwé dewasa jaman ayeuna téh 150 séntiméter kubik leuwih leutik batan otak lalaki dewasa. Lamun bias budaya jeung cara ngasuh barudak diperhatikeun, teu aya bukti nu jelas ngeunaan ayana béda dina tingkat kecerdasan sacara umum antara lalaki jeung awéwé. Béda massa uteuk manusa sabarat 150 gram téh lain hal anu signifikan. Jalma dewasa anu ngalaman mikrosefali sarta boga ukuran otak nu leutik pisan bakal ngalaman gangguan kognitif anu parah; massa otakna ngan ukur antara 450 nepi ka 900 gram. Jelas pisan, lamun urang niténan massa otak anu beuki leutik, aya hiji wates kritis; lamun massa otak aya di handapeun wates éta, fungsina bakal kaganggu parah pisan dibandingkeun jeung fungsi otak manusa dewasa anu normal. Otak manusa (teu kaasup otak leutik, anu sigana mah henteu aub dina fungsi kognitif) ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar unsur panyambung anu disebut neuron. Otak leutik, anu perenahna di handapeun korteks serebral di bagian tukang sirah, ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar neuron deui. Manusa munggaran anu mibanda volume otak nu ampir sarua jeung manusa modérn nyaéta *Homo erectus*. Mangtaun-taun lilana, spésimén utama ''Homo erectus'' asalna ti Cina sarta diperkirakeun umurna geus satengah juta taun. Dina taun 1976, Richard Leakey ti National Museums of Kenya ngalaporkeun kapanggihna tangkorak ''Homo erectus'' nu kaayaanana ampir lengkep di lapisan batu nu umurna hiji satengah juta taun. Kusabab spésimén ''Homo erectus'' ti Cina kapanggih bareng jeung sésa-sésa seuneu unggun, bisa jadi karuhun urang geus bisa ngadalikeun seuneu ti saprak leuwih ti satengah juta taun ka tukang. == Sistem uteuk == Nalika urang niténan hiji objék di beulah katuhu, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang katuhu; kitu deui, nalika urang niténan objék di beulah kénca, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang kénca. Nanging, ku sabab ayana sambungan saraf optik, widang pandang katuhu diprosés di hémisfér kénca, sarta widang pandang kénca diprosés di hémisfér katuhu. Sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli katuhu utamana diprosés di hémisfér kénca otak, sarta sabalikna—sanajan henteu mutlak kitu, sabab sababaraha sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli kénca ogé diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Parobahan sisi fungsi (crossover) sapertos kieu henteu lumangsung dina indra pangambeu anu sipatna leuwih primitif; bau anu dideteksi ku liang irung kénca wungkul diprosés sapinuhna di hémisfér kénca. Nanging, informasi anu dikirimkeun antara otak jeung anggota awak téh ngalaman panyilangan: objék anu diraba ku leungeun kénca utamana dirasa atawa dipikawanoh di hémisfér katuhu otak, sedengkeun paréntah pikeun leungeun katuhu nulis diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Dina 90 persén manusa, puseur basa (kamampuh nyarita) perenahna di hémisfér kénca otak. Sistem jaringan anu rumit saperti ''corpus callosum'' némbongkeun yén interaksi antara dua belahan otak téh mangrupa fungsi anu penting pisan pikeun manusa. Hemisfer kénca otak ngolah informasi sacara runtuy; sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu ngolahna sacara sakaligus tur ngaksés sababaraha asupan dina waktu nu sarua. Hemisfer kénca jalan sacara séri, sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu jalan sacara paralel. Hemisfer kénca téh ibarat komputer analog. Pamikiran intuitif otak katuhu mampuh nangkep pola sarta hubungan anu kacida rumitna pikeun kahontal ku otak kénca, sarta bisa ogé ngadetéksi pola anu sabenerna mah teu aya. Sikep skeptis jeung kritis lain ciri has tina otak katuhu. Tujuan urang téh nyaéta pikeun nimu pola-pola tina alam (ngagunakeun otak katuhu), tapi loba pola hasil imajinasi anu henteu luyu jeung data. Ku kituna, unggal pola anu diusulkeun kudu dianalisis sacara kritis ku otak kénca. Usaha néangan pola tanpa analisis kritis—atawa sikep skeptis anu kaku tanpa usaha néangan pola—mangrupakeun pendekatan élmu pangaweruh anu henteu lengkep; pikeun ngahontal pangaweruh sacara éféktif, diperlukeun gawé bareng ti kadua fungsi otak éta. == Bagian uteuk == === Néokortéks === Bagian-bagian utama néokortéks nyaéta lobus frontal, pariétal, témporal, jeung oksipital. Abstraksi utama tina néokortéks nyaéta basa simbolik manusa—hususna maca, nulis, jeung matématika. Abstraksi-abstraksi ieu katempona merlukeun gawé bareng antara lobus témporal, pariétal, jeung frontal, sarta kamungkinan ogé lobus oksipital. Sanajan kitu, henteu sakabéh basa simbolik patali jeung néokortéks. ==== Lobus frontal ==== Lobus frontal katembongna patali jeung fungsi ngarencanakeun sarta ngadalikeun tindakan. Lobus parietal boga peran dina persepsi spasial sarta patukeuran informasi antara otak jeung bagian awak séjénna. Fungsi séjén tina lobus frontal nyaéta ngatur sikep awak manusa nu nangtung ajeg dina dua suku. Awak urang bisa jadi moal sanggup nangtung ajeg dina dua suku lamun lobus frontal henteu mekar kalawan sampurna. Ku cara nangtung dina dua suku, urang bisa ngagunakeun leungeun pikeun ngalakukeun rupa-rupa pagawéan, nu antukna sacara signifikan ningkatkeun aspék budaya jeung fisiologis manusa. ==== Lobus oksipital ==== Lobus oksipital patali jeung fungsi panénjoan, nyaéta indra nu dominan pikeun manusa jeung primata séjénna. ==== Lobus temporal ==== Lobus temporal patali jeung rupa-rupa tugas persepsi anu kompléks. Inpormasi visual tina panon asup kana otak manusa—hususna kana lobus oksipital, anu perenahna di bagian tukang sirah—sedengkeun inpormasi auditori asup kana bagian luhur lobus temporal, anu perenahna di handapeun pelipis. Bukti séjén némbongkeun yén rupa-rupa komponén néokortéks ieu kurang mekar dina diri jalma anu lolong, bisu, atawa tuli. Kamampuh pikeun ngahubungkeun rangsangan sora (auditori) jeung visual ogé perenahna di lobus temporal. Karuksakan dina lobus temporal bisa ngabalukarkeun sabangsa afasia—hususna, henteu mampuh pikeun mikawanoh kecap-kecap nu diucapkeun. Nu matak narik perhatian, pasién nu ngalaman karuksakan otak saperti kitu bisa jadi tetep mibanda kamampuh nyarita tapi henteu mampuh komunikasi ngaliwatan basa tinulis, atawa sabalikna. Rupa-rupa ékspérimén némbongkeun yén karuksakan dina lobus témporal katuhu ngabalukarkeun wangun husus amnésia non-verbal, sedengkeun karuksakan dina lobus témporal kénca ngabalukarkeun leungitna ingetan linguistik. ==== Lobus parietal ==== Kamampuh urang pikeun maca jeung nyieun peta, nangtukeun posisi diri sacara spasial dina tilu diménsi, sarta ngagunakeun simbol-simbol anu luyu—anu kabéhanana bisa jadi patali jeung pamekaran atawa pamakéan basa—bakal kaganggu parah lamun aya karuksakan dina lobus pariétal, nyaéta bagian otak anu perenahna di deukeut luhureun sirah. Karuksakan dina ''angular gyrus'' néokortéks—anu mangrupa bagian tina lobus pariétal—ngabalukarkeun aléksia, nyaéta kaayaan henteu mampuh mikawanoh kecap-kecap tinulis. Lobus pariétal katempona boga peran dina sagala rupa wangun basa simbolik manusa; sarta di antara sagala rupa karuksakan otak, tatu dina lobus pariétal ngabalukarkeun panurunan kecerdasan anu paling signifikan lamun diukur dumasar kana kagiatan sapopoé. == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-07-121565-4}} * {{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0-471-98303-9}} * {{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0-07-118088-5}} === Rujukan === * ''[[:en:Brain|Brain]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris per 13 April 2007 <!--<div class="references-2column"> <references/> </div> --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Brain}} * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/Brain.htm How Your Brain Works] at [[HowStuffWorks]] * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325101705/http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html |date=2009-03-25 }} * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/ Brain Research News from ScienceDaily] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain/ Answers to several brain related questions of curious kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070427041606/http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain |date=2007-04-27 }} * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/brain Everything you wanted to know about the brain] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.biaq.com.au/ Fact sheets on brain injury - causes, effects and coping strategies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618221456/http://www.biaq.com.au/ |date=2008-06-18 }} * [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki]{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402002218/http://www.brainmaps.org/ |date=2020-04-02 }}, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000AF67F-28CD-1F30-9AD380A84189F2D7&pageNumber=1&catID=2 Scientific American Magazine (September 2003 Issue) Ultimate Self-Improvement] * [http://www.scienceclarified.com/Bi-Ca/Brain.html An orderly article about the brain] * [http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php Spastic cerebral palsy symptoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515232231/http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php |date=2007-05-15 }} * [http://www.brain.com Brain.com - Information on the brain] * [http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php Brain Research and Information Network (B.R.A.I.N.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703225441/http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php |date=2007-07-03 }} [[Kategori:Sistim saraf puseur]] [[Kategori:Organ]] 6sd7yd2s85a79mwlewklgoz6n3qcgaf 712784 712779 2026-09-21T01:20:19Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 nambahkeun referensi 712784 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Brain Mri nevit.svg|thumb|Gambar uteuk hasil MRI]] Dina [[sato|sasatoan]], '''uteuk''', '''otak''', atawa ''encephalon'' ([[Basa Yunani|Yun.]] "di jero hulu"), mangrupa puseur pangaturan [[sistem saraf puseur]]. Di lolobana sato, uteuk téh ayana dina hulu, ditutup ku [[tangkorak]], sarta deukeut ka parabot [[persépsi visual|tempoan]] sénsori primér, [[ceuli|pangrungu]], [[ékuilibriosépsi]], [[pangrasa]], jeung [[olfaksi]].<ref name=”H. ”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=y0JRDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=otak&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4u5P-z7eHAxWnRmcHHVj7B7kQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=otak&f=false| title =Otak dan PerilakuH. Timotius| last =H. Timotius| first =Prof. Dr. Kris | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2018|ISBN=9789792963823|pages =52}} Disungsi 21 Juli 2024</ref> Di [[manusa]], uteuk téh organ pikeun mikir. [[Vertebrata]] lolobana boga uteuk, sedengkeun [[invertebrata]] uteukna dipuseurkeun atawa dina bentuk kumpulan [[ganglion]], anapon sato primitif sarupaning [[spons]] teu boga uteuk pisan. Uteuk téh wangunna pajeulit pisan. Misalna baé [[uteuk manusa]] nu ngandung leuwih ti 100 miliar [[neuron]], nu disambungkeun ka 10.000 neuron lianna. <!-- == Overview == Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between the [[gray matter]] and [[white matter]]. Gray matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) which connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a [[fat]]ty [[Electrical insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]] ([[oligodendroglia]] cells), giving the white matter its distinctive color. The outer layer of the brain is gray matter called [[cerebral cortex]]. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter ([[fasciculus|fasciculi]], fiber tracts), gray matter ([[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]]) and spaces filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] ([[Ventricular system|ventricles]]) are found. The brain innervates the [[head]] through [[cranial nerve]]s, and it communicates with the [[spinal cord]], which innervates the body through [[spinal nerve]]s. Nervous fibers transmitting signals from the brain are called [[efferent]] fibers. The fibers transmitting signals to the brain are called [[afferent]] (or sensory) fibers. Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of fibers). It is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components as [[cognition]], [[perception]], [[attention]], [[memory]] and [[emotion]]. The brain is also responsible for control of [[posture]] and [[motor control|movement]]s. It makes possible cognitive, [[motor learning|motor]] and other forms of [[learning]]. The brain can perform a variety of functions automatically, without the need for [[consciousness|conscious]] awareness, such as coordination of [[sensory system]]s (eg. [[sensory gating]] and [[multisensory integration]]), [[Animal locomotion|walking]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and [[spinal cord]]. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under spinal cord control alone. The brain undergoes transitions from [[Awake|wakefulness]] to [[sleep]] (and subtypes of these states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge consolidation, as the neurons appear to organize the day's stimuli during deep sleep by randomly firing off the most recently used neuron pathways; additionally, without sleep, normal subjects are observed to develop symptoms resembling mental illness, even auditory hallucinations). Every brain state is associated with characteristic [[brain waves]]. [[Neuron]]s are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas [[Glia|Glial cells]] perform supporting function. Brain cell metabolism consumes considerable amounts of energy. In addition to being electrically active, neurons constantly synthesize neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their properties (guided by [[gene expression]]) under the influence of their input signals. This [[plasticity]] underlies [[learning]] and [[adaptation]]. It is notable that some unused neuron pathways (constructions which have become physically isolated from other cells) may continue to exist long after the memory is absent from consciousness, possibly developing the subconscious. The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]]. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as [[biopsychology|biological psychology]]. This field of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it affects behavior. ==History== {{main|History of the brain}} Early human views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [[Middle Kingdom]] onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the [[heart]] that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], during the first step of mummification: ‘The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.’ Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in “memorizing something by heart”. The first thoughts of the field of [[psychology]] actually came from ancient philosophers, including [[Aristotle]]. As philosophers became more in tune with medical research over time, the idea of psychology emerged. From that point, different branches of [[psychology]] emerged with different individuals creating new ideas. ==Mind and brain== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} A distinction is often made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading to the [[mind-body problem]]. The brain is defined as the physical and biological [[matter]] contained within the [[skull]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as beliefs or desires. Some adhere to [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] [[dualistic]] approaches in which the mind exists independently of the brain in some way, such as a [[soul]] or [[epiphenomenalism|epiphenomenon]] or [[strong emergence|emergent]] phenomenon. Other dualisms maintain that the mind is a distinct ''[[physics|physical]]'' phenomenon, such as [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic field]], or a [[quantum mind|quantum effect]]. [[Materialistic]] options include beliefs that mentality is [[behaviorism|behavior]] or [[functionalism|function]] or, in the case of [[computationalism|computationalists]] and [[strong AI]] theorists, [[computer software]] (with the brain playing the role of [[computer hardware|hardware]]). [[Idealism]], the belief that all is mind, still has some adherents. At the other extreme, [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialist]]s believe minds do not exist at all, and mentalistic language will be replaced by neurological terminology. ==Comparative anatomy== [[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]] Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[arachnid]]s, and others), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]]s, and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s and [[hagfish]]).<ref name="butler">{{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Ann B. | title = Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head | journal = The Anatomical Record | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125 }}</ref> The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing.<ref name="butler"/> The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]].<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex).<ref name="martin">{{cite book | last = Martin | first = John H. | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas | edition = Second Edition | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-07-138183-X }}</ref> More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.<ref name="martin"/> In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called [[Sulcus (anatomy)|sulci]]. Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species. ===Invertebrates=== In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.<ref name="butler"/> The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the mechanosensory [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[Somatosensory system|touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex. In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,<ref name="butler"/> separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.<ref name="butler"/> The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain. ===Vertebrates=== {{Cerebrum map|Human Brain|caption=<small>The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (blue), temporal (green), occipital (red), and parietal lobes (yellow). The cerebellum (not colored) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.</small>}} The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences. Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]].<ref name="martin"/> The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each have two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small. Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilaterally symmetrical]] [[encephalization]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<ref name="martin"/> ====Vertebrate brain regions==== (''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'') [[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]] According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions: *[[Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain) **[[Myelencephalon]] **[[Metencephalon]] *[[Mesencephalon]] (midbrain) *[[Prosencephalon]] (forebrain) **[[Diencephalon]] **[[Telencephalon]] The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as: *[[Limbic system]] *[[Sensory system]]s **[[Visual system]] **[[Olfactory system]] **[[Gustatory system]] **[[Auditory system]] **[[Somatosensory system]] *[[Muscle|Motor system]] *[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]] ====Humans==== [[Image:Brain animated color nevit.gif|thumb|Animation showing the human brain with the lobes highlighted]] {{main|human brain}} The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[mammal]]s (indeed larger than in all animals, although only in mammals has the neocortex evolved to fulfill this kind of function). Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]]. ==Neurobiology== The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, [[neuron]]s and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons.<ref>{{cite book | title = Basic Histology: Text and Atlas | edition = 10th ed. | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira | coauthors = J. Carneiro }} (Statistic from page 161)</ref> These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], different types of action, and higher cognitive function. ===Histology=== {{Neuron map|[[Neuron]]}} Neurons are the cells that generate [[action potential]]s and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]]. In mammals, the brain is surrounded by [[connective tissue]]s called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood. The brain is bathed in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[Ventricular system|ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight if unsupported by the CSF. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the physical [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass. ===Function=== Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain. Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Visual perception|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]]. To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone. Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the [[pituitary gland]]. It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain. Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures. ===Brain pathology=== [[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]] Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage. Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals. Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus]]es and [[bacteria]]. Infection of the [[meninges]], the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and humans and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to avoid [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]]. Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]]. Certain brain disorders are treated by brain surgeons (neurosurgeons) while others are treated by neurologists and psychiatrists. ==Study of the brain== ===Fields of study=== [[Neuroscience]] seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. [[Psychology]] seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]]. ===Methods of observation=== {{main|neuroimaging}} ====Electrophysiology==== Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons. ====EEG==== By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity. ====MEG==== Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to measure the magnetic field directly in a technique known as [[magnetoencephalography]] (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution as EEG but much better spatial resolution, although admittedly not as good as fMRI. The main advantage over fMRI is a direct relationship between neural activation and measurement. ====fMRI and PET==== [[Image:Pnsagittal.jpg|thumb|A scan of the brain using fMRI]] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on '''BOLD'''; '''B'''lood '''O'''xygen '''L'''evel '''D'''ependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occur in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent various neuronal activities ([[metabolism]] of synaptic reuptake). Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] and [[oxygen]] metabolism as well as neurotransmitter activity in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region. ====Behavioral==== Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord. ====Anatomical==== [[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine. ===Other matters=== [[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. [[Artificial intelligence]] seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success. Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence. ==Brain as food== [[Image:Porkbrain.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pork brain, ready to be cooked]] Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous "[[Eggs and brains|Eggs n' Brains]]".<ref>{{cite web | author = Lukas, Paul | title = Inconspicuous Consumption: Mulling Brains | work = New York magazine | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''tête de veau'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of the [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cavelife.net/columns/2002columns/2002Mar13.html | author = Glover, William | title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau | work = Cave Life in France | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-mammal.html | work = Weird-Food.com | title = Weird Foods: Mammal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The Anyang tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.berggorilla.de/english/gjournal/texte/18culture.html | author = Meder, Angela | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine | work = Gorilla Journal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> [[Indonesia]]n cuisine specialty in [[Minangkabau]] cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk named [[gulai otak]] (beef brain curry). Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The first problem is that the makeup of the brain is 60% fat due to the [[myelin]] (which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.autisminfo.com/dorfman.htm | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting | author = Dorfman, Kelly | work = Diet and Autism | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> As an example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thewvsr.com/porkbrains.htm | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collinge | first = John | date = 2001 | title = Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 24 | pages = 519–50 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11283320 | id = PMID 11283320 }}</ref> Another prion disease called [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of [[immortality]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collins | first = S | coauthors = McLean CA, Masters CL | date = 2001 | title = Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome,fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | journal = Journal of Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | ages = 387–97 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11535002 | id = PMID 11535002 }}</ref> Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe]]an [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&displayonly=CHP | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S. | publisher = Counterpoint Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 1-58243-162-0 }}</ref> It is also well known in the hunting community that the brain of wild animals should not be consumed, due to the risk of [[chronic wasting disease]]. --> == Uteuk manusa == Orok lahir kalayan rasio massa uteuk kana massa awak anu kacida gedéna (kinten-kinten 12 persén). Uteuk—utamana kortéks sérébral—terus tumuwuh kalayan gancang dina tilu taun munggaran kahirupan, nyaéta mangsa diajar anu kacida gancangna. Nalika ngahontal umur genep taun, massa otak budak geus ngahontal 90 persén tina massa otak jalma dewasa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=29}}</ref> Rata-rata volume uteuk awéwé dewasa jaman ayeuna téh 150 séntiméter kubik leuwih leutik batan otak lalaki dewasa. Lamun bias budaya jeung cara ngasuh barudak diperhatikeun, teu aya bukti nu jelas ngeunaan ayana béda dina tingkat kecerdasan sacara umum antara lalaki jeung awéwé. Béda massa uteuk manusa sabarat 150 gram téh lain hal anu signifikan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=30}}</ref> Jalma dewasa anu ngalaman mikrosefali sarta boga ukuran otak nu leutik pisan bakal ngalaman gangguan kognitif anu parah; massa otakna ngan ukur antara 450 nepi ka 900 gram. Jelas pisan, lamun urang niténan massa otak anu beuki leutik, aya hiji wates kritis; lamun massa otak aya di handapeun wates éta, fungsina bakal kaganggu parah pisan dibandingkeun jeung fungsi otak manusa dewasa anu normal.<ref name=":1" /> Otak manusa (teu kaasup otak leutik, anu sigana mah henteu aub dina fungsi kognitif) ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar unsur panyambung anu disebut neuron. Otak leutik, anu perenahna di handapeun korteks serebral di bagian tukang sirah, ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar neuron deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=Jakarta|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=35}}</ref> Manusa munggaran anu miboga volume otak nu ampir sarua jeung manusa modérn nyaéta ''Homo erectus''. Mangtaun-taun lilana, spésimén utama ''Homo erectus'' asalna ti Cina sarta diperkirakeun umurna geus satengah juta taun. Dina taun 1976, Richard Leakey ti National Museums of Kenya ngalaporkeun kapanggihna tangkorak ''Homo erectus'' nu kaayaanana ampir lengkep di lapisan batu nu umurna hiji satengah juta taun. Kusabab spésimén ''Homo erectus'' ti Cina kapanggih bareng jeung sésa-sésa seuneu unggun, bisa jadi karuhun urang geus bisa ngadalikeun seuneu ti saprak leuwih ti satengah juta taun ka tukang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=81}}</ref> == Sistem uteuk == Nalika urang niténan hiji objék di beulah katuhu, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang katuhu; kitu deui, nalika urang niténan objék di beulah kénca, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang kénca. Nanging, ku sabab ayana sambungan saraf optik, widang pandang katuhu diprosés di hémisfér kénca, sarta widang pandang kénca diprosés di hémisfér katuhu. Sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli katuhu utamana diprosés di hémisfér kénca otak, sarta sabalikna—sanajan henteu mutlak kitu, sabab sababaraha sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli kénca ogé diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Parobahan sisi fungsi (crossover) sapertos kieu henteu lumangsung dina indra pangambeu anu sipatna leuwih primitif; bau anu dideteksi ku liang irung kénca wungkul diprosés sapinuhna di hémisfér kénca. Nanging, informasi anu dikirimkeun antara otak jeung anggota awak téh ngalaman panyilangan: objék anu diraba ku leungeun kénca utamana dirasa atawa dipikawanoh di hémisfér katuhu otak, sedengkeun paréntah pikeun leungeun katuhu nulis diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Dina 90 persén manusa, puseur basa (kamampuh nyarita) perenahna di hémisfér kénca otak.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=147}}</ref> Sistem jaringan anu rumit saperti ''corpus callosum'' némbongkeun yén interaksi antara dua belahan otak téh mangrupa fungsi anu penting pisan pikeun manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=153}}</ref> Hemisfer kénca otak ngolah informasi sacara runtuy; sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu ngolahna sacara sakaligus tur ngaksés sababaraha asupan dina waktu nu sarua. Hemisfer kénca jalan sacara séri, sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu jalan sacara paralel. Hemisfer kénca téh ibarat komputer analog.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kpeustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|pages=155}}</ref> Pamikiran intuitif otak katuhu mampuh nangkep pola sarta hubungan anu kacida rumitna pikeun kahontal ku otak kénca, sarta bisa ogé ngadetéksi pola anu sabenerna mah teu aya. Sikep skeptis jeung kritis lain ciri has tina otak katuhu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=166}}</ref> Tujuan urang téh nyaéta pikeun nimu pola-pola tina alam (ngagunakeun otak katuhu), tapi loba pola hasil imajinasi anu henteu luyu jeung data. Ku kituna, unggal pola anu diusulkeun kudu dianalisis sacara kritis ku otak kénca. Usaha néangan pola tanpa analisis kritis—atawa sikep skeptis anu kaku tanpa usaha néangan pola—mangrupakeun pendekatan élmu pangaweruh anu henteu lengkep; pikeun ngahontal pangaweruh sacara éféktif, diperlukeun gawé bareng ti kadua fungsi otak éta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|location=Jakarta|pages=169}}</ref> == Bagian uteuk == === Néokortéks === Bagian-bagian utama néokortéks nyaéta lobus frontal, pariétal, témporal, jeung oksipital.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=62}}</ref> Abstraksi utama tina néokortéks nyaéta basa simbolik manusa—hususna maca, nulis, jeung matématika. Abstraksi-abstraksi ieu katempona merlukeun gawé bareng antara lobus témporal, pariétal, jeung frontal, sarta kamungkinan ogé lobus oksipital. Sanajan kitu, henteu sakabéh basa simbolik patali jeung néokortéks.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=66}}</ref> ==== Lobus frontal ==== Lobus frontal katembongna patali jeung fungsi ngarencanakeun sarta ngadalikeun tindakan.<ref name=":2" /> Fungsi séjén tina lobus frontal nyaéta ngatur sikep awak manusa nu nangtung ajeg dina dua suku. Awak urang bisa jadi moal sanggup nangtung ajeg dina dua suku lamun lobus frontal henteu mekar kalawan sampurna. Ku cara nangtung dina dua suku, urang bisa ngagunakeun leungeun pikeun ngalakukeun rupa-rupa pagawéan, nu antukna sacara signifikan ningkatkeun aspék budaya jeung fisiologis manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|location=Jakarta|pages=63}}</ref> ==== Lobus oksipital ==== Lobus oksipital patali jeung fungsi panénjoan, nyaéta indra nu dominan pikeun manusa jeung primata séjénna.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Lobus temporal ==== Lobus temporal patali jeung rupa-rupa tugas persepsi anu kompléks.<ref name=":2" /> Inpormasi visual tina panon asup kana otak manusa—hususna kana lobus oksipital, anu perenahna di bagian tukang sirah—sedengkeun inpormasi auditori asup kana bagian luhur lobus temporal, anu perenahna di handapeun pelipis. Bukti séjén némbongkeun yén rupa-rupa komponén néokortéks ieu kurang mekar dina diri jalma anu lolong, bisu, atawa tuli. Kamampuh pikeun ngahubungkeun rangsangan sora (auditori) jeung visual ogé perenahna di lobus temporal. Karuksakan dina lobus temporal bisa ngabalukarkeun sabangsa afasia—hususna, henteu mampuh pikeun mikawanoh kecap-kecap nu diucapkeun. Nu matak narik perhatian, pasién nu ngalaman karuksakan otak saperti kitu bisa jadi tetep mibanda kamampuh nyarita tapi henteu mampuh komunikasi ngaliwatan basa tinulis, atawa sabalikna.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=64}}</ref> Rupa-rupa ékspérimén némbongkeun yén karuksakan dina lobus témporal katuhu ngabalukarkeun wangun husus amnésia non-verbal, sedengkeun karuksakan dina lobus témporal kénca ngabalukarkeun leungitna ingetan linguistik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=65}}</ref> ==== Lobus parietal ==== Lobus parietal boga peran dina persepsi spasial sarta patukeuran informasi antara otak jeung bagian awak séjénna.<ref name=":2" /> Kamampuh urang pikeun maca jeung nyieun peta, nangtukeun posisi diri sacara spasial dina tilu diménsi, sarta ngagunakeun simbol-simbol anu luyu—anu kabéhanana bisa jadi patali jeung pamekaran atawa pamakéan basa—bakal kaganggu parah lamun aya karuksakan dina lobus pariétal, nyaéta bagian otak anu perenahna di deukeut luhureun sirah. Karuksakan dina ''angular gyrus'' néokortéks—anu mangrupa bagian tina lobus pariétal—ngabalukarkeun aléksia, nyaéta kaayaan henteu mampuh mikawanoh kecap-kecap tinulis. Lobus pariétal katempona boga peran dina sagala rupa wangun basa simbolik manusa; sarta di antara sagala rupa karuksakan otak, tatu dina lobus pariétal ngabalukarkeun panurunan kecerdasan anu paling signifikan lamun diukur dumasar kana kagiatan sapopoé.<ref name=":3" /> == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-07-121565-4}} * {{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0-471-98303-9}} * {{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0-07-118088-5}} === Rujukan === * ''[[:en:Brain|Brain]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris per 13 April 2007 <!--<div class="references-2column"> <references/> </div> --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Brain}} * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/Brain.htm How Your Brain Works] at [[HowStuffWorks]] * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325101705/http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html |date=2009-03-25 }} * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/ Brain Research News from ScienceDaily] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain/ Answers to several brain related questions of curious kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070427041606/http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain |date=2007-04-27 }} * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/brain Everything you wanted to know about the brain] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.biaq.com.au/ Fact sheets on brain injury - causes, effects and coping strategies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618221456/http://www.biaq.com.au/ |date=2008-06-18 }} * [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki]{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402002218/http://www.brainmaps.org/ |date=2020-04-02 }}, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000AF67F-28CD-1F30-9AD380A84189F2D7&pageNumber=1&catID=2 Scientific American Magazine (September 2003 Issue) Ultimate Self-Improvement] * [http://www.scienceclarified.com/Bi-Ca/Brain.html An orderly article about the brain] * [http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php Spastic cerebral palsy symptoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515232231/http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php |date=2007-05-15 }} * [http://www.brain.com Brain.com - Information on the brain] * [http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php Brain Research and Information Network (B.R.A.I.N.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703225441/http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php |date=2007-07-03 }} [[Kategori:Sistim saraf puseur]] [[Kategori:Organ]] o02udgpk5skv02gcnxuz1nb3yvoe4n1 712785 712784 2026-09-21T01:21:37Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712785 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:Brain Mri nevit.svg|thumb|Gambar uteuk hasil MRI]] Dina [[sato|sasatoan]], '''uteuk''', '''otak''', atawa ''encephalon'' ([[Basa Yunani|Yun.]] "di jero hulu"), mangrupa puseur pangaturan [[sistem saraf puseur]]. Di lolobana sato, uteuk téh ayana dina hulu, ditutup ku [[tangkorak]], sarta deukeut ka parabot [[persépsi visual|tempoan]] sénsori primér, [[ceuli|pangrungu]], [[ékuilibriosépsi]], [[pangrasa]], jeung [[olfaksi]].<ref name=”H. ”>{{Cite book| url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=y0JRDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=otak&hl=id&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4u5P-z7eHAxWnRmcHHVj7B7kQ6AF6BAgJEAI#v=onepage&q=otak&f=false| title =Otak dan PerilakuH. Timotius| last =H. Timotius| first =Prof. Dr. Kris | publisher =Penerbit Andi| location =Jakarta| year =2018|ISBN=9789792963823|pages =52}} Disungsi 21 Juli 2024</ref> Di [[manusa]], uteuk téh organ pikeun mikir. [[Vertebrata]] lolobana boga uteuk, sedengkeun [[invertebrata]] uteukna dipuseurkeun atawa dina bentuk kumpulan [[ganglion]], anapon sato primitif sarupaning [[spons]] teu boga uteuk pisan. Uteuk téh wangunna pajeulit pisan. Misalna baé [[uteuk manusa]] nu ngandung leuwih ti 100 miliar [[neuron]], nu disambungkeun ka 10.000 neuron lianna. <!-- == Overview == Most brains exhibit a substantial distinction between the [[gray matter]] and [[white matter]]. Gray matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) which connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a [[fat]]ty [[Electrical insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]] ([[oligodendroglia]] cells), giving the white matter its distinctive color. The outer layer of the brain is gray matter called [[cerebral cortex]]. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter ([[fasciculus|fasciculi]], fiber tracts), gray matter ([[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]]) and spaces filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] ([[Ventricular system|ventricles]]) are found. The brain innervates the [[head]] through [[cranial nerve]]s, and it communicates with the [[spinal cord]], which innervates the body through [[spinal nerve]]s. Nervous fibers transmitting signals from the brain are called [[efferent]] fibers. The fibers transmitting signals to the brain are called [[afferent]] (or sensory) fibers. Nerves can be afferent, efferent or mixed (i.e., containing both types of fibers). It is the site of reason and intelligence, which include such components as [[cognition]], [[perception]], [[attention]], [[memory]] and [[emotion]]. The brain is also responsible for control of [[posture]] and [[motor control|movement]]s. It makes possible cognitive, [[motor learning|motor]] and other forms of [[learning]]. The brain can perform a variety of functions automatically, without the need for [[consciousness|conscious]] awareness, such as coordination of [[sensory system]]s (eg. [[sensory gating]] and [[multisensory integration]]), [[Animal locomotion|walking]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. Many functions are controlled by coordinated activity of the brain and [[spinal cord]]. Moreover, some behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under spinal cord control alone. The brain undergoes transitions from [[Awake|wakefulness]] to [[sleep]] (and subtypes of these states). These state transitions are crucially important for proper brain functioning. (For example, it is believed that sleep is important for knowledge consolidation, as the neurons appear to organize the day's stimuli during deep sleep by randomly firing off the most recently used neuron pathways; additionally, without sleep, normal subjects are observed to develop symptoms resembling mental illness, even auditory hallucinations). Every brain state is associated with characteristic [[brain waves]]. [[Neuron]]s are electrically active brain cells that process information, whereas [[Glia|Glial cells]] perform supporting function. Brain cell metabolism consumes considerable amounts of energy. In addition to being electrically active, neurons constantly synthesize neurotransmitters. Neurons modify their properties (guided by [[gene expression]]) under the influence of their input signals. This [[plasticity]] underlies [[learning]] and [[adaptation]]. It is notable that some unused neuron pathways (constructions which have become physically isolated from other cells) may continue to exist long after the memory is absent from consciousness, possibly developing the subconscious. The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]]. There is also a branch of psychology that deals with the anatomy and physiology of the brain, known as [[biopsychology|biological psychology]]. This field of study focuses on each individual part of the brain and how it affects behavior. ==History== {{main|History of the brain}} Early human views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of “cranial stuffing” of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [[Middle Kingdom]] onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the [[heart]] that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], during the first step of mummification: ‘The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.’ Over the next five-thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in “memorizing something by heart”. The first thoughts of the field of [[psychology]] actually came from ancient philosophers, including [[Aristotle]]. As philosophers became more in tune with medical research over time, the idea of psychology emerged. From that point, different branches of [[psychology]] emerged with different individuals creating new ideas. ==Mind and brain== {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} A distinction is often made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and the brain, and there is some controversy as to their exact relationship, leading to the [[mind-body problem]]. The brain is defined as the physical and biological [[matter]] contained within the [[skull]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, is seen in terms of mental attributes, such as beliefs or desires. Some adhere to [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] [[dualistic]] approaches in which the mind exists independently of the brain in some way, such as a [[soul]] or [[epiphenomenalism|epiphenomenon]] or [[strong emergence|emergent]] phenomenon. Other dualisms maintain that the mind is a distinct ''[[physics|physical]]'' phenomenon, such as [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic field]], or a [[quantum mind|quantum effect]]. [[Materialistic]] options include beliefs that mentality is [[behaviorism|behavior]] or [[functionalism|function]] or, in the case of [[computationalism|computationalists]] and [[strong AI]] theorists, [[computer software]] (with the brain playing the role of [[computer hardware|hardware]]). [[Idealism]], the belief that all is mind, still has some adherents. At the other extreme, [[eliminative materialism|eliminative materialist]]s believe minds do not exist at all, and mentalistic language will be replaced by neurological terminology. ==Comparative anatomy== [[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]] Three groups of animals have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[arachnid]]s, and others), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]]s, and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s and [[hagfish]]).<ref name="butler">{{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Ann B. | title = Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head | journal = The Anatomical Record | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125 }}</ref> The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing.<ref name="butler"/> The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]].<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex).<ref name="martin">{{cite book | last = Martin | first = John H. | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas | edition = Second Edition | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-07-138183-X }}</ref> More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex.<ref name="martin"/> In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. The folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called [[Sulcus (anatomy)|sulci]]. Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures differs between species. ===Invertebrates=== In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli.<ref name="butler"/> The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the mechanosensory [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[Somatosensory system|touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex. In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass,<ref name="butler"/> separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes.<ref name="butler"/> The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain, as they are anatomically separate and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much visual processing, and so functionally are part of the brain. ===Vertebrates=== {{Cerebrum map|Human Brain|caption=<small>The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (blue), temporal (green), occipital (red), and parietal lobes (yellow). The cerebellum (not colored) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.</small>}} The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest region of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible in brain specimens, and is what most people associate with the "brain". In humans and several other animals, the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates with no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure. Generally, comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates often reveals a number of differences. Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is known to be involved in the control of movement,<ref>{{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 }}</ref> and is connected by thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]].<ref name="martin"/> The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each have two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small. Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilaterally symmetrical]] [[encephalization]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex, layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex).<ref name="martin"/> ====Vertebrate brain regions==== (''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'') [[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryogenesis|embryonic]] vertebrate brain. These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]] According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions: *[[Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain) **[[Myelencephalon]] **[[Metencephalon]] *[[Mesencephalon]] (midbrain) *[[Prosencephalon]] (forebrain) **[[Diencephalon]] **[[Telencephalon]] The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as: *[[Limbic system]] *[[Sensory system]]s **[[Visual system]] **[[Olfactory system]] **[[Gustatory system]] **[[Auditory system]] **[[Somatosensory system]] *[[Muscle|Motor system]] *[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]] ====Humans==== [[Image:Brain animated color nevit.gif|thumb|Animation showing the human brain with the lobes highlighted]] {{main|human brain}} The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several important ways. These differences allow for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[mammal]]s (indeed larger than in all animals, although only in mammals has the neocortex evolved to fulfill this kind of function). Humans have unique neural capacities, but much of their brain structure is similar to that of other mammals. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of even non-mammalian vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brainstem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]]. ==Neurobiology== The brain is composed of two broad classes of cells, [[neuron]]s and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons.<ref>{{cite book | title = Basic Histology: Text and Atlas | edition = 10th ed. | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira | coauthors = J. Carneiro }} (Statistic from page 161)</ref> These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], different types of action, and higher cognitive function. ===Histology=== {{Neuron map|[[Neuron]]}} Neurons are the cells that generate [[action potential]]s and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells ("glia" is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up neurotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]]. In mammals, the brain is surrounded by [[connective tissue]]s called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood. The brain is bathed in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[Ventricular system|ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight if unsupported by the CSF. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the physical [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass. ===Function=== Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then processed throughout the central nervous system; reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control important muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain. Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Visual perception|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]]. To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone. Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, the hormones that regulate hormone production throughout the body are produced in the brain by the structure called the [[pituitary gland]]. It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among "younger" (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain. Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures. ===Brain pathology=== [[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]] Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage. Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]] and, typically, other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals. Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus]]es and [[bacteria]]. Infection of the [[meninges]], the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and humans and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may explain the tendency in some species to avoid [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]]. Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors. Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]]. Certain brain disorders are treated by brain surgeons (neurosurgeons) while others are treated by neurologists and psychiatrists. ==Study of the brain== ===Fields of study=== [[Neuroscience]] seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. [[Psychology]] seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]]. ===Methods of observation=== {{main|neuroimaging}} ====Electrophysiology==== Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or groups of neurons. ====EEG==== By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as [[electroencephalography]] (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity. ====MEG==== Apart from measuring the electric field around the skull it is possible to measure the magnetic field directly in a technique known as [[magnetoencephalography]] (MEG). This technique has the same temporal resolution as EEG but much better spatial resolution, although admittedly not as good as fMRI. The main advantage over fMRI is a direct relationship between neural activation and measurement. ====fMRI and PET==== [[Image:Pnsagittal.jpg|thumb|A scan of the brain using fMRI]] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. fMRI is a noninvasive, indirect method for measuring neural activity that is based on '''BOLD'''; '''B'''lood '''O'''xygen '''L'''evel '''D'''ependent changes. The changes in blood flow that occur in capillary beds in specific regions of the brain are thought to represent various neuronal activities ([[metabolism]] of synaptic reuptake). Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] and [[oxygen]] metabolism as well as neurotransmitter activity in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region. ====Behavioral==== Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord. ====Anatomical==== [[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine. ===Other matters=== [[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. [[Artificial intelligence]] seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success. Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence. ==Brain as food== [[Image:Porkbrain.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pork brain, ready to be cooked]] Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. This form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous "[[Eggs and brains|Eggs n' Brains]]".<ref>{{cite web | author = Lukas, Paul | title = Inconspicuous Consumption: Mulling Brains | work = New York magazine | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''tête de veau'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of the [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cavelife.net/columns/2002columns/2002Mar13.html | author = Glover, William | title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau | work = Cave Life in France | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-mammal.html | work = Weird-Food.com | title = Weird Foods: Mammal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> The Anyang tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.berggorilla.de/english/gjournal/texte/18culture.html | author = Meder, Angela | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine | work = Gorilla Journal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> [[Indonesia]]n cuisine specialty in [[Minangkabau]] cuisine also served beef brain in a gravy coconut milk named [[gulai otak]] (beef brain curry). Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without risks. The first problem is that the makeup of the brain is 60% fat due to the [[myelin]] (which itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.autisminfo.com/dorfman.htm | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting | author = Dorfman, Kelly | work = Diet and Autism | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> As an example, a 140 g can of "pork brains in milk gravy", a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://thewvsr.com/porkbrains.htm | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}</ref> Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collinge | first = John | date = 2001 | title = Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 24 | pages = 519–50 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11283320 | id = PMID 11283320 }}</ref> Another prion disease called [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of [[immortality]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Collins | first = S | coauthors = McLean CA, Masters CL | date = 2001 | title = Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome,fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | journal = Journal of Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | ages = 387–97 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11535002 | id = PMID 11535002 }}</ref> Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe]]an [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.<ref>{{cite book | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&displayonly=CHP | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S. | publisher = Counterpoint Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 1-58243-162-0 }}</ref> It is also well known in the hunting community that the brain of wild animals should not be consumed, due to the risk of [[chronic wasting disease]]. --> == Uteuk manusa == Orok lahir kalayan rasio massa uteuk kana massa awak anu kacida gedéna (kinten-kinten 12 persén). Uteuk—utamana kortéks sérébral—terus tumuwuh kalayan gancang dina tilu taun munggaran kahirupan, nyaéta mangsa diajar anu kacida gancangna. Nalika ngahontal umur genep taun, massa otak budak geus ngahontal 90 persén tina massa otak jalma dewasa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=29}}</ref> Rata-rata volume uteuk awéwé dewasa jaman ayeuna téh 150 séntiméter kubik leuwih leutik batan otak lalaki dewasa. Lamun bias budaya jeung cara ngasuh barudak diperhatikeun, teu aya bukti nu jelas ngeunaan ayana béda dina tingkat kecerdasan sacara umum antara lalaki jeung awéwé. Béda massa uteuk manusa sabarat 150 gram téh lain hal anu signifikan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=30}}</ref> Jalma dewasa anu ngalaman mikrosefali sarta boga ukuran otak nu leutik pisan bakal ngalaman gangguan kognitif anu parah; massa otakna ngan ukur antara 450 nepi ka 900 gram. Jelas pisan, lamun urang niténan massa otak anu beuki leutik, aya hiji wates kritis; lamun massa otak aya di handapeun wates éta, fungsina bakal kaganggu parah pisan dibandingkeun jeung fungsi otak manusa dewasa anu normal.<ref name=":1" /> Otak manusa (teu kaasup otak leutik, anu sigana mah henteu aub dina fungsi kognitif) ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar unsur panyambung anu disebut neuron. Otak leutik, anu perenahna di handapeun korteks serebral di bagian tukang sirah, ngandung kira-kira sapuluh miliar neuron deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=Jakarta|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=35}}</ref> Manusa munggaran anu miboga volume otak nu ampir sarua jeung manusa modérn nyaéta ''Homo erectus''. Mangtaun-taun lilana, spésimén utama ''Homo erectus'' asalna ti Cina sarta diperkirakeun umurna geus satengah juta taun. Dina taun 1976, Richard Leakey ti National Museums of Kenya ngalaporkeun kapanggihna tangkorak ''Homo erectus'' nu kaayaanana ampir lengkep di lapisan batu nu umurna hiji satengah juta taun. Kusabab spésimén ''Homo erectus'' ti Cina kapanggih bareng jeung sésa-sésa seuneu unggun, bisa jadi karuhun urang geus bisa ngadalikeun seuneu ti saprak leuwih ti satengah juta taun ka tukang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=81}}</ref> == Sistem uteuk == Nalika urang niténan hiji objék di beulah katuhu, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang katuhu; kitu deui, nalika urang niténan objék di beulah kénca, kadua panon neuteup ka arah widang pandang kénca. Nanging, ku sabab ayana sambungan saraf optik, widang pandang katuhu diprosés di hémisfér kénca, sarta widang pandang kénca diprosés di hémisfér katuhu. Sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli katuhu utamana diprosés di hémisfér kénca otak, sarta sabalikna—sanajan henteu mutlak kitu, sabab sababaraha sora anu kadéngé ku ceuli kénca ogé diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Parobahan sisi fungsi (crossover) sapertos kieu henteu lumangsung dina indra pangambeu anu sipatna leuwih primitif; bau anu dideteksi ku liang irung kénca wungkul diprosés sapinuhna di hémisfér kénca. Nanging, informasi anu dikirimkeun antara otak jeung anggota awak téh ngalaman panyilangan: objék anu diraba ku leungeun kénca utamana dirasa atawa dipikawanoh di hémisfér katuhu otak, sedengkeun paréntah pikeun leungeun katuhu nulis diprosés di hémisfér kénca. Dina 90 persén manusa, puseur basa (kamampuh nyarita) perenahna di hémisfér kénca otak.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=147}}</ref> Sistem jaringan anu rumit saperti ''corpus callosum'' némbongkeun yén interaksi antara dua belahan otak téh mangrupa fungsi anu penting pisan pikeun manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=153}}</ref> Hemisfer kénca otak ngolah informasi sacara runtuy; sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu ngolahna sacara sakaligus tur ngaksés sababaraha asupan dina waktu nu sarua. Hemisfer kénca jalan sacara séri, sedengkeun hemisfer katuhu jalan sacara paralel. Hemisfer kénca téh ibarat komputer analog.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kpeustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|pages=155}}</ref> Pamikiran intuitif otak katuhu mampuh nangkep pola sarta hubungan anu kacida rumitna pikeun kahontal ku otak kénca, sarta bisa ogé ngadetéksi pola anu sabenerna mah teu aya. Sikep skeptis jeung kritis lain ciri has tina otak katuhu.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=166}}</ref> Tujuan urang téh nyaéta pikeun nimu pola-pola tina alam (ngagunakeun otak katuhu), tapi loba pola hasil imajinasi anu henteu luyu jeung data. Ku kituna, unggal pola anu diusulkeun kudu dianalisis sacara kritis ku otak kénca. Usaha néangan pola tanpa analisis kritis—atawa sikep skeptis anu kaku tanpa usaha néangan pola—mangrupakeun pendekatan élmu pangaweruh anu henteu lengkep; pikeun ngahontal pangaweruh sacara éféktif, diperlukeun gawé bareng ti kadua fungsi otak éta.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|location=Jakarta|pages=169}}</ref> == Bagian uteuk == === Néokortéks === Bagian-bagian utama néokortéks nyaéta lobus frontal, pariétal, témporal, jeung oksipital.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=62}}</ref> Abstraksi utama tina néokortéks nyaéta basa simbolik manusa—hususna maca, nulis, jeung matématika. Abstraksi-abstraksi ieu katempona merlukeun gawé bareng antara lobus témporal, pariétal, jeung frontal, sarta kamungkinan ogé lobus oksipital. Sanajan kitu, henteu sakabéh basa simbolik patali jeung néokortéks.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=66}}</ref> ==== Lobus frontal ==== Lobus frontal katembongna patali jeung fungsi ngarencanakeun sarta ngadalikeun tindakan.<ref name=":2" /> Fungsi séjén tina lobus frontal nyaéta ngatur sikep awak manusa nu nangtung ajeg dina dua suku. Awak urang bisa jadi moal sanggup nangtung ajeg dina dua suku lamun lobus frontal henteu mekar kalawan sampurna. Ku cara nangtung dina dua suku, urang bisa ngagunakeun leungeun pikeun ngalakukeun rupa-rupa pagawéan, nu antukna sacara signifikan ningkatkeun aspék budaya jeung fisiologis manusa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|location=Jakarta|pages=63}}</ref> ==== Lobus oksipital ==== Lobus oksipital patali jeung fungsi panénjoan, nyaéta indra nu dominan pikeun manusa jeung primata séjénna.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Lobus temporal ==== Lobus temporal patali jeung rupa-rupa tugas persepsi anu kompléks.<ref name=":2" /> Inpormasi visual tina panon asup kana otak manusa—hususna kana lobus oksipital, anu perenahna di bagian tukang sirah—sedengkeun inpormasi auditori asup kana bagian luhur lobus temporal, anu perenahna di handapeun pelipis. Bukti séjén némbongkeun yén rupa-rupa komponén néokortéks ieu kurang mekar dina diri jalma anu lolong, bisu, atawa tuli. Kamampuh pikeun ngahubungkeun rangsangan sora (auditori) jeung visual ogé perenahna di lobus temporal. Karuksakan dina lobus temporal bisa ngabalukarkeun sabangsa afasia—hususna, henteu mampuh pikeun mikawanoh kecap-kecap nu diucapkeun. Nu matak narik perhatian, pasién nu ngalaman karuksakan otak saperti kitu bisa jadi tetep mibanda kamampuh nyarita tapi henteu mampuh komunikasi ngaliwatan basa tinulis, atawa sabalikna.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=64}}</ref> Rupa-rupa ékspérimén némbongkeun yén karuksakan dina lobus témporal katuhu ngabalukarkeun wangun husus amnésia non-verbal, sedengkeun karuksakan dina lobus témporal kénca ngabalukarkeun leungitna ingetan linguistik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=65}}</ref> ==== Lobus parietal ==== Lobus parietal boga peran dina persepsi spasial sarta patukeuran informasi antara otak jeung bagian awak séjénna.<ref name=":2" /> Kamampuh urang pikeun maca jeung nyieun peta, nangtukeun posisi diri sacara spasial dina tilu diménsi, sarta ngagunakeun simbol-simbol anu luyu—anu kabéhanana bisa jadi patali jeung pamekaran atawa pamakéan basa—bakal kaganggu parah lamun aya karuksakan dina lobus pariétal, nyaéta bagian otak anu perenahna di deukeut luhureun sirah. Karuksakan dina ''angular gyrus'' néokortéks—anu mangrupa bagian tina lobus pariétal—ngabalukarkeun aléksia, nyaéta kaayaan henteu mampuh mikawanoh kecap-kecap tinulis. Lobus pariétal katempona boga peran dina sagala rupa wangun basa simbolik manusa; sarta di antara sagala rupa karuksakan otak, tatu dina lobus pariétal ngabalukarkeun panurunan kecerdasan anu paling signifikan lamun diukur dumasar kana kagiatan sapopoé.<ref name=":3" /> == Bacaan salajengna == * {{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0-07-121565-4}} * {{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0-471-98303-9}} * {{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0-07-118088-5}} === Rujukan === * ''[[:en:Brain|Brain]]'', Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris per 13 April 2007 <!--<div class="references-2column"> <references/> </div> --> == Tumbu kaluar == {{commonscat|Brain}} * [http://www.howstuffworks.com/Brain.htm How Your Brain Works] at [[HowStuffWorks]] * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325101705/http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html |date=2009-03-25 }} * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/ Brain Research News from ScienceDaily] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain/ Answers to several brain related questions of curious kids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070427041606/http://www.scribd.com/doc/27937/Bewildering-Brain |date=2007-04-27 }} * [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/brain Everything you wanted to know about the brain] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [http://www.biaq.com.au/ Fact sheets on brain injury - causes, effects and coping strategies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618221456/http://www.biaq.com.au/ |date=2008-06-18 }} * [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki]{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402002218/http://www.brainmaps.org/ |date=2020-04-02 }}, interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000AF67F-28CD-1F30-9AD380A84189F2D7&pageNumber=1&catID=2 Scientific American Magazine (September 2003 Issue) Ultimate Self-Improvement] * [http://www.scienceclarified.com/Bi-Ca/Brain.html An orderly article about the brain] * [http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php Spastic cerebral palsy symptoms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515232231/http://www.cerebral-palsy-med.com/Spastic-cerebral-palsy.php |date=2007-05-15 }} * [http://www.brain.com Brain.com - Information on the brain] * [http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php Brain Research and Information Network (B.R.A.I.N.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703225441/http://www.cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php |date=2007-07-03 }} == Rujukan == [[Kategori:Sistim saraf puseur]] [[Kategori:Organ]] 4if1xw3o518btablwtdp0wc7dn4e3k1 0 34833 712789 712753 2026-09-21T02:03:30Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 712789 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:James-clerk-maxwell 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|James Clerk Maxwell]] '''James Clerk Maxwell''' (13 Juni 1831 – 5 November 1879) nyaéta [[fisika]]wan [[Skotlandia]] anu mimiti nulis hukum [[magnetisme]] jeung kalistrikan dina rumus matematis.<ref name=EB>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell|title=James Clerk Maxwell | quote = Scottish physicist best known for his formulation of electromagnetic theory |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref> Dina taun [[1864]], anjeunna ngabuktikeun yén gelombang elektromagnetik téh nyaéta gabungan tina osilasi [[medan listrik]] jeung [[Medan magnet|magnetik]].<ref name=EB/> Maxwell nyindekkeun yén cahaya téh salah sahiji bentuk [[radiasi elektromagnetik]].<ref name=EB/> Anjeunna ogé nyieun pamahaman ngeunaan gerak gas, ku cara nunjukkeun yén laju molekul-molekul di jero gas gumantung kana suhuna séwang-séwangan.<ref name=EB/> James Clerk Maxwell katélah ku formulasi opat pernyataan anu ngajelaskeun hukum dasar listrik jeung magnét.<ref name=EB/> Kadua widang ieu saacan Maxwell atos ditalungtik lila pisan jeung tos dipikanyaho aya patali antawis duaannana.<ref name=EB/> Mung, din rupa-rupa hukum listrik jeung kamagnétan geus kapanggih jeung ngandung kabeneran tina sababaraha segi, saacan Maxwell, euweuh hiji-hiji acan tina hukum-hukum éta anu mangrupa hiji téori terpadu.<ref name=EB/> Anjeunna boga opat pakakas hukum anu dirumuskeun sacara ringkes (tapi miboga bobot anu gedé), Maxwell ahirna bisa ngajelaskeun sacara tepat paripolah jeung saling hubungan atawis medan listrik jeung magnét.<ref name=EB/> == Panalungtikan James Clerk Maxwell == James Clerk Maxwell nyaéta élmuwan di widang [[fisika]] asal Inggris anu nyumbangkeun hukum kalistrikan, magnet,<ref name="Kasang tukang">[http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-james-clerk-maxwell.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101005132/http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-james-clerk-maxwell.html |date=2012-01-01 }}</ref> jeung hukum optik.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT Mizan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=128}}</ref> == Panemuan radio == [[Radio]] aya lantaran Maxwell ngenalkeun hiji konsép anu disebutna "arus pamindahan" (''displacement current'') dina sakumpulan persamaan diférensial parsial anu kiwari dipikawanoh salaku persamaan Maxwell. Intina mah, Maxwell ngusulkeun yén ayana arus pamindahan téh lantaran persamaan-persamaanna katémbong leuwih éndah lamun éta konsép diasupkeun. === Gelombang éléktromagnétik === Ngaliwatan persamaan-persamaan anu dirumuskeunana, Maxwell bisa ngabuktikeun yén laju gelombang éléktromagnétikna téh nyaéta 300.000 kilométer per detik. Maxwell sadar yén laju ieu sarua jeung laju cahaya anu geus diukur; ku kituna, cahaya téh sabenerna mangrupa gelombang éléktromagnétik.<ref name=":1" /> === Listrik === Listrik jeung magnet saacanna atos jadi perhatian élmuwan, mung acan dihijikeun dina hiji téori anu padu jeung anu struktur.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Maxwell ngajabarkeun sacara bener karakteristik jeung hubungan antara medan listrik jeung magnit.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Anjeunna ngubah sajumlah fénoména jadi hiji téori tunggal anu bisa dijadikeun rujukan.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Téori Maxwell tuluy jadi cecekelan sacara luas boh di sektor téori boh dina prakték élmu pangaweruh.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> === Radiasi éléktromagnétik === Cahaya anu katingali sanés hiji-hijina jinis radiasi éléktromagnétik. Persamaan Maxwell nunjukkeun kamungkinan ayana gelombang éléktromagnétik anu béda ti cahaya anu katingali dina hal panjang gelombang sareng frékuénsi. Kacindekan ieu pamustunganana dikonfirmasi ku [[Heinrich Hertz]], anu suksés ngadeteksi sareng ngahasilkeun gelombang anu teu katingali. Sababaraha taun ti harita, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] nunjukkeun yén gelombang anu teu katingali ieu tiasa dianggo pikeun komunikasi nirkabel sareng radio. Ayeuna, gelombang ieu ogé diterapkeun dina téknologi televisi. [[Sinar X|Sinar]] [[Sinar X|X]], [[sinar gamma]], sinar infra merah, sareng sinar ultraviolét mangrupikeun conto sanés tina radiasi éléktromagnétik; sadayana tiasa di diajar hatur nuhun kana persamaan Maxwell.<ref>{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT MIzan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=128-129}}</ref> === Kinétik gas === Salah sahiji widang nu jadi minat husus Maxwell nyaéta téori kinétik gas. Maxwell sadar yén henteu sakabéh molekul gas boga laju gerak anu sarua; aya nu gerakna laun, aya nu leuwih gancang, sarta aya ogé nu gerakna kacida gancangna. Anjeunna ngarumuskeun hiji persamaan pikeun nangtukeun proporsi molekul gas anu gerak dina laju tinangtu dina suhu nu tangtu. Persamaan ieu katelah "Distribusi Maxwell" sarta loba dilarapkeun dina rupa-rupa widang fisika.<ref>{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT Mizan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=129-130}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Fisikawan Skotlandia]] [[Kategori:Èlmuan]] 6an45mljinrfbf8bkp8gpemhifj2cpl 712790 712789 2026-09-21T02:05:43Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 /* Panemuan radio */ nambahkeun referensi 712790 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Gambar:James-clerk-maxwell 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|James Clerk Maxwell]] '''James Clerk Maxwell''' (13 Juni 1831 – 5 November 1879) nyaéta [[fisika]]wan [[Skotlandia]] anu mimiti nulis hukum [[magnetisme]] jeung kalistrikan dina rumus matematis.<ref name=EB>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370621/James-Clerk-Maxwell|title=James Clerk Maxwell | quote = Scottish physicist best known for his formulation of electromagnetic theory |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref> Dina taun [[1864]], anjeunna ngabuktikeun yén gelombang elektromagnetik téh nyaéta gabungan tina osilasi [[medan listrik]] jeung [[Medan magnet|magnetik]].<ref name=EB/> Maxwell nyindekkeun yén cahaya téh salah sahiji bentuk [[radiasi elektromagnetik]].<ref name=EB/> Anjeunna ogé nyieun pamahaman ngeunaan gerak gas, ku cara nunjukkeun yén laju molekul-molekul di jero gas gumantung kana suhuna séwang-séwangan.<ref name=EB/> James Clerk Maxwell katélah ku formulasi opat pernyataan anu ngajelaskeun hukum dasar listrik jeung magnét.<ref name=EB/> Kadua widang ieu saacan Maxwell atos ditalungtik lila pisan jeung tos dipikanyaho aya patali antawis duaannana.<ref name=EB/> Mung, din rupa-rupa hukum listrik jeung kamagnétan geus kapanggih jeung ngandung kabeneran tina sababaraha segi, saacan Maxwell, euweuh hiji-hiji acan tina hukum-hukum éta anu mangrupa hiji téori terpadu.<ref name=EB/> Anjeunna boga opat pakakas hukum anu dirumuskeun sacara ringkes (tapi miboga bobot anu gedé), Maxwell ahirna bisa ngajelaskeun sacara tepat paripolah jeung saling hubungan atawis medan listrik jeung magnét.