Wikipedia swwiki https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanzo MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.4 first-letter Media Maalum Majadiliano Mtumiaji Majadiliano ya mtumiaji Wikipedia Majadiliano ya Wikipedia Faili Majadiliano ya faili MediaWiki Majadiliano ya MediaWiki Kigezo Majadiliano ya kigezo Msaada Majadiliano ya msaada Jamii Majadiliano ya jamii Lango Majadiliano ya lango Wikichanzo Majadiliano ya Wikichanzo TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 3033 1564579 1181808 2026-06-03T10:42:15Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564579 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Egypt_Nil.jpg|thumb|400px|Mto Nile nchini Misri.]] '''Mto''' ni mwendo asilia wa [[maji]] yanayofuata [[njia]] yake kwenye mtelemko hadi [[Mdomo|mdomoni]] mwake. == Chanzo == [[Picha:Nandala.jpg|300px|thumb|Chemichemi]] [[Chanzo (mto)|Chanzo cha mto]] mara nyingi ni [[chemchemi]] au [[ziwa]] au maungano ya vijito vidogo. Mto hufuata mwendo wake kwa mtelemko hadi mwisho wake [[Bahari|baharini]] au ziwani au kwa mto mwingine. Kama mto ni mdogo huitwa [[kijito]]. Mto mkubwa sana kama [[Kongo (mto)|Kongo]] au [[Nile]] unaweza kuitwa mto mkubwa au jito. == Lalio chini ya mto == Njiani mwake mto huwa umechimba lalio linalofanana na [[mfereji]] kati ya [[udongo]] au [[mawe]] ya kingo zake. [[Nguvu]] ya kusogeza maji mtoni ni [[uvutano]] wa [[dunia]]. == Mdomo na delta == [[Picha:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Delta ya [[Mto Nile]] inavyoonekana kutoka [[Anga|angani]] - picha ya [[NASA]].]] Mwisho wa mto huitwa mdomo. Mdomoni kwa kawaida mto huishia katika [[gimba]] kubwa zaidi ya maji, ama mto mkubwa au [[ziwa]] au [[bahari]]. Mdomo huo unaweza kuwa mpana kama kijazio hasa baharini ambako bahari inapanuka wakati wa [[maji kujaa]]. Mito mingine inaonyesha mdomo wa [[delta]] kama imegawanyika mdomoni kuwa na [[mikono]] mingi inayoelekea bahari kwa [[umbo]] la [[pembetatu]]. == Matawimito na majina == Njiani mito mingi inaunganika kuwa mito mikubwa zaidi. Ni [[desturi]] kutumia [[jina]] la mto ulio mkubwa zaidi mahali pa kuungana kwa ajili ya sehemu inayofuata ya mto uliopanuka. Kwa mfano mito ya [[Ubangi (mto|Ubangi]] na [[Kongo (mto)|Kongo]] inakutana kwenye [[mji]] wa [[Mbandaka]]. Huko Kongo ni mto mkubwa kushinda Ubangi; hivyo baada ya Mbandaka kuelekea bahari mto unaendelea kuitwa "Kongo". Wakati mwingine ni swali la uzoefu tu jinsi ya kutaja mto; Kongo inaitwa [[Lualaba]] hadi mji wa [[Kisangani]]. [[Wataalamu]] wengine wanasema ya kwamba mto [[Kagera (mto|Kagera]] ingestahili kuitwa "Nile" kwa sababu ni mto uleule unaopita tu kwenye ziwa [[Viktoria Nyanza]]. Kuna pia uzoefu ambako jina la mto mdogo linaendelea kutumika. [[Mto Ruvuma]] unatoka [[Songea]] na kufuata mpaka wa [[Tanzania]] na [[Msumbiji]]. Unakutana na [[mto Lujenda]] ambao ni mkubwa zaidi; inawezekana kusema ya kwamba Ruvuma inaingia Lujenda lakini jina la Ruvuma linatumika hadi mdomoni. Mto mdogo zaidi unaojiunga na mto fulani mkubwa huitwa [[tawimto]]. == Beseni == [[Picha:Karte der Einzugsgebiete der großen Gewässer Afrikas.png|thumb|300px|[[Ramani]] ya beseni kubwa kwenye bara la Afrika ''(tahajia ya Kijerumani)''.]] Jumla ya eneo ambako matawimito yote hadi vijito asilia kabisa vinaanza na kupokea maji yake huitwa [[beseni ya mto|beseni]]. Sehemu kubwa ya [[Tanzania]] ya [[kaskazini]]-[[magharibi]] pamoja na [[Kenya]] magharibi ni sehemu ya beseni la [[Nile]] kwa sababu [[tone|matone]] ya [[mvua]] kama yanafika mtoni yote huelekea ziwa [[Viktoria Nyanza]] na kuingia mto Nile kwenda bahari ya [[Mediteranea]]. Sehemu kubwa zaidi ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] inapeleka maji kwenda mabeseni ya [[Rufiji (mto)|Rufiji]], [[Ruvuma (mto)|Ruvuma]], [[Ruaha Mkuu]] au [[mto Tana]] ambayo yote inaishia katika [[Bahari Hindi]]. Mipaka kati ya beseni huitwa [[tengamaji]]. Tengamaji kwa kawaida ni eneo la juu ambako upande mmoja maji hutelemka kuelekea beseni moja na upande mwingine kwenda beseni tofauti. Kwa mfano tengamaji kati ya mabeseni ya Ruaha Mkuu na [[Mto Zambezi]] (kupitia [[Ziwa Nyasa]]) inafuata [[milima]] ya [[Milima ya Uporoto|Uporoto]] na [[milima ya Kipengere]]. == Mito katika dura ya maji duniani == Mito inabeba kiasi kikubwa cha maji ya mvua ikirudi baharini katika [[dura ya maji]] duniani. Maji ya mtoni ni maji matamu, tofauti na [[maji ya chumvi]] ya baharini. Hii ni sababu ya kwamba [[mimea]], [[wanyama]] na [[watu]] hupenda kukaa karibu na mito. Watu huona faida zaidi kwa sababu mito mikubwa na majito inafaa pia kwa [[usafiri]]. [[Historia|Kihistoria]] mito ilikuwa kati ya njia za kwanza kabisa za [[mawasiliano]] kati ya maeneo ya mbali. == Mito kumi mirefu duniani == Kadirio ya [[urefu]] wa mto hutegemea jinsi ya kuhesabu matawimito yake. Orodha inayofuata ina tofauti na orodha inayokadiria kwa namna nyingine. # 6.671 km - [[Nile]]: [[Luvironza]]-[[Mto Ruvuvu|Ruvuvu]]-[[mto Ruvusu|Ruvusu]]-[[Kagera (mto)|Kagera]]-[[Nile Nyeupe]]-Nile - ([[Afrika]]) # 6.387 km - [[Amazonas (mto)|Amazonas]]: [[Apurimac]]-[[Ene]]-[[Tambo]]-[[Ucayali]]-Amazonas - ([[Amerika ya Kusini]]) # 6.380 km - [[Yangtse|Yangtse (Cháng Jiāng)]] - ([[Asia]]) # 6.051 km - [[Mississippi (mto)|Mississippi]]-[[Missouri (mto)|Missouri]] - ([[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]) # 5.940 km - [[Yenisei]]-[[Angara]] - (Asia) # 5.410 km - [[Ob]]-[[Irtysch]] - (Asia) # 5.052 km - [[Amur (mto)|Amur]]-[[Argun]]-[[Kerulen]] - (Asia) - (pekee wakati wa mvua nyingi) # 4.845 km - [[Huang He]] - (Asia) # 4.500 km - [[Mekong (mto)|Mekong]] - (Asia) # 4.374 km - [[Kongo (mto)|Kongo]] - (Afrika) ==Mito nje ya dunia== Mito inaweza kupatikana pia kwenye [[sayari]] nyingine zenye [[kiowevu]]. Maziwa na mito imegunduliwa kwenye [[Mwezi (gimba la angani)|mwezi]] [[Titan (Zohali)|Titan]] wa sayari [[Zohali]]. [[Angahewa]] ya Titan haina maji, ni karibu yote [[nitrojeni]]. Kiowevu ya maziwa na mito yake inaaminiwa kuwa [[methani]] na [[hidrokaboni]] nyingine zinazotokea duniani kama [[gesi]] lakini kwenye [[baridi]] ya Titan hupatikana kama kiowevu. [[Chombo cha angani]] [[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]] ya [[NASA]] ilituma [[picha]] ya mto wa Titan wenye urefu wa [[kilomita]] 400. <ref>http://www.space.com/18875-titan-nile-river-cassini.html</ref> == Viungo == [[Mito mirefu ya Afrika]] ==Marejeo== {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-jio}} [[Jamii:Mito|*]] kcdujvs8u3si5xpfrldjkt1oqwde4le 0 3532 1564583 1421478 2026-06-03T11:46:48Z Elizabeth Samwel 75873 /* Jiolojia */ 1564583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ziwa | jina = Ziwa la Viktoria Nyanza | picha = Lake_Victoria.png | maelezo_ya_picha = Ziwa Viktoria Nyanza jinsi linavyoonekana kutoka [[anga|angani]] | mahali = [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] | nchi = [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] na [[Kenya]] | eneo = 68,100 km² | kina = 81 m | mito inayoingia = [[Kagera (mto)|Kagera]], [[mto Katonga]], [[mto Nzoia]] n.k. | mito inayotoka = [[Nile]] | kimo = 1,134 m | miji = [[Kampala]], [[Kisumu]], [[Mwanza]] }} [[Picha:Rift.svg|240px|thumb|right|Ziwa Viktoria na [[Bonde la Ufa la Afrika Mashariki]].]] [[Picha:Density evolution Victoria.png|250px|thumb|left|Ongezeko la [[msongamano wa watu]] kandokando ya Ziwa Victoria.]] [[Picha:Image-Languages-Lakevictoria-fr.svg|220px|left|thumb|[[Lugha]] kandokando ya Ziwa Victoria.]] [[Picha:Hydrography-graph-Lake Victoria.svg|thumb|right|250px|Tofauti ya levo katika Ziwa Victoria.]] [[Picha:Human density Lake Victoria.png|225px|right|Ongezeko la msongamano wa watu kandokando ya Ziwa Victoria likilinganishwa na lile la Afrika nzima.]] '''Ziwa Viktoria''' (pia: '''Ziwa Nyanza''' au '''Ziwa Ukerewe''') ni [[ziwa]] kubwa la [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] lililopo baina ya [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] na [[Uganda]]. Eneo la [[maji]] ya ziwa limegawanywa 49[[%]] (km² 33,700) nchini Tanzania, 45% (km² 31,000) nchini Uganda, na 6% (km² 4,100) nchini Kenya. Ziwa Viktoria lipo [[mita]] 1134 [[juu ya usawa wa bahari]] na lina eneo la [[kilometa za mraba]] zaidi ya 68,100. Hivyo ni ziwa kubwa kuliko yote [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]], na la pili [[duniani]], baada ya [[Ziwa Superior]] ambalo lipo [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Ziwa hili linapata [[maji]] yake mengi kutokana na [[mvua]] (80[[%]]) na kutoka vijito vingi vidogo. [[Mto]] mkubwa unaoingia Viktoria ni [[Mto Kagera]] unaotiririka kutoka [[magharibi]]. [[Maji]] ya ziwa Viktoria yanatoka na kumiminika kwenye [[mto]] [[Nile]] na kuelekea [[bahari ya Mediteranea]] kwa [[umbali]] wa [[maili]] 4,000. Ziwa hilo lina [[kina]] cha [[wastani]] cha [[mita]] 40 na [[mwambao]] wa [[urefu]] wa kilomita 4,828, visiwa vyake vikiwa vimechangia 3.7% ya urefu huu. Ziwa hilo liliwahi kukauka kabisa mara kadhaa tangu lilipoanza miaka 400,000 iliyopita. == Jiolojia== [[File:Lake Victoria View.jpg|thumb|Muonekano wa Ziwa Viktoria kutokea Mwanza Tanzania]] Ziwa Viktoria, ambalo ni [[ziwa]] kubwa zaidi barani [[Afrika]] na la pili kwa ukubwa duniani kwa uso wa maji baridi, lina [[historia]] ya kipekee ya [[Jiolojia|kijiolojia]]. Tofauti na maziwa mengi ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] kama [[Tanganyika]] na [[Malawi]], ambayo yalitokana na ufa mkubwa wa [[Bonde la Ufa la Afrika ya Mashariki]], Ziwa Viktoria halikuundwa moja kwa moja na harakati za tectoniki. Badala yake, ziwa hili lilichukua umbo lake kutokana na mchakato wa mwinuko wa ardhi na mifumo ya mto iliyozuiwa au kuelekezwa upya kutokana na mabadiliko ya [[Jiografia|kijiografia]], hususan katika kipindi cha Pleistocene. Sehemu ya bonde la ziwa iliundwa na mvutano wa miamba ya kale ya ''Precambrian'', huku mwinuko wa ardhi katika maeneo ya kusini mwa [[Uganda]] na kaskazini mwa [[Tanzania]] ukisababisha maji kujikusanya na kuunda ziwa la ndani. Ziwa hili linaenea katika ngao ya ''Afrika ya Precambrian'', ambayo ina miamba ya kale sana inayokadiriwa kuwa na umri wa zaidi ya miaka bilioni 2.7. Miamba ya gneiss, granite na schist huunda msingi wa kijiolojia wa eneo hili, na kuathiri sifa za ardhi ya bonde la ziwa. Ingawa Ziwa Viktoria si sehemu ya moja kwa moja ya ufa wa tectonic, linaathiriwa kwa karibu na mikondo ya tectonic kutoka [[Bonde la Ufa la Afrika ya Mashariki]], ambalo liko karibu sana upande wa magharibi na mashariki mwa ziwa. Harakati hizi husababisha mikondo midogo ya miamba na mitetemeko hafifu ya ardhi katika eneo la ziwa, lakini si kwa kiwango kikubwa kama katika maziwa ya [[Tanganyika]] au [[Malawi]]. Katika [[historia]] ya hivi karibuni ya kijiolojia, Ziwa Viktoria limepitia mabadiliko makubwa ya [[mazingira|kimazingira]], ikiwa ni pamoja na kukauka kabisa takriban miaka 14,600 iliyopita kutokana na mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa, na kujaza tena ndani ya kipindi cha maelfu machache ya miaka. Tukio hili linaakisi unyeti wa mfumo wa ziwa kwa mabadiliko ya [[jiografia|kijiografia]] na hali ya hewa. Uwepo wa mito mingi inayoingia na kutoka ziwani, kama vile Mto Kagera na Mto Nile wa Kati (White Nile), unaendelea kuchangia katika mzunguko wa kijiolojia na maji wa ziwa hilo. Kwa sasa, Ziwa Viktoria ni sehemu muhimu ya ikolojia, uchumi, na mabadiliko ya [[jiolojia|kijiolojia]] yanayoendelea katika eneo la Afrika ya Mashariki. ==Visiwa vya Ziwa Viktoria== Ziwa Viktoria ni miongoni mwa maziwa yenye [[visiwa]] vingi (985). Kikubwa kuliko vyote ni Ukerewe. ===Upande wa Kenya=== [[Kisiwa cha Bihiri|Bihiri]] * [[Visiwa vya Chamarungo|Chamarungo]] * [[Visiwa vya Daraja|Daraja]] * [[Kisiwa cha Gengra|Gengra]] * [[Kisiwa cha Hongwe|Hongwe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ilemba|Ilemba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kijani|Kijani]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kimaboni|Kimaboni]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kiringiti|Kiringiti]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kiwa|Kiwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Koyamo|Koyamo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mageta|Mageta]] * [[Visiwa vya Magogo|Magogo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Maiunya|Maiunya]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mbaiyu|Mbaiyu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mbasa|Mbasa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mfangano|Mfangano]] * [[Kisiwa cha Migingo|Migingo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mlinzi|Mlinzi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mogare|Mogare]] * [[Visiwa vya Mogare|Mogare (visiwa)]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mzenzi|Mzenzi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Namulamia|Namulamia]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ndede|Ndede]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ngodhe|Ngodhe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Piramidi|Piramidi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Risi|Risi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Rusinga|Rusinga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Saga|Saga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Seki|Seki]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sifu|Sifu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sirigombe|Sirigombe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sukuru|Sukuru]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sumba|Sumba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Takawiri|Takawiri]] * [[Visiwa vya Ugingo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Unyama|Unyama]] * [[Kisiwa cha Usingo|Usingo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Uware|Uware]] * [[Kisiwa cha Wahondo|Wahondo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Wayaga|Wayaga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Yalombo|Yalombo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Yamburi|Yamburi]] ===Upande wa Tanzania=== [[Kisiwa cha Barega|Barega]] *[[Kisiwa cha Bihila|Bihila]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bisuvi|Bisuvi]] *[[Kisiwa cha Biswe|Biswe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Buganbwe|Buganbwe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bugeru|Bugeru]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bukerebe|Bukerebe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bukurani|Bukurani]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bumbire|Bumbire]] * [[Kisiwa cha Burubi|Burubi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Busonyi|Busonyi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Busyengere|Busyengere]] * [[Kisiwa cha Butwa|Butwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Buzumu|Buzumu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Bwiru|Bwiru]] * [[kisiwa cha Capripoint|Capripoint]] * [[Kisiwa cha Chakazimbe|Chakazimbe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Charaki|Charaki]] * *[[Kisiwa cha Chienda|Chienda]] * [[Kisiwa cha Chihara|Chihara]] * [[Kisiwa cha Chikonero|Chikonero]] * [[Kisiwa cha Chinyeri|Chinyeri]] * [[Kisiwa cha Chitandere|Chitandere]] * [[Kisiwa cha Dunacheri|Dunacheri]] * [[Kisiwa cha Dwiga|Dwiga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Galinzira (Kagera)|Galinzira (Kagera)]] * [[Kisiwa cha Galinzira (Ukerewe)|Galinzira (Ukerewe)]] * [[Kisiwa cha Gama|Gama]] * [[Kisiwa cha Gana|Gana]] * [[Kisiwa cha Igombe|Igombe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ijirambo|Ijirambo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ikuru|Ikuru]] * [[Ikuza]] * [[kisiwa cha Ilemela|Ilemela]]* [[Kisiwa cha Iriga|Iriga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Iroba|Iroba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Irugwa|Irugwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Iruma|Iruma]] * [[Kisiwa cha Itami|Itami]] * [[Kisiwa cha Itemusi|Itemusi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ito|Ito]] * [[Kisiwa cha Juguu|Juguu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Juma|Juma]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kagongo|Kagongo]] * [[kisiwa cha Kamanga|Kamanga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kamasi|Kamasi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kaserazi|Kaserazi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kasima|Kasima]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kategurwa|Kategurwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kiamugasire|Kiamugasire]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kiau|Kiau]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kibinda|Kibinda]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kihombe|Kihombe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kinagomwishu|Kinamogwishu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kinyanwana|Kinyanwana]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kiregi (Ukerewe)|Kiregi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kireta|Kireta]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kishaka|Kishaka]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kitua|Kitua]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kivumba|Kivumba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kome|Kome]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kuriro|Kuriro]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kweru|Kweru]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kweru Mutu|Kweru Mutu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kwigari|Kwigari]] * [[Kisiwa cha Kwilela|Kwilela]] * [[Kisiwa cha Liagoba|Liagoba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Liegoba|Liegoba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Luanji|Luanji]] * [[Kisiwa cha Lukuba|Lukuba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Lyamwenge|Lyamwenge]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mabibi|Mabibi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mafunke|Mafunke]] * malimbe *[[Kisiwa cha Maisome|Maisome]] * [[Kisiwa cha Makibwa|Makibwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Makome|Makome]] * [[Kisiwa cha Makove|Makove]] * [[Kisiwa cha Malelema|Malelema]] * [[Kisiwa cha Maremera|Maremera]] * [[Kisiwa cha Masakara|Masakara]] * [[Kisiwa cha Masheka|Masheka]] * [[Kisiwa cha Masuha|Masuha]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mazinga|Mazinga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mgonchi|Mgonchi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Miganiko|Miganiko]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mijo|Mijo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Morova|Morova]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mraoba|Mraoba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Msalala|Msalala]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mtenga|Mtenga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mtoa|Mtoa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mtoto|Mtoto]] * [[Kisiwa cha Musira|Musira]] * [[Kisiwa cha Mwengwa|Mwengwa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nabuyongo|Nabuyongo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nafuba|Nafuba]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nakaranga|Nakaranga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Namatembe|Namatembe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Namguma|Namguma]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ndarua|Ndarua]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyabugudzi|Nyabugudzi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyaburu|Nyaburu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyajune|Nyajune]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyakanyanse|Nyakanyanse]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyakasanga|Nyakasanga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyamasangi|Nyamasangi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyambugu|Nyambugu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyamikongo|Nyamikongo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Nyanswi|Nyanswi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Raju|Raju]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ramawe|Ramawe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Rubisho|Rubisho]] * [[Kisiwa cha Rubondo|Rubondo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Runeke|Runeke]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ruregaja|Ruregaja]] * [[Kisiwa cha Rwevaguzi|Rwevaguzi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Saanane|Saanane]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sara|Sara]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sata|Sata]] * [[Kisiwa cha Seza|Seza]] * [[Kisiwa cha Shuka|Shuka]] * [[Kisiwa cha Siawangi|Siawangi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sina|Sina]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sizu|Sizu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Songe|Songe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sosswa|Sosswa]] * [[Kisiwa cha Sozihe|Sozihe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Tefu|Tefu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ukara|Ukara]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ukerewe|Ukerewe]] * [[Kisiwa cha Usumuti|Usumuti]] * [[Kisiwa cha Vesi|Vsi]] * [[Kisiwa cha Vianza|Vianza]] * [[Kisiwa cha Wambuji|Wambuji]] * [[Kisiwa cha Yarugu|Yarugu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Yodzu|Yodzu]] * [[Kisiwa cha Zeru|Zeru]] * [[Kisiwa cha Zimo|Zimo]] * [[Kisiwa cha Zinga|Zinga]] * [[Kisiwa cha Ziragura|Ziragura]] * [[Kisiwa cha Zue|Zue]] ===Upande wa Uganda=== [[Kisiwa cha Baga|Baga]], [[Kisiwa cha Banda (Uganda)|Banda]], [[Kisiwa cha Batwala|Batwala]], [[Kisiwa cha Bu|Bu]], [[Kisiwa cha Bubeke|Bubeke]], [[Kisiwa cha Bubembe|Bubembe]], [[Kisiwa cha Bufumira|Bufumira]], [[Kisiwa cha Bugaba|Bugaba]], [[Kisiwa cha Bugaia|Bugaia]], [[Kisiwa cha Bugala|Bugala]] (lat -0,32, long 32,24), [[Kisiwa cha Bugala|Bugala]] (lat -0,64, long 32,31), [[Kisiwa cha Buiga (Mpigi)|Buiga (Mpigi)]], [[Kisiwa cha Buiga (Wakiso)|Buiga (Wakiso)]], [[Kisiwa cha Bukasa|Bukasa]], [[Kisiwa cha Bukone|Bukone]], [[Kisiwa cha Bukwaya|Bukwaya]], [[Kisiwa cha Bulago|Bulago]][[Kisiwa cha Bulanku|Bulanku]], [[Kisiwa cha Bulingugwe|Bulingugwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Bunjako|Bunjako]], [[Kisiwa cha Bunjazi|Bunjazi]], [[Kisiwa cha Bunyama|Bunyama]], [[Kisiwa cha Bussi|Bussi]], [[Kisiwa cha Busungwe|Busungwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Buturume|Buturume]], [[Kisiwa cha Buvu|Buvu]], [[Kisiwa cha Buvuma|Buvuma]], [[Kisiwa cha Buyange|Buyange]], [[Kisiwa cha Buyovu|Buyovu]], [[Kisiwa cha Buziranjovu|Buziranjovu]], [[Kisiwa cha Buziri|Buziri]], [[Kisiwa cha Bwema|Bwema]], [[Kisiwa cha Bwigi|Bwigi]], [[Kisiwa cha Dagusi|Dagusi]], [[Kisiwa cha Damba|Damba]], [[Kisiwa cha Dinzira|Dinzira]], [[Kisiwa cha Duweru|Duweru]], [[Kisiwa cha Dwanga Mukulu|Dwanga Mukulu]], [[Kisiwa cha Dwanga Muto|Dwanga Muto]], [[Kisiwa cha Dwasendwe|Dwasendwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Dyabalume|Dyabalume]], [[Kisiwa cha Funve|Funve]], [[Kisiwa cha Galo|Galo]], [[Kisiwa cha Ikunyu|Ikunyu]], [[Kisiwa cha Iramba|Iramba]], [[Kisiwa cha Isamba|Isamba]], [[Kisiwa cha Izinga (Buvuma)|Izinga]], [[Kisiwa cha Jana|Jana]], [[Kisiwa cha Kabaganja|Kabaganja]], [[Kisiwa cha Kabale|Kabale]], [[Visiwa vya Kabuguza|Kabuguza]],[[Kisiwa cha Kabulataka|Kabulataka]], [[Kisiwa cha Kagulumu|Kagulumu]], [[Kisiwa cha Kaina|Kaina]], [[Kisiwa cha Kaivali|Kaivali]], [[Kisiwa cha Kalambide|Kalambide]], [[Kisiwa cha Kamukulu|Kamukulu]], [[Kisiwa cha Kamutenga|Kamutenga]], [[Visiwa vya Kansove|Kansove]],[[Kisiwa cha Kaserwa|Kaserwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Katanga|Katanga]], [[Kisiwa cha Kayanja|Kayanja]], [[Kisiwa cha Kaza|Kaza]], [[Kisiwa cha Kerenge|Kerenge]], [[Kisiwa cha Kibibi (Buvuma)|Kibibi]], [[Kisiwa cha Kibibi Kaskazini|Kibibi Kaskazini]], [[Kisiwa cha Kibibi Kusini|Kibibi Kusini]], [[Kisiwa cha Kimi|Kimi]], [[Kisiwa cha Kiraza|Kiraza]], [[Kisiwa cha Kiregi (Uganda)|Kiregi]], [[Kisiwa cha Kirugu|Kirugu]], [[Kisiwa cha Kisima|Kisima]], [[Kisiwa cha Kitobo|Kitobo]], [[Kisiwa cha Kiwa (Uganda)|Kiwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Komogwe|Komogwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Koome|Koome]], [[Kisiwa cha Kuiye|Kuiye]], [[Kisiwa cha Kyanga|Kyanga]], [[Kisiwa cha Lambu|Lambu]], [[Kisiwa cha Lebu|Lebu]], [[Kisiwa cha Limaiba|Limaiba]], [[Kisiwa cha Linga (Uganda)|Linga]], [[Kisiwa cha Lingira|Lingira]], [[Kisiwa cha Lolui|Lolui]], [[Kisiwa cha Lufu|Lufu]], [[Kisiwa cha Lujabwa|Lujabwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Lukalu|Lukalu]], [[Kisiwa cha Luke (Uganda)|Luke]], [[Kisiwa cha Lukiusa|Lukiusa]], [[Kisiwa cha Lula|Lula]], [[Kisiwa cha Lulamba|Lulamba]], [[Kisiwa cha Lulanda|Lulanda]], [[Kisiwa cha Lumva|Lumva]], [[Kisiwa cha Lunfuwa|Lunfuwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Lunkulu|Lunkulu]], [[Kisiwa cha Luntwa|Luntwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Luserera|Luserera]], [[Kisiwa cha Luvangu|Luvangu]], [[Kisiwa cha Luvia|Luvia]], [[Kisiwa cha Luwungulu|Luwungulu]], [[Kisiwa cha Lwabagenge|Lwabagenge]], [[Kisiwa cha Lwabalega|Lwabalega]], [[Kisiwa cha Lwabana|Lwabana]], [[Kisiwa cha Lwaji|Lwaji]], [[Kisiwa cha Lwantete|Lwantete]], [[Kisiwa cha Lyabana|Lyabana]], [[Visiwa vya Mabanda|Mabanda]], [[Kisiwa cha Makalugi|Makalugi]], [[Kisiwa cha Makusu|Makusu]], [[Kisiwa cha Marija|Marija]], [[Kisiwa cha Masiwa|Masiwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Masovwi|Masovwi]], [[Kisiwa cha Maundu|Maundu]], [[Kisiwa cha Maungwe|Maungwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Mavi|Mavi]], [[Kisiwa cha Mawe|Mawe]], [[Kisiwa cha Mayinja|Mayinja]], [[Kisiwa cha Mbirubuziba|Mbirubuziba]], [[Kisiwa cha Mbive|Mbive]], [[Kisiwa cha Mbulamwalo|Mbulamwalo]], [[Visiwa vya Meru|Meru]], [[Visiwa vya Mitusi|Mitusi]], [[Kisiwa cha Mkovu|Mkovu]], [[Kisiwa cha Mpande|Mpande]], [[Kisiwa cha Mpata|Mpata]], [[Kisiwa cha Mpuga|Mpuga]], [[Kisiwa cha Mpugwe|Mpugwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Mpuni|Mpuni]], [[Kisiwa cha Mukalanga|Mukalanga]], [[Kisiwa cha Munene|Munene]], [[Visiwa vya Musambwa|Musambwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Musambwa Kusini|Musambwa Kusini]], [[Kisiwa cha Musene|Musene]], [[Kisiwa cha Mutyomu|Mutyomu]], [[Kisiwa cha Mwama|Mwama]], [[Kisiwa cha Mwana|Mwana]], [[Kisiwa cha Mweza|Mweza]], [[Kisiwa cha Nagembiruwa|Nagembiruwa]], [[Kisiwa cha Nainaivi|Nainaivi]], [[Kisiwa cha Namalusu|Namalusu]], [[Kisiwa cha Namama|Namama]], [[Kisiwa cha Namasimbi|Namasimbi]], [[Kisiwa cha Nambewa|Nambewa]], [[Kisiwa cha Nambuga|Nambuga]], [[Kisiwa cha Namite|Namite]], [[Kisiwa cha Namubega|Namubega]], [[Kisiwa cha Nfo|Nfo]], [[Kisiwa cha Ngabo|Ngabo]], [[Kisiwa cha Ngamba (Uganda)|Ngamba]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkata|Nkata]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkese|Nkese]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkose|Nkose]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkusa (Kalangala)|Nkusa (Kalangala)]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkusa (Mukono)|Nkusa (Mukono)]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkusa (Wakiso)|Nkusa (Wakiso)]], [[Kisiwa cha Nkuzi|Nkuzi]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsadzi|Nsadzi]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsenyi|Nsenyi]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsimba|Nsimba]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsinga|Nsinga]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsirwe|Nsirwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Nsonga|Nsonga]], [[Kisiwa cha Ntokwe|Ntokwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Nvuza|Nvuza]], [[Kisiwa cha Nyenda|Nyenda]], [[Kisiwa cha Nziribanje|Nziribanje]], [[Kisiwa cha Ramafuta|Ramafuta]], [[Kisiwa cha Sagitu|Sagitu]], [[Kisiwa cha Sali (Uganda)|Sali]], [[Kisiwa cha Samoka|Samoka]], [[Kisiwa cha Sanga (Buvuma)|Sanga (Buvuma)]], [[Kisiwa cha Sanga (Mukono)|Sanga (Mukono)]] (lat -0,07, long 32,80), [[Kisiwa cha Sanga (Mukono)|Sanga (Mukono)]] (lat 0,08, long 32,65), [[Kisiwa cha Segamba|Segamba]], [[Kisiwa cha Sege|Sege]], [[Visiwa vya Semuganja|Semuganja]], [[Kisiwa cha Semuganja Omunene|Semuganja Omunene]], [[Kisiwa cha Semuganja Omutono|Semuganja Omutono]], [[Kisiwa cha Sentwe|Sentwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Serinya|Serinya]], [[Visiwa vya Sese|Sese]], [[Kisiwa cha Sigulu|Sigulu]], [[Kisiwa cha Simu|Simu]],[[Kisiwa cha Sindiro|Sindiro]], [[Kisiwa cha Sira|Sira]], [[Kisiwa cha Siro|Siro]], [[Kisiwa cha Sowe (Uganda)|Sowe]], [[Kisiwa cha Tavu|Tavu]], [[Kisiwa cha Visa (Uganda)|Visa]], [[Kisiwa cha Vumba|Vumba]], [[Kisiwa cha Wabuziba|Wabuziba]], [[Kisiwa cha Waiasi|Waiasi]], [[Kisiwa cha Waitwe|Waitwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Yubwe|Yubwe]], [[Kisiwa cha Yuweh|Yuweh|]], [[Kisiwa cha Zigunga|Zigunga]], [[Visiwa pacha vya Zigunga|Zigunga Pacha]], [[Kisiwa cha Zinga (Uganda)|Zinga]], [[Kisiwa cha Ziro|Ziro]], [[Kisiwa cha Ziru (Buvuma)|Ziru (Buvuma)]] (lat -0,09, long 33,21), [[Kisiwa cha Ziru (Buvuma)|Ziru (Buvuma)]] (lat 0,05, long 32,98), [[Kisiwa cha Ziru (Kalangala)|Ziru (Kalangala)]] ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya maziwa ya Kenya]] * [[Orodha ya maziwa ya Tanzania]] * [[Orodha ya maziwa ya Uganda]] == Viungo vya nje == *[http://www.waterandnature.org/eatlas/html/af16.html Watersheds of Africa: A10 Nile | Lake Viktoria ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.waterandnature.org/eatlas/html/af16.html |date=20070927212902 }} {{Maziwa ya Tanzania}} {{maziwa ya Uganda}} {{Maziwa ya Kenya}} {{mbegu-jio-Afrika}} [[Jamii:Maziwa ya Afrika]] [[Jamii:Maziwa ya Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Maziwa ya Uganda]] [[Jamii:Maziwa ya Kenya]] [[Jamii:Nile]] [[Jamii:Ziwa Viktoria| ]] [[Jamii:Mkoa wa Kagera]] [[Jamii:Mkoa wa Geita]] [[Jamii:Mkoa wa Mwanza]] [[Jamii:Mkoa wa Mara]] brtjs2jjpfajlbpc10ljzrjlyxcup2x 0 15871 1564486 1519038 2026-06-02T17:00:37Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564486 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Malaria.jpg|thumb|Protista ya plasmodium jinsi inavyoonekana kwa [[hadubini]]: ndiyo inayosababisha malaria]] '''Malaria''' ni [[ugonjwa wa kuambukiza]] ambao unaenezwa na [[mbu]] wa [[jenasi]] ''[[Anopheles]]'' na kusababishwa na [[kidubini]] aina ya [[protisti]] ''[[Plasmodium]]''. Kutokana na uenezi wake katika nchi zinazotumia [[Kiswahili]], mara nyingi [[ugonjwa]] huo huitwa "[[homa]]" tu, ingawa homa ni [[dalili]] yake mojawapo tu, pia kuna magonjwa mengi yanayosababisha homa. Malaria inatokea katika maeneo ya [[tropiki|kitropiki]] na yanayokaribia tropiki ikiwa ni pamoja na sehemu za [[Amerika]], [[Asia]] na [[Afrika]]. Mwaka [[2015]] [[duniani]] kulikuwa na [[maambukizi]] [[milioni]] 214 ya malaria, <ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/facts.htm Malaria Facts.] ''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.'' </ref> na watu 438,000 walikufa, wengi wao (90%) wakiwa [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]], hasa [[watoto]] wachanga katika mataifa ya [[kusini kwa Sahara]]. <ref>"Malaria Fact sheet N°94". WHO. Retrieved 2 February 2016.</ref> Malaria ni mojawapo ya magonjwa yaliyoenea sana na ni tatizo kuu la [[afya ya umma]]. Kwa kawaida huhusishwa na [[umaskini]], lakini pia ni sababu ya [[umaskini]] <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://ftp.iza.org/dp2997.pdf|format=PDF|title=Malaria: Disease Impacts and Long-Run Income Differences|publisher=[[Institute for the Study of Labor]]|accessdate=2008-12-10}}</ref> na kikwazo kikubwa kwa [[maendeleo]] ya [[uchumi]]. [[Spishi]] [[tano]] za [[vimelea]] vya Plasmodium huweza kumwambukiza [[binadamu]]; aina iliyo mbaya zaidi husababishwa na Plasmodium falciparum. Malaria inayosababishwa na ''[[Plasmodium vivax]], [[Plasmodium ovale]]'' na ''[[Plasmodium malariae]]'' husababisha ugonjwa usio shadidi sana kwa binadamu na aghalabu haijui. Spishi ya tano, ''[[Plasmodium knowlesi]]'', husababisha malaria kwa [[nyani]] aina ya [[makaku]] lakini inaweza pia kumwambukiza binadamu. [[Kundi]] hilo la spishi za ''Plasmodium'' linalosababisha ugonjwa kwa binadamu hujulikana kama ''vimelea vya malaria''. Kwa kawaida, watu hupata ugonjwa wa malaria kwa kung'atwa na [[mbu]] wa kike wa jamii ya ''[[Anopheles]]'' aliyeambukizwa. Mbu aina ya Anopheles pekee ndio wanaoweza kusambaza malaria, na ni lazima wawe wameambukizwa kupitia [[damu]] waliyofyonza kutoka kwa mtu aliyeambukizwa. Mbu akimng'ata mtu aliyeambukizwa, huchukua kiasi kidogo cha [[damu]]: damu hiyo huwa na vimelea vya malaria. [[Wiki]] moja baadaye, wakati mbu anapofyonza mlo wake mwingine wa damu, vimelea hivyo huchanganyika na [[mate]] ya mbu na kuingia katika [[mfumo wa damu]] ya anayeng'atwa. Vimelea hivyo huzaa ndani ya [[seli nyekundu za damu]], na kusababisha dalili kama vile [[anemia]], [[maumivu]] kidogo ya [[kichwa]], shida ya kupumua, [[takikadia]], n.k., aidha kuna dalili nyingine za jumla kama vile homa, [[baridi]], [[kichefuchefu]], [[mafua]], na katika hali mbaya zaidi [[kupoteza fahamu]] na hata [[kifo]]. Maambukizi ya malaria yanaweza kupunguzwa kwa kuzuia kung'atwa na [[mbu]] kutumia [[vyandarua]], [[dawa za kuzuia wadudu]], au hatua za kudhibiti maenezi ya mbu kama vile kunyunyizia [[dawa za kuua wadudu]] ndani ya [[nyumba]] na kupiga mifereji kuondoa [[maji]] yaliyosimama ambapo mbu hutaga [[mayai]] yao. Majaribio yamefanywa kuibuka na [[chanjo ya malaria]] bila mafanikio makuu, pamoja na kuibua mbinu za udhibiti wa kiajabu zaidi, kama vile kubadili [[kiini tete|viini tete]] vya mbu ili kuwafanya sugu kwa vimelea pia umefikiriwa. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Yoshida S, Shimada Y, Kondoh D, ''et al.'' |title=Hemolytic C-type lectin CEL-III from sea cucumber expressed in transgenic mosquitoes impairs malaria parasite development |journal=PLoS Pathog. |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=e192 |year=2007 |pmid=18159942 |doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.0030192 |url=http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.0030192}}</ref> Ingawa [[utafiti]] unaendelea, hakuna [[chanjo]] iliyopatikana hadi sasa inayotoa ulinzi wa hali ya juu dhidi ya malaria <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/NEJMoa0807381 |title=RTS,S vaccine protection rate |accessdate=2009-11-19 |archivedate=2009-11-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108200359/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/NEJMoa0807381 }}</ref>; mwaka 2015 ile pekee iliyoruhusiwa kutumika nje ya majaribio ni RTS,S, ambayo inatolewa kwa kudunga [[sindano]] mara nne, na hata hivyo ina ufanisi mdogo (26%-50%) kulingana na chanjo nyingine. Hivyo dawa za kuzuia lazima zitumiwe bila kukoma ili kupunguza hatari ya kuambukizwa. Madawa hayo ya kuzuia maambukizi mara nyingi huwa ghali mno kwa watu wengi wanaoishi katika maeneo ambapo ugonjwa huu hupatikana kwa wingi. [[Watu wazima]] wengi wanaoishi katika maeneo ambayo ugonjwa huo umeenea huwa na maambukizi ya muda mrefu ambayo hujitokeza mara kwa mara, na pia huwa na [[kinga]] kidogo; kinga hiyo hupunguka kadiri muda unavyosonga; watu wazima kama hao wanaweza kuambukizwa malaria kali ikiwa wameishi muda mrefu katika maeneo ambapo ugonjwa huo haujaenea. Wanashauriwa kuchukua tahadhari kamili wanaporejea katika maeneo ambapo ugonjwa huo umeenea. Maambukizi ya malaria hutibiwa kwa kutumia [[dawa ya malaria]], kama vile [[kwinini]] au vizalika vya [[atemisinin]]. Hata hivyo, vimelea vimekuwa sugu kwa nyingi ya dawa hizo. Kwa hiyo, katika baadhi ya maeneo ya dunia, dawa chache tu ndizo zilizo na uwezo wa kutibu malaria kwa ufanisi. == Ishara na dalili == [[Picha:Symptoms of Malaria.png|thumb|Dalili kuu za malaria.<ref>WebMD Dalili za malaria Ilisashishwa Mwisho: 16 Mei 2007</ref>]] Dalili za malaria ni pamoja na homa, kutetemeka, [[athralgia]] (maumivu ya kifundo), [[kutapika]], [[anemia]] (inayosababishwa na kuachana kwa chembechembe nyekundu za damu), hemoglobinuria, kuharibika kwa [[retina]], <ref>{{cite journal |author=Beare NA, Taylor TE, Harding SP, Lewallen S, Molyneux ME |title=Malarial retinopathy: a newly established diagnostic sign in severe malaria |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=790–7 |pmid=17123967 |pmc=2367432 |url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17123967 |date= 1 Novemba 2006 |month=Nov |day=01 }}</ref> na [[mtukutiko wa maungo]]. Dalili tambulika za malaria hutokea kwa namna ya mzunguko wa [[baridi]] ya ghafla ikifuatiwa na [[kutetemeka]], kisha homa na kutokwa [[jasho]] kunakodumu kwa saa nne hadi sita: dalili hizo hujitokeza kila baada ya siku mbili kwa maambukizi ya ''P. vivax'' na ''P. ovale'', huku ikijitokeza kila baada ya siku tatu kwa ''P. malariae.'' <ref name="RBMarmenia">[http://www.malaria.am/eng/pathogenesis.php Malaria life cycle &amp; pathogenesis.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.malaria.am/eng/pathogenesis.php |date=20080118084209 }} Malaria katika Armenia. Ilitumiwa 31 Oktoba 2006.</ref> ''P. falciparum'' yaweza kuwa na homa inayojitokeza kila baada ya saa 36-48 au homa isiyoshadidi lakini inayoendelea. Kwa sababu zisizofahamika vyema, lakini ambazo zinaweza kuhusiana na shinikizo ya hali ya juu katika [[fuvu la kichwa]], watoto walio na malaria mara nyingi hudhihirisha [[mkao usiokuwa wa kawaida]], ishara ya uharibifu wa [[ubongo]]. <ref name="Idro ">{{cite journal | last =Idro | first =R | authorlink = | coauthors =Otieno G, White S, Kahindi A, Fegan G, Ogutu B, Mithwani S, Maitland K, Neville BG, Newton CR | title = Decorticate, decerebrate and opisthotonic posturing and seizures in Kenyan children with cerebral malaria| journal =Malaria Journal | volume =4 | issue =57 | pages = 57| publisher = | date = | url = | pmc = 1326205 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2875-4-57| pmid =16336645 | accessdate =2007-01-21}} </ref> Imegunduliwa kuwa malaria husababisha matatizo ya kutambua, hasa kwa watoto. Husababisha kuenea sana kwa [[anemia]] katika kipindi cha kukua haraka kwa ubongo na pia uharibifu wa moja kwa moja wa ubongo. Uharibifu huo wa [[nyurolojia|kinurolojia]] hutokana na malaria ya ubongo ambayo ni hatari mno kwa watoto. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Boivin MJ |title=Effects of early cerebral malaria on cognitive ability in Senegalese children |journal=J Dev Behav Pediatr |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=353–64 |year=2002 |month=Oktoba |pmid=12394524 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0196-206X&volume=23&issue=5&spage=353 |access-date=2009-11-19 |archive-date=2011-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718072406/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0196-206X&volume=23&issue=5&spage=353 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal |author=Holding PA, Snow RW |title=Impact of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on performance and learning: review of the evidence |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=64 |issue=1-2 Suppl |pages=68–75 |year=2001 |pmid=11425179 |doi= |url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/1_suppl/68 |format= }} - ^{[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;q=intitle%3AImpact+of+Plasmodium+falciparum+malaria+on+performance+and+learning%3A+review+of+the+evidence&amp;as_publication=Am.+J.+Trop.+Med.+Hyg.&amp;as_ylo=2001&amp;as_yhi=2001&amp;btnG=Search Orodha tafuta))]} </ref> malaria ya ubongo huhusishwa na weupe wa retina, <ref>{{cite journal|author=Maude RJ, Hassan MU, Beare NAV|title=Severe retinal whitening in an adult with cerebral malaria|journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg|volume=80|issue=6|year=2009|page=881|url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/80/6/881|pmid=19478242|pages=881|month=Jun|day=01}}</ref> ambayo inaweza kuwa na manufaa kama ishara ya kutofautisha malaria na visababishi vingine vya homa. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Beare NAV, Taylor TE, Harding SP, Lewallen S, Molyneux ME|year=2006|title=Malarial retinopathy: a newly established diagnostic sign in severe malaria|journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg|volume=75|pages=790–797|pmid=17123967|issue=5}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Spishi ! Mwonekano ! Dalili katika vipindi vinavyolingana ! Hudumu katika ini? |- | ''[[Plasmodium vivax]]'' | [[Picha:Plasmodium vivax 01.png|center|200px]] | kila baada ya siku tatu | ndio |- | ''[[Plasmodium ovale]]'' | [[Picha:Plasmodium ovale 01.png|center|200px]] | Kila baada ya siku tatu | ndio |- | ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' | [[Picha:Plasmodium falciparum 01.png|center|200px]] | kila baada ya siku tatu | hapana |- | ''[[Plasmodium malariae]]'' | [[Picha:Mature Plasmodium malariae schizont PHIL 2715 lores.jpg|center|200px]] | kila baada ya siku nne | hapana |} Malaria kali husababishwa takriban kipekee na maambukizi ya ''P. falciparum'': kwa kawaida hujitokeza kati ya siku 6-14 baada ya kuambukizwa. <ref name="Trampuz">{{cite journal | author = Trampuz A, Jereb M, Muzlovic I, Prabhu R | title = Clinical review: Severe malaria | url= | pmc=270697 | journal = Crit Care | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 315–23 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12930555 | doi = 10.1186/cc2183}}</ref> Madhara ya ugonjwa wa malaria kali ni pamoja na [[kukosa fahamu]] na kifo ikiwa haitatibiwa-watoto wachanga na wanawake wajawazito hasa wamo hatarini. [[Splenomegali]] (kupanuka kwa wengu), [[maumivu makali ya kichwa]], [[iskemia ya ubongo]], [[hepatomegali]] (kupanuka kwa ini), [[hypoglisimia]], na hemoglobinuria na [[kufeli kwa figo]] huweza kutokea. Kufeli kwa figo kunaweza kusababisha [[homa ya mkojo wa damu]], ambapo hemoglobin kutoka katika chembechembe nyekundu za damu zilizosambaratika huvuja na kuingia katika mkojo. Malaria kali inaweza kuendelea kwa kasi na kusababisha kifo katika mudaa wa masaa kadhaa au masiku. <ref name="Trampuz"/> Katika hali mbaya zaidi ya ugonjwa huo viwango vya vifo vinaweza kuzidi 20%, hata kuwe na utunzi wa hali ya juu na matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Kain K, Harrington M, Tennyson S, Keystone J | title = Imported malaria: prospective analysis of problems in diagnosis and management | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_1998-07_27_1/page/142 | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 142–9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9675468 | doi = 10.1086/514616}}</ref> Katika maeneo ambapo ugonjwa huo umeenea, mara nyingi matibabu si ya kuridhisha na kiwango cha jumla cha vifo vinavyosababishwa na malaria huwa kimoja kati visa kumi. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Mockenhaupt F, Ehrhardt S, Burkhardt J, Bosomtwe S, Laryea S, Anemana S, Otchwemah R, Cramer J, Dietz E, Gellert S, Bienzle U | title = Manifestation and outcome of severe malaria in children in northern Ghana | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 167–72 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15306705}}</ref> Baada ya muda mrefu, matatizo ya kukua yamerekodiwa kwa watoto ambao wameugua malaria kali. <ref name="carter2005">{{cite journal | author=Carter JA, Ross AJ, Neville BG, Obiero E, Katana K, Mung'ala-Odera V, Lees JA, Newton CR | title=Developmental impairments following severe falciparum malaria in children | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tropical-medicine-and-international-health_2005-01_10_1/page/n4 | journal=Trop Med Int Health | year=2005 | volume=10 | pages=3–10 | pmid=15655008 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01345.x | issue=1}}</ref> Malaria ya muda mrefu hutokana na ''P. vivax'' na ''P. ovale,'' lakini si katika ''P. falciparum.'' Hapa, ugonjwa huo unaweza kujitokeza tena miezi au miaka baada ya kuambukizwa kutokana na uwepo wa vimelea fiche katika [[ini]]. Kwa hivo, kueleza kuwa malaria imetibiwa kwa kutazama kutokuwepo kwa vimelea katika damu kunaweza kupotosha. Kipindi kirefu zaidi kati ya kuambukizwa vimelea na kujitokeza kwa dalili za ugonjwa kimeripotiwa kwa ''P. vivax'' kuwa miaka 30. <ref name="Trampuz"/> Inakadiriwa kuwa moja kati ya visa vitano vya malaria vinavyosababishwa na ''P. vivax'' katika maeneo ya [[hari]] huhusiana na [[kujihifadhi kwa vijimelea]] vya hipnoziti (yaani, dalili hujitokeza mwaka unaofuata kung'atwa na mbu). <ref>{{cite journal | author = Adak T, Sharma V, Orlov V | title = Studies on the Plasmodium vivax relapse pattern in Delhi, India | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 175–9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9684649}}</ref> == Sababu == [[Picha:Malaria.jpg|thumb|Spora ya Plasmodium huzunguka sitoplazimu ya seli epitheliumu ya utumbo wa kati ya mbu katika rangi hii bandia ya mikrografia eltroniki.]] === Vimelea vya malaria === Vimelea vya malaria ni wa [[jenasi]] ya ''[[Plasmodium]]'' (Faila Apicomplexa). Katika binadamu malaria husababishwa na ''P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax'' na ''P. knowlesi.'' <ref>{{cite journal |author=Mueller I, Zimmerman PA, Reeder JC |title=Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale--the "bashful" malaria parasites |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-parasitology_2007-06_23_6/page/278 |journal=Trends Parasitol. |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=278–83 |year=2007 |month=Juni |pmid=17459775 |doi=10.1016/j.pt.2007.04.009}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh B, Kim Sung L, Matusop A, ''et al.'' |title=A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2004-03-27_363_9414/page/n24 |journal=Lancet |volume=363 |issue=9414 |pages=1017–24 |year=2004 |month=Machi |pmid=15051281 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15836-4}}</ref> ''P. falciparum'' ndiyo iliyoenea zaidi na huchangia takriban 80% ya maambukizi yote ya malaria, na pia inahusishwa na karibu 90% ya vifo vinavyotokana na malaria. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Mendis K, Sina B, Marchesini P, Carter R | title = The neglected burden of Plasmodium vivax malaria | url = http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/64/1_suppl/97.pdf | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 64 | issue = 1-2 Suppl | pages = 97–106 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11425182 | format = PDF | access-date = 2009-11-19 | archive-date = 2009-03-26 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326131917/http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/64/1_suppl/97.pdf | dead-url = yes }}</ref> Vimelea vya spishi ya ''Plasmodium'' huambukiza pia ndege, mitambaazi, nyani, sokwe na panya. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Escalante A, Ayala F | title = Phylogeny of the malarial genus Plasmodium, derived from rRNA gene sequences | doi= 10.1073/pnas.91.24.11373 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 91 | issue = 24 | pages = 11373–7 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7972067}}</ref> Kumedhibitishwa maambukizi kadhaa ya wanadamu na [[Wiktionary:simian|spishi zinazoambukiza nyani]] malaria, yaani ''P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. cynomolgi,'' <ref>{{cite book | last=Garnham | first=PCC | year=1966 | title=Malaria parasites and other haemosporidia | publisher=Blackwell Scientific Publications|location=Oxford }}</ref> ''P. simiovale, P. brazilianum, P. schwetzi'' na ''P. simium'', hata hivyo, isipokuwa kwa ''P. knowlesi,'' hizo nyingine hazina umuhimu kwa afya ya umma. <ref>{{cite journal|title=''Plasmodium knowlesi:'' Finally being recognized|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2009-04-15_199_8/page/n12|journal=J Infect Dis|year=2009|volume=199|pages=1107–1108|doi=10.1086/597415|pmid=19284287|last1=Collins|first1=WE|last2=Barnwell|first2=JW|issue=8|author1=&Amp, Collins W.E.|author2=Barnwell, J.W.}}</ref> Ingawa [[malaria ya ndege]] inaweza kuua [[kuku]] na [[batamzinga]], ugonjwa huu hausababishi hasara kubwa kiuchumi kwa wafugaji wa kuku. <ref>Investing in Animal Health Research to Alleviate Poverty. Taasisi ya Utafiti wa Mifugo ya kimataifa. Permin A. na Madsen M. (2001) [http://www.ilri.cgiar.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/investinginanimal/Book1/media/PDF_Appendix/Appendix8.pdfLiterature Appendix 2: review on disease occurance and imparct (smallholder poultry).] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ilri.cgiar.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/investinginanimal/Book1/media/PDF_Appendix/Appendix8.pdfLiterature |date=20110718022608 }} Ilitumika 29 Oktoba 2006</ref> Hata hivyo, tangu kuingizwa kiajali na binadamu imeeneza ugonjwa na kuua idadi kubwa ya ndege wa [[Hawaii]], ambao walikuwa wamekua katika mazingira bila kimelea hicho na kwa hivyo hawakuwa na kinga yoyote dhidi yake. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Atkinson CT, Woods KL, Dusek RJ, Sileo LS, Iko WM |title=Wildlife disease and conservation in Hawaii: pathogenicity of avian malaria (''Plasmodium relictum'') in experimentally infected iiwi (''Vestiaria coccinea'') |journal=Parasitology |volume=111 Suppl |issue= |pages=S59–69 |year=1995 |pmid=8632925 |doi=10.1017/S003118200007582X}}</ref> == Taratibu == === Mzunguko wa maisha ya ''Plasmodium'' na vekta wa mbu === Kimelewa cha msingi (mahsusi) cha kimelea hicho na [[njia ya uenezi]] na [[vekta]] zake ni [[mbu]] jike wa jenasi ya ''[[Anopheles]]'', binadamu na wanyama wengine wenye uti wa mgongo ni vimelewa wa ziada. Kwanza mbu wachanga humeza vimelea kwa kufyonza damu ya mwanadamu aliyeambukizwa kisha mbu huyo wa aina ya''Anopheles'' hubeba [[mbegu za vimelea]] za ''Plasmodium'' katika [[matezi ya mate]] yao. Mbu huambukizwa baada ya kufyonza damu kutoka kwa binadamu aliyeambukizwa. Baada ya kumezwa, [[gameti]] za vimelea viliyofyonzwa pamoja na damu hujigawanya kwa msingi wa [[mbegu]] za kiume au za kike na kisha kuungana katika utumbo wa mbu. Hii hubuni [[ukineti]] inayopenya wambo wa utumbo wa mbu na kuzalisha [[uusisi]] katika ukuta wa utumbo. Uusisi inapopasuka, inatoa spora(sporozoites)vinayohama katika mwili wa mbu kuelekea katika matezi ya mate ya mbu, ambapo huwa tayari kumwambukiza binadamu mwingine. Aina hii ya maambukizi wakati mwingine hujulikana kama uhamisho kituo wa kabla(anterior station transfer). Spora huingizwa ndani ya ngozi, pamoja na mate, wakati mbu anapofyonza mlo wake mwingine wa damu. Mbu jike tu ndio hufyonza damu, hivyo mbu wa kiume hawasambazi ugonjwa huo. Mbu jike wa jenasi ya ''Anopheles'' hupendelea kutafuta mlo usiku. Huanza kutafuta mlo [[giza]] linapoanza kuingia na kuendelea usiku kucha mpaka watakapopata mlo. Vimelea vya malaria pia vinaweza kuambukizwa kupitia kuongezwa damu, ingawa hii ni nadra. === Pathojenesisi === [[Picha:MalariacycleBig.jpg|thumb|right|Mzunguko wa maisha ya vimelea vya malaria katika mwili wa binadamu. Mbu anamwambukiza mtu kwa kufyonza mlo damu. Kwanza, spora huingia katika mfumo wa damu, na kuhamia ini. Huambukiza chembechembe za ini (hepatosaiti), ambapo huzaana kuwa merozoiti, kurarua chembe za ini, na kujipenyeza kurudi katika mfumo wa damu. Kisha, merozoiti huambukiza chembechembe nyekundu za damu, ambapo hukua katika umbo pete, kisha trofozoiti (awamu ya kula), kisha skizonti (awamu ya kula), kisha kurejea kuwa merozoitiVijiumbe vinayoitwa gameti pia huzalishwa, ambayo, kama ikivyonzwa na mbu, vitamwambukiza mdudu huyo na kuendelea na mzunguko wa uhai.]] Malaria katika binadamu hupevuka katika awamu mbili: awamu ya eksoirithasitika na erithrasiti. Awamu ya eksoirithasitika inahusisha maambukizi ya mfumo wa ini, huku awamu ya erithrasiti inahusisha maambukizo ya seli nyekundu za damu. Mbu aliyeambukizwa anapodunga ngozi ya binadamu kufyonza mlo wa damu, [[spora]] katika mate ya mbu huingia katika mfumo wa damu ya binadamu na kuhamia katika [[ini]]. Katika muda wa dakika 30 ya kuwa mwilini mwa binadamu, spora huambukiza [[seli za ini]], kujizidisha kwa uzazi nafsi na bila kusababisha dalili za ugonjwa kwa muda wa kati ya siku 6 na 15. Mara zinapoingia katika ini viumbe hivyo huzaana kwa maelfu ya [[merozoiti]], ambazo, baada ya kupasuka kwa seli ya kimelewa wao, hujipenyeza ndani ya damu na kuambukiza [[chembechembe nyekundu za damu]], na hivyo [[kuanza]] awamu ya erithrasiti katika mzunguko wa maisha. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090318200741/http://www.sma.org/pdfs/objecttypes/smj/91C48D32-BCD4-FF25-565C69314AF7EB48/1196.pdf Bledsoe, GH (]</ref> Vimelea hutoka katika ini bila kutambulika kwa kujizungusha kwenye kiwambo cha seli ya ini ya kimelewa aliyeambukizwa. <ref name="sturm2006">{{cite journal | author=Sturm A, Amino R, van de Sand C, Regen T, Retzlaff S, Rennenberg A, Krueger A, Pollok JM, Menard R, Heussler VT | title=Manipulation of host hepatocytes by the malaria parasite for delivery into liver sinusoids | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-09-01_313_5791/page/1286 | journal=Science | year=2006 | volume=313 | pages=1287–1490 | pmid=16888102 | doi = 10.1126/science.1129720 | issue=5791 }}</ref> Ndani ya chembechembe nyekundu za damu, vimelea huendelea kuongezeka, kwa uzazi nafsi, mara nyingine hujipenyeza nje ya chembe wenyeji na kuvamia chembechembe nyekundu zilizokuwa hazijaambukizwa. Mizunguko kadhaa kama hiyo ya kujiongezea nguvu hutokea. Kwa hivyo, maelezo yanayofahamika ya kukumbwa na homa ya ghafla hutokea wakati merozoiti wanapojipenyeza na kuambukiza chembechembe nyekundu za damu. Baadhi ya spora za ''P. vivax'' na ''P. ovale'' hazikui moja kwa moja kuwa merozoiti katika awamu ya eksoirithasitika, badala yake huzalisha hipnozoiti zinazobakia bwete kwa kipindi cha kati ya miezi kadhaa (aghalabu miezi 6-12) hadi urefu wa mpaka miaka mitatu. Baada ya kipindi cha kuwa bwete, vimelea hivyo hujiamilisha na kuzalisha merozoiti. Hipnozoiti zanahusika na kipindi kirefu cha kati ya kuambukizwa na cha maradhi, na kurejea tena kwa ugonjwa katika aina hizi mbili za malaria. Kimelea cha malaria kwa kiwango fulani hulindwa dhidi ya kushambuliwa na [[mfumo wa kinga mwili]] kwa sababu katika kipindi cha mzunguko wa maisha kinapoishi katika mwili wa mwanadamu, hukaa ndani ya ini na chembechembe nyekundu za damu na haionekani kwa urahisi kwa ufuatiliaji wa kinga mwili. Hata hivyo, chembechembe za damu zilizoambukizwa na zilizo katika mzunguko wa damu huharibiwa katika [[wengu]]. Ili kuepuka hali hii vimelea vya ''P. falciparum'' hutandaza [[protini]] inayonata juu ya chembechembe za damu zilizoambukizwa, hii husababisha chembechembe hizo kukwama kwenye kuta za mishipa ndogo ya damu, hivyo basi kutenga vimelea hivyo na mzunguko wa jumla na wengu. Hali hii ya "kunata" ni sababu kuu inayochangia matizo ya [[kutokwa damu]]wakati wa malaria. [[Vena ndogo za endotheliumu]] (matawi madogo kabisa katika mzunguko wa damu) zinaweza kuzibwa na mkusanyiko wa chembechembe hizo za damu zilizoambukizwa. Kuzibwa kwa mishipa hii husababisha dalili kama zinazohusishwa na malaria ya kondo ya nyuma na malaria ya ubongo. Katika malaria ya ubongo chembechembe nyekundu za damu zilizotengwa zinaweza kuvunja [[kizuizi cha damu na ubongo]] hali inayoweza kupelekea kukosa fahamu. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Adams S, Brown H, Turner G | title = Breaking down the blood-brain barrier: signaling a path to cerebral malaria? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-parasitology_2002-08_18_8/page/360 | journal = Trends Parasitol | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 360–6 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12377286 | doi = 10.1016/S1471-4922(02)02353-X}}</ref> Ingawa protini gandishi ya uso wa chembechebe nyekundu za damu (iitwayo PfEMP1, yaani ''Plasmodium falciparum'' erythrocyte membrane protini 1) ziko wazi kwa mfumo wa kinga, hazisaidii kama kinga nzuri kwa minajili ya chanjo kwa sababu ya utofauti wao uliokithiri; kuna angalau aina 60 za protini ndani ya kimelea kimoja na ina tofauti zaidi katika jamii ya vimelea. <ref name="Chen"/> Kimelea hicho hujigeuza kati ya mchanganyiko mkubwa wa protini gandishi za uso PfEMP1, hivyo basi kuwa hatua moja mbele ya mfumo wa kinga unaoitafuta. Baadhi ya merozoiti hugeuka kuwa [[gameti]] za kiume au za kike. Mbu anapong'ata ngozi ya mtu aliyeambukizwa, mara moja huwa na uwezo kufyonza gameti zilizo damuni. Muunganiko wa mbegu za kiume na kike za vimelea hutokea katika utumbo wa mbu, na hivyo kumfanya mbu kuwa [[kimelea]] cha [[msingi]] wa ugonjwa huo. Spora mpya hukua na kusafiri kuelekekea katika tezi ya mate ya mbu, na hivyo kukamilisha mzunguko. [[Wanawake]] [[Ujauzito|wajawazito]] hasa huwa kivutio kwa mbu, <ref>{{cite journal | author = Lindsay S, Ansell J, Selman C, Cox V, Hamilton K, Walraven G | title = Effect of pregnancy on exposure to malaria mosquitoes | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2000-06-03_355_9219/page/n54 | journal = Lancet | volume = 355 | issue = 9219 | pages = 1972 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10859048 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02334-5}}</ref> malaria kwa wanawake wajawazito ni kisababishi kikuu cha [[uzazimfu]], vifo vya watoto wachanga na uzaaji wa watoto wasio na uzito unaostahili, <ref>{{cite journal | author = van Geertruyden J, Thomas F, Erhart A, D'Alessandro U | title = The contribution of malaria in pregnancy to perinatal mortality | url = http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/71/2_suppl/35 | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 71 | issue = 2 Suppl | pages = 35–40 | date = 1 Agosti 2004 | pmid = 15331817 | month = Aug | day = 01 | access-date = 2009-11-19 | archive-date = 2010-04-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100403200936/http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/71/2_suppl/35 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> hasa katika maambukizi ya ''P. falciparum'', lakini pia kutokana na maambukizi ya spishi nyingine, kama vile ''P. vivax.'' <ref name="rodriguezmorales2006">{{cite journal | author=Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Sanchez E, Vargas M, Piccolo C, Colina R, Arria M, Franco-Paredes C | title=Pregnancy outcomes associated with Plasmodium vivax malaria in northeastern Venezuela | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year=2006 | volume=74 | pages=755–757 | pmid = 16687675 | issue=5}}</ref> == Uaguzi == [[Picha:Plasmodium falciparum 02.jpg|thumb|Mpako wa damu kutoka P. falciparum iliyokuzwa (K1 Strain). Chembechembe kadhaa nyekundu za damu zilizo na awamu ya pete ndani yazo. Karibu katikati kuna schizont na kushoto kuna trofozoiti.]] Tangu Charles Laveran alipokiona kwa mara ya kwanza kimelea cha malaria katika damu mwaka wa 1880, <ref name="Sutherland2009">{{cite journal|author=Sutherland CJ, Hallett R|title=Detecting malaria parasites outside the blood|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2009-06-01_199_11/page/n10|journal=J Infect Dis|year=2009|volume=199|issue=11|pages=1561–1563|doi=10.1086/598857|pmid=19432543|last1=Sutherland|first1=CJ|last2=Hallett|first2=R}}</ref> msingi wa uaguzi wa malaria umekuwa uchunguzi wa damu kwa hadubini. Homa na mshtuko wa mwili huchukuliwa kimakosa kama aina ya malaria kali sana barani Afrika kiasi cha kutoshughulikia magonjwa mengine hatari. Katika maeneo ambapo malaria imeenea [[uwepo wa vimelea]] damuni hakutoshi kutoa uaguzi wa malaria kali kwa sababu uwepo wa vimelea unaweza kusababishwa na maradhi mengine yanayolingana na malaria. Uchunguzi wa hivi karibuni unapendekeza kuwa [[upimaji mwanga katika retina]] ni njia bora ya kuagua malaria (uwezo wa kijumla wa kupitisha mwangaza wa 95% na uwezo wa bainifu wa 90%) zaidi ya mbinu za kutegemea dalili au maabara katika utofautishaji baina ya malaria na magonjwa mengine.{ {1/} Ingawa damu ni sampuli inayotumiwa mara nyingi kufanya uaguzi, mate na mkojo vimechunguzwa kama sampuli mbadala, inayoingiwa na vimelea chache. <ref name="Sutherland2009"/> === Uaguzi wa dalili === Maeneo yasiyoweza kumudu angaa vipimo sahili vya kimaabara aghalabu hutegemea historia ya dalili za homa ambazo mgonjwa ataeleza kuamua kutoa tiba ya malaria. Kwa kutumia damu iliyopakwa Gemsa kutoka kwa watoto nchini Malawi, utafiti ulionyesha kwamba wakati uaguzi wa dalili (joto la mjiko, weupe wa shina la ukucha, na kupanuka kwa wengu) zilipotumika kama ishara ya tiba, badala ya kutumia dalili anazoeleza mgonjwa,kiwango cha uaguzi sahihi kiliongezeka kutoka 21 % hadi 41% na kutoa matibabu ya malaria kusikohitajika kukapungua vikubwa. <ref name="Redd S, Kazembe P, Luby S, Nwanyanwu O, Hightower A, Ziba C, Wirima J, Chitsulo L, Franco C, Olivar M 2006 80"> {{cite journal |author=Redd S, Kazembe P, Luby S, Nwanyanwu O, Hightower A, Ziba C, Wirima J, Chitsulo L, Franco C, Olivar M |title=Clinical algorithm for treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children |journal=Lancet |volume=347 |issue=8996 | pages = 80 | year = 2006 |pmid=8551881 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90404-3}}</ref> === Uchunguzi hadubini wa filmu za damu === {{Details3|[[Plasmodium falciparum|P. falciparum]], [[Plasmodium vivax|P. vivax]], [[Plasmodium ovale|P. ovale]], [[Plasmodium malariae|P. malariae]]|individual parasites}} Njia ya kiiktisadi zaidi, inayopendelewa, na ya kuaminika kwa uaguzi wa malaria ni uchunguzi hadubini wa [[filmu]] za [[damu]] kwa sababu kila moja ya spishi nne za vimelea huwa na sifa bainifu. Kwa kawaida, aina mbili za filmu ya damu hutumika. Filmu nyembamba ni sawa na filmu ya damu za kawaida na huruhusu utambulisho wa spishi kwa sababu mwonekano wa vimelea huhifadhiwa vyema katika maandalizi hayo. Filmu nzito humruhusu mhadubini kuchunguza kiasi kikubwa cha damu na ni karibu mara kumi na moja rahisi kuonekana kuliko filmu nyembamba, kwa hivyo kutambua viwango vya chini ya maambukizi ni rahisi kwa kutumia filmu nzito, lakini mwonekano wa vimelea huwa umepotoa zaidi na hivyo kutofautisha kati ya spishi mbalimbali kunaweza kuwa vigumu zaidi. Kwa kuzingatia faida na mapungufu ya filmu nzito na nyembamba, ni muhimu kutumia filmu hizi mbili wakati wa kutafuta uaguzi bainifu. <ref name="warhurst1996">{{cite journal | author=Warhurst DC, Williams JE | title=Laboratory diagnosis of malaria | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-pathology_1996-07_49_7/page/n6 | journal=J Clin Pathol | year=1996 | volume=49 | pages=533–38 |pmid=8813948 | doi = 10.1136/jcp.49.7.533 | issue=7}}</ref> Kutoka kwa filamu nzito, mhadubini anaweza kuchunguza viwango vya vimelea (au [[uwepo wa vimelea)]] hadi kiwango cha chini cha 0.0000001% cha chembechembe nyekundu za damu. Utambuzi wa spishi unaweza kuwa vigumu kwa sababu trofozoiti ("umbo pete") za mapema maishani mwa vimelea zote hufanana na kamwe haiwezekani kutambua spishi kwa msingi wa umbo pete moja; utambulisho wa spishi hutegemea trofozoiti kadhaa. === Uchunguzi nyanjani === Katika maeneo ambapo uchunguzi hadubini haupatikani, au ambapo wafanyakazi wa maabara hawana uzoefu katika uaguzi wa malaria, kuna [[vipimo antijeni]] ambavyo vinahitaji tone tu la damu. <ref>{{cite journal | author=Pattanasin S, Proux S, Chompasuk D, Luwiradaj K, Jacquier P, Looareesuwan S, Nosten F | title=Evaluation of a new Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase assay (OptiMAL-IT) for the detection of malaria | journal=Transact Royal Soc Trop Med | year=2003 | volume=97 | pages=672–4 | pmid=16117960 | doi=10.1016/S0035-9203(03)80100-1 | issue=6}}</ref> Vipimo vya imunokromatografia (pia huitwa: Uaguzi Haraka wa Malaria, Uchanganuzi wa Kukamata Antijeni au "Dipsticks") vimetengenezwa, kusambazwa na kujaribiwa nyanjani. Vipimo hivi hutumia damu inayotolewa kidoleni au damu ya vena, kipimo kamilufu huchukua jumla ya dakika 15-20, na maabara haihitajiki. Upeo chini wa vipimo vya uaguzi haraka upo katika vimelea 100 / μl ya damu ikilinganishwa na uchunguzi hadubini kutumia filmu nzito ambapo upeo huo ni 5. Vipimo vya uaguzi haraka vya kwanza vilitumia ''P. falciparum'' [[glutamate dehydrogenase]] kama antijeni. <ref>{{cite journal | author=Ling IT., Cooksley S., Bates PA., Hempelmann E., Wilson RJM. | title=Antibodies to the glutamate dehydrogenase of Plasmodium falciparum | journal=Parasitology | year=1986 | volume=92, | pages=313–24 | pmid=3086819 | doi=10.1017/S0031182000064088 }}</ref> Nafasi ya PGluDH ilichukuliwa na ''P.falciparum'' lactate dehydrogenase, aina moja ya 33 kDa [[oxidoreductase]] [EC 