<ref name=EB/> == Panalungtikan James Clerk Maxwell == James Clerk Maxwell nyaéta élmuwan di widang [[fisika]] asal Inggris anu nyumbangkeun hukum kalistrikan, magnet,<ref name="Kasang tukang">[http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-james-clerk-maxwell.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101005132/http://www.biografitokohdunia.com/2011/05/biografi-james-clerk-maxwell.html |date=2012-01-01 }}</ref> jeung hukum optik.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT Mizan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=128}}</ref> == Panemuan radio == [[Radio]] aya lantaran Maxwell ngenalkeun hiji konsép anu disebutna "arus pamindahan" (''displacement current'') dina sakumpulan persamaan diférensial parsial anu kiwari dipikawanoh salaku persamaan Maxwell. Intina mah, Maxwell ngusulkeun yén ayana arus pamindahan téh lantaran persamaan-persamaanna katémbong leuwih éndah lamun éta konsép diasupkeun.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Dragons of Eden, Spekulasi Tentang Evolusi Kecerdasan Manusia|last=Rahman|first=Fatkhur|publisher=Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia|year=2025|isbn=9786231344571|location=Jakarta|pages=218}}</ref> === Gelombang éléktromagnétik === Ngaliwatan persamaan-persamaan anu dirumuskeunana, Maxwell bisa ngabuktikeun yén laju gelombang éléktromagnétikna téh nyaéta 300.000 kilométer per detik. Maxwell sadar yén laju ieu sarua jeung laju cahaya anu geus diukur; ku kituna, cahaya téh sabenerna mangrupa gelombang éléktromagnétik.<ref name=":1" /> === Listrik === Listrik jeung magnet saacanna atos jadi perhatian élmuwan, mung acan dihijikeun dina hiji téori anu padu jeung anu struktur.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Maxwell ngajabarkeun sacara bener karakteristik jeung hubungan antara medan listrik jeung magnit.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Anjeunna ngubah sajumlah fénoména jadi hiji téori tunggal anu bisa dijadikeun rujukan.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> Téori Maxwell tuluy jadi cecekelan sacara luas boh di sektor téori boh dina prakték élmu pangaweruh.<ref name="Kasang tukang" /> === Radiasi éléktromagnétik === Cahaya anu katingali sanés hiji-hijina jinis radiasi éléktromagnétik. Persamaan Maxwell nunjukkeun kamungkinan ayana gelombang éléktromagnétik anu béda ti cahaya anu katingali dina hal panjang gelombang sareng frékuénsi. Kacindekan ieu pamustunganana dikonfirmasi ku [[Heinrich Hertz]], anu suksés ngadeteksi sareng ngahasilkeun gelombang anu teu katingali. Sababaraha taun ti harita, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] nunjukkeun yén gelombang anu teu katingali ieu tiasa dianggo pikeun komunikasi nirkabel sareng radio. Ayeuna, gelombang ieu ogé diterapkeun dina téknologi televisi. [[Sinar X|Sinar]] [[Sinar X|X]], [[sinar gamma]], sinar infra merah, sareng sinar ultraviolét mangrupikeun conto sanés tina radiasi éléktromagnétik; sadayana tiasa di diajar hatur nuhun kana persamaan Maxwell.<ref>{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT MIzan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=128-129}}</ref> === Kinétik gas === Salah sahiji widang nu jadi minat husus Maxwell nyaéta téori kinétik gas. Maxwell sadar yén henteu sakabéh molekul gas boga laju gerak anu sarua; aya nu gerakna laun, aya nu leuwih gancang, sarta aya ogé nu gerakna kacida gancangna. Anjeunna ngarumuskeun hiji persamaan pikeun nangtukeun proporsi molekul gas anu gerak dina laju tinangtu dina suhu nu tangtu. Persamaan ieu katelah "Distribusi Maxwell" sarta loba dilarapkeun dina rupa-rupa widang fisika.<ref>{{Cite book|title=100 Orang Paling Berpengaruh Di Dunia Sepanjang Sejarah|last=Hart|first=Michael H|publisher=Penerbit Hikmah (PT Mizan Publika)|year=2009|isbn=9789791964586|location=Jakarta|pages=129-130}}</ref> == Rujukan == {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Fisikawan Skotlandia]] [[Kategori:Èlmuan]] m5c0n77gwrorpbbzxvl1yu2fh7mk803 0 47331 712791 712670 2026-09-21T11:23:35Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500}} {{EngvarB|date=September 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kemaharajaan Majapahit | common_name = Majapahit | native_name = {{small|{{native name|jv| ꦤꦒꦫꦶꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀}}}} | religion = * Shiva-Buddha (Javanese [[syncretism]] of [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]]) * [[Hinduism]] * [[Buddhism]] * [[Islam]] * [[Animism]] | p1 = Singhasari | s1 = Demak Sultanate | year_start = 1293 | year_end = 1527 | date_start = 10 November<ref name="NGI Trowulan">{{Cite web |last=Mahandis Y. Thamrin |date=September 2012 |title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit |url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |access-date=27 May 2015 |publisher=National Geographic Indonesia |language=id |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |date=26 May 2015 }}</ref> | date_end = | event_start = Coronation | event_end = [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]] takeover | image_coat = Surya Majapahit Gold.svg | image_flag = Naval flag of Majapahit Kingdom.svg | image_map = Majapahit Empire.svg | image_map_caption = The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the ''[[Nagarakretagama]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=D. G. E. |year=1965 |title=Problems of Indonesian Historiography |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=353–359 |doi=10.2307/2754037 |jstor=2754037}}</ref> in 1365 | capital = [[Trowulan]], ayeuna [[Mojokerto]] | common_languages = * [[Old Javanese]] (main) * [[Sanskrit]] (religious) | government_type = [[Mandala]] diparéntah ku [[Maharaja]] | title_leader = [[Maharaja]] | leader1 = [[Raden Wijaya]] | year_leader1 = 1293–1309 | leader2 = [[Jayanegara]] | year_leader2 = 1309–1328 | leader3 = [[Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi]] | year_leader3 = 1328–1350 | leader4 = [[Hayam Wuruk]] | year_leader4 = 1350–1389 | leader5 = [[Wikramawardhana]] | year_leader5 = 1389–1429 | leader6 = [[Suhita]] | year_leader6 = 1429–1447 | leader7 = [[Kertawijaya]] | year_leader7 = 1447–1451 | leader8 = [[Rajasawardhana]] | year_leader8 = 1451–1453 | leader9 = [[Girishawardhana]] | year_leader9 = 1456–1466 | leader10 = [[Suraprabhawa]] | year_leader10 = 1466–1474 | leader11 = [[Girindrawardhana]] | year_leader11 = 1474–1527 | currency = koin emas jeung perak }} '''Majapahit''' mangrupa hiji karajaan [[Hindu]] di [[Jawa Wétan]].<ref name="Suwarno">{{Citation | last =Suwarno| first = Suwarno| coauthors =P.J.| year = 1993| title =Pancasila budaya bangsa Indonesia: penelitian Pancasila dengan pendekatan, historis, filosofis & sosio-yuridis kenegaraan|page=21|location=Jakarta| publisher =Kanisius| isbn =9789794139677| Url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x-A0wy95LUQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=budaya&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB3OyS66_oAhXKyTgGHZwZBesQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=budaya&f=false}}</ref> Karajaan ieu kaasup karajaan kuna di [[Indonésia]] anu nangtung dina taun [[1293]] nepi ka [[1500 M]].<ref name="hiji">{{id}}[http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit hingga Runtuh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004072507/http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ |date=2015-10-04 }} (diakses 2 Oktober 2015)</ref> Karajaan Majapahit di adegkeun ku [[Radén Wijaya]] ([[1293 M]]).<ref name="hiji"/>. Masa kajayaan majapahit nyaéta saprak [[Hayam Wuruk]] nyokot posisi raja anu ngawasa dina taun 1350 nepi ka 1389 anu dicirian ku ayana pangadegan gedé-gedéan nepi ka Asia Tanggara.<ref name="dua">{{id}}[http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html Majapahit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923165516/http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html |date=23 September 2015 }} (diakses 2 Agustus 2015)</ref>. Kasuksésanana ogé diakui ka perdana mentrina, [[Gajah Mada]]. Kapunjulanana ogé diaku hasil tina jasa [[Gajah Mada|perdana menteri Gajah Mada]]. Numutkeun {{lang|jv|[[Nagarakretagama]]}} ({{lang|jv|Desawarñana}}) anu ditulis taun 1365, Majapahit mangrupa karajaan anu ngawasa 98 daérah taklukan, ngampar ti [[Sumatra]] nepi ka [[New Guinea]];<ref name="Cribb">{{cite book | title = Historical Atlas of Indonesia | first = Robert | last = Cribb | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 9781136780578 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&pg=PA87}}</ref>{{rp|page=87}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708185756/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/map/majapahit.html Majapahit Overseas Empire, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History]</ref> ngawengku daérah anu ayeuna jadi [[Indonesia]], [[Singapura]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], kidul [[Thailand]], [[Timor Leste]], kulon kidul [[Filipina]] (hususna Kapuloan [[Sulu Archipelago]]) sanajan wewengkon pangaruh Majapahit masih jadi bahan diskusi di antara para sajarawan. <ref name="Britannica-Majapahit">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Indonesia, The Majapahit Era | encyclopedia = Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-Majapahit-era}}</ref> Sifat hubungan jeung pangaruh Majapahit kana daérah taklukanana di luar negeri ogé statusna minangka hiji karajaan masih ngundang diskusi.<ref name="Sastrawan">{{Cite web|first=Wayan Jarrah|last=Sastrawan|date=2020-01-09|title=Was Majapahit really an empire?|url=https://www.newmandala.org/was-majapahit-really-an-empire/|access-date=2020-11-01|website=New Mandala}}</ref> Majapahit mangrupa salah sahiji karajaan Hindu-Budha terakhir nu penting di wilayah éta sarta dianggap salaku salah sahiji karajaan nu pangagungna sarta pangkuatna dina sajarah Indonésia jeung Asia Tenggara. Kadang dianggap salaku cikal bakal wates-wates Indonésia modéren.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tracing the glory of Majapahit | author=Sita W. Dewi | date=9 April 2013 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/09/tracing-glory-majapahit.html|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> Pangaruhna sumebar teu ngan di wilayah Indonésia modéren tapi ogé jadi topik seueur panalungtikan.<ref>Prapantja, Rakawi, trans. by Theodore Gauthier Pigeaud, ''Java in the 14th Century, A Study in Cultural History: The Negara-Kertagama by Rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 AD'' (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), vol. 4, p. 29. 34</ref><ref>G.J. Resink, ''Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory'' (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1968), p. 21.</ref> == Étimologi == Ngaran Majapahit (kadang diéjah ''Mojopait'' pikeun ngalafalkeun dina [[basa Jawa]]) asalna tina basa Jawa, anu hartina "maja pahit". Oriéntalis ti [[Jérman]], [[Berthold Laufer]], ngusulkeun yén unsur maja asalna tina ngaran basa Jawa pikeun ''Aegle marmelos'', sajenis tangkal anu tumuwuh di Jawa nepi ka sakuliah Indonésia. Majapahit ogé disebut ku sinonim anu asalna tina basa [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sansekerta]], nyaéta Wilwatikta (Sansekerta: विल्वतिक्त, ''vilvatikta'', anu hartina "maja pahit"). Toponim anu ngandung kecap maja umum kapanggih di wewengkon sabudeureun Trowulan, lantaran di Jawa geus jadi kabiasaan pikeun ngaranan hiji wewengkon, désa, atawa pamukiman dumasar kana jinis tangkal atawa buah anu paling loba atawa dominan di éta wewengkon. Pararaton, hiji babad tina abad ka-16, nyatet hiji légénda anu aya patalina jeung ngadegna pamukiman anyar di leuweung Trik ku Raden Wijaya dina taun 1292. Disebutkeun yén para pagawé anu nuaran tangkal di leuweung Trik manggihan sababaraha tangkal maja tuluy dahar buahna anu pait, anu saterusna jadi asal-usul ngaran éta désa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13285974/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Numutkeun sajarah, ngaran Majapahit nujul kana ibu kota karajaan, tapi ayeuna mah umum dipaké pikeun nyebut sakabéh éta karajaan. Dina sumber-sumber utama babasa Jawa, karajaan dina cakupan wewengkon anu leuwih jembar biasana disebut lain salaku Majapahit, tapi salaku ''bhūmi Jawa'' ("tanah Jawa") dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa ''yava-dvīpa-maṇḍala'' ("nagara di pulo Jawa") dina basa Sansekerta. Samentara éta, istilah Majapahit disebutkeun dina prasasti Tuhanaru anu dikeluarkeun ku raja Jayanagara dina taun 1245 Saka (1323 M) anu nyebutkeun:<blockquote>''".. Çri Mahārāja an t an tuhu-tuhu wiṣṇwatāra inadhiṣṭāna saŋ parama sujana pinratiṣṭa irikaŋ rājya i majhapahit ..."''</blockquote>Harti inskripsi: (saenyana-enyana Śrī Mahārāja titisan Wiṣṇu, dipénta ku jalma-jalma nu kasohor, [pikeun] ditahbiskeun di karajaan Majapahit.)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Worsley|first=Peter|date=2014|title=Boechari, Melacak Sejarah Kuno Indonesia Lewat Prasasti/Tracing Ancient Indonesian History Through Inscriptions; Kumpulan Tulisan/Writings Of Boechari.|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/180885/|journal=Wacana: Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya|language=en|publisher=Universitas Indonesia|volume=15|issue=1|pages=200–203|issn=1411-2272}}</ref> == Historiografi == Sajarah ngeunaan kamaharajaan Majapahit masih jadi salah sahiji subjék panalungtikan anu resep pikeun dibahas leuwih jauh deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples0000tayl|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-12808-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sumber utama anu dipaké ku para sajarawan di antarana nyaéta Pararaton ('Kitab Raja-raja') dina [[basa Kawi]] jeung Nagarakretagama dina [[basa Jawa Kuno]]. Pararaton ngabahas [[Ken Arok]] (nu ngadegkeun [[Karajaan Singasari|Karajaan Singhasari]]) tapi ogé ngamuat sababaraha bagian pondok ngeunaan kabentukna Majapahit. Samentara éta, Nagarakretagama nyaéta puisi Jawa Kuno anu ditulis dina masa kaemasan Majapahit di handap pamaréntahan [[Hayam Wuruk]]. Kakawin Nagarakretagama dina taun 2008 diaku salaku bagian dina Warisan Ingatan Dunia (''Memory of the World Programme'') ku [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/05/24/08444424/negarakertagama.diakui.sebagai.memori.dunia|title=KOMPAS.COM - Not Found|website=www.kompas.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya sababaraha prasasti dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa catetan sejarah ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] jeung nagara-nagara séjénna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ricklefs|first=M. C.|date=2008|title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c .1200|url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350394582|doi=10.5040/9781350394582}}</ref> [[C.C. Berg]] nganggap yén sabagian naskah kasebut lain catetan masa lalu, tapi boga arti supernatural dina hal bisa nyaho wanci kahareup. Lolobana sarjana teu narima pandangan ieu, lantaran catetan sajarah Majapahit akur jeung catetan ti Cina anu teu mungkin boga maksud anu sarua. Daptar penguasa jeung detil struktur nagara teu nembongkeun tanda-tanda dijieun-jieun. Dina taun 2010, sakelompok pangusaha ti [[Jepang]] anu dipimpin ku Takajo Yoshiaki ngabiayaan nyieun kapal Majapahit atawa ''Spirit of Majapahit'' anu bakal ngalayar ka [[Asia]]. Numutkeun Takajo, hal ieu dilakukeun pikeun ngingetkeun kerjasama Majapahit jeung Karajaan Jepang ngalawan Karajaan Yuan China (Mongol) dina perang di [[Samudra Pasifik]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indonesia-Jepang Buat Kapal Majapahit {{!}} teknologi {{!}} Tempo.co|url=http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en-US}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031000713/http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/ |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> Numutkeun Guru Besar Arkéologi Asia Tenggara ''[[National University of Singapore]]'', [[John N. Miksic]], jangkauan kekuasaan Majapahit ngawakup [[Sumatra]] jeung [[Singapura]], malahan [[Thailand]], anu dibuktikeun ku pangaruh kabudayaan, corak wangunan, candi, patung, jeung seni.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Majapahit Jajah hingga Semenanjung Malaya|url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/05/19045066/majapahit-jajah-hingga-semenanjung-malaya|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2012-12-05|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Malahan aya paguron silat nu ngaranna ''Kali Majapahit'' anu populér di [[Pilipina]] jeung anggotana ti Asia jeung Amérika. Silat ''Kali Majapahit'' ieu ngakar tina Kamaharajaan Majapahit kuno anu disebutkeun ngawasa Pilipina, Singapura, [[Malaysia]], jeung Kidul Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kali-majapahit.com/|title=Martial Arts Academy Singapore {{!}} Kali Majapahit|website=kali-majapahit.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Bukti arkéologi === Upama dibandingkeun jeung peradaban kontémporér séjénna di Asia, peninggalan fisik Majapahit anu masih aya kaasup saeutik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Kamaharajaan Majapahit ninggalkeun bukti fisik anu bisa kapanggih, utamana di wewengkon Trowulan anu pernah jadi ibu kota karajaan. Ieu kawasan ayeuna jadi pusat kajian sajarah Kamaharajaan Majapahit. [[Situs arkéologi Trowulan]] mimitina didokumentasikeun dina abad ka-19 ku Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], Letnan-Gubernur Jawa Britania ti Kongsi Dagang antara taun 1811 nepi ka 1816. Dina catetanana, manéhna nyebutkeun aya "ruruntuhan candi anu kasebar di rupa-rupa juru nagri sapanjang sababaraha mil" sarta ngagambarkeun Trowulan salaku "kebanggaan Jawa". Gambar satelit geus némbongkeun jaringan kanal anu jembar sarta ngalengkepan wewengkon ibu kota Majapahit.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Menyusuri Majapahit dengan Panduan Peta National Geographic Indonesia {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13295399/menyusuri-majapahit-dengan-panduan-peta-national-geographic-indonesia|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Panggihan dina April 2011 ngaindikasikeun yén ibu kota Kamaharajaan Majapahit jauh leuwih jembar tina perkiraan saméméhna, sanggeus sajumlah artéfak hasil kapanggih.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/07/majapahit-capital-may-be-larger-previously-believed|title=Majapahit capital may be larger than previously believed - Fri, January 7, 2011|last=Harsaputra|first=Indra|website=The Jakarta Post|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Sumber ti Tiongkok === Sumber-sumber sajarah Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana diala tina [[kronik Dinasti Yuan]] jeung satuluyna Dinasti Ming. Catetan Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana asalna tina laporan laksamana Ming, Zheng He, salila kunjunganana ka Majapahit antara taun 1405 nepi ka 1432. Panerjemah Zheng He, Ma Huan, nulis déskripsi rinci ngeunaan Majapahit jeung panyicingan raja Jawa. Laporan kasebut disusun jeung dikumpulkeun dina ''Yingya Shenglan'', anu méré wawasan berharga ngeunaan budaya, adat istiadat, sarta rupa-rupa aspék sosial jeung ékonomi di Jawa (爪哇, ''chao-wa'') salila masa Majapahit. Catetan Resmi Dinasti Ming (''Ming shi-lu'') méré bukti pangrojong pikeun kajadian-kajadian tangtu dina sajarah Majapahit, saperti Perang Regreg.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/|title=Introduction {{!}} Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu|website=epress.nus.edu.sg|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Pangadegan === Saméméh ngadegna Majapahit, Singhasari geus jadi karajaan pangkuatna di Jawa. Hal ieu jadi perhatian [[Kubilai Khan]], panguasa [[Dinasti Yuan]] di Tiongkok. Manéhna ngirim utusan anu ngarana Meng Chi ke Singhasari anu nungtut upeti. Kertanagara, panguasa karajaan Singhasari anu panungtung nolak mayar upeti tur ngawirangkeun utusan éta ku cara ngaruksak beungeutna sarta neukteuk ceulina. Kubilai Khan bendu terus mangkatkeun ékspedisi gedé ka Jawa taun 1293.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indonesiamedia.com/lipsus/lipsus-2003-martabattionghoa2.htm|title=Kehancuran dan Kebangkitan Martabat/ Jati Diri Etnis Tionghoa Di Indonesia (bagian 1)|last=Argo|first=David|website=www.indonesiamedia.com|accessdate=2026-09-13}}</ref> Waktu harita, Jayakatwang, adipati Kediri, geus ngagulingkeun tur maéhan Kertanegara. Ku saran panasehat karajaan Aria Wiraraja, Jayakatwang méré pangampunan ka Raden Wijaya, minantu Kertanegara, anu datang nyerahkeun diri. Saterusna, Wiraraja ngirim utusan ka Daha, anu mawa surat eusi pernyataan yén Raden Wijaya nyerah tur hayang ngabdikeun diri ka Jayakatwang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gerakan Islam simbolik: politik kepentingan FPI|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ZdZNN4iMab0C&pg=PA121&dq=sejarah+sumenep&hl=id&sa=X&ei=rnbgT5SnEobUrQewq732DA|publisher=LKiS|date=2006|isbn=978-979-25-5254-6|language=id|first=Al-Zastrouw|last=Ngatawi}}</ref> Jawaban ti surat di luhur disamput kalawan bungah. Raden Wijaya terus dibéré leuweung Tarik. Manehna muka leuweung eta tur ngawangun désa anyar kalawan palabuhan utama di Canggu. Désa éta dinamuan Majapahit, anu ngaranna dicokot ti buah maja, sarta rasa "pait" ti buah kasebut. Waktu pasukan Mongol nepi, Wijaya ngahiji jeung pasukan Mongol pikeun tetempuran ngalawan Jayakatwang. Sanggeus hasil ngéléhkeun Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya malik nyerang sakutu Mongolna nepi ka mamaksa maranéhna baralik deui pasukanna sacara kalang-kabut sabab maranéhna aya di nagri asing. Harita ogé nyaéta kasempatan panungtung maranéhna pikeun nangkap angin muson sangkan bisa balik, atawa maranéhna kapaksa kudu ngadagoan genep bulan deui di pulo anu asing. Tanggal pasti anu digunakeun salaku tanggal kalahiran karajaan Majapahit nyaéta poé panobatan Raden Wijaya salaku raja, nyaéta tanggal 15 bulan Kartika taun 1215 saka anu barngan jeung tanggal 10 November 1293. Manéhna dinobatkan kalawan ngaran resmi Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Karajaan ieu nyanghareupan masalah. Sababaraha jalma kapercayaan Kertarajasa, kaasup Ranggalawe, Sora, jeung Nambi ngabarontak ngalawan manéhna, sanajan pamberontakan kasebut henteu berhasil. Pamberontakan Ranggalawe ieu didukung ku Panji Mahajaya, Ra Arya Sidi, Ra Jaran Waha, Ra Lintang, Ra Tosan, Ra Gelatik, jeung Ra Tati. Kabéh ieu disebutkeun dina Pararaton.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gajah Mada: menangkis ancaman pemberontakan Ra Kuti : kisah ketangguhan seorang patih Majapahit dalam menjaga keutuhan takhta sang raja|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8oeCIXs8sjkC&pg=PA16&dq=Berdiri+Majapahit&hl=id&sa=X&ei=zCnhT_OmLdHRrQer8sTODg|publisher=Penerbit Narasi|date=2009|isbn=978-979-16814-5-2|language=id|first=Gamal|last=Komandoko}}</ref> Slamet Muljana nyangka yén mahapatih Halayudha téh anu ngalakukeun konspirasi pikeun ngéléhkeun kabéh jalma kapercayaan raja, sangkan manéhna bisa ngahontal posisi pangluhurna dina pamaréntahan. Tapi sanggeus eureunna pamberontak panungtung (Kuti), Halayudha ditéwak tur dipenjara, terus dihukum paéh. Wijaya wafat dina taun 1309. Putra jeung penerus Wijaya nyaéta Jayanegara. Pararaton menyebutna ''Kala Gemet,'' anu hartina "penjahat lemah". Kira-kira dina hiji waktu dina kurun pamaréntahan Jayanegara, hiji pendeta Italia, [[Odorico da Pordenone]] ngadatangan keraton Majapahit di Jawa. Dina taun 1328, Jayanegara dipaéhan ku tabibna, Tanca. Indung téréna nyaéta Gayatri Rajapatni kuduna ngagantikan manéhna, tapi Rajapatni milih ngundurna diri ti istana tur jadi bhiksuni. Rajapatni nunjuk anak awéwéna Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi pikeun jadi ratu Majapahit. Dina taun 1336, Tribhuwana nunjuk [[Gajah Mada]] salaku Mahapatih, dina waktu pelantikanna Gajah Mada ngucapkeun Sumpah Palapa anu nunjukkeun rencanana pikeun ngalegaan kakuasaan Majapahit tur ngawangun hiji kamaharajaan. Salila kakuasaan Tribhuwana, karajaan Majapahit ngagédean jadi leuwih badag tur terkenal di kapuloan Nusantara. Tribhuwana boga kawasa di Majapahit nepi ka maot indungna dina taun 1350. Manéhna diteruskeun ku putrana, Hayam Wuruk. === Puncak kajayaan Majapahit === Rajapatni (Gayatri) tilar dunya dina taun 1350. Sanggeus indungna maot, Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi nyerahkeun tahta Majapahit ka anakna, Hayam Wuruk. Basa naék tahta, umur Hayam Wuruk kakara 16 taun. [[Ibnu Batutah]] dina lalampahanna antara taun 1332–1347 ngadatangan tempat nu disebut "Mul Jawa" (pulo Jawa atawa Jawa Majapahit, kabalikan ti "al-Jawa" nu ngarujuk ka Sumatra). Éta nagri legana nepi ka 2 bulan lalampahan, jeung maréntah nagara Qaqula sarta Qamara. Manéhna nepi di kota nu dibénténgan ngaranna Qaqula/Kakula, jeung niténan yén éta kota boga kapal perang pikeun bajak laut nu ngarampok jeung ngumpulkeun tol (pajeg), sarta gajah dipekerjakeun (dipaké gawé) pikeun rupa-rupa kaperluan. Manéhna panggih jeung pangawasa Mul Jawa tuluy cicing jadi sémah salila tilu poé.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China|url=http://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither04yule|publisher=London, Printed for the Hakluyt society|date=1913|last=Wellesley College Library|first=Henry|first2=Henri|last2=Cordier|first3=da Pordenone|last3=Odorico|first4=1247?