1.1.1.27]. Ndicho kimeng'enya cha mwisho katika njia ya [[glaikoliti]], na ni muhimu kwa uzalishaji [[ATP]] na pia ni mojawapo ya kimeng'enya kinachopatikana kwa wingi katika ''P.falciparum.'' PLDH haiendelei kuwa katika damu bali humalizika karibu wakati mmoja na vimelea kufuatia matibabu yaliyofanikiwa. Kutokuwepo kwa antijeni baada ya tiba hufanya upimaji wa pLDH muhimu katika kutabiri ikiwa matibabu hayakufaulu. Kwa jinsi hii, pLDH ni sawa na pGluDH. Uchanganuzi wa OptiMAL-IT unaweza kutofautisha kati ya ''P. falciparum'' na ''P. vivax'' kwa sababu ya tofauti ya kiantijeni kati ya kimeng'enya chao pLDH. === Mbinu za kimolekyuli === Mbinu za kimolekyuli hupatikana katika baadhi ya maabara za kimatibabu na asei za uchanganuzi wa papo kwa hapo (kwa mfano, [[QT-NASBA]] inayotumia mmenyuko endelevu wa polimeresi ) <ref>{{cite journal | title=Detection and identification of human Plasmodium species with real-time quantitative nucleic acid sequence-based amplification | author=Mens PF, Schoone GJ, Kager PA, Schallig HDFH. | journal=Malaria Journal | year=2006 | volume=5 | issue=80 | doi=10.1186/1475-2875-5-80 | pages=80 | pmid=17018138 | last1=Mens | first1=PF | last2=Schoone | first2=GJ | last3=Kager | first3=PA | last4=Schallig | first4=HD }}</ref>zinaendelea kuandaliwa kwa matumaini ya kuzisambaza katika maeneo ambapo ugonjwa huo umeenea. === Vipimo haraka vya antijeni === OptiMAL-IT inaweza kuchunguza kwa umadhubuti uwepo wa vimelea vya P. falciparum hadi chini ya 0.01% na vimelea visivyo falciparum hadi 0.1%. ''Para'' check-PF huweza kuchunguza vimelea chini ya 0.002% lakini haiwezi kutofautisha kati ya malaria inayoambukizwa na ''falciparum'' na isiyoambukizwa na ''falciparum''. Asidi za viiniseli vya vimelea hugunduliwa kutumia [[mmenyuko endelevu wa polimeresi]]. Mbinu hii ni sahihi zaidi kuliko uchunguzi hadubini. Hata hivyo, ni ghali, na inahitaji maabara maalumu. Pia, uwepo wa vimelea si lazima uwiane na kukua kwa ugonjwa, hasa wakati kimelea kinaweza kujigandisha katika kuta za mishipa ya damu. Kwa hivyo, vifaa zaidi vilivyo na uwezo wa kupima mabadiliko madogo na visivyohitaji teknolojia ya hali ya juu vinafaa kubuniwa ili kugundua uwepo wa vimelea vya viwango vya chini nyanjani. <ref> {{cite journal |author=Redd S, Kazembe P, Luby S, Nwanyanwu O, Hightower A, Ziba C, Wirima J, Chitsulo L, Franco C, Olivar M |title=Clinical algorithm for treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children |journal=Lancet |volume=347 |issue=8996 |pages=80 |year=2006 |pmid=8551881 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90404-3}}</ref> == Kuzuia == [[Picha:Anopheles albimanus mosquito.jpg|thumb|Mbu aina ya Anopheles Albimanus afyonza mkono wa binadamu. Mbu huyu ni vekta wa malaria na udhibiti wa mbu ni njia madhubuti sana ya kupunguza matukio ya malaria.]] Mbinu zinazotumiwa kuzuia kuenea kwa ugonjwa, au kulinda watu katika maeneo ambapo malaria imeenea ni pamoja na madawa ya kuzuia ugonjwa, kutokomeza mbu, na uzuiaji kung'atwa na mbu. Kuendelea kuwepo kwa malaria katika eneo kunahitaji; mseto wa idadi kubwa ya binadamu, idadi kubwa ya mbu katika eneo moja, na viwango vya juu vya maambukizi kutoka kwa binadamu hadi kwa mbu na kutoka kwa mbu hadi kwa binadamu. Ikiwa hali hizi zote zitapunguzwa kwa viwango vya kutosha, bila shaka kimelea cha malaria kitatoweka kutoka katika eneo hilo, kama ilivyotokea [[Amerika ya Kaskazini, Ulaya]] sehemu kubwa ya [[Mashariki ya Kati]]. Hata hivyo, vimelea visipotokomezwa kutoka dunia nzima, vinaweza kujisitawisha tena ikiwa hali itarejea kuwa inayofaa kuzaana kwao. Nchi nyingi zinashuhudia ongezeko la idadi ya maambukizi ya malaria kutokana na usafiri na uhamaji mwingi. Kwa sasa, hakuna [[kinga]] inayozuia malaria lakini utafiti unaendelea. Watafiti wengi wanasema kuwa kinga ya malaria inaweza kuwa nafuu zaidi kuliko tiba ya ugonjwa huo kwa muda mrefu, lakini mtaji unaohitajika ni wa juu sana kwa watu wengi maskini duniani. Mshauri wa kiuchumi [[Jeffrey Sachs]] anakadiria kwamba malaria inaweza kudhibitiwa kwa msaada wa dola za Amerika bilioni 3 kila mwaka. Imesemekana kuwa, ili kufikia [[Malengo ya Maendeleo ya Milenia]], pesa lazima zielekezwe kutoka katika juhudi za kutibu [[VVU]] / [[UKIMWI]] na kuelekezwa kuzuia malaria, ambayo kwa kiasi sawa cha fedha kutakuwa na manufaa makubwa kwa chumi za Afrika. Usambazaji wa ufadhili inatofautiana miongoni mwa mataifa. Nchi zenye idadi kubwa ya watu hazipokei kiasi sawa cha msaada. Nchi 34 zilizopokea msaada wa chini ya $ 1 kwa kila mtu kila mwaka ni baadhi ya mataifa maskini zaidi barani Afrika. [[Brazili]], [[Eritrea]], [[India]] na [[Vietnam]], tofauti na nchi nyingine zinazoendelea, zimefanikiwa kupunguza tatizo la malaria. Sababu zilizopelekea mafanikio katika mataifa hayo ni pamoja na mazingira mazuri ya nchi, mpangilio mahususi wa kiufundi unaotumia zana faafu kuwafikia walengwa, kufanya uamuzi kwa misingi ya utafiti, uongozi tendaji katika ngazi zote za serikali, kushirikisha jamii, ugatuzi wa utekelezaji na udhibiti wa fedha, wafanyikazi wa kiufundi na wa usimamizi wenye ujuzi katika ngazi ya taifa na nyanjani, kujishughulisha moja kwa moja kiufundi na kivitendo kwa mashirika wafadhili na fedha za kutosha na zinazopatikana kwa urahisi. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Barat L | title = Four malaria success stories: how malaria burden was successfully reduced in Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Vietnam | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–6 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16407339}}</ref> === Udhibiti Vekta === Juhudi za kukomesha malaria na kutokomeza mbu zimefanikiwa katika baadhi ya maeneo. Kitambo malaria ilikuwa ugonjwa wa kawaida [[Amerika]] na [[Ulaya kusini]] lakini juhudi za kudhibiti vekta, pamoja na matibabu na ufuatiliaji wa binadamu walioambukizwa, ulikomesha ugonjwa huo katika maeneo hayo. Katika baadhi ya maeneo, kukomesha mitiririsho kwenye maeneo chepechepe ambapo mbu huzaliana na kuimarisha usafi kuliwezesha hali hiyo. Malaria ilitokomezwa kutoka kaskazini mwa Marekani mapema katika karne ya 20 kwa mbinu kama hizo, na matumizi ya [[kiuadudu]] cha [[DDT]] yaliutokomeza kutoka Kusini kufikia mwaka wa 1951. <ref name="CDChistory"> http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/eradication_us.htm Centers for Disease Control. ''Eradication of Malaria in the United States (1947-1951)'' 2004.</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2002, kuliripotiwa matukio 1059 ya malaria nchini Amerika, ikiwa ni pamoja na vifo vinane, lakini kati ya hayo yote, matukio matano tu ya ugonjwa huo yaliambukizwa ndani ya Amerika. Kabla ya kuvumbuliwa kwa kiuadudu cha DDT,maeneo kadhaa ya kitropiki pia yalitokomeza au kudhibiti malaria kwa kuondoa au kusumisha maeneo ya mbu kuzaliana au maji ambamo lava huishi, kwa mfano kwa kumwaga au kujaza mafuta mahali maji yamesimama. Mbinu hizi hazijatumika vilivyo barani Afrika kwa zaidi ya nusu karne. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Killeen G, Fillinger U, Kiche I, Gouagna L, Knols B | title = Eradication of Anopheles gambiae from Brazil: lessons for malaria control in Africa? | journal = Lancet Infect Dis | volume = 2 | issue = 10 | pages = e192 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12383612 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(02)00397-3}}</ref> Katika [[miaka ya 1950]] na [[Miaka ya 1960|1960]] kulikuwa na juhudi kubwa za afya ya umma kutokomeza ugonjwa wa malaria duniani kwa kulenga maeneo ambako malaria ilikuwa imeenea. <ref>{{cite news | author=Gladwell, Malcolm.|date=2001-07-02 | title=The Mosquito Killer | url=http://www.gladwell.com/2001/2001_07_02_a_ddt.htm | publisher=The New Yorker}}</ref> Hata hivyo, juhudi hizi hazijafaulu kutokomeza malaria katika sehemu nyingi zinazoendelea duniani, tatizo hilo limeenea zaidi barani Afrika. [[Mbinu ya kutasisha mdudu]] inajitokeza kama mbinu ya kudhibiti mbu. Maendeleo kuelekea transijeni, au wadudu waliogeuzwa vinasaba, zinaonyesha kwamba mbu mwitu wanaweza kubadilishwa kuwa sugu kwa malaria. Watafiti katika [[Imperial College London]] walibuni mbu wa kwanza wa malaria ulimwenguni aliyegeuzwa vinasaba, <ref>Imperial College, London, [http://www.ic.ac.uk/templates/text_3.asp?P=1911 "Scientists create first transgenic malaria mosquito",] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ic.ac.uk/templates/text_3.asp?P=1911 |date=20060926003820 }} 2000/06/22.</ref> huku spishi wa kwanza sugu kwa Plasmodium akizinduliwa na watafiti kutoka [[Case Western Reserve University Ohio]] mwaka wa 2002. <ref name="ito2002">{{cite journal | author=Ito J, Ghosh A, Moreira LA, Wimmer EA, Jacobs-Lorena M | title=Transgenic anopheline mosquitoes impaired in transmission of a malaria parasite | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-05-23_417_6887/page/386 | journal=Nature | year=2002 | volume=417 | pages=387–8 | pmid=12024215 | doi = 10.1038/417452a | issue=6887}}</ref> Mafanikio ya kubadilisha kizazi cha sasa na kizazi kilicho na vinasaba vipya, yanategemea mfumo kadhaa, kama vile vipengele vinavyoweza kubadilishwa kuruhusu nadharia nyingine za [[jenetikia]] mbali na ya [[Mendel]]. Hata hivyo, mbinu hii ina matatizo mengi na mafanikio yako mbali mno. <ref> Knols et al., 2007</ref> Mbinu nyingine ya usoni zaidi ya kudhibiti vekta ni uwezekano wa kutumia [[mwanga]] wa [[leza]] kuua mbu wanaoruka. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123680870885500701.html |title=Rocket Scientists Shoot Down Mosquitoes With Lasers |publisher=WSJ.com |author=Robert Guth |accessdate=8 Julai 2009}}</ref>Pia inadaiwa kuwa harufu ya ndege wafugwao ikiwapo kuku huweza kuwafukuza wadudu warukao ikiwamo mbu wa malaria<ref>{{Citation|last=HANS|first=RAPHAEL|title=HARUFU YA KUKU HUFUKUZA MALARIA|url=https://afyazetu360.blogspot.com/2017/08/harufu-ya-kuku-hufukuza-malaria.html|work=A-Z 360|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-27|archive-date=2019-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714045326/http://afyazetu360.blogspot.com/2017/08/harufu-ya-kuku-hufukuza-malaria.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Madawa ya kuzuia === Madawa mengi ambayo hutumiwa kutibu malaria, yanaweza kutumika kuzuia. Kwa ujumla, dawa hizi hutumiwa kila siku au kila wiki, katika kipimo cha chini kuliko inavyofaa kutumiwa kutibabu mtu ambaye kweli ameambukizwa ugonjwa huo. Matumizi ya madawa ya kuzuia ni nadra kwa wakazi wa maeneo ambapo malaria imeenea, matumizi hayo kawaida huwa kwa wageni wa muda mfupi na wasafiri wanaotembelea maeneo ya malaria. Hii ni kutokana na gharama ya madawa hayo, [[athari]] mbaya kutokana na matumizi ya muda mrefu, na kwa sababu baadhi ya madawa madhubuti ya kupambana na malaria hayapatikani kwa rahisi nje ya mataifa tajiri. [[Kwinini]] ilianza kutumika kama dawa ya kuzuia malaria (profilaksis) katika karne ya 17. Kubuniwa kwa madawa mbadala fanisi zaidi kama vile [[kwinakrini]], [[klorokwini]] na [[primakwini]] katika [[karne ya 20]], kulipunguza kutegemewa kwa kwinini. Siku hizi, kwinini bado inatumiwa katika kutibu malaria sugu inayoambukizwa na ''Plasmodium falciparum'' pamoja na kutibu [[malaria ya ubongo]], lakini kwa kawaida haitumiki kama kizuia malaria. Madawa ya kisasa yanayotumiwa kuzuia ni pamoja na [[mefloqine]] ''(Lariam),'' [[doxycycline/0} (inapatikana kwa urahisi), na mchanganyiko wa atovaquone na proguanil hydrochloride ya {0{/0} (Malarone).