-1318|last4=Rashid al-Din Tabib|first5=Francesco|last5=Balducci Pegolotti|first6=Joannes de|last6=Marignolis|first7=1304-1377|last7=Ibn Batuta|first8=Bento de|last8=Góis}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Travels Of Ibn Battuta 1325– 1354 Volume I-IV|url=http://archive.org/details/travels-of-ibn-battuta|date=1354-06-30|last=Ibn Battuta}}</ref> Ibnu Battuta nyebutkeun yén awéwé Jawa tumpak kuda, ngarti cara ngapanah, jeung milu perang kawas lalaki. Ibnu Battuta ogé nyatet carita ngeunaan nagara nu ngaranna Tawalisi nu ngalawan raja Cina (Dinasti Yuan) jeung perang ngalawan manéhna maké loba kapal jung nepi ka ahirna badami (daméy) ku sarat-sarat nu tangtu.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> ==Referensi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Majapahit| ]] 3z3tqiys2y4mh1kags2ok3sih0vngou 712792 712791 2026-09-21T11:25:18Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Puncak kajayaan Majapahit */ 712792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500}} {{EngvarB|date=September 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kemaharajaan Majapahit | common_name = Majapahit | native_name = {{small|{{native name|jv| ꦤꦒꦫꦶꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀}}}} | religion = * Shiva-Buddha (Javanese [[syncretism]] of [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]]) * [[Hinduism]] * [[Buddhism]] * [[Islam]] * [[Animism]] | p1 = Singhasari | s1 = Demak Sultanate | year_start = 1293 | year_end = 1527 | date_start = 10 November<ref name="NGI Trowulan">{{Cite web |last=Mahandis Y. Thamrin |date=September 2012 |title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit |url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |access-date=27 May 2015 |publisher=National Geographic Indonesia |language=id |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |date=26 May 2015 }}</ref> | date_end = | event_start = Coronation | event_end = [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]] takeover | image_coat = Surya Majapahit Gold.svg | image_flag = Naval flag of Majapahit Kingdom.svg | image_map = Majapahit Empire.svg | image_map_caption = The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the ''[[Nagarakretagama]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=D. G. E. |year=1965 |title=Problems of Indonesian Historiography |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=353–359 |doi=10.2307/2754037 |jstor=2754037}}</ref> in 1365 | capital = [[Trowulan]], ayeuna [[Mojokerto]] | common_languages = * [[Old Javanese]] (main) * [[Sanskrit]] (religious) | government_type = [[Mandala]] diparéntah ku [[Maharaja]] | title_leader = [[Maharaja]] | leader1 = [[Raden Wijaya]] | year_leader1 = 1293–1309 | leader2 = [[Jayanegara]] | year_leader2 = 1309–1328 | leader3 = [[Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi]] | year_leader3 = 1328–1350 | leader4 = [[Hayam Wuruk]] | year_leader4 = 1350–1389 | leader5 = [[Wikramawardhana]] | year_leader5 = 1389–1429 | leader6 = [[Suhita]] | year_leader6 = 1429–1447 | leader7 = [[Kertawijaya]] | year_leader7 = 1447–1451 | leader8 = [[Rajasawardhana]] | year_leader8 = 1451–1453 | leader9 = [[Girishawardhana]] | year_leader9 = 1456–1466 | leader10 = [[Suraprabhawa]] | year_leader10 = 1466–1474 | leader11 = [[Girindrawardhana]] | year_leader11 = 1474–1527 | currency = koin emas jeung perak }} '''Majapahit''' mangrupa hiji karajaan [[Hindu]] di [[Jawa Wétan]].<ref name="Suwarno">{{Citation | last =Suwarno| first = Suwarno| coauthors =P.J.| year = 1993| title =Pancasila budaya bangsa Indonesia: penelitian Pancasila dengan pendekatan, historis, filosofis & sosio-yuridis kenegaraan|page=21|location=Jakarta| publisher =Kanisius| isbn =9789794139677| Url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x-A0wy95LUQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=budaya&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB3OyS66_oAhXKyTgGHZwZBesQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=budaya&f=false}}</ref> Karajaan ieu kaasup karajaan kuna di [[Indonésia]] anu nangtung dina taun [[1293]] nepi ka [[1500 M]].<ref name="hiji">{{id}}[http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit hingga Runtuh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004072507/http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ |date=2015-10-04 }} (diakses 2 Oktober 2015)</ref> Karajaan Majapahit di adegkeun ku [[Radén Wijaya]] ([[1293 M]]).<ref name="hiji"/>. Masa kajayaan majapahit nyaéta saprak [[Hayam Wuruk]] nyokot posisi raja anu ngawasa dina taun 1350 nepi ka 1389 anu dicirian ku ayana pangadegan gedé-gedéan nepi ka Asia Tanggara.<ref name="dua">{{id}}[http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html Majapahit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923165516/http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html |date=23 September 2015 }} (diakses 2 Agustus 2015)</ref>. Kasuksésanana ogé diakui ka perdana mentrina, [[Gajah Mada]]. Kapunjulanana ogé diaku hasil tina jasa [[Gajah Mada|perdana menteri Gajah Mada]]. Numutkeun {{lang|jv|[[Nagarakretagama]]}} ({{lang|jv|Desawarñana}}) anu ditulis taun 1365, Majapahit mangrupa karajaan anu ngawasa 98 daérah taklukan, ngampar ti [[Sumatra]] nepi ka [[New Guinea]];<ref name="Cribb">{{cite book | title = Historical Atlas of Indonesia | first = Robert | last = Cribb | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 9781136780578 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&pg=PA87}}</ref>{{rp|page=87}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708185756/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/map/majapahit.html Majapahit Overseas Empire, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History]</ref> ngawengku daérah anu ayeuna jadi [[Indonesia]], [[Singapura]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], kidul [[Thailand]], [[Timor Leste]], kulon kidul [[Filipina]] (hususna Kapuloan [[Sulu Archipelago]]) sanajan wewengkon pangaruh Majapahit masih jadi bahan diskusi di antara para sajarawan. <ref name="Britannica-Majapahit">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Indonesia, The Majapahit Era | encyclopedia = Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-Majapahit-era}}</ref> Sifat hubungan jeung pangaruh Majapahit kana daérah taklukanana di luar negeri ogé statusna minangka hiji karajaan masih ngundang diskusi.<ref name="Sastrawan">{{Cite web|first=Wayan Jarrah|last=Sastrawan|date=2020-01-09|title=Was Majapahit really an empire?|url=https://www.newmandala.org/was-majapahit-really-an-empire/|access-date=2020-11-01|website=New Mandala}}</ref> Majapahit mangrupa salah sahiji karajaan Hindu-Budha terakhir nu penting di wilayah éta sarta dianggap salaku salah sahiji karajaan nu pangagungna sarta pangkuatna dina sajarah Indonésia jeung Asia Tenggara. Kadang dianggap salaku cikal bakal wates-wates Indonésia modéren.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tracing the glory of Majapahit | author=Sita W. Dewi | date=9 April 2013 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/09/tracing-glory-majapahit.html|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> Pangaruhna sumebar teu ngan di wilayah Indonésia modéren tapi ogé jadi topik seueur panalungtikan.<ref>Prapantja, Rakawi, trans. by Theodore Gauthier Pigeaud, ''Java in the 14th Century, A Study in Cultural History: The Negara-Kertagama by Rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 AD'' (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), vol. 4, p. 29. 34</ref><ref>G.J. Resink, ''Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory'' (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1968), p. 21.</ref> == Étimologi == Ngaran Majapahit (kadang diéjah ''Mojopait'' pikeun ngalafalkeun dina [[basa Jawa]]) asalna tina basa Jawa, anu hartina "maja pahit". Oriéntalis ti [[Jérman]], [[Berthold Laufer]], ngusulkeun yén unsur maja asalna tina ngaran basa Jawa pikeun ''Aegle marmelos'', sajenis tangkal anu tumuwuh di Jawa nepi ka sakuliah Indonésia. Majapahit ogé disebut ku sinonim anu asalna tina basa [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sansekerta]], nyaéta Wilwatikta (Sansekerta: विल्वतिक्त, ''vilvatikta'', anu hartina "maja pahit"). Toponim anu ngandung kecap maja umum kapanggih di wewengkon sabudeureun Trowulan, lantaran di Jawa geus jadi kabiasaan pikeun ngaranan hiji wewengkon, désa, atawa pamukiman dumasar kana jinis tangkal atawa buah anu paling loba atawa dominan di éta wewengkon. Pararaton, hiji babad tina abad ka-16, nyatet hiji légénda anu aya patalina jeung ngadegna pamukiman anyar di leuweung Trik ku Raden Wijaya dina taun 1292. Disebutkeun yén para pagawé anu nuaran tangkal di leuweung Trik manggihan sababaraha tangkal maja tuluy dahar buahna anu pait, anu saterusna jadi asal-usul ngaran éta désa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13285974/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Numutkeun sajarah, ngaran Majapahit nujul kana ibu kota karajaan, tapi ayeuna mah umum dipaké pikeun nyebut sakabéh éta karajaan. Dina sumber-sumber utama babasa Jawa, karajaan dina cakupan wewengkon anu leuwih jembar biasana disebut lain salaku Majapahit, tapi salaku ''bhūmi Jawa'' ("tanah Jawa") dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa ''yava-dvīpa-maṇḍala'' ("nagara di pulo Jawa") dina basa Sansekerta. Samentara éta, istilah Majapahit disebutkeun dina prasasti Tuhanaru anu dikeluarkeun ku raja Jayanagara dina taun 1245 Saka (1323 M) anu nyebutkeun:<blockquote>''".. Çri Mahārāja an t an tuhu-tuhu wiṣṇwatāra inadhiṣṭāna saŋ parama sujana pinratiṣṭa irikaŋ rājya i majhapahit ..."''</blockquote>Harti inskripsi: (saenyana-enyana Śrī Mahārāja titisan Wiṣṇu, dipénta ku jalma-jalma nu kasohor, [pikeun] ditahbiskeun di karajaan Majapahit.)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Worsley|first=Peter|date=2014|title=Boechari, Melacak Sejarah Kuno Indonesia Lewat Prasasti/Tracing Ancient Indonesian History Through Inscriptions; Kumpulan Tulisan/Writings Of Boechari.|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/180885/|journal=Wacana: Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya|language=en|publisher=Universitas Indonesia|volume=15|issue=1|pages=200–203|issn=1411-2272}}</ref> == Historiografi == Sajarah ngeunaan kamaharajaan Majapahit masih jadi salah sahiji subjék panalungtikan anu resep pikeun dibahas leuwih jauh deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples0000tayl|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-12808-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sumber utama anu dipaké ku para sajarawan di antarana nyaéta Pararaton ('Kitab Raja-raja') dina [[basa Kawi]] jeung Nagarakretagama dina [[basa Jawa Kuno]]. Pararaton ngabahas [[Ken Arok]] (nu ngadegkeun [[Karajaan Singasari|Karajaan Singhasari]]) tapi ogé ngamuat sababaraha bagian pondok ngeunaan kabentukna Majapahit. Samentara éta, Nagarakretagama nyaéta puisi Jawa Kuno anu ditulis dina masa kaemasan Majapahit di handap pamaréntahan [[Hayam Wuruk]]. Kakawin Nagarakretagama dina taun 2008 diaku salaku bagian dina Warisan Ingatan Dunia (''Memory of the World Programme'') ku [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/05/24/08444424/negarakertagama.diakui.sebagai.memori.dunia|title=KOMPAS.COM - Not Found|website=www.kompas.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya sababaraha prasasti dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa catetan sejarah ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] jeung nagara-nagara séjénna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ricklefs|first=M. C.|date=2008|title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c .1200|url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350394582|doi=10.5040/9781350394582}}</ref> [[C.C. Berg]] nganggap yén sabagian naskah kasebut lain catetan masa lalu, tapi boga arti supernatural dina hal bisa nyaho wanci kahareup. Lolobana sarjana teu narima pandangan ieu, lantaran catetan sajarah Majapahit akur jeung catetan ti Cina anu teu mungkin boga maksud anu sarua. Daptar penguasa jeung detil struktur nagara teu nembongkeun tanda-tanda dijieun-jieun. Dina taun 2010, sakelompok pangusaha ti [[Jepang]] anu dipimpin ku Takajo Yoshiaki ngabiayaan nyieun kapal Majapahit atawa ''Spirit of Majapahit'' anu bakal ngalayar ka [[Asia]]. Numutkeun Takajo, hal ieu dilakukeun pikeun ngingetkeun kerjasama Majapahit jeung Karajaan Jepang ngalawan Karajaan Yuan China (Mongol) dina perang di [[Samudra Pasifik]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indonesia-Jepang Buat Kapal Majapahit {{!}} teknologi {{!}} Tempo.co|url=http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en-US}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031000713/http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/ |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> Numutkeun Guru Besar Arkéologi Asia Tenggara ''[[National University of Singapore]]'', [[John N. Miksic]], jangkauan kekuasaan Majapahit ngawakup [[Sumatra]] jeung [[Singapura]], malahan [[Thailand]], anu dibuktikeun ku pangaruh kabudayaan, corak wangunan, candi, patung, jeung seni.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Majapahit Jajah hingga Semenanjung Malaya|url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/05/19045066/majapahit-jajah-hingga-semenanjung-malaya|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2012-12-05|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Malahan aya paguron silat nu ngaranna ''Kali Majapahit'' anu populér di [[Pilipina]] jeung anggotana ti Asia jeung Amérika. Silat ''Kali Majapahit'' ieu ngakar tina Kamaharajaan Majapahit kuno anu disebutkeun ngawasa Pilipina, Singapura, [[Malaysia]], jeung Kidul Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kali-majapahit.com/|title=Martial Arts Academy Singapore {{!}} Kali Majapahit|website=kali-majapahit.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Bukti arkéologi === Upama dibandingkeun jeung peradaban kontémporér séjénna di Asia, peninggalan fisik Majapahit anu masih aya kaasup saeutik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Kamaharajaan Majapahit ninggalkeun bukti fisik anu bisa kapanggih, utamana di wewengkon Trowulan anu pernah jadi ibu kota karajaan. Ieu kawasan ayeuna jadi pusat kajian sajarah Kamaharajaan Majapahit. [[Situs arkéologi Trowulan]] mimitina didokumentasikeun dina abad ka-19 ku Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], Letnan-Gubernur Jawa Britania ti Kongsi Dagang antara taun 1811 nepi ka 1816. Dina catetanana, manéhna nyebutkeun aya "ruruntuhan candi anu kasebar di rupa-rupa juru nagri sapanjang sababaraha mil" sarta ngagambarkeun Trowulan salaku "kebanggaan Jawa". Gambar satelit geus némbongkeun jaringan kanal anu jembar sarta ngalengkepan wewengkon ibu kota Majapahit.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Menyusuri Majapahit dengan Panduan Peta National Geographic Indonesia {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13295399/menyusuri-majapahit-dengan-panduan-peta-national-geographic-indonesia|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Panggihan dina April 2011 ngaindikasikeun yén ibu kota Kamaharajaan Majapahit jauh leuwih jembar tina perkiraan saméméhna, sanggeus sajumlah artéfak hasil kapanggih.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/07/majapahit-capital-may-be-larger-previously-believed|title=Majapahit capital may be larger than previously believed - Fri, January 7, 2011|last=Harsaputra|first=Indra|website=The Jakarta Post|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Sumber ti Tiongkok === Sumber-sumber sajarah Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana diala tina [[kronik Dinasti Yuan]] jeung satuluyna Dinasti Ming. Catetan Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana asalna tina laporan laksamana Ming, Zheng He, salila kunjunganana ka Majapahit antara taun 1405 nepi ka 1432. Panerjemah Zheng He, Ma Huan, nulis déskripsi rinci ngeunaan Majapahit jeung panyicingan raja Jawa. Laporan kasebut disusun jeung dikumpulkeun dina ''Yingya Shenglan'', anu méré wawasan berharga ngeunaan budaya, adat istiadat, sarta rupa-rupa aspék sosial jeung ékonomi di Jawa (爪哇, ''chao-wa'') salila masa Majapahit. Catetan Resmi Dinasti Ming (''Ming shi-lu'') méré bukti pangrojong pikeun kajadian-kajadian tangtu dina sajarah Majapahit, saperti Perang Regreg.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/|title=Introduction {{!}} Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu|website=epress.nus.edu.sg|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Pangadegan === Saméméh ngadegna Majapahit, Singhasari geus jadi karajaan pangkuatna di Jawa. Hal ieu jadi perhatian [[Kubilai Khan]], panguasa [[Dinasti Yuan]] di Tiongkok. Manéhna ngirim utusan anu ngarana Meng Chi ke Singhasari anu nungtut upeti. Kertanagara, panguasa karajaan Singhasari anu panungtung nolak mayar upeti tur ngawirangkeun utusan éta ku cara ngaruksak beungeutna sarta neukteuk ceulina. Kubilai Khan bendu terus mangkatkeun ékspedisi gedé ka Jawa taun 1293.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indonesiamedia.com/lipsus/lipsus-2003-martabattionghoa2.htm|title=Kehancuran dan Kebangkitan Martabat/ Jati Diri Etnis Tionghoa Di Indonesia (bagian 1)|last=Argo|first=David|website=www.indonesiamedia.com|accessdate=2026-09-13}}</ref> Waktu harita, Jayakatwang, adipati Kediri, geus ngagulingkeun tur maéhan Kertanegara. Ku saran panasehat karajaan Aria Wiraraja, Jayakatwang méré pangampunan ka Raden Wijaya, minantu Kertanegara, anu datang nyerahkeun diri. Saterusna, Wiraraja ngirim utusan ka Daha, anu mawa surat eusi pernyataan yén Raden Wijaya nyerah tur hayang ngabdikeun diri ka Jayakatwang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gerakan Islam simbolik: politik kepentingan FPI|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ZdZNN4iMab0C&pg=PA121&dq=sejarah+sumenep&hl=id&sa=X&ei=rnbgT5SnEobUrQewq732DA|publisher=LKiS|date=2006|isbn=978-979-25-5254-6|language=id|first=Al-Zastrouw|last=Ngatawi}}</ref> Jawaban ti surat di luhur disamput kalawan bungah. Raden Wijaya terus dibéré leuweung Tarik. Manehna muka leuweung eta tur ngawangun désa anyar kalawan palabuhan utama di Canggu. Désa éta dinamuan Majapahit, anu ngaranna dicokot ti buah maja, sarta rasa "pait" ti buah kasebut. Waktu pasukan Mongol nepi, Wijaya ngahiji jeung pasukan Mongol pikeun tetempuran ngalawan Jayakatwang. Sanggeus hasil ngéléhkeun Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya malik nyerang sakutu Mongolna nepi ka mamaksa maranéhna baralik deui pasukanna sacara kalang-kabut sabab maranéhna aya di nagri asing. Harita ogé nyaéta kasempatan panungtung maranéhna pikeun nangkap angin muson sangkan bisa balik, atawa maranéhna kapaksa kudu ngadagoan genep bulan deui di pulo anu asing. Tanggal pasti anu digunakeun salaku tanggal kalahiran karajaan Majapahit nyaéta poé panobatan Raden Wijaya salaku raja, nyaéta tanggal 15 bulan Kartika taun 1215 saka anu barngan jeung tanggal 10 November 1293. Manéhna dinobatkan kalawan ngaran resmi Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Karajaan ieu nyanghareupan masalah. Sababaraha jalma kapercayaan Kertarajasa, kaasup Ranggalawe, Sora, jeung Nambi ngabarontak ngalawan manéhna, sanajan pamberontakan kasebut henteu berhasil. Pamberontakan Ranggalawe ieu didukung ku Panji Mahajaya, Ra Arya Sidi, Ra Jaran Waha, Ra Lintang, Ra Tosan, Ra Gelatik, jeung Ra Tati. Kabéh ieu disebutkeun dina Pararaton.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gajah Mada: menangkis ancaman pemberontakan Ra Kuti : kisah ketangguhan seorang patih Majapahit dalam menjaga keutuhan takhta sang raja|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8oeCIXs8sjkC&pg=PA16&dq=Berdiri+Majapahit&hl=id&sa=X&ei=zCnhT_OmLdHRrQer8sTODg|publisher=Penerbit Narasi|date=2009|isbn=978-979-16814-5-2|language=id|first=Gamal|last=Komandoko}}</ref> Slamet Muljana nyangka yén mahapatih Halayudha téh anu ngalakukeun konspirasi pikeun ngéléhkeun kabéh jalma kapercayaan raja, sangkan manéhna bisa ngahontal posisi pangluhurna dina pamaréntahan. Tapi sanggeus eureunna pamberontak panungtung (Kuti), Halayudha ditéwak tur dipenjara, terus dihukum paéh. Wijaya wafat dina taun 1309. Putra jeung penerus Wijaya nyaéta Jayanegara. Pararaton menyebutna ''Kala Gemet,'' anu hartina "penjahat lemah". Kira-kira dina hiji waktu dina kurun pamaréntahan Jayanegara, hiji pendeta Italia, [[Odorico da Pordenone]] ngadatangan keraton Majapahit di Jawa. Dina taun 1328, Jayanegara dipaéhan ku tabibna, Tanca. Indung téréna nyaéta Gayatri Rajapatni kuduna ngagantikan manéhna, tapi Rajapatni milih ngundurna diri ti istana tur jadi bhiksuni. Rajapatni nunjuk anak awéwéna Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi pikeun jadi ratu Majapahit. Dina taun 1336, Tribhuwana nunjuk [[Gajah Mada]] salaku Mahapatih, dina waktu pelantikanna Gajah Mada ngucapkeun Sumpah Palapa anu nunjukkeun rencanana pikeun ngalegaan kakuasaan Majapahit tur ngawangun hiji kamaharajaan. Salila kakuasaan Tribhuwana, karajaan Majapahit ngagédean jadi leuwih badag tur terkenal di kapuloan Nusantara. Tribhuwana boga kawasa di Majapahit nepi ka maot indungna dina taun 1350. Manéhna diteruskeun ku putrana, Hayam Wuruk. === Puncak kajayaan Majapahit === Rajapatni (Gayatri) tilar dunya dina taun 1350. Sanggeus indungna maot, Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi nyerahkeun tahta Majapahit ka anakna, Hayam Wuruk. Basa naék tahta, umur Hayam Wuruk kakara 16 taun. [[Ibnu Batutah]] dina lalampahanna antara taun 1332–1347 ngadatangan tempat nu disebut "Mul Jawa" (pulo Jawa atawa Jawa Majapahit, kabalikan ti "al-Jawa" nu ngarujuk ka Sumatra). Éta nagri legana nepi ka 2 bulan lalampahan, jeung maréntah nagara Qaqula sarta Qamara. Manéhna nepi di kota nu dibénténgan ngaranna Qaqula/Kakula, jeung niténan yén éta kota boga kapal perang pikeun bajak laut nu ngarampok jeung ngumpulkeun tol (pajeg), sarta gajah dipekerjakeun (dipaké gawé) pikeun rupa-rupa kaperluan. Manéhna panggih jeung pangawasa Mul Jawa tuluy cicing jadi sémah salila tilu poé.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China|url=http://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither04yule|publisher=London, Printed for the Hakluyt society|date=1913|last=Wellesley College Library|first=Henry|first2=Henri|last2=Cordier|first3=da Pordenone|last3=Odorico|first4=1247?-1318|last4=Rashid al-Din Tabib|first5=Francesco|last5=Balducci Pegolotti|first6=Joannes de|last6=Marignolis|first7=1304-1377|last7=Ibn Batuta|first8=Bento de|last8=Góis}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Travels Of Ibn Battuta 1325– 1354 Volume I-IV|url=http://archive.org/details/travels-of-ibn-battuta|date=1354-06-30|last=Ibn Battuta}}</ref> Ibnu Battuta nyebutkeun yén awéwé Jawa tumpak kuda, ngarti cara ngapanah, jeung milu perang kawas lalaki. Ibnu Battuta ogé nyatet carita ngeunaan nagara nu ngaranna Tawalisi nu ngalawan raja Cina (Dinasti Yuan) jeung perang ngalawan manéhna maké loba kapal jung nepi ka ahirna badami (daméy) ku sarat-sarat nu tangtu.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Sanggeus naék tahta, Hayam Wuruk boga gelar Sri Rajasanegara. Dina jaman pamaréntahan Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit ngalaman jaman kaemasan (kajayaan). Hayam Wuruk dibarengan ku Mahapatih Gajah Mada. Hayam Wuruk jadi raja Majapahit nu pangsohorna. Gajah Mada neruskeun cita-citana. Hiji-hiji karajaan di nusantara bisa ditalukkeun di handapeun Majapahit. Wewengkon karajaanna ngawengku ampir sakabéh wewengkon nusantara ayeuna, ditambah Tumasik ([[Singapura]]) jeung Semenanjung Melayu. Tumasik ragrag ka leungeun Majapahit dina jaman raja kadua, Sri Wikrama Wira nu ngawasa dina taun 1357–1362.Sempet leupas tina kakawasaan Majapahit basa aya konflik internal. Ieu kaayaan dimangpaatkeun ku [[Karajaan Ayutthaya]] ti Siam ([[Thailand]]) nu saterusna jadi nu boga Tumasik nu anyar. Tapi, Majapahit hasil ngarebut deui éta wewengkon dina sabudeureun taun 1390. ==Referensi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Majapahit| ]] 5fhpgv509ahbur8psgiponz6o7kemn4 712793 712792 2026-09-21T11:26:13Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Puncak kajayaan Majapahit */ 712793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500}} {{EngvarB|date=September 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kemaharajaan Majapahit | common_name = Majapahit | native_name = {{small|{{native name|jv| ꦤꦒꦫꦶꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀}}}} | religion = * Shiva-Buddha (Javanese [[syncretism]] of [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]]) * [[Hinduism]] * [[Buddhism]] * [[Islam]] * [[Animism]] | p1 = Singhasari | s1 = Demak Sultanate | year_start = 1293 | year_end = 1527 | date_start = 10 November<ref name="NGI Trowulan">{{Cite web |last=Mahandis Y. Thamrin |date=September 2012 |title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit |url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |access-date=27 May 2015 |publisher=National Geographic Indonesia |language=id |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |date=26 May 2015 }}</ref> | date_end = | event_start = Coronation | event_end = [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]] takeover | image_coat = Surya Majapahit Gold.svg | image_flag = Naval flag of Majapahit Kingdom.svg | image_map = Majapahit Empire.svg | image_map_caption = The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the ''[[Nagarakretagama]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=D. G. E. |year=1965 |title=Problems of Indonesian Historiography |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=353–359 |doi=10.2307/2754037 |jstor=2754037}}</ref> in 1365 | capital = [[Trowulan]], ayeuna [[Mojokerto]] | common_languages = * [[Old Javanese]] (main) * [[Sanskrit]] (religious) | government_type = [[Mandala]] diparéntah ku [[Maharaja]] | title_leader = [[Maharaja]] | leader1 = [[Raden Wijaya]] | year_leader1 = 1293–1309 | leader2 = [[Jayanegara]] | year_leader2 = 1309–1328 | leader3 = [[Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi]] | year_leader3 = 1328–1350 | leader4 = [[Hayam Wuruk]] | year_leader4 = 1350–1389 | leader5 = [[Wikramawardhana]] | year_leader5 = 1389–1429 | leader6 = [[Suhita]] | year_leader6 = 1429–1447 | leader7 = [[Kertawijaya]] | year_leader7 = 1447–1451 | leader8 = [[Rajasawardhana]] | year_leader8 = 1451–1453 | leader9 = [[Girishawardhana]] | year_leader9 = 1456–1466 | leader10 = [[Suraprabhawa]] | year_leader10 = 1466–1474 | leader11 = [[Girindrawardhana]] | year_leader11 = 1474–1527 | currency = koin emas jeung perak }} '''Majapahit''' mangrupa hiji karajaan [[Hindu]] di [[Jawa Wétan]].<ref name="Suwarno">{{Citation | last =Suwarno| first = Suwarno| coauthors =P.J.| year = 1993| title =Pancasila budaya bangsa Indonesia: penelitian Pancasila dengan pendekatan, historis, filosofis & sosio-yuridis kenegaraan|page=21|location=Jakarta| publisher =Kanisius| isbn =9789794139677| Url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x-A0wy95LUQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=budaya&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB3OyS66_oAhXKyTgGHZwZBesQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=budaya&f=false}}</ref> Karajaan ieu kaasup karajaan kuna di [[Indonésia]] anu nangtung dina taun [[1293]] nepi ka [[1500 M]].<ref name="hiji">{{id}}[http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit hingga Runtuh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004072507/http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ |date=2015-10-04 }} (diakses 2 Oktober 2015)</ref> Karajaan Majapahit di adegkeun ku [[Radén Wijaya]] ([[1293 M]]).<ref name="hiji"/>. Masa kajayaan majapahit nyaéta saprak [[Hayam Wuruk]] nyokot posisi raja anu ngawasa dina taun 1350 nepi ka 1389 anu dicirian ku ayana pangadegan gedé-gedéan nepi ka Asia Tanggara.<ref name="dua">{{id}}[http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html Majapahit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923165516/http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html |date=23 September 2015 }} (diakses 2 Agustus 2015)</ref>. Kasuksésanana ogé diakui ka perdana mentrina, [[Gajah Mada]]. Kapunjulanana ogé diaku hasil tina jasa [[Gajah Mada|perdana menteri Gajah Mada]]. Numutkeun {{lang|jv|[[Nagarakretagama]]}} ({{lang|jv|Desawarñana}}) anu ditulis taun 1365, Majapahit mangrupa karajaan anu ngawasa 98 daérah taklukan, ngampar ti [[Sumatra]] nepi ka [[New Guinea]];<ref name="Cribb">{{cite book | title = Historical Atlas of Indonesia | first = Robert | last = Cribb | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 9781136780578 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&pg=PA87}}</ref>{{rp|page=87}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708185756/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/map/majapahit.html Majapahit Overseas Empire, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History]</ref> ngawengku daérah anu ayeuna jadi [[Indonesia]], [[Singapura]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], kidul [[Thailand]], [[Timor Leste]], kulon kidul [[Filipina]] (hususna Kapuloan [[Sulu Archipelago]]) sanajan wewengkon pangaruh Majapahit masih jadi bahan diskusi di antara para sajarawan. <ref name="Britannica-Majapahit">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Indonesia, The Majapahit Era | encyclopedia = Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-Majapahit-era}}</ref> Sifat hubungan jeung pangaruh Majapahit kana daérah taklukanana di luar negeri ogé statusna minangka hiji karajaan masih ngundang diskusi.<ref name="Sastrawan">{{Cite web|first=Wayan Jarrah|last=Sastrawan|date=2020-01-09|title=Was Majapahit really an empire?|url=https://www.newmandala.org/was-majapahit-really-an-empire/|access-date=2020-11-01|website=New Mandala}}</ref> Majapahit mangrupa salah sahiji karajaan Hindu-Budha terakhir nu penting di wilayah éta sarta dianggap salaku salah sahiji karajaan nu pangagungna sarta pangkuatna dina sajarah Indonésia jeung Asia Tenggara. Kadang dianggap salaku cikal bakal wates-wates Indonésia modéren.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tracing the glory of Majapahit | author=Sita W. Dewi | date=9 April 2013 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/09/tracing-glory-majapahit.html|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> Pangaruhna sumebar teu ngan di wilayah Indonésia modéren tapi ogé jadi topik seueur panalungtikan.<ref>Prapantja, Rakawi, trans. by Theodore Gauthier Pigeaud, ''Java in the 14th Century, A Study in Cultural History: The Negara-Kertagama by Rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 AD'' (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), vol. 4, p. 29. 34</ref><ref>G.J. Resink, ''Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory'' (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1968), p. 21.</ref> == Étimologi == Ngaran Majapahit (kadang diéjah ''Mojopait'' pikeun ngalafalkeun dina [[basa Jawa]]) asalna tina basa Jawa, anu hartina "maja pahit". Oriéntalis ti [[Jérman]], [[Berthold Laufer]], ngusulkeun yén unsur maja asalna tina ngaran basa Jawa pikeun ''Aegle marmelos'', sajenis tangkal anu tumuwuh di Jawa nepi ka sakuliah Indonésia. Majapahit ogé disebut ku sinonim anu asalna tina basa [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sansekerta]], nyaéta Wilwatikta (Sansekerta: विल्वतिक्त, ''vilvatikta'', anu hartina "maja pahit"). Toponim anu ngandung kecap maja umum kapanggih di wewengkon sabudeureun Trowulan, lantaran di Jawa geus jadi kabiasaan pikeun ngaranan hiji wewengkon, désa, atawa pamukiman dumasar kana jinis tangkal atawa buah anu paling loba atawa dominan di éta wewengkon. Pararaton, hiji babad tina abad ka-16, nyatet hiji légénda anu aya patalina jeung ngadegna pamukiman anyar di leuweung Trik ku Raden Wijaya dina taun 1292. Disebutkeun yén para pagawé anu nuaran tangkal di leuweung Trik manggihan sababaraha tangkal maja tuluy dahar buahna anu pait, anu saterusna jadi asal-usul ngaran éta désa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13285974/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Numutkeun sajarah, ngaran Majapahit nujul kana ibu kota karajaan, tapi ayeuna mah umum dipaké pikeun nyebut sakabéh éta karajaan. Dina sumber-sumber utama babasa Jawa, karajaan dina cakupan wewengkon anu leuwih jembar biasana disebut lain salaku Majapahit, tapi salaku ''bhūmi Jawa'' ("tanah Jawa") dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa ''yava-dvīpa-maṇḍala'' ("nagara di pulo Jawa") dina basa Sansekerta. Samentara éta, istilah Majapahit disebutkeun dina prasasti Tuhanaru anu dikeluarkeun ku raja Jayanagara dina taun 1245 Saka (1323 M) anu nyebutkeun:<blockquote>''".. Çri Mahārāja an t an tuhu-tuhu wiṣṇwatāra inadhiṣṭāna saŋ parama sujana pinratiṣṭa irikaŋ rājya i majhapahit ..."''</blockquote>Harti inskripsi: (saenyana-enyana Śrī Mahārāja titisan Wiṣṇu, dipénta ku jalma-jalma nu kasohor, [pikeun] ditahbiskeun di karajaan Majapahit.)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Worsley|first=Peter|date=2014|title=Boechari, Melacak Sejarah Kuno Indonesia Lewat Prasasti/Tracing Ancient Indonesian History Through Inscriptions; Kumpulan Tulisan/Writings Of Boechari.|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/180885/|journal=Wacana: Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya|language=en|publisher=Universitas Indonesia|volume=15|issue=1|pages=200–203|issn=1411-2272}}</ref> == Historiografi == Sajarah ngeunaan kamaharajaan Majapahit masih jadi salah sahiji subjék panalungtikan anu resep pikeun dibahas leuwih jauh deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples0000tayl|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-12808-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sumber utama anu dipaké ku para sajarawan di antarana nyaéta Pararaton ('Kitab Raja-raja') dina [[basa Kawi]] jeung Nagarakretagama dina [[basa Jawa Kuno]]. Pararaton ngabahas [[Ken Arok]] (nu ngadegkeun [[Karajaan Singasari|Karajaan Singhasari]]) tapi ogé ngamuat sababaraha bagian pondok ngeunaan kabentukna Majapahit. Samentara éta, Nagarakretagama nyaéta puisi Jawa Kuno anu ditulis dina masa kaemasan Majapahit di handap pamaréntahan [[Hayam Wuruk]]. Kakawin Nagarakretagama dina taun 2008 diaku salaku bagian dina Warisan Ingatan Dunia (''Memory of the World Programme'') ku [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/05/24/08444424/negarakertagama.diakui.sebagai.memori.dunia|title=KOMPAS.COM - Not Found|website=www.kompas.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya sababaraha prasasti dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa catetan sejarah ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] jeung nagara-nagara séjénna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ricklefs|first=M. C.|date=2008|title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c .1200|url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350394582|doi=10.5040/9781350394582}}</ref> [[C.C. Berg]] nganggap yén sabagian naskah kasebut lain catetan masa lalu, tapi boga arti supernatural dina hal bisa nyaho wanci kahareup. Lolobana sarjana teu narima pandangan ieu, lantaran catetan sajarah Majapahit akur jeung catetan ti Cina anu teu mungkin boga maksud anu sarua. Daptar penguasa jeung detil struktur nagara teu nembongkeun tanda-tanda dijieun-jieun. Dina taun 2010, sakelompok pangusaha ti [[Jepang]] anu dipimpin ku Takajo Yoshiaki ngabiayaan nyieun kapal Majapahit atawa ''Spirit of Majapahit'' anu bakal ngalayar ka [[Asia]]. Numutkeun Takajo, hal ieu dilakukeun pikeun ngingetkeun kerjasama Majapahit jeung Karajaan Jepang ngalawan Karajaan Yuan China (Mongol) dina perang di [[Samudra Pasifik]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indonesia-Jepang Buat Kapal Majapahit {{!}} teknologi {{!}} Tempo.co|url=http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en-US}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031000713/http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/ |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> Numutkeun Guru Besar Arkéologi Asia Tenggara ''[[National University of Singapore]]'', [[John N. Miksic]], jangkauan kekuasaan Majapahit ngawakup [[Sumatra]] jeung [[Singapura]], malahan [[Thailand]], anu dibuktikeun ku pangaruh kabudayaan, corak wangunan, candi, patung, jeung seni.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Majapahit Jajah hingga Semenanjung Malaya|url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/05/19045066/majapahit-jajah-hingga-semenanjung-malaya|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2012-12-05|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Malahan aya paguron silat nu ngaranna ''Kali Majapahit'' anu populér di [[Pilipina]] jeung anggotana ti Asia jeung Amérika. Silat ''Kali Majapahit'' ieu ngakar tina Kamaharajaan Majapahit kuno anu disebutkeun ngawasa Pilipina, Singapura, [[Malaysia]], jeung Kidul Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kali-majapahit.com/|title=Martial Arts Academy Singapore {{!}} Kali Majapahit|website=kali-majapahit.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Bukti arkéologi === Upama dibandingkeun jeung peradaban kontémporér séjénna di Asia, peninggalan fisik Majapahit anu masih aya kaasup saeutik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Kamaharajaan Majapahit ninggalkeun bukti fisik anu bisa kapanggih, utamana di wewengkon Trowulan anu pernah jadi ibu kota karajaan. Ieu kawasan ayeuna jadi pusat kajian sajarah Kamaharajaan Majapahit. [[Situs arkéologi Trowulan]] mimitina didokumentasikeun dina abad ka-19 ku Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], Letnan-Gubernur Jawa Britania ti Kongsi Dagang antara taun 1811 nepi ka 1816. Dina catetanana, manéhna nyebutkeun aya "ruruntuhan candi anu kasebar di rupa-rupa juru nagri sapanjang sababaraha mil" sarta ngagambarkeun Trowulan salaku "kebanggaan Jawa". Gambar satelit geus némbongkeun jaringan kanal anu jembar sarta ngalengkepan wewengkon ibu kota Majapahit.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Menyusuri Majapahit dengan Panduan Peta National Geographic Indonesia {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13295399/menyusuri-majapahit-dengan-panduan-peta-national-geographic-indonesia|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Panggihan dina April 2011 ngaindikasikeun yén ibu kota Kamaharajaan Majapahit jauh leuwih jembar tina perkiraan saméméhna, sanggeus sajumlah artéfak hasil kapanggih.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/07/majapahit-capital-may-be-larger-previously-believed|title=Majapahit capital may be larger than previously believed - Fri, January 7, 2011|last=Harsaputra|first=Indra|website=The Jakarta Post|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Sumber ti Tiongkok === Sumber-sumber sajarah Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana diala tina [[kronik Dinasti Yuan]] jeung satuluyna Dinasti Ming. Catetan Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana asalna tina laporan laksamana Ming, Zheng He, salila kunjunganana ka Majapahit antara taun 1405 nepi ka 1432. Panerjemah Zheng He, Ma Huan, nulis déskripsi rinci ngeunaan Majapahit jeung panyicingan raja Jawa. Laporan kasebut disusun jeung dikumpulkeun dina ''Yingya Shenglan'', anu méré wawasan berharga ngeunaan budaya, adat istiadat, sarta rupa-rupa aspék sosial jeung ékonomi di Jawa (爪哇, ''chao-wa'') salila masa Majapahit. Catetan Resmi Dinasti Ming (''Ming shi-lu'') méré bukti pangrojong pikeun kajadian-kajadian tangtu dina sajarah Majapahit, saperti Perang Regreg.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/|title=Introduction {{!}} Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu|website=epress.nus.edu.sg|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Pangadegan === Saméméh ngadegna Majapahit, Singhasari geus jadi karajaan pangkuatna di Jawa. Hal ieu jadi perhatian [[Kubilai Khan]], panguasa [[Dinasti Yuan]] di Tiongkok. Manéhna ngirim utusan anu ngarana Meng Chi ke Singhasari anu nungtut upeti. Kertanagara, panguasa karajaan Singhasari anu panungtung nolak mayar upeti tur ngawirangkeun utusan éta ku cara ngaruksak beungeutna sarta neukteuk ceulina. Kubilai Khan bendu terus mangkatkeun ékspedisi gedé ka Jawa taun 1293.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indonesiamedia.com/lipsus/lipsus-2003-martabattionghoa2.htm|title=Kehancuran dan Kebangkitan Martabat/ Jati Diri Etnis Tionghoa Di Indonesia (bagian 1)|last=Argo|first=David|website=www.indonesiamedia.com|accessdate=2026-09-13}}</ref> Waktu harita, Jayakatwang, adipati Kediri, geus ngagulingkeun tur maéhan Kertanegara. Ku saran panasehat karajaan Aria Wiraraja, Jayakatwang méré pangampunan ka Raden Wijaya, minantu Kertanegara, anu datang nyerahkeun diri. Saterusna, Wiraraja ngirim utusan ka Daha, anu mawa surat eusi pernyataan yén Raden Wijaya nyerah tur hayang ngabdikeun diri ka Jayakatwang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gerakan Islam simbolik: politik kepentingan FPI|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ZdZNN4iMab0C&pg=PA121&dq=sejarah+sumenep&hl=id&sa=X&ei=rnbgT5SnEobUrQewq732DA|publisher=LKiS|date=2006|isbn=978-979-25-5254-6|language=id|first=Al-Zastrouw|last=Ngatawi}}</ref> Jawaban ti surat di luhur disamput kalawan bungah. Raden Wijaya terus dibéré leuweung Tarik. Manehna muka leuweung eta tur ngawangun désa anyar kalawan palabuhan utama di Canggu. Désa éta dinamuan Majapahit, anu ngaranna dicokot ti buah maja, sarta rasa "pait" ti buah kasebut. Waktu pasukan Mongol nepi, Wijaya ngahiji jeung pasukan Mongol pikeun tetempuran ngalawan Jayakatwang. Sanggeus hasil ngéléhkeun Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya malik nyerang sakutu Mongolna nepi ka mamaksa maranéhna baralik deui pasukanna sacara kalang-kabut sabab maranéhna aya di nagri asing. Harita ogé nyaéta kasempatan panungtung maranéhna pikeun nangkap angin muson sangkan bisa balik, atawa maranéhna kapaksa kudu ngadagoan genep bulan deui di pulo anu asing. Tanggal pasti anu digunakeun salaku tanggal kalahiran karajaan Majapahit nyaéta poé panobatan Raden Wijaya salaku raja, nyaéta tanggal 15 bulan Kartika taun 1215 saka anu barngan jeung tanggal 10 November 1293. Manéhna dinobatkan kalawan ngaran resmi Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Karajaan ieu nyanghareupan masalah. Sababaraha jalma kapercayaan Kertarajasa, kaasup Ranggalawe, Sora, jeung Nambi ngabarontak ngalawan manéhna, sanajan pamberontakan kasebut henteu berhasil. Pamberontakan Ranggalawe ieu didukung ku Panji Mahajaya, Ra Arya Sidi, Ra Jaran Waha, Ra Lintang, Ra Tosan, Ra Gelatik, jeung Ra Tati. Kabéh ieu disebutkeun dina Pararaton.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gajah Mada: menangkis ancaman pemberontakan Ra Kuti : kisah ketangguhan seorang patih Majapahit dalam menjaga keutuhan takhta sang raja|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8oeCIXs8sjkC&pg=PA16&dq=Berdiri+Majapahit&hl=id&sa=X&ei=zCnhT_OmLdHRrQer8sTODg|publisher=Penerbit Narasi|date=2009|isbn=978-979-16814-5-2|language=id|first=Gamal|last=Komandoko}}</ref> Slamet Muljana nyangka yén mahapatih Halayudha téh anu ngalakukeun konspirasi pikeun ngéléhkeun kabéh jalma kapercayaan raja, sangkan manéhna bisa ngahontal posisi pangluhurna dina pamaréntahan. Tapi sanggeus eureunna pamberontak panungtung (Kuti), Halayudha ditéwak tur dipenjara, terus dihukum paéh. Wijaya wafat dina taun 1309. Putra jeung penerus Wijaya nyaéta Jayanegara. Pararaton menyebutna ''Kala Gemet,'' anu hartina "penjahat lemah". Kira-kira dina hiji waktu dina kurun pamaréntahan Jayanegara, hiji pendeta Italia, [[Odorico da Pordenone]] ngadatangan keraton Majapahit di Jawa. Dina taun 1328, Jayanegara dipaéhan ku tabibna, Tanca. Indung téréna nyaéta Gayatri Rajapatni kuduna ngagantikan manéhna, tapi Rajapatni milih ngundurna diri ti istana tur jadi bhiksuni. Rajapatni nunjuk anak awéwéna Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi pikeun jadi ratu Majapahit. Dina taun 1336, Tribhuwana nunjuk [[Gajah Mada]] salaku Mahapatih, dina waktu pelantikanna Gajah Mada ngucapkeun Sumpah Palapa anu nunjukkeun rencanana pikeun ngalegaan kakuasaan Majapahit tur ngawangun hiji kamaharajaan. Salila kakuasaan Tribhuwana, karajaan Majapahit ngagédean jadi leuwih badag tur terkenal di kapuloan Nusantara. Tribhuwana boga kawasa di Majapahit nepi ka maot indungna dina taun 1350. Manéhna diteruskeun ku putrana, Hayam Wuruk. === Puncak kajayaan Majapahit === Rajapatni (Gayatri) tilar dunya dina taun 1350. Sanggeus indungna maot, Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi nyerahkeun tahta Majapahit ka anakna, Hayam Wuruk. Basa naék tahta, umur Hayam Wuruk kakara 16 taun. [[Ibnu Batutah]] dina lalampahanna antara taun 1332–1347 ngadatangan tempat nu disebut "Mul Jawa" (pulo Jawa atawa Jawa Majapahit, kabalikan ti "al-Jawa" nu ngarujuk ka Sumatra). Éta nagri legana nepi ka 2 bulan lalampahan, jeung maréntah nagara Qaqula sarta Qamara. Manéhna nepi di kota nu dibénténgan ngaranna Qaqula/Kakula, jeung niténan yén éta kota boga kapal perang pikeun bajak laut nu ngarampok jeung ngumpulkeun tol (pajeg), sarta gajah dipekerjakeun (dipaké gawé) pikeun rupa-rupa kaperluan. Manéhna panggih jeung pangawasa Mul Jawa tuluy cicing jadi sémah salila tilu poé.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China|url=http://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither04yule|publisher=London, Printed for the Hakluyt society|date=1913|last=Wellesley College Library|first=Henry|first2=Henri|last2=Cordier|first3=da Pordenone|last3=Odorico|first4=1247?-1318|last4=Rashid al-Din Tabib|first5=Francesco|last5=Balducci Pegolotti|first6=Joannes de|last6=Marignolis|first7=1304-1377|last7=Ibn Batuta|first8=Bento de|last8=Góis}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Travels Of Ibn Battuta 1325– 1354 Volume I-IV|url=http://archive.org/details/travels-of-ibn-battuta|date=1354-06-30|last=Ibn Battuta}}</ref> Ibnu Battuta nyebutkeun yén awéwé Jawa tumpak kuda, ngarti cara ngapanah, jeung milu perang kawas lalaki. Ibnu Battuta ogé nyatet carita ngeunaan nagara nu ngaranna Tawalisi nu ngalawan raja Cina (Dinasti Yuan) jeung perang ngalawan manéhna maké loba kapal jung nepi ka ahirna badami (daméy) ku sarat-sarat nu tangtu.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Sanggeus naék tahta, Hayam Wuruk boga gelar Sri Rajasanegara. Dina jaman pamaréntahan Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit ngalaman jaman kaemasan (kajayaan). Hayam Wuruk dibarengan ku Mahapatih Gajah Mada. Hayam Wuruk jadi raja Majapahit nu pangsohorna. Gajah Mada neruskeun cita-citana. Hiji-hiji karajaan di nusantara bisa ditalukkeun di handapeun Majapahit. Wewengkon karajaanna ngawengku ampir sakabéh wewengkon nusantara ayeuna, ditambah Tumasik ([[Singapura]]) jeung Semenanjung Melayu. Tumasik ragrag ka leungeun Majapahit dina jaman raja kadua, Sri Wikrama Wira nu ngawasa dina taun 1357–1362.Sempet leupas tina kakawasaan Majapahit basa aya konflik internal. Ieu kaayaan dimangpaatkeun ku [[Karajaan Ayutthaya]] ti Siam ([[Thailand]]) nu saterusna jadi nu boga Tumasik nu anyar. Tapi, Majapahit hasil ngarebut deui éta wewengkon dina sabudeureun taun 1390. Kajayaan Majapahit nepi ka puncakna dina jaman pamaréntahan Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi Jayawishnuwardhani (1328–1350). Terus nepi ka jaman kaemasan dina masa pamaréntahan Prabu Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) jeung Mahapatih Gajah Mada-na nu kakoncara nepi ka sakuliah Nusantara. Dina jaman éta, kamakmuran bener-bener karasa ku sakabéh rahayat nusantara. Hayam Wuruk (Sri Rajasanegara) jadi raja Majapahit sanggeus maotna Sri Rajapatni dina taun saka 1272 (1350), ieu hal ogé dibuktikeun dina piagam Singhasari nu ngajelaskeun yén ku diangkatna Hayam Wuruk jadi raja Majapahit, Tribhuwanatunggadewi Jayawisnuwardhani eureun nyekel tampuk pimpinan nagara. Hayam Wuruk dibantuan ku patihna nyaéta Gajah Mada nu dipikawanoh ku "Sumpah Palapa", manéhna sumpah moal ngarasakeun palapa (ngarasakeun reureuh/istirahat) saacan ngahijikeun Nusantara di handapeun panangtayungan Majapahit. ==Referensi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Majapahit| ]] qmbd1ikn723lcwq243h5f8amrjprlc4 712794 712793 2026-09-21T11:28:49Z Pijri Paijar 27067 /* Puncak kajayaan Majapahit */ 712794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Empire based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500}} {{EngvarB|date=September 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kemaharajaan Majapahit | common_name = Majapahit | native_name = {{small|{{native name|jv| ꦤꦒꦫꦶꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀}}}} | religion = * Shiva-Buddha (Javanese [[syncretism]] of [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]]) * [[Hinduism]] * [[Buddhism]] * [[Islam]] * [[Animism]] | p1 = Singhasari | s1 = Demak Sultanate | year_start = 1293 | year_end = 1527 | date_start = 10 November<ref name="NGI Trowulan">{{Cite web |last=Mahandis Y. Thamrin |date=September 2012 |title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit |url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |access-date=27 May 2015 |publisher=National Geographic Indonesia |language=id |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526213546/http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2013/11/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit |date=26 May 2015 }}</ref> | date_end = | event_start = Coronation | event_end = [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]] takeover | image_coat = Surya Majapahit Gold.svg | image_flag = Naval flag of Majapahit Kingdom.svg | image_map = Majapahit Empire.svg | image_map_caption = The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the ''[[Nagarakretagama]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=D. G. E. |year=1965 |title=Problems of Indonesian Historiography |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=38 |issue=3/4 |pages=353–359 |doi=10.2307/2754037 |jstor=2754037}}</ref> in 1365 | capital = [[Trowulan]], ayeuna [[Mojokerto]] | common_languages = * [[Old Javanese]] (main) * [[Sanskrit]] (religious) | government_type = [[Mandala]] diparéntah ku [[Maharaja]] | title_leader = [[Maharaja]] | leader1 = [[Raden Wijaya]] | year_leader1 = 1293–1309 | leader2 = [[Jayanegara]] | year_leader2 = 1309–1328 | leader3 = [[Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi]] | year_leader3 = 1328–1350 | leader4 = [[Hayam Wuruk]] | year_leader4 = 1350–1389 | leader5 = [[Wikramawardhana]] | year_leader5 = 1389–1429 | leader6 = [[Suhita]] | year_leader6 = 1429–1447 | leader7 = [[Kertawijaya]] | year_leader7 = 1447–1451 | leader8 = [[Rajasawardhana]] | year_leader8 = 1451–1453 | leader9 = [[Girishawardhana]] | year_leader9 = 1456–1466 | leader10 = [[Suraprabhawa]] | year_leader10 = 1466–1474 | leader11 = [[Girindrawardhana]] | year_leader11 = 1474–1527 | currency = koin emas jeung perak }} '''Majapahit''' mangrupa hiji karajaan [[Hindu]] di [[Jawa Wétan]].<ref name="Suwarno">{{Citation | last =Suwarno| first = Suwarno| coauthors =P.J.| year = 1993| title =Pancasila budaya bangsa Indonesia: penelitian Pancasila dengan pendekatan, historis, filosofis & sosio-yuridis kenegaraan|page=21|location=Jakarta| publisher =Kanisius| isbn =9789794139677| Url =https://books.google.co.id/books?id=x-A0wy95LUQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=budaya&hl=id&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB3OyS66_oAhXKyTgGHZwZBesQ6AEIUTAG#v=onepage&q=budaya&f=false}}</ref> Karajaan ieu kaasup karajaan kuna di [[Indonésia]] anu nangtung dina taun [[1293]] nepi ka [[1500 M]].<ref name="hiji">{{id}}[http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ Sejarah Kerajaan Majapahit hingga Runtuh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004072507/http://informasiana.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit-hingga-runtuh/ |date=2015-10-04 }} (diakses 2 Oktober 2015)</ref> Karajaan Majapahit di adegkeun ku [[Radén Wijaya]] ([[1293 M]]).<ref name="hiji"/>. Masa kajayaan majapahit nyaéta saprak [[Hayam Wuruk]] nyokot posisi raja anu ngawasa dina taun 1350 nepi ka 1389 anu dicirian ku ayana pangadegan gedé-gedéan nepi ka Asia Tanggara.<ref name="dua">{{id}}[http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html Majapahit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923165516/http://www.portalsejarah.com/sejarah-kerajaan-majapahit.html |date=23 September 2015 }} (diakses 2 Agustus 2015)</ref>. Kasuksésanana ogé diakui ka perdana mentrina, [[Gajah Mada]]. Kapunjulanana ogé diaku hasil tina jasa [[Gajah Mada|perdana menteri Gajah Mada]]. Numutkeun {{lang|jv|[[Nagarakretagama]]}} ({{lang|jv|Desawarñana}}) anu ditulis taun 1365, Majapahit mangrupa karajaan anu ngawasa 98 daérah taklukan, ngampar ti [[Sumatra]] nepi ka [[New Guinea]];<ref name="Cribb">{{cite book | title = Historical Atlas of Indonesia | first = Robert | last = Cribb | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 9781136780578 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki8COnr7H0MC&pg=PA87}}</ref>{{rp|page=87}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708185756/http://www.indonesianhistory.info/map/majapahit.html Majapahit Overseas Empire, Digital Atlas of Indonesian History]</ref> ngawengku daérah anu ayeuna jadi [[Indonesia]], [[Singapura]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], kidul [[Thailand]], [[Timor Leste]], kulon kidul [[Filipina]] (hususna Kapuloan [[Sulu Archipelago]]) sanajan wewengkon pangaruh Majapahit masih jadi bahan diskusi di antara para sajarawan. <ref name="Britannica-Majapahit">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Indonesia, The Majapahit Era | encyclopedia = Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-Majapahit-era}}</ref> Sifat hubungan jeung pangaruh Majapahit kana daérah taklukanana di luar negeri ogé statusna minangka hiji karajaan masih ngundang diskusi.<ref name="Sastrawan">{{Cite web|first=Wayan Jarrah|last=Sastrawan|date=2020-01-09|title=Was Majapahit really an empire?|url=https://www.newmandala.org/was-majapahit-really-an-empire/|access-date=2020-11-01|website=New Mandala}}</ref> Majapahit mangrupa salah sahiji karajaan Hindu-Budha terakhir nu penting di wilayah éta sarta dianggap salaku salah sahiji karajaan nu pangagungna sarta pangkuatna dina sajarah Indonésia jeung Asia Tenggara. Kadang dianggap salaku cikal bakal wates-wates Indonésia modéren.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tracing the glory of Majapahit | author=Sita W. Dewi | date=9 April 2013 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/09/tracing-glory-majapahit.html|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref> Pangaruhna sumebar teu ngan di wilayah Indonésia modéren tapi ogé jadi topik seueur panalungtikan.<ref>Prapantja, Rakawi, trans. by Theodore Gauthier Pigeaud, ''Java in the 14th Century, A Study in Cultural History: The Negara-Kertagama by Rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 AD'' (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1962), vol. 4, p. 29. 34</ref><ref>G.J. Resink, ''Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory'' (The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1968), p. 21.</ref> == Étimologi == Ngaran Majapahit (kadang diéjah ''Mojopait'' pikeun ngalafalkeun dina [[basa Jawa]]) asalna tina basa Jawa, anu hartina "maja pahit". Oriéntalis ti [[Jérman]], [[Berthold Laufer]], ngusulkeun yén unsur maja asalna tina ngaran basa Jawa pikeun ''Aegle marmelos'', sajenis tangkal anu tumuwuh di Jawa nepi ka sakuliah Indonésia. Majapahit ogé disebut ku sinonim anu asalna tina basa [[Basa Sangsekerta|Sansekerta]], nyaéta Wilwatikta (Sansekerta: विल्वतिक्त, ''vilvatikta'', anu hartina "maja pahit"). Toponim anu ngandung kecap maja umum kapanggih di wewengkon sabudeureun Trowulan, lantaran di Jawa geus jadi kabiasaan pikeun ngaranan hiji wewengkon, désa, atawa pamukiman dumasar kana jinis tangkal atawa buah anu paling loba atawa dominan di éta wewengkon. Pararaton, hiji babad tina abad ka-16, nyatet hiji légénda anu aya patalina jeung ngadegna pamukiman anyar di leuweung Trik ku Raden Wijaya dina taun 1292. Disebutkeun yén para pagawé anu nuaran tangkal di leuweung Trik manggihan sababaraha tangkal maja tuluy dahar buahna anu pait, anu saterusna jadi asal-usul ngaran éta désa.<ref>{{Cite news|title=10 November, Hari Berdirinya Majapahit {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13285974/10-november-hari-berdirinya-majapahit|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Numutkeun sajarah, ngaran Majapahit nujul kana ibu kota karajaan, tapi ayeuna mah umum dipaké pikeun nyebut sakabéh éta karajaan. Dina sumber-sumber utama babasa Jawa, karajaan dina cakupan wewengkon anu leuwih jembar biasana disebut lain salaku Majapahit, tapi salaku ''bhūmi Jawa'' ("tanah Jawa") dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa ''yava-dvīpa-maṇḍala'' ("nagara di pulo Jawa") dina basa Sansekerta. Samentara éta, istilah Majapahit disebutkeun dina prasasti Tuhanaru anu dikeluarkeun ku raja Jayanagara dina taun 1245 Saka (1323 M) anu nyebutkeun:<blockquote>''".. Çri Mahārāja an t an tuhu-tuhu wiṣṇwatāra inadhiṣṭāna saŋ parama sujana pinratiṣṭa irikaŋ rājya i majhapahit ..."''</blockquote>Harti inskripsi: (saenyana-enyana Śrī Mahārāja titisan Wiṣṇu, dipénta ku jalma-jalma nu kasohor, [pikeun] ditahbiskeun di karajaan Majapahit.)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Worsley|first=Peter|date=2014|title=Boechari, Melacak Sejarah Kuno Indonesia Lewat Prasasti/Tracing Ancient Indonesian History Through Inscriptions; Kumpulan Tulisan/Writings Of Boechari.|url=https://www.neliti.com/id/publications/180885/|journal=Wacana: Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya|language=en|publisher=Universitas Indonesia|volume=15|issue=1|pages=200–203|issn=1411-2272}}</ref> == Historiografi == Sajarah ngeunaan kamaharajaan Majapahit masih jadi salah sahiji subjék panalungtikan anu resep pikeun dibahas leuwih jauh deui.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples0000tayl|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-12808-6|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sumber utama anu dipaké ku para sajarawan di antarana nyaéta Pararaton ('Kitab Raja-raja') dina [[basa Kawi]] jeung Nagarakretagama dina [[basa Jawa Kuno]]. Pararaton ngabahas [[Ken Arok]] (nu ngadegkeun [[Karajaan Singasari|Karajaan Singhasari]]) tapi ogé ngamuat sababaraha bagian pondok ngeunaan kabentukna Majapahit. Samentara éta, Nagarakretagama nyaéta puisi Jawa Kuno anu ditulis dina masa kaemasan Majapahit di handap pamaréntahan [[Hayam Wuruk]]. Kakawin Nagarakretagama dina taun 2008 diaku salaku bagian dina Warisan Ingatan Dunia (''Memory of the World Programme'') ku [[UNESCO]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kompas.com/read/xml/2008/05/24/08444424/negarakertagama.diakui.sebagai.memori.dunia|title=KOMPAS.COM - Not Found|website=www.kompas.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> Salian ti éta, aya sababaraha prasasti dina basa Jawa Kuno atawa catetan sejarah ti [[Républik Rahayat Tiongkok|Tiongkok]] jeung nagara-nagara séjénna.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ricklefs|first=M. C.|date=2008|title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c .1200|url=https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350394582|doi=10.5040/9781350394582}}</ref> [[C.C. Berg]] nganggap yén sabagian naskah kasebut lain catetan masa lalu, tapi boga arti supernatural dina hal bisa nyaho wanci kahareup. Lolobana sarjana teu narima pandangan ieu, lantaran catetan sajarah Majapahit akur jeung catetan ti Cina anu teu mungkin boga maksud anu sarua. Daptar penguasa jeung detil struktur nagara teu nembongkeun tanda-tanda dijieun-jieun. Dina taun 2010, sakelompok pangusaha ti [[Jepang]] anu dipimpin ku Takajo Yoshiaki ngabiayaan nyieun kapal Majapahit atawa ''Spirit of Majapahit'' anu bakal ngalayar ka [[Asia]]. Numutkeun Takajo, hal ieu dilakukeun pikeun ngingetkeun kerjasama Majapahit jeung Karajaan Jepang ngalawan Karajaan Yuan China (Mongol) dina perang di [[Samudra Pasifik]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Indonesia-Jepang Buat Kapal Majapahit {{!}} teknologi {{!}} Tempo.co|url=http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en-US}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031000713/http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2010/07/01/061260022/Indonesia-Jepang-Buat-Kapal-Majapahit/ |date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> Numutkeun Guru Besar Arkéologi Asia Tenggara ''[[National University of Singapore]]'', [[John N. Miksic]], jangkauan kekuasaan Majapahit ngawakup [[Sumatra]] jeung [[Singapura]], malahan [[Thailand]], anu dibuktikeun ku pangaruh kabudayaan, corak wangunan, candi, patung, jeung seni.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Majapahit Jajah hingga Semenanjung Malaya|url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/2012/12/05/19045066/majapahit-jajah-hingga-semenanjung-malaya|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2012-12-05|access-date=2026-09-10|language=en|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Malahan aya paguron silat nu ngaranna ''Kali Majapahit'' anu populér di [[Pilipina]] jeung anggotana ti Asia jeung Amérika. Silat ''Kali Majapahit'' ieu ngakar tina Kamaharajaan Majapahit kuno anu disebutkeun ngawasa Pilipina, Singapura, [[Malaysia]], jeung Kidul Thailand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kali-majapahit.com/|title=Martial Arts Academy Singapore {{!}} Kali Majapahit|website=kali-majapahit.com|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Bukti arkéologi === Upama dibandingkeun jeung peradaban kontémporér séjénna di Asia, peninggalan fisik Majapahit anu masih aya kaasup saeutik.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesia : peoples and histories|url=http://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|publisher=New Haven : Yale University Press|date=2003|isbn=978-0-300-09709-2|last=Internet Archive|first=Jean Gelman}}</ref> Sanajan kitu, Kamaharajaan Majapahit ninggalkeun bukti fisik anu bisa kapanggih, utamana di wewengkon Trowulan anu pernah jadi ibu kota karajaan. Ieu kawasan ayeuna jadi pusat kajian sajarah Kamaharajaan Majapahit. [[Situs arkéologi Trowulan]] mimitina didokumentasikeun dina abad ka-19 ku Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], Letnan-Gubernur Jawa Britania ti Kongsi Dagang antara taun 1811 nepi ka 1816. Dina catetanana, manéhna nyebutkeun aya "ruruntuhan candi anu kasebar di rupa-rupa juru nagri sapanjang sababaraha mil" sarta ngagambarkeun Trowulan salaku "kebanggaan Jawa". Gambar satelit geus némbongkeun jaringan kanal anu jembar sarta ngalengkepan wewengkon ibu kota Majapahit.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Menyusuri Majapahit dengan Panduan Peta National Geographic Indonesia {{!}} National Geographic|url=https://nationalgeographic.grid.id/read/13295399/menyusuri-majapahit-dengan-panduan-peta-national-geographic-indonesia|access-date=2026-09-10|language=id|first=National|last=Geographic}}</ref> Panggihan dina April 2011 ngaindikasikeun yén ibu kota Kamaharajaan Majapahit jauh leuwih jembar tina perkiraan saméméhna, sanggeus sajumlah artéfak hasil kapanggih.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/01/07/majapahit-capital-may-be-larger-previously-believed|title=Majapahit capital may be larger than previously believed - Fri, January 7, 2011|last=Harsaputra|first=Indra|website=The Jakarta Post|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> === Sumber ti Tiongkok === Sumber-sumber sajarah Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana diala tina [[kronik Dinasti Yuan]] jeung satuluyna Dinasti Ming. Catetan Tiongkok ngeunaan Majapahit utamana asalna tina laporan laksamana Ming, Zheng He, salila kunjunganana ka Majapahit antara taun 1405 nepi ka 1432. Panerjemah Zheng He, Ma Huan, nulis déskripsi rinci ngeunaan Majapahit jeung panyicingan raja Jawa. Laporan kasebut disusun jeung dikumpulkeun dina ''Yingya Shenglan'', anu méré wawasan berharga ngeunaan budaya, adat istiadat, sarta rupa-rupa aspék sosial jeung ékonomi di Jawa (爪哇, ''chao-wa'') salila masa Majapahit. Catetan Resmi Dinasti Ming (''Ming shi-lu'') méré bukti pangrojong pikeun kajadian-kajadian tangtu dina sajarah Majapahit, saperti Perang Regreg.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/|title=Introduction {{!}} Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu|website=epress.nus.edu.sg|accessdate=2026-09-10}}</ref> == Sajarah == === Pangadegan === Saméméh ngadegna Majapahit, Singhasari geus jadi karajaan pangkuatna di Jawa. Hal ieu jadi perhatian [[Kubilai Khan]], panguasa [[Dinasti Yuan]] di Tiongkok. Manéhna ngirim utusan anu ngarana Meng Chi ke Singhasari anu nungtut upeti. Kertanagara, panguasa karajaan Singhasari anu panungtung nolak mayar upeti tur ngawirangkeun utusan éta ku cara ngaruksak beungeutna sarta neukteuk ceulina. Kubilai Khan bendu terus mangkatkeun ékspedisi gedé ka Jawa taun 1293.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indonesiamedia.com/lipsus/lipsus-2003-martabattionghoa2.htm|title=Kehancuran dan Kebangkitan Martabat/ Jati Diri Etnis Tionghoa Di Indonesia (bagian 1)|last=Argo|first=David|website=www.indonesiamedia.com|accessdate=2026-09-13}}</ref> Waktu harita, Jayakatwang, adipati Kediri, geus ngagulingkeun tur maéhan Kertanegara. Ku saran panasehat karajaan Aria Wiraraja, Jayakatwang méré pangampunan ka Raden Wijaya, minantu Kertanegara, anu datang nyerahkeun diri. Saterusna, Wiraraja ngirim utusan ka Daha, anu mawa surat eusi pernyataan yén Raden Wijaya nyerah tur hayang ngabdikeun diri ka Jayakatwang.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gerakan Islam simbolik: politik kepentingan FPI|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=ZdZNN4iMab0C&pg=PA121&dq=sejarah+sumenep&hl=id&sa=X&ei=rnbgT5SnEobUrQewq732DA|publisher=LKiS|date=2006|isbn=978-979-25-5254-6|language=id|first=Al-Zastrouw|last=Ngatawi}}</ref> Jawaban ti surat di luhur disamput kalawan bungah. Raden Wijaya terus dibéré leuweung Tarik. Manehna muka leuweung eta tur ngawangun désa anyar kalawan palabuhan utama di Canggu. Désa éta dinamuan Majapahit, anu ngaranna dicokot ti buah maja, sarta rasa "pait" ti buah kasebut. Waktu pasukan Mongol nepi, Wijaya ngahiji jeung pasukan Mongol pikeun tetempuran ngalawan Jayakatwang. Sanggeus hasil ngéléhkeun Jayakatwang, Raden Wijaya malik nyerang sakutu Mongolna nepi ka mamaksa maranéhna baralik deui pasukanna sacara kalang-kabut sabab maranéhna aya di nagri asing. Harita ogé nyaéta kasempatan panungtung maranéhna pikeun nangkap angin muson sangkan bisa balik, atawa maranéhna kapaksa kudu ngadagoan genep bulan deui di pulo anu asing. Tanggal pasti anu digunakeun salaku tanggal kalahiran karajaan Majapahit nyaéta poé panobatan Raden Wijaya salaku raja, nyaéta tanggal 15 bulan Kartika taun 1215 saka anu barngan jeung tanggal 10 November 1293. Manéhna dinobatkan kalawan ngaran resmi Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. Karajaan ieu nyanghareupan masalah. Sababaraha jalma kapercayaan Kertarajasa, kaasup Ranggalawe, Sora, jeung Nambi ngabarontak ngalawan manéhna, sanajan pamberontakan kasebut henteu berhasil. Pamberontakan Ranggalawe ieu didukung ku Panji Mahajaya, Ra Arya Sidi, Ra Jaran Waha, Ra Lintang, Ra Tosan, Ra Gelatik, jeung Ra Tati. Kabéh ieu disebutkeun dina Pararaton.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gajah Mada: menangkis ancaman pemberontakan Ra Kuti : kisah ketangguhan seorang patih Majapahit dalam menjaga keutuhan takhta sang raja|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=8oeCIXs8sjkC&pg=PA16&dq=Berdiri+Majapahit&hl=id&sa=X&ei=zCnhT_OmLdHRrQer8sTODg|publisher=Penerbit Narasi|date=2009|isbn=978-979-16814-5-2|language=id|first=Gamal|last=Komandoko}}</ref> Slamet Muljana nyangka yén mahapatih Halayudha téh anu ngalakukeun konspirasi pikeun ngéléhkeun kabéh jalma kapercayaan raja, sangkan manéhna bisa ngahontal posisi pangluhurna dina pamaréntahan. Tapi sanggeus eureunna pamberontak panungtung (Kuti), Halayudha ditéwak tur dipenjara, terus dihukum paéh. Wijaya wafat dina taun 1309. Putra jeung penerus Wijaya nyaéta Jayanegara. Pararaton menyebutna ''Kala Gemet,'' anu hartina "penjahat lemah". Kira-kira dina hiji waktu dina kurun pamaréntahan Jayanegara, hiji pendeta Italia, [[Odorico da Pordenone]] ngadatangan keraton Majapahit di Jawa. Dina taun 1328, Jayanegara dipaéhan ku tabibna, Tanca. Indung téréna nyaéta Gayatri Rajapatni kuduna ngagantikan manéhna, tapi Rajapatni milih ngundurna diri ti istana tur jadi bhiksuni. Rajapatni nunjuk anak awéwéna Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi pikeun jadi ratu Majapahit. Dina taun 1336, Tribhuwana nunjuk [[Gajah Mada]] salaku Mahapatih, dina waktu pelantikanna Gajah Mada ngucapkeun Sumpah Palapa anu nunjukkeun rencanana pikeun ngalegaan kakuasaan Majapahit tur ngawangun hiji kamaharajaan. Salila kakuasaan Tribhuwana, karajaan Majapahit ngagédean jadi leuwih badag tur terkenal di kapuloan Nusantara. Tribhuwana boga kawasa di Majapahit nepi ka maot indungna dina taun 1350. Manéhna diteruskeun ku putrana, Hayam Wuruk. === Puncak kajayaan Majapahit === Rajapatni (Gayatri) tilar dunya dina taun 1350. Sanggeus indungna maot, Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi nyerahkeun tahta Majapahit ka anakna, Hayam Wuruk. Basa naék tahta, umur Hayam Wuruk kakara 16 taun. [[Ibnu Batutah]] dina lalampahanna antara taun 1332–1347 ngadatangan tempat nu disebut "Mul Jawa" (pulo Jawa atawa Jawa Majapahit, kabalikan ti "al-Jawa" nu ngarujuk ka Sumatra). Éta nagri legana nepi ka 2 bulan lalampahan, jeung maréntah nagara Qaqula sarta Qamara. Manéhna nepi di kota nu dibénténgan ngaranna Qaqula/Kakula, jeung niténan yén éta kota boga kapal perang pikeun bajak laut nu ngarampok jeung ngumpulkeun tol (pajeg), sarta gajah dipekerjakeun (dipaké gawé) pikeun rupa-rupa kaperluan. Manéhna panggih jeung pangawasa Mul Jawa tuluy cicing jadi sémah salila tilu poé.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China|url=http://archive.org/details/cathaywaythither04yule|publisher=London, Printed for the Hakluyt society|date=1913|last=Wellesley College Library|first=Henry|first2=Henri|last2=Cordier|first3=da Pordenone|last3=Odorico|first4=1247?-1318|last4=Rashid al-Din Tabib|first5=Francesco|last5=Balducci Pegolotti|first6=Joannes de|last6=Marignolis|first7=1304-1377|last7=Ibn Batuta|first8=Bento de|last8=Góis}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Travels Of Ibn Battuta 1325– 1354 Volume I-IV|url=http://archive.org/details/travels-of-ibn-battuta|date=1354-06-30|last=Ibn Battuta}}</ref> Ibnu Battuta nyebutkeun yén awéwé Jawa tumpak kuda, ngarti cara ngapanah, jeung milu perang kawas lalaki. Ibnu Battuta ogé nyatet carita ngeunaan nagara nu ngaranna Tawalisi nu ngalawan raja Cina (Dinasti Yuan) jeung perang ngalawan manéhna maké loba kapal jung nepi ka ahirna badami (daméy) ku sarat-sarat nu tangtu.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Sanggeus naék tahta, Hayam Wuruk boga gelar Sri Rajasanegara. Dina jaman pamaréntahan Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit ngalaman jaman kaemasan (kajayaan). Hayam Wuruk dibarengan ku Mahapatih Gajah Mada. Hayam Wuruk jadi raja Majapahit nu pangsohorna. Gajah Mada neruskeun cita-citana. Hiji-hiji karajaan di nusantara bisa ditalukkeun di handapeun Majapahit. Wewengkon karajaanna ngawengku ampir sakabéh wewengkon nusantara ayeuna, ditambah Tumasik ([[Singapura]]) jeung Semenanjung Melayu. Tumasik ragrag ka leungeun Majapahit dina jaman raja kadua, Sri Wikrama Wira nu ngawasa dina taun 1357–1362.Sempet leupas tina kakawasaan Majapahit basa aya konflik internal. Ieu kaayaan dimangpaatkeun ku [[Karajaan Ayutthaya]] ti Siam ([[Thailand]]) nu saterusna jadi nu boga Tumasik nu anyar. Tapi, Majapahit hasil ngarebut deui éta wewengkon dina sabudeureun taun 1390. Kajayaan Majapahit nepi ka puncakna dina jaman pamaréntahan Ratu Tribhuwanatunggadewi Jayawishnuwardhani (1328–1350). Terus nepi ka jaman kaemasan dina masa pamaréntahan Prabu Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) jeung Mahapatih Gajah Mada-na nu kakoncara nepi ka sakuliah Nusantara. Dina jaman éta, kamakmuran bener-bener karasa ku sakabéh rahayat nusantara. Hayam Wuruk (Sri Rajasanegara) jadi raja Majapahit sanggeus maotna Sri Rajapatni dina taun saka 1272 (1350), ieu hal ogé dibuktikeun dina piagam Singhasari nu ngajelaskeun yén ku diangkatna Hayam Wuruk jadi raja Majapahit, Tribhuwanatunggadewi Jayawisnuwardhani eureun nyekel tampuk pimpinan nagara. Hayam Wuruk dibantuan ku patihna nyaéta Gajah Mada nu dipikawanoh ku "Sumpah Palapa", manéhna sumpah moal ngarasakeun palapa (ngarasakeun reureuh/istirahat) saacan ngahijikeun Nusantara di handapeun panangtayungan Majapahit. Dina jaman Hayam Wuruk ampir sakabéh wewengkon nusantara bisa dihijikeun ku panji-panji karajaan Majapahit. Pangaruh kakawasaan jeung gawé bareng Majapahit ngalegaan nepi ka luar nusantara. Di jaman Hayam Wuruk, agama Hindu jadi agama sakabéh rahayat Majapahit sacara umumna. Béda jeung Hayam Wuruk nu ngagem agama Hindu, agama mahapatih Gajah Mada mah Buddha. Dina Negarakertagama, wewengkon Majapahit dimimitian ku hiji kota leutik nu diwangun di daérah Tarik, nu mimitina mangrupa leuweung gerot, ku jasana jalma-jalma nu dikirim ku Aria Wiraraja pikeun muka éta leuweung, ahirna ngadeg hiji désa nu ngaranna Majapahit. Sanggeus Daha runtuh ku serbuan tentara Tatar (Mongol) dibarengan ku Radén Wijaya nu milu nyerang Jayakatwang, désa Majapahit dijadikeun pusat pamaréntahan karajaan anyar, nu disebut karajaan Majapahit. Dina mangsa éta kakawasaan Majapahit ukur ngawengku daérah lila karajaan Singhasari, ngan sabagian wewengkon [[Jawa Wétan]] wungkul. Sanggeus maotna Ranggalawe jeung dumasar kana janji Radén Wijaya nu dibérékeun ka Wiraraja, karajaan Majapahit dibeulah jadi dua. Bagian wétan nu ngawengku daérah [[Lumajang]] (baheula: Lamajang), diserahkeun ka Wiraraja. Dina jaman ieu karajaan Majapahit ukur ngawengku daérah Kediri, Singhasari, Jenggala, jeung Madura. ==Referensi== {{reflist}} [[Kategori:Karajaan di Indonésia]] [[Kategori:Majapahit| ]] 1a9mscqcdjrvirdyohkj0m1mgltg0g9 0 101375 712786 652755 2026-09-21T01:35:29Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 nambahkeun subjudul 712786 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File :Nectar.jpg|jmpl|250px|Nektar kembang Camelia]] '''Néktar''' atawa '''sari kembang''' Nyaéta ''cairan'' anu rasana amis kareueut tina di jero kembang mangsa keur mangkak ligar.<ref name="Nektar">{{Cite book|title =100 Fakta Unik Tumbuhan| last= Sayyida| first= Ayesha Sophie | coauthors =-| year= 2020|page=25|location=Jakarta| publisher=LAKSANA| isbn=9786024076900|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=7TLADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&dq=nektar+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY_aDog4LvAhUgqksFHeXaD4MQ6AEwAnoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=nektar%20adalah&f=false}}</ref> Néktar mangrupa bahan pi[[madu]]eun loba mibanda [[gula]] anu dipikaresep pisan ku rupa-rupa [[gegeremet]], ieu néktar dihasilkeun ku kelenjar nektar anu perenahna di dasar [[mahkota]] kembang (''perianthium''). Daék teu daék ieu gegeremet ngarayap ka jero pikeun nyeuseup nektar, dina waktu anu sarua awakna pagiling fisik jeung ''[[putik sari]]'' (''anthera'') ogé ''[[pistil]]'' .<ref name="Nektar1">{{Cite book|title =Lebah Madu (ed. Revisi)| last= Sarwono| first= B| coauthors =-| year= 2020|page=63|location=Jakarta| publisher=AgroMedia| isbn=9789793084022|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Eavy8xes2EAC&pg=PA61&dq=nektar+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY_aDog4LvAhUgqksFHeXaD4MQ6AEwBXoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=nektar%20adalah&f=false}}</ref> Néktar mangrupa sumber kadaharan pikeun [[gegeremet]] jeung [[manuk]], dina tatanén nektar kacida penting tur loba mangpaatna. Lambaran mahkota anu katempo ku panon manusa ngan sakelir, sabenerna lamun di potrét ku ''film'' anu sénsitif kana cahaya UV bakal katempo mibanda gurat - gurat anu nuju ka dasar kembang ieu mangrupa cicirén ayana nektar di jero.<ref name="Nektar1"/> Ieu jadi pituduh pikeun gegeremet ayana néktar, sababaraha kembang ogé dipikaresep ku [[lalay]] jeung [[manuk]]. Sabalikna ogé, kembang anu kermangkak ogé butuh bantuan pikeun lumangsungna ''penyerbukan'' ''(polinasi abiotik)''.<ref name="Nektar1"/> ==Rupa-rupa néktar== Néktar aya dua rupa: néktar ''floral'' jeung nektar ékstra ''floral''. Néktar ''floral'' dihasilkeunana tina ''kelenjar'' néktar, sedangkeun néktar ékstra ''floral'' dihasilkan tina tutuwuhan salian ti [[kembang]]. Néktar ékstra floral dipikaresep ku [[sireum]] dina waktu sarua sireum-sireum ieu ogé ngakanan [[gegeremet]] anu ngaruksak éta tutuwuhan.<ref name="Nektar1"/> == Gula néktar == Énergi nu aya dina gula néktar bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun bagian séjén tina éta tutuwuhan—contona pikeun ngamekarkeun akar, ngeusian organ panyimpenan di jero taneuh saperti bonggol, umbi, jeung umbi lapis, atawa malah pikeun ngahasilkeun sari kembang (pollen) nu loba pisan sangkan bisa sumebar ka sagala arah. Serangga jeung manuk merlukeun énergi tina gula ieu pikeun hiber sarta nguatkeun otot jangjangna, kalayan cara meunangkeun gula éta tina ngadahar néktar. == Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.beritaiptek.com/zberita-beritaiptek-2006-09-11-Polinasi-:-Tipe-Polinasi-(2).shtml Polinasi: Tipe Polinasi (2)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005063142/http://www.beritaiptek.com/zberita-beritaiptek-2006-09-11-Polinasi-:-Tipe-Polinasi-(2).shtml |date=2006-10-05 }} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} {{pondok}} [[Kategori:Botani]] mg91kb7lnm4sud74t0g4s1m5p0g2efe 712787 712786 2026-09-21T01:37:08Z Mirani Pramitasari 26631 /* Gula néktar */ nambahkeun referensi 712787 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File :Nectar.jpg|jmpl|250px|Nektar kembang Camelia]] '''Néktar''' atawa '''sari kembang''' Nyaéta ''cairan'' anu rasana amis kareueut tina di jero kembang mangsa keur mangkak ligar.<ref name="Nektar">{{Cite book|title =100 Fakta Unik Tumbuhan| last= Sayyida| first= Ayesha Sophie | coauthors =-| year= 2020|page=25|location=Jakarta| publisher=LAKSANA| isbn=9786024076900|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=7TLADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18&dq=nektar+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY_aDog4LvAhUgqksFHeXaD4MQ6AEwAnoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=nektar%20adalah&f=false}}</ref> Néktar mangrupa bahan pi[[madu]]eun loba mibanda [[gula]] anu dipikaresep pisan ku rupa-rupa [[gegeremet]], ieu néktar dihasilkeun ku kelenjar nektar anu perenahna di dasar [[mahkota]] kembang (''perianthium''). Daék teu daék ieu gegeremet ngarayap ka jero pikeun nyeuseup nektar, dina waktu anu sarua awakna pagiling fisik jeung ''[[putik sari]]'' (''anthera'') ogé ''[[pistil]]'' .<ref name="Nektar1">{{Cite book|title =Lebah Madu (ed. Revisi)| last= Sarwono| first= B| coauthors =-| year= 2020|page=63|location=Jakarta| publisher=AgroMedia| isbn=9789793084022|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=Eavy8xes2EAC&pg=PA61&dq=nektar+adalah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiY_aDog4LvAhUgqksFHeXaD4MQ6AEwBXoECAcQAg#v=onepage&q=nektar%20adalah&f=false}}</ref> Néktar mangrupa sumber kadaharan pikeun [[gegeremet]] jeung [[manuk]], dina tatanén nektar kacida penting tur loba mangpaatna. Lambaran mahkota anu katempo ku panon manusa ngan sakelir, sabenerna lamun di potrét ku ''film'' anu sénsitif kana cahaya UV bakal katempo mibanda gurat - gurat anu nuju ka dasar kembang ieu mangrupa cicirén ayana nektar di jero.<ref name="Nektar1"/> Ieu jadi pituduh pikeun gegeremet ayana néktar, sababaraha kembang ogé dipikaresep ku [[lalay]] jeung [[manuk]]. Sabalikna ogé, kembang anu kermangkak ogé butuh bantuan pikeun lumangsungna ''penyerbukan'' ''(polinasi abiotik)''.<ref name="Nektar1"/> ==Rupa-rupa néktar== Néktar aya dua rupa: néktar ''floral'' jeung nektar ékstra ''floral''. Néktar ''floral'' dihasilkeunana tina ''kelenjar'' néktar, sedangkeun néktar ékstra ''floral'' dihasilkan tina tutuwuhan salian ti [[kembang]]. Néktar ékstra floral dipikaresep ku [[sireum]] dina waktu sarua sireum-sireum ieu ogé ngakanan [[gegeremet]] anu ngaruksak éta tutuwuhan.<ref name="Nektar1"/> == Gula néktar == Énergi nu aya dina gula néktar bisa dimangpaatkeun pikeun bagian séjén tina éta tutuwuhan—contona pikeun ngamekarkeun akar, ngeusian organ panyimpenan di jero taneuh saperti bonggol, umbi, jeung umbi lapis, atawa malah pikeun ngahasilkeun sari kembang (pollen) nu loba pisan sangkan bisa sumebar ka sagala arah. Serangga jeung manuk merlukeun énergi tina gula ieu pikeun hiber sarta nguatkeun otot jangjangna, kalayan cara meunangkeun gula éta tina ngadahar néktar.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pertunjukkan Paling Agung di Bumi, Bukti-Bukti Bagi Evolusi|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|publisher=Penerbit Banana|year=2015|isbn=9789791079457|location=Depok|pages=57}}</ref> == Tutumbu ka luar == * [http://www.beritaiptek.com/zberita-beritaiptek-2006-09-11-Polinasi-:-Tipe-Polinasi-(2).shtml Polinasi: Tipe Polinasi (2)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005063142/http://www.beritaiptek.com/zberita-beritaiptek-2006-09-11-Polinasi-:-Tipe-Polinasi-(2).shtml |date=2006-10-05 }} ==Dicutat tina== {{reflist|2}} [[Kategori:Botani]] 3bsrketqffk94zizzdz8omb5324s8yh 0 108866 712777 2026-09-20T15:19:09Z Hasnanf 28942 Nyieun kaca anyar '''David Rolfe Graeber''' (gumelar 12 Pébruari 1961 – tilar dunya 2 Séptémber 2020) nyaéta [[antropolog]] sakaligus aktivis sosial-politik [[anarkis]] asal [[Amérika Serikat]]. Karya-karya anjeunna anu méré pangaruh kalayan gedé pikeun élmu pangaweruh hususna di widang [[antropologi]] sosial jeung ékonomi, nyaéta buku-buku anjeunna anu di antarana ''Debt: The First 5,000 Years'' (2011), ''The Utopia of Rules'' (2015), ''Bullshit Jobs'' (2018), jeung ''The Dawn... 712777 wikitext text/x-wiki '''David Rolfe Graeber''' (gumelar 12 Pébruari 1961 – tilar dunya 2 Séptémber 2020) nyaéta [[antropolog]] sakaligus aktivis sosial-politik [[anarkis]] asal [[Amérika Serikat]]. Karya-karya anjeunna anu méré pangaruh kalayan gedé pikeun élmu pangaweruh hususna di widang [[antropologi]] sosial jeung ékonomi, nyaéta buku-buku anjeunna anu di antarana ''Debt: The First 5,000 Years'' (2011), ''The Utopia of Rules'' (2015), ''Bullshit Jobs'' (2018), jeung ''The Dawn of Everything'' (2021), sarta peran utama anjeunna dina gerakan ''Occupy'' anu ngajadikeun anjeunna dipikawanoh salaku salah sahiji antropolog sakaligus pamikir sayap kénca anu kasohor di jamanna.<ref>{{Cite news|title=David Graeber, anthropologist and author of Bullshit Jobs, dies aged 59|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/sep/03/david-graeber-anthropologist-and-author-of-bullshit-jobs-dies-aged-59|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2020-09-03|access-date=2026-09-20|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Sian|last=Cain}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2020/09/the-anarchist-how-david-graeber-became-the-lefts-most-influential-thinker|title=The anarchist: How David Graeber became the left’s most influential thinker|last=Roos|first=Jerome|date=4 September 2020|work=The New Statesman}}</ref> == Rujukan == 3o734fjca7fj37bphg376c8t5p85rf3 712778 712777 2026-09-20T15:24:40Z Hasnanf 28942 712778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist | name = David Graeber | image = David Graeber 2015-03-07 (16741093492) (cropped).jpg | caption = David Graeber | birth_name = David Rolfe Graeber | birth_date = {{Birth date |1961|2|12}} | death_date = {{Death date and age|mf=yes|2020|9|2|1961|2|12}} | birth_place = [[New York City]], [[Amérika Serikat]] | death_place = [[Venesia]], [[Italia]] | citizenship = | nationality = | fields = {{ubl|[[Antropologi ekonomi]]|[[Antropologi sosial]]}} | work_institutions = {{ubl|[[Universitas Yale]]|[[Goldsmiths, University of London]]|[[London School of Economics]]}} | alma_mater = {{ubl|[[State University of New York at Purchase]]|[[University of Chicago]]}} | thesis_title = The Disastrous Ordeal of 1987: Memory and Violence in Rural Madagascar | doctoral_advisor = [[Marshall Sahlins]] | doctoral_students = | known_for = {{ubl|''[[Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology]]'' (2004)|''[[Debt: The First 5000 Years]]'' (2011)}} | influences = {{ubl|[[Marcel Mauss]]|[[Edmund Leach]]|[[Marshall Sahlins]]|[[Peter Kropotkin]]|[[Pierre Clastres]]|[[Karl Polanyi]]}} | influenced = [[Gerakan Occupy]] | awards = {{ubl|[[Bread and Roses Award]]|[[Society for Cultural Anthropology|Bateson Book Prize]]}} | footnotes = }} '''David Rolfe Graeber''' (gumelar 12 Pébruari 1961 – tilar dunya 2 Séptémber 2020) nyaéta [[antropolog]] sakaligus aktivis sosial-politik [[anarkis]] asal [[Amérika Serikat]]. Karya-karya anjeunna anu méré pangaruh kalayan gedé pikeun élmu pangaweruh hususna di widang [[antropologi]] sosial jeung ékonomi, nyaéta buku-buku anjeunna anu di antarana ''Debt: The First 5,000 Years'' (2011), ''The Utopia of Rules'' (2015), ''Bullshit Jobs'' (2018), jeung ''The Dawn of Everything'' (2021), sarta peran utama anjeunna dina gerakan ''Occupy'' anu ngajadikeun anjeunna dipikawanoh salaku salah sahiji antropolog sakaligus pamikir sayap kénca anu kasohor di jamanna.<ref>{{Cite news|title=David Graeber, anthropologist and author of Bullshit Jobs, dies aged 59|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/sep/03/david-graeber-anthropologist-and-author-of-bullshit-jobs-dies-aged-59|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2020-09-03|access-date=2026-09-20|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Sian|last=Cain}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2020/09/the-anarchist-how-david-graeber-became-the-lefts-most-influential-thinker|title=The anarchist: How David Graeber became the left’s most influential thinker|last=Roos|first=Jerome|date=4 September 2020|work=The New Statesman}}</ref> == Rujukan == 8u9ndue5anx8idk9gpxcjt00x11tysd 0 108867 712795 2026-09-21T11:38:19Z Pijri Paijar 27067 Nyieun kaca anyar '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipika... 712795 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipikawanoh ogé ku ngaran Ario Damar atawa Ario Abdilah atawa Damarwulan. Nurutkeun kronik (catetan sajarah) Tiongkok ti [[Kuil Sam Po Kong]] Semarang, manéhna boga ngaran Tionghoa nyaéta Swan Liong (Naga Berlian) tanpa ngaran marga di hareupna, lantaran indungna mangrupa awéwé peranakan Tionghoa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&lpg=PA78&dq=suma+oriental&pg=PA68&hl=su|publisher=LKiS Yogyakarta|date=2005|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|language=id|first=Slamet|last=Muljana}}</ref> == Sumber rujukan == ajpj5kmb9bvlstp79rvl2hs5a94sf6p 712796 712795 2026-09-21T11:44:25Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712796 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipikawanoh ogé ku ngaran Ario Damar atawa Ario Abdilah atawa Damarwulan. Nurutkeun kronik (catetan sajarah) Tiongkok ti [[Kuil Sam Po Kong]] Semarang, manéhna boga ngaran Tionghoa nyaéta Swan Liong (Naga Berlian) tanpa ngaran marga di hareupna, lantaran indungna mangrupa awéwé peranakan Tionghoa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&lpg=PA78&dq=suma+oriental&pg=PA68&hl=su|publisher=LKiS Yogyakarta|date=2005|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|language=id|first=Slamet|last=Muljana}}</ref> == Ahli persenjataan Karajaan Majapahit == Dina struktur kamilitéran Majapahit, Arya Damar nyekel peran nu penting pisan salaku kepala pabrik mesiu jeung ahli bahan peledak. Manéhna ditugaskeun pikeun nguruskeun sakabéh kaperluan amunisi militér, hususna bahan peledak pikeun armada meriam Majapahit, nu pabrik utamana dina mangsa harita diadegkeun di daérah Semarang. Lantaran kaahlian husus jeung pangaweruhna nu jero dina widang persenjataan éta, manéhna tuluy diangkat jadi Adipati di Palémbang. Dipilihna Palémbang dumasar kana posisi strategis éta wewengkon salaku pangkalan utama angkatan laut bagian kulon Majapahit di luar Pulo Jawa, nu butuh pisan sosok pamingpin nu ngawasa téknologi militér maritim.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/1037773/29/kisah-arya-damar-ahli-bahan-peledak-kerajaan-majapahit-ayah-tiri-raden-patah-1677855822|title=Kisah Arya Damar: Ahli Bahan Peledak Kerajaan Majapahit, Ayah Tiri Raden Patah|website=SINDOnews Daerah|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Sumber rujukan == l9mkv8s46mkx8u9lkvlbhdw2lh279qp 712797 712796 2026-09-21T11:46:55Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712797 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipikawanoh ogé ku ngaran Ario Damar atawa Ario Abdilah atawa Damarwulan. Nurutkeun kronik (catetan sajarah) Tiongkok ti [[Kuil Sam Po Kong]] Semarang, manéhna boga ngaran Tionghoa nyaéta Swan Liong (Naga Berlian) tanpa ngaran marga di hareupna, lantaran indungna mangrupa awéwé peranakan Tionghoa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&lpg=PA78&dq=suma+oriental&pg=PA68&hl=su|publisher=LKiS Yogyakarta|date=2005|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|language=id|first=Slamet|last=Muljana}}</ref> == Ahli persenjataan Karajaan Majapahit == Dina struktur kamilitéran Majapahit, Arya Damar nyekel peran nu penting pisan salaku kepala pabrik mesiu jeung ahli bahan peledak. Manéhna ditugaskeun pikeun nguruskeun sakabéh kaperluan amunisi militér, hususna bahan peledak pikeun armada meriam Majapahit, nu pabrik utamana dina mangsa harita diadegkeun di daérah Semarang. Lantaran kaahlian husus jeung pangaweruhna nu jero dina widang persenjataan éta, manéhna tuluy diangkat jadi Adipati di Palémbang. Dipilihna Palémbang dumasar kana posisi strategis éta wewengkon salaku pangkalan utama angkatan laut bagian kulon Majapahit di luar Pulo Jawa, nu butuh pisan sosok pamingpin nu ngawasa téknologi militér maritim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/1037773/29/kisah-arya-damar-ahli-bahan-peledak-kerajaan-majapahit-ayah-tiri-raden-patah-1677855822|title=Kisah Arya Damar: Ahli Bahan Peledak Kerajaan Majapahit, Ayah Tiri Raden Patah|website=SINDOnews Daerah|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Ékspédisi panalukan Bali == Jauh saméméh mingpin di wewengkon Sumatra, Arya Damar kacatet boga peran penting jeung héroik dina ékspédisi nalukkeun Pulo Bali dina taun 1343.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Arya Damar, Tokoh Jawa yang Menaklukkan Bali|url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/06/27/200000879/arya-damar-tokoh-jawa-yang-menaklukkan-bali-|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2023-06-27|access-date=2026-09-21|language=id|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Dina éta kampanye militér, manéhna mingpin pasukan Majapahit nyerbu jeung nalukkeun Désa Ularan di basisir kalér Bali. Pangawasa lokal, Ki Pasung Grigis, sabenerna mah geus nyerah, tapi Arya Damar nu kahudang amarahna lantaran loba prajurit Majapahit nu gugur, ahirna maéhan Ki Pasung Grigis.<ref name=":1" /> Ieu tindakan indisiplinér téh ngundang amarah pamaréntah pusat Majapahit di handapeun pimpinan Ratu Tribhuwana Tunggadéwi, nu tuluy ngahukum jeung ngirim deui manéhna ka médan perang pikeun nebus kasalahanna. Arya Damar tuluy ngagabung jeung Mahapatih Gajah Mada pikeun nyerang pertahanan di Tawing. Sanajan sempet aya salah paham sacara taktis lantaran Arya Damar nyerang miheulaan paréntah, ahirna duanana badami jeung hasil nalukkeun sakabéh Pulo Bali sanggeus perang panjang nu méakkeun waktu nepi ka tujuh bulan.<ref name=":1" /> == Sumber rujukan == 916w25x2sg9c8leyj1pzvbs9hv9f6u2 712798 712797 2026-09-21T11:50:51Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712798 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipikawanoh ogé ku ngaran Ario Damar atawa Ario Abdilah atawa Damarwulan. Nurutkeun kronik (catetan sajarah) Tiongkok ti [[Kuil Sam Po Kong]] Semarang, manéhna boga ngaran Tionghoa nyaéta Swan Liong (Naga Berlian) tanpa ngaran marga di hareupna, lantaran indungna mangrupa awéwé peranakan Tionghoa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&lpg=PA78&dq=suma+oriental&pg=PA68&hl=su|publisher=LKiS Yogyakarta|date=2005|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|language=id|first=Slamet|last=Muljana}}</ref> == Ahli persenjataan Karajaan Majapahit == Dina struktur kamilitéran Majapahit, Arya Damar nyekel peran nu penting pisan salaku kepala pabrik mesiu jeung ahli bahan peledak. Manéhna ditugaskeun pikeun nguruskeun sakabéh kaperluan amunisi militér, hususna bahan peledak pikeun armada meriam Majapahit, nu pabrik utamana dina mangsa harita diadegkeun di daérah Semarang. Lantaran kaahlian husus jeung pangaweruhna nu jero dina widang persenjataan éta, manéhna tuluy diangkat jadi Adipati di Palémbang. Dipilihna Palémbang dumasar kana posisi strategis éta wewengkon salaku pangkalan utama angkatan laut bagian kulon Majapahit di luar Pulo Jawa, nu butuh pisan sosok pamingpin nu ngawasa téknologi militér maritim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/1037773/29/kisah-arya-damar-ahli-bahan-peledak-kerajaan-majapahit-ayah-tiri-raden-patah-1677855822|title=Kisah Arya Damar: Ahli Bahan Peledak Kerajaan Majapahit, Ayah Tiri Raden Patah|website=SINDOnews Daerah|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Ékspédisi panalukan Bali == Jauh saméméh mingpin di wewengkon Sumatra, Arya Damar kacatet boga peran penting jeung héroik dina ékspédisi nalukkeun Pulo Bali dina taun 1343.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Arya Damar, Tokoh Jawa yang Menaklukkan Bali|url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/06/27/200000879/arya-damar-tokoh-jawa-yang-menaklukkan-bali-|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2023-06-27|access-date=2026-09-21|language=id|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Dina éta kampanye militér, manéhna mingpin pasukan Majapahit nyerbu jeung nalukkeun Désa Ularan di basisir kalér Bali. Pangawasa lokal, Ki Pasung Grigis, sabenerna mah geus nyerah, tapi Arya Damar nu kahudang amarahna lantaran loba prajurit Majapahit nu gugur, ahirna maéhan Ki Pasung Grigis.<ref name=":1" /> Ieu tindakan indisiplinér téh ngundang amarah pamaréntah pusat Majapahit di handapeun pimpinan Ratu Tribhuwana Tunggadéwi, nu tuluy ngahukum jeung ngirim deui manéhna ka médan perang pikeun nebus kasalahanna. Arya Damar tuluy ngagabung jeung Mahapatih Gajah Mada pikeun nyerang pertahanan di Tawing. Sanajan sempet aya salah paham sacara taktis lantaran Arya Damar nyerang miheulaan paréntah, ahirna duanana badami jeung hasil nalukkeun sakabéh Pulo Bali sanggeus perang panjang nu méakkeun waktu nepi ka tujuh bulan.<ref name=":1" /> == Lacak silsilah jeung sajarah katurunan == Dina catetan silsilah, Arya Damar dipikawanoh salaku bapa téré ti Radén Patah, pangadeg sakaligus raja kahiji Kasultanan Demak <ref name=":1" />. Garis katurunanna dipercaya lega pisan jeung sumebar ka rupa-rupa wewengkon; manéhna dihormat salaku luluhur agung pikeun para raja jeung kaom bangsawan di Tabanan (Bali), Madura, sarta wewengkon basisir kalér Jawa . Getih katurunanna terus ngocor ka inohong-inohong gedé Nusantara saterusna, kawas Panembahan Lemah Duwur, Radén Trunajaya, nepi ka Pangéran Diponegoro.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sampang.jatimtimes.com/baca/339392/20250615/011400/arya-damar-leluhur-raja-raja-tabanan-madura-dan-jawa|title=Arya Damar: Leluhur Raja-Raja Tabanan, Madura, dan Jawa|last=Rofiq|first=Aunur|website=Sampang Times|language=id|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Di Jawa Tengah, silsilah katurunan Kyai Arya Damar salaku trah ti Raja Majapahit (dumasar kana Babad Ratu Tabanan) ogé raket pisan jeung sajarah mimitina kabentuk jeung ngadegna Désa Damarjati nu perenahna di Kabupatén Kendal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://damarjati.kendalkab.go.id/sejarah|title=Sejarah Damarjati|website=damarjati.kendalkab.go.id|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Susunan silsilah (généalogi) ieu inohong jeung katurunanna ogé geus loba didokuméntasikeun di rupa-rupa basis data silsilah global. == Sumber rujukan == 1o3rvf0t97embcljmhtb039h7x9vpio 712799 712798 2026-09-21T11:52:34Z Pijri Paijar 27067 712799 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arya Damar''' (saméméhna ngaranna Jaka Dilah) téh mangrupa ngaran saurang pamingpin legéndaris nu ngawasa di Palémbang dina pertengahan abad ka-15 Maséhi salaku bawahan Karajaan [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keratonpalembang.com/asal-usul/|title=Sejarah Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam – Keraton Kesultanan Palembang Darussalam|language=en-US|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Arya Damar asalna ti [[Jawa Wétan|Jawa]] [[Jawa Wétan|Wétan]]. Manéhna dipikawanoh ogé ku ngaran Ario Damar atawa Ario Abdilah atawa Damarwulan. Nurutkeun kronik (catetan sajarah) Tiongkok ti [[Kuil Sam Po Kong]] Semarang, manéhna boga ngaran Tionghoa nyaéta Swan Liong (Naga Berlian) tanpa ngaran marga di hareupna, lantaran indungna mangrupa awéwé peranakan Tionghoa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Runtuhnya kerajaan Hindu-Jawa dan timbulnya negara-negara Islam di Nusantara|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=j9ZOKjMxVdIC&lpg=PA78&dq=suma+oriental&pg=PA68&hl=su|publisher=LKiS Yogyakarta|date=2005|isbn=978-979-8451-16-4|language=id|first=Slamet|last=Muljana}}</ref> == Ahli persenjataan Karajaan Majapahit == Dina struktur kamilitéran Majapahit, Arya Damar nyekel peran nu penting pisan salaku kepala pabrik mesiu jeung ahli bahan peledak. Manéhna ditugaskeun pikeun nguruskeun sakabéh kaperluan amunisi militér, hususna bahan peledak pikeun armada meriam Majapahit, nu pabrik utamana dina mangsa harita diadegkeun di daérah Semarang. Lantaran kaahlian husus jeung pangaweruhna nu jero dina widang persenjataan éta, manéhna tuluy diangkat jadi Adipati di Palémbang. Dipilihna Palémbang dumasar kana posisi strategis éta wewengkon salaku pangkalan utama angkatan laut bagian kulon Majapahit di luar Pulo Jawa, nu butuh pisan sosok pamingpin nu ngawasa téknologi militér maritim.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://daerah.sindonews.com/read/1037773/29/kisah-arya-damar-ahli-bahan-peledak-kerajaan-majapahit-ayah-tiri-raden-patah-1677855822|title=Kisah Arya Damar: Ahli Bahan Peledak Kerajaan Majapahit, Ayah Tiri Raden Patah|website=SINDOnews Daerah|language=id-ID|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> == Ékspédisi panalukan Bali == Jauh saméméh mingpin di wewengkon Sumatra, Arya Damar kacatet boga peran penting jeung héroik dina ékspédisi nalukkeun Pulo Bali dina taun 1343.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Arya Damar, Tokoh Jawa yang Menaklukkan Bali|url=https://www.kompas.com/stori/read/2023/06/27/200000879/arya-damar-tokoh-jawa-yang-menaklukkan-bali-|newspaper=KOMPAS.com|date=2023-06-27|access-date=2026-09-21|language=id|first=Kompas Cyber|last=Media}}</ref> Dina éta kampanye militér, manéhna mingpin pasukan Majapahit nyerbu jeung nalukkeun Désa Ularan di basisir kalér Bali. Pangawasa lokal, Ki Pasung Grigis, sabenerna mah geus nyerah, tapi Arya Damar nu kahudang amarahna lantaran loba prajurit Majapahit nu gugur, ahirna maéhan Ki Pasung Grigis.<ref name=":1" /> Ieu tindakan indisiplinér téh ngundang amarah pamaréntah pusat Majapahit di handapeun pimpinan Ratu Tribhuwana Tunggadéwi, nu tuluy ngahukum jeung ngirim deui manéhna ka médan perang pikeun nebus kasalahanna. Arya Damar tuluy ngagabung jeung Mahapatih Gajah Mada pikeun nyerang pertahanan di Tawing. Sanajan sempet aya salah paham sacara taktis lantaran Arya Damar nyerang miheulaan paréntah, ahirna duanana badami jeung hasil nalukkeun sakabéh Pulo Bali sanggeus perang panjang nu méakkeun waktu nepi ka tujuh bulan.<ref name=":1" /> == Lacak silsilah jeung sajarah katurunan == Dina catetan silsilah, Arya Damar dipikawanoh salaku bapa téré ti Radén Patah, pangadeg sakaligus raja kahiji Kasultanan Demak <ref name=":1" />. Garis katurunanna dipercaya lega pisan jeung sumebar ka rupa-rupa wewengkon; manéhna dihormat salaku luluhur agung pikeun para raja jeung kaom bangsawan di Tabanan (Bali), Madura, sarta wewengkon basisir kalér Jawa . Getih katurunanna terus ngocor ka inohong-inohong gedé Nusantara saterusna, kawas Panembahan Lemah Duwur, Radén Trunajaya, nepi ka Pangéran Diponegoro.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://sampang.jatimtimes.com/baca/339392/20250615/011400/arya-damar-leluhur-raja-raja-tabanan-madura-dan-jawa|title=Arya Damar: Leluhur Raja-Raja Tabanan, Madura, dan Jawa|last=Rofiq|first=Aunur|website=Sampang Times|language=id|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Di Jawa Tengah, silsilah katurunan Kyai Arya Damar salaku trah ti Raja Majapahit (dumasar kana Babad Ratu Tabanan) ogé raket pisan jeung sajarah mimitina kabentuk jeung ngadegna Désa Damarjati nu perenahna di Kabupatén Kendal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://damarjati.kendalkab.go.id/sejarah|title=Sejarah Damarjati|website=damarjati.kendalkab.go.id|language=en|accessdate=2026-09-21}}</ref> Susunan silsilah (généalogi) ieu inohong jeung katurunanna ogé geus loba didokuméntasikeun di rupa-rupa basis data silsilah global. == Dakwah Islam jeung idéntifikasi sajarah == Salian dipikawanoh salaku panglima perang nu tangguh, Arya Damar (sanggeus asup Islam jeung dipikawanoh minangka Ario Abdillah) ogé boga andil gedé dina nyebarkeun agama Islam . Dakwah nu dilakukeun ku manéhna di sabudeureun wewengkon Situ Pedamaran hasil ngislamkeun loba pangeusi lokal, hiji kasuksésan nu saterusna jadi alesan atawa kasang tukang dingarananna éta wewengkon jadi "Pedamaran".<ref name=":2" /> Di sisi séjén, tina jihat akademis, sosok Arya Damar mindeng pisan ngahudang perdebatan. Sejarawan Walanda, Cornelis Christiaan Berg, boga tiori yén Arya Damar téh idéntik jeung Adityawarman, pangawasa Sumatra sakaligus bawahan Majapahit. Ieu hal didasarkeun kana kapanggihna ngaran Adityawarman dina sababaraha prasasti nu angkana taun 1343 jeung 1347, nu ngabuktikeun yén éta sosok boga peran jeung hirup persis di jaman nu bareng jeung masa kajayaan Arya Damar.<ref name=":1" /> == Sumber rujukan == e2z80e7z08xz86506cwdjca8zwsqwvi