|doxycycline/0} (inapatikana kwa urahisi), na mchanganyiko wa [[atovaquone]] na proguanil hydrochloride ya {0{/0} ''(Malarone).'' Chaguo la dawa gani litumike hutegemea vimelea vilivyo [[sugu]] katika eneo hilo, athari ya dawa hiyo na maswala mengine. Dawa ya prophylactic haianzi kufanya kazi mara moja baada ya kumezwa, kwa hivyo watu wanaopanga kutembelea maeneo ambapo malaria imeenea kawaida huanza kutumia dawa hiyo wiki moja au mbili kabla ya kutembelea sehemu hizo na ni lazima waendeleae kuzitumia kwa wiki 4 baada ya kuondoka (isipokuwa atovaquone proguanil inayohitaji kuanza kutumiwa siku 2 kabla ya kusafiri na kuendelea siku 7 baadaye ya kuondoka). Matumizi ya madawa ya kuzuia malaria katika maeneo ambapo mbu wanaoambukiza malaria wanapatikana yanaweza kufanya mwili kuwa sugu katika kupata malaria. <ref>[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/361/5/468 Roestenberg M, et al.] {{Wayback|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/361/5/468 |date=20090802093941 }}[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/361/5/468 ''Protection against a Malaria Challenge by Sporozoite Inoculation.'' ] {{Wayback|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/361/5/468 |date=20090802093941 }} New England J. Med. 361:468, 30 Julai 2009</ref> === Unyunyizaji majumbani === Unyunyizaji majumbani (IRS) ni hali ya kunyunyizia viuadudu kwenye kuta za ndani ya nyumba katika maeneo yaliyoathirika na malaria. Baada ya kufyonza, spishi nyingi za mbu hupumzika juu ya kitu kilicho karibu huku akimeng'enya mlo wake wa damu, kwa hivyo iwapo kuta za majumba zitanyunyuziwa viuadudu, mbu wanaopumzika huenda wakauawa kabla kumng'ata mhasiriwa mwingine, na kumhamishia vimelea vya malaria Kiuadudu cha kwanza kilichotumika katika unyunyizaji majumbani (IRS) kilikuwa [[DDT]]. <ref name="CDChistory"/> Ingawa awali kilitumika kupambana na malaria pekee, matumizi yake yalienea kwa haraka na kuingia katika [[kilimo]]. Baada ya muda, dawa ya DDT ilianza kutumika hasa kwa lengo la kudhibiti wadudu kuliko kama dawa ya kuzuia ugonjwa kuenea na kutokana na matumizi haya makubwa katika kilimo kulizuka mbu sugu katika maeneo mengi. Usugu wa mbu wa aina ya Anopheles dhidi ya DDT unaweza kufananishwa na usugu wa bakteria kwa viuavijasumu. Matumizi ya kupindukia ya sabuni za kuua bakteria na viuavijasumu dhidi ya bakteria yalisabisha usugu kwa bakteria kwa viuavijasumu, sawa na jinsi unyunyizaj wa DDT wa kupundukia kwa mimea ulipelekea usugu wa mbu wa Anopheles kwa DDT. Katika miaka ya 1960, uenezaji wa habari kuhusu madhara ya matumizi ya kiholela ya DDT uliongezeka, jambo ambalo lilipelekea matumizi ya DDT katika kilimo kupigwa marufuku katika nchi nyingi katika miaka ya 1970. Kwa kuwa matumizi ya DDT katika kilimo yamepungua au kupigwa marufuku kwa muda, DDT sasa inaweza kuwa njia ya kufaa kama hatua ya kudhibiti ugonjwa. Ingawa matumizi ya DDT kudhibiti malaria hayajawahi kupigwa marufuku na kwamba kuna viuadudu vingine vingi vinavyoweza kutumika kunyunyiza, baadhi ya wanaharakati wamedai kwamba marufuku haya yamesababisha vifo vya mamilioni ya watu katika nchi za kitropiki ambapo DDT iliwahi kuwa madhubuti katika kudhibiti malaria. Fauka ya hayo, matatizo mengi yanayokurubishwa na matumizi ya DDT yanatokana na matumizi yake kwa viwango pana katika kilimo, wala si matumizi yake katika [[afya ya umma]]. <ref name="pmid17111979">{{cite journal |author=Tia E, Akogbeto M, Koffi A, ''et al.'' |title=[Pyrethroid and DDT resistance of Anopheles gambiae s.s. (Diptera: Culicidae) in five agricultural ecosystems from Côte-d'Ivoire] |language=French |journal=Bulletin de la Société de pathologie exotique (1990) |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=278–82 |year=2006 |pmid=17111979 |doi=}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) kwa sasa linashauri matumizi ya aina 12 tofauti za viuadudu katika operesheni za kunyunyiza. Hizi ni pamoja na matumizi ya DDT na msururu wa vibadala (kama vile pyrethroids [[Permethrin]] na [[deltamethrin]]), ili kupambana na malaria katika maeneo ambapo mbu wamekuwa sugu kwa DDT ili kupunguza kasi ya mabadiliko kuelekea usugu. <ref>[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_HTM_MAL_2006.1112_eng.pdf Indoor Residual Spraying: Use of Indoor Residual Spraying for Scaling Up Global Malaria Control and Elimination.] {{Wayback|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_HTM_MAL_2006.1112_eng.pdf |date=20160122134004 }} Shirika la Afya Duniani, 2006.</ref> Matumizi haya ya viwango vidogo vya DDT katika afya ya umma yanaruhusiwa chini ya [[Mkataba wa Stolckholm wa Usimamizi wa Taka za Kemikali Zinazodumu katika Mazingira kwa Muda Mrefu]] (POPs), ambao unapiga marufuku matumizi ya DDT katika kilimo. <ref>[http://www.who.int/malaria/docs/10thingsonDDT.pdf 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention]</ref> Hata hivyo, kwa sababu ya [[historia]] yake, nchi nyingi zilizoendelea zimewekea vikwazo matumizi ya DDT hata kwa viwango vidogo. <ref>[http://www.pops.int/ The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants]</ref> <ref>{{cite news | last= Rosenberg | first= Tina |title= "What the world needs now is DDT" | publisher= New York Times |date= 2007-04-11 | url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9F0DEEDA1738F932A25757C0A9629C8B63 | accessdate= 2008-11-03}}</ref> Tatizo mojawapo la aina zote za unyunyizaji wa viuadudu majumbani ni [[usugu]] unaotokana na mabadiliko ya mbu. Kulingana na utafiti uliochapishwa kuhusu Mosquito Behavior and Vector Control, spishi wa mbu wanaoathiriwa na IRS ni wale wanaopumzika na kuishi majumbani (endophilic), kutokana na mwasho unasababishwa na dawa za kunyunyizia, vizazi vyao wanabadilika kuelekea spishi wanaopumzika na kuishi nje (exophilic), kumaanisha hawaathiriki - ikiwa wanaathirika kwa vyovyote - na IRS, na kufanya mbinu hii kuwa isiyofaa kwa kiasi fulani katika kujilinda. === Vyandarua vya mbu na matandiko === {{Main|Chandarua}} Vyandarua vya mbu husaidia kutenga watu na mbu na kupunguza maambukizi na usambazaji wa malaria kwa kiwango kikubwa. Vyandarua si vizuizi kamilifu na mara nyingi hutiwa kiuadudu kilichotengenezwa kuua mbu kabla apate muda wa kutafuta upenyu wa kuingia ndani ya chandarua. Vyandarua vilivyotiwa dawa (Insectcide-Treated-Neta;ITN) vinakadiriwa kuwa na ufanisi mara mbili zaidi ya vyandarua visivyotiwa dawa, <ref name="hull2006"/> na hutoa ulinzi zaidi ya 70% ikilinganishwa na kutotumia chandarua. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Bachou H, Tylleskär T, Kaddu-Mulindwa DH, Tumwine JK |title=Bacteraemia among severely malnourished children infected and uninfected with the human immunodeficiency virus-1 in Kampala, Uganda |journal=BMC Infect. Dis. |volume=6 |issue= |pages=160 |year=2006 |pmid=17090299 |pmc=1660577 |doi=10.1186/1471-2334-6-160 |url=}}</ref>. Ingawa vyandarua vilivyotiwa dawa, ITN vimedhibitishwa kuwa na ufanisi dhidi ya malaria, chini ya 2% ya watoto katika miji ya mataifa ya Afrika iliyo Kusini kwa Sahara wanalindwa na ITN. Kwa sababu mbu wa ''[[Anopheles]]'' hufyonza damu usiku, njia inayopendekezwa ni kuning'iniza neti katikati ya kitanda hivi kwamba inafunika kitanda chote. Usambazaji wa vyandarua vilivyotiwa viuadudu kama vile [[Pamethrin]] au deltamethrin umeonyesha kuwa ni mbinu madhubuti mno katika kuzuia malaria, na pia ni mojawapo ya mbinu yenye gharama nafuu zaidi. Vyandarua hivi vinaweza kupatikana kwa dola zipatazo 2,50-$ 3,50 (kati ya euro 2-3 ) kutoka kwa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]], Shirika la Afya Duniani (WHO) na mashirika mengine. Vyandarua vilivyotiwa dawa (ITN) vimedhibitishwa kuwa mbinu yenye gharama nafuu zaidi katika kuzuia malaria na ni sehemu ya Malengo ya Maendeleo ya Milenia (Millennium Development Goals;MDGs) za WHO. Kwa ufanisi zaidi, vyandarua lazima vitiwe viuadudu kila baada ya miezi sita. Mchakato huu hukumbwa na tatizo la ukosefu wa vifaa muhimu katika maeneo ya vijijini. Kuna teknolojia mpya kama Olyset au DawaPlus inayowezesha neti kudumu kwa muda mrefu(Long- Lasting Insecticide nets;LLIN),ambapo vyandarua hivyo hutoa viuadudu kwa takriban miaka 5, <ref>[http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2004-11/2004-11-23-voa30.cfm?CFID=15461499&amp;CFTOKEN=28007413 New Mosquito Nets Could Help Fight Malaria in Africa]</ref> na hugharimu takribani US $ 5.50. Vyandarua hivi huwalinda wanaovotumia na kuua mbu wanaogusa chandarua hicho. Watu wanaolala katika chumba kimoja na hawajajifunika kwa chandarua pia hupata ulinzi wa kiasi fulani. Huku usambazaji wa vyandarua vya mbu ukiwa sehemu muhimu ya mbinu za kuzuia malaria, uelimishaji na uhamasishaji wa jamii kuhusu hatari za ugonjwa wa malaria huambatanishwa na kampeni za usambazaji ili kuhakikisha kuwa watu wanaopokea vyandarua wanajua jinsi ya kuvitumia. Kampeni za "Hang Up" kama zinazofanywa na wanaojitolea kuhudumu na shirika la [[Kimataifa]] la [[Red Cross]] na la [[Red Crescent Movement]] hushirikisha kutembelea miji ambayo ilipokea vyandarua ifikapo mwisho wa kampeni au kabla tu ya msimu wa mvua kuhakikisha kwamba chandarua kinatumika vizuri na kwamba watu walio hatarini zaidi ya kuambukizwa, kama watoto wachanga na wazee, wanalala chini neti. Utafiti uliofanywa na [[CDC]] nchini [[Sierra Leone]] ulionyesha ongezeko la asilimia 22 katika utumiaji wa chandarua kufuatia kutembelewa kibinafsi na mtu wa kujitolea anayeishi katika jamii hiyo. Utafiti nchini [[Togo]] ulionyesha hali bora sawa na hukSierra Leoneo. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.ifrc.org/what/health/diseases/malaria/156800-Malaria-Report-EN-LR.pdf |title=International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (200) "The winning formula - World Malaria Day Report 2009" |accessdate=2009-11-19 |archivedate=2009-08-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090809050332/http://www.ifrc.org/what/health/diseases/malaria/156800-Malaria-Report-EN-LR.pdf }}</ref> Gharama ya kutibu malaria huwa juu ikilinganishwa na mapato ya mgonjwa,na basi ugonjwa huo husababisha hali ya mtu kupoteza riziki yake. Mara nyingi vyandarua huwa ghali kwa watu katika nchi zinazoendelea, hasa kwa wengi walio hatari ya kuambukizwa. Mtu 1 tu katiya watu 20 huwa na chandarua cha mbu barani Afrika. <ref name="hull2006"/> Vyandarua pia husambazwa wakati wa kampeni za kutoa chanjo kwa kutumia vocha za ruzuku, kama vile wakati wa kampeni za kuwachanja watoto dhidi ya [[surua]]. Utafiti uliofanywa miongoni mwa [[wakimbizi]] wa [[Afghanistani]] nchini [[Pakistan]] ulibainisha kuwa kutia dawa ya permethrin kwenye matandiko na [[buibui]] (pamoja na [[hijabu]]) huwa na athari sawa na hali ya kutumia chandarua kilichotiwa dawa, lakini bei yake ni nafuu. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Rowland M, Durrani N, Hewitt S, Mohammed N, Bouma M, Carneiro I, Rozendaal J, Schapira A | title = Permethrin-treated chaddars and top-sheets: appropriate technology for protection against malaria in Afghanistan and other complex emergencies | journal = Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | volume = 93 | issue = 5 | pages = 465–72 | year = 1999| pmid = 10696399 | doi = 10.1016/S0035-9203(99)90341-3}}</ref> Mbinu nyingine mbadala hutumia spora za kuvu [[Beauveria bassiana]] kunyunyizia kuta na vyandarua ili kuua mbu. Japo baadhi ya mbu wamekua sugu kwa kemikali, haijapatikana kuwa wamekuwa sugu kwa maambukizi ya kuvu. <ref name="bbcfungus">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4074212.stm "Fungus 'may help malaria fight'",] ''BBC News,'' 2005/06/09</ref> === Chanjo === {{main|Chanjo ya Malaria}} Kingamaradhi (au, kwa usahihi zaidi, kuhimili malaria) hutokea kawaida, lakini baada ya maambukizi yaliyorudiwarudiwa na aina nyingi za malaria. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Färnert A, Williams TN, Mwangi TW, ''et al.''|title=Transmission‐dependent tolerance to multiclonal ''Plasmodium falciparum'' infection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2009-10-01_200_7/page/n167|journal=J Infect Dis|year=2009|volume=200|issue=7|pages=1166–1175|doi=10.1086/605652|pmid=19702508|last1=Färnert|first1=A|last2=Williams|first2=TN|last3=Mwangi|first3=TW|last4=Ehlin|first4=A|last5=Fegan|first5=G|last6=Macharia|first6=A|last7=Lowe|first7=BS|last8=Montgomery|first8=SM|last9=Marsh|first9=K}}</ref> [[Chanjo]] ya malaria inaendelea kufanyiwa utafiti na, hakuna chanjo madhubuti iliyopatikana hadi sasa. Ufafiti wa kwanza ulioonyesha uwezekano wa kupatikana kwa chanjo ya malaria ulifanyika mwaka wa 1967 kwa kumchanja panya na [[spora hai zilizodhoofishwa kwa mnunurisho]], na ilitoa kinga kwa takriban 60% ya panya baadaye walipodungwa kwa spora hai zinazoweza kuambukiza. <ref name="Nussenzweig1967">{{cite journal |author=Nussenzweig R, Vanderberg J, Most H, Orton C |title=Protective immunity produced by the injection of x-irradiated sporozoites of plasmodium berghei |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1967-10-14_216_5111/page/n78 |journal=Nature |volume=216 |issue=5111 |pages=160–2 |year=1967 | pmid = 6057225 | doi = 10.1038/216160a0}}</ref> Tangu 1970, kumekuwa na juhudi za kubuni chanjo kwa binadamu kutumia mikakati sawa na hiyo. Ilibainishwa kwamba mtu anaweza kupata kinga dhidi ya maambukizo ya ''P. falciparum'' ikiwa atang'atwa zaidi ya mara 1,000 na mbu walioambukizwa, ambao pia wamenunurishwa. <ref name="Hoffman2002">{{cite journal |author=Hoffman SL, Goh LM, Luke TC, ''et al.'' |title=Protection of humans against malaria by immunization with radiation-attenuated Plasmodium falciparum sporozoites |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2002-04-15_185_8/page/n164 |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=185 |issue=8 |pages=1155–64 |year=2002 |pmid=11930326| doi = 10.1086/339409 |last12=Stoute |first12=JA |last13=Church |first13=LW |last14=Sedegah |first14=M |last15=Heppner |first15=DG |last16=Ballou |first16=WR |last17=Richie |first17=TL}}</ref> Imekubaliwa kwa ujumla kwamba ni vigumu kutumia mkakati kama huo kutoa chanjo kwa watu walio hatarini kuambukizwa. Badala yake, kazi nyingi zimefanywa kujaribu kuelewa michakato ya [[kiimyunolojia]] inayotoa kinga baada ya kuchanjwa kwa spora iliyonunurishwa. Baada ya utafiti wa chanjo kwa panya mwaka wa 1967, <ref name="Nussenzweig1967"/> ilichukuliwa kinadharia kwamba spora zilizodungwa zilikuwa zikitambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili, ambao kwa upande wake ulikuwa ukiunda [[mazindikomwili]] (antibodies) dhidi ya vimelea. Ilidhibitishwa kwamba mfumo wa kingamwili ulikuwa ukibuni mazindikomwili dhidi ya protini ya [[circumsporozoite]] (CSP) iliyokuwa imeizunguka spora. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Zavala F, Cochrane A, Nardin E, Nussenzweig R, Nussenzweig V |title=Circumsporozoite proteins of malaria parasites contain a single immunodominant region with two or more identical epitopes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-experimental-medicine_1983-06_157_6/page/1947 |journal=J Exp Med |volume=157 |issue=6 |pages=1947–57 |year=1983 | doi = 10.1084/jem.157.6.1947 |pmid=6189951 |unused_data=|i pmid = 6189951}}</ref> Aidha, mazindikomwili dhidi ya CSP yalizuia spora kuzivamia seli za ini (hepatocytes). <ref>{{cite journal |author=Hollingdale M, Nardin E, Tharavanij S, Schwartz A, Nussenzweig R |title=Inhibition of entry of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax sporozoites into cultured cells; an in vitro assay of protective antibodies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-immunology_1984-02_132_2/page/909 |journal=J Immunol |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=909–13 |year=1984 | pmid = 6317752}}</ref> Hivyo basi CSP ilichaguliwa kama protini iliyokuwa na uwezekano zaidi wa kubuni chanjo dhidi ya spora ya malaria. Ni kwa sababu hizi za kihistoria ambapo chanjo zilizo na msingi katika CSP ni nyingi miongoni mwa chanjo za malaria. Kwa sasa, kuna aina tofauti za chanjo zinazokaguliwa. Chanjo inayolenga vimelea kabla havijafikia damu (pre-erythrocytic), hasa chanjo ambazo misingi yake ni CSP, huchangia pakubwa la tafiti za chanjo ya malaria. Aina nyingine za tafiti za chanjo zinajumuisha: zile zinazotafuta kuweka kinga katika awamu ya kuambukizwa kwa damu; zinazotafuta kuepuka pathologia kali zaidi ya malaria kwa kuzuia kushikamana kwa vimelea katika [[mishipa]] ya damu au na [[chanjo dhidi ya uenezi]] utakaokomesha kukua kwa vimelea mwilini mwa mbu baada ya mbu kufyonza damu ya mtu aliyeambukizwa. <ref name="Matuschewski2006">{{cite journal |author=Matuschewski K |title=Vaccine development against malaria |journal=Curr Opin Immunol |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=449–57 |year=2006 | pmid = 16765576 | doi = 10.1016/j.coi.2006.05.004}}</ref> Inatarajiwa kwamba matokeo ya utafiti wa mpangilio wa [[jinomu]] ya ''P. falciparum'' uliomalizika mwaka wa 2002 <ref> http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v419/n6906/full/nature01097.html</ref>, yatatoa mwelekeo kuhusu dawa au chanjo mpya. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Gardner M, Hall N, Fung E, ''et al.'' | title = Genome sequence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum | journal = Nature | volume = 370 | issue = 6906 | pages = 1543 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12368864 | doi = 10.1038/nature01097 | last12 = James | first12 = K | last13 = Eisen | first13 = JA | last14 = Rutherford | first14 = K | last15 = Salzberg | first15 = SL | last16 = Craig | first16 = A | last17 = Kyes | first17 = S | last18 = Chan | first18 = MS | last19 = Nene | first19 = V | last20 = Shallom | first20 = SJ | last21 = Suh | first21 = B | last22 = Peterson | first22 = J | last23 = Angiuoli | first23 = S | last24 = Pertea | first24 = M | last25 = Allen | first25 = J | last26 = Selengut | first26 = J | last27 = Haft | first27 = D | last28 = Mather | first28 = MW | last29 = Vaidya | first29 = AB | last30 = Martin | first30 = DM | last31 = Fairlamb | first31 = AH | last32 = Fraunholz | first32 = MJ | last33 = Roos | first33 = DS | last34 = Ralph | first34 = SA | last35 = Mcfadden | first35 = GI | last36 = Cummings | first36 = LM | last37 = Subramanian | first37 = GM | last38 = Mungall | first38 = C | last39 = Venter | first39 = JC | last40 = Carucci | first40 = DJ | last41 = Hoffman | first41 = SL | last42 = Newbold | first42 = C | last43 = Davis | first43 = RW | last44 = Fraser | first44 = CM | last45 = Barrell | first45 = B}}</ref> Chanjo ya kwanza ambayo imebuniwa na kufanyiwa majaribio nyanjani, ni SPf66, iliyoandaliwa na [[Manuel Elkin Patarroyo]] mwaka 1987. Inatoa mchanganyiko wa mazindikomwili chanjo kutoka kwa spora (kutumia marudio ya CS) na vimelea vya merozoiti. Katika awamu ya kwanza ya majaribio umadhubuti wa 75% ulipatikana na chanjo ikaonekana kuhimiliwa vizuri na watafitiwa na ilikuwa na uwezo wa kuanzisha kingamwili. Awamu za IIb na III ya majaribio haikuridhisha sana, umadhubuti ulishuka kwa kiwango cha kati ya 38.8% na 60.2%. Jaribio lilifanyika Tanzania mwaka wa 1993 na kuonyesha umadhubuti wa 31% baada ya kufuatilia wahusika kwa mwaka, hata hivyo hivi karibuni (ingawa kuna utata) utafiti uliofanywa nchini Gambia haukuonyesha madhara yoyote. Licha ya muda mrefu na tafiti nyingi zilizofanywa, bado haijulikani jinsi chanjo ya SPf66 hutoa kinga; kwa hivyo inawezekana isiwe ufumbuzi wa tatizo la malaria. CSP ndiyo chanjo nyingine iliyobuniwa na ilionekana kuwa ingepitia majaribio. Pia msingi wake ni protini inayozunguka spora (circumsporoziote), lakini zaidi ya hivyo imeunganika na protini (Asn-Ala-Pro15Asn-Val-ASP-Pro) 2-Leu-arg (R32LR) kwa kufungamanisha elekroni pamoja na ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' tovin(A9) iliyosafishwa. Hata hivyo katika hatua za awali ukosefu kamili wa kinga kwa waliochanjwa ulidhihirika miongoni mwa waliochanjwa. Kundi la watafitiwa lililopewa dawa ya majaribio nchini Kenya lilikuwa na kiwango cha matukio ya maambukizi cha 82% huku kundi ambalo halikupewa chanjo likiwa na kiwango cha maambukizi cha 89%. Chanjo hiyo ililenga kuongeza seli za limfosayti T kwa waliochanjwa, hali ambayo haikutokea. Umadhubuti wa chanjo ya Patarroyo umetiliwa shaka huku baadhi ya wanasayansi wa Marekani wakiandika katika [[The Lancet]] (1997) kwamba "chanjo hiyo si madhubuti na ni lazima itupiliwe mbali" huku raia huyo wa [[Kolombia]] akiwatuhumu kuwa na "kiburi" na kupuuzilia mbali madai yao na kuongeza kuwa wanafanya hivyo kwa sababu yeye anatoka katika taifa linaloendelea. RTS, S/AS02A ni chanjo ambayo imebuniwa kwa ubia kati ya Mchakato wa PATH wa kutafuta Chanjo ya Malaria (PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative) (unaofadhiliwa na Wakfu wa Gates, kampuni ya GlaxoSmithKline, na Walter Reed Army Institute of Research <ref>{{cite journal |author=Heppner DG, Kester KE, Ockenhouse CF, ''et al.'' |title=Towards an RTS,S-based, multi-stage, multi-antigen vaccine against falciparum malaria: progress at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research |journal=Vaccine |volume=23 |issue=17-18 |pages=2243–50 |year=2005 |pmid=15755604 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.01.142 |last12=Angov |first12=E |last13=Cummings |first13=JF |last14=Leach |first14=A |last15=Hall |first15=BT |last16=Dutta |first16=S |last17=Schwenk |first17=R |last18=Hillier |first18=C |last19=Barbosa |first19=A |last20=Ware |first20=LA |last21=Nair |first21=L |last22=Darko |first22=CA |last23=Withers |first23=MR |last24=Ogutu |first24=B |last25=Polhemus |first25=ME |last26=Fukuda |first26=M |last27=Pichyangkul |first27=S |last28=Gettyacamin |first28=M |last29=Diggs |first29=C |last30=Soisson |first30=L |last31=Milman |first31=J |last32=Dubois |first32=MC |last33=Garçon |first33=N |last34=Tucker |first34=K |last35=Wittes |first35=J |last36=Plowe |first36=CV |last37=Thera |first37=MA |last38=Duombo |first38=OK |last39=Pau |first39=MG |last40=Goudsmit |first40=J |last41=Ballou |first41=WR |last42=Cohen |first42=J}}</ref> Katika chanjo hiyo, sehemu ya CSP imeunganishwa na "S [[antigen]]" ya [[Virusi vya homa ya manjano B]]; {0 protini hii ya {0} mseto hudungwa pamoja na [[ajuvanti]] AS02A. <ref name="Matuschewski2006"/> Mnamo Oktoba 2004, watafiti wa RTS, S/AS02A walitangaza matokeo ya [[Awamu ya majaribio ya IIb]], iliyoonyesha chanjo hiyo ilipunguza hatari ya maambukizi kwa takribani 30% na ukali wa maambukizi kwa zaidi ya 50%. Utafiti huo uliwahusisha zaidi ya watoto 2,000 wa [[Msumbiji]]. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Alonso PL, Sacarlal J, Aponte JJ, ''et al.'' |title=Efficacy of the RTS,S/AS02A vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum infection and disease in young African children: randomised controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=364 |issue=9443 |pages=1411–20 |year=2004 |pmid=15488216 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17223-1 |last12=Aide |first12=P |last13=Ofori-Anyinam |first13=O |last14=Navia |first14=MM |last15=Corachan |first15=S |last16=Ceuppens |first16=M |last17=Dubois |first17=MC |last18=Demoitié |first18=MA |last19=Dubovsky |first19=F |last20=Menéndez |first20=C |last21=Tornieporth |first21=N |last22=Ballou |first22=WR |last23=Thompson |first23=R |last24=Cohen |first24=J}}</ref> Majaribio yaliyofuata ya chanjo ya RTS, S/AS02A yalilenga usalama na umadhubuti wa kutoa chanjo hiyo kwa watoto. Katika mwezi wa Oktoba 2007, watafiti walitangaza matokeo ya [[awamu ya majaribio ya I / IIb]] yaliofanywa kwa watoto 214 wa Msumbiji wa kati ya umri wa miezi 10 na miezi 18 ambao walipokea vipimo kamili vitatu vya chanjo iliyopunguza maambukizi kwa 62% bila madhara makubwa isipokuwa tu uchungu wa kudungwa sindano. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Aponte JJ, Aide P, Renom M, ''et al.'' |title=Safety of the RTS,S/AS02D candidate malaria vaccine in infants living in a highly endemic area of Mozambique: a double blind randomised controlled phase I/IIb trial |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9598 |pages=1543–51 |year=2007 |month=Novemba |pmid=17949807 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61542-6 |url= |last12=Vekemans |first12=J |last13=Sigauque |first13=B |last14=Dubois |first14=MC |last15=Demoitié |first15=MA |last16=Sillman |first16=M |last17=Savarese |first17=B |last18=Mcneil |first18=JG |last19=Macete |first19=E |last20=Ballou |first20=WR |last21=Cohen |first21=J |last22=Alonso |first22=PL}}</ref> === Njia nyinginezo === Elimu kuhusu utambuaji dalili za malaria umepunguza idadi ya maambukizi katika baadhi ya maeneo ya nchi zinazoendelea kwa hadi kiasi cha 20%. Kutambua ugonjwa huo katika hatua za mapema pia kunaweza kuondoa hatari ya ungonjwa huo. Elimu pia inaweza kuwafundisha watu kufunika maeneo ambapo maji yamesimama, kwa mfano tangi ya maji ambayo ni sehemu bora ya kuzaliana kwa vimelea na mbu, hivyo kupunguza hatari ya maambukizi kwa watu. Hii hasa hutekelezwa katika maeneo ya miji ambako kuna sehemu kubwa zilizo na idadi ya watu wengi wanaoishi pamoja, kuna uwezekano wa maambukizi kutokea katika maeneo hayo. [[Mradi]] wa [[Kudhibiti Malaria]] sasa unatumia muda ambapo watu hujitolea kote duniani wanapokuwa hawafanyi kazi (tazama [[Volunteer computing]] and [[BOINC]]) ili kujaribu modeli za madhara ya kiafya na mienendo ya maambukizi ili kupata njia bora au mchanganyiko wa mbinu kudhibiti malaria. Mbinu hii ya kuchanganua modeli hutegemea utumizi mpana wa kompyuta kwa sababu ya idadi kubwa ya watu kutoka sehemu mbalimbali walio na vigezo anuwai vya kibayolojia na sababu za kijamii zinazoathiri kuenea kwa ugonjwa. Inatarajiwa kuwa itachukua miezi michache kutumia nguvu za waliojitolea wanaotumia kompyuta ikilinganishwa na miaka 40 ambayo ingechukua kutumia rasilimali walizonazo sasa wanasayasi waliobuni mpango huo. <ref>{{cite web | title=What is Malariacontrol.net | publisher=AFRICA@home | url=http://africa-at-home.web.cern.ch/africa%2Dat%2Dhome/malariacontrol.html | accessdate=2007-03-11 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315221605/http://africa-at-home.web.cern.ch/africa-at-home/malariacontrol.html | archivedate=2007-03-15 }}</ref> Mfano wa umuhimu wa modeli za kompyuta katika kupangilia michakato ya [[kutokomeza]] ugonjwa wa malaria ni ulio katika chapisho la Aguas na wengine. Walibainisha kuwa kutokomeza malaria kunategemea sana kupata na kutibu idadi kubwa ya watu katika maeneo ambapo malaria imeenea na malaria isiyoonyesha dalili za ugonjwa (asymptomatic), ambayo huwa kama hifadhi ya maambukizi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Águas R, White LJ, Snow RW, Gomes MG |title=Prospects for malaria eradication in sub-Saharan Africa |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=e1767 |year=2008 |pmid=18335042 |pmc=2262141 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001767 |url=}}</ref> Vimelea vya malaria haviathiri wanyama na hivyo kutokomeza ugonjwa huo kutoka kwa binadamu kunatarajiwa kufanikiwa . Hatua nyingine kwa ajili ya kudhibiti ugonjwa wa malaria ni pamoja na kutoa dawa kwa waathiriwa wengi na [[kinga]] ya muda. == Tiba == Maambukizi ya ''P. falciparum'' hai ni hali ya [[dharura]] ya kiafya inayomhitaji muathiriwa [[kulazwa hospitalini]]. Maambukizi ya ''P. vivax, P. ovale'' au ''P. malariae'' mara nyingi huweza kutibiwa huku mgonjwa akiruhusiwa kurudi nyumbani. Matibabu ya malaria hujumlisha utoaji wa huduma za kiusaidizi pamoja na madawa maalum ya malaria. Mgonjwa wa malaria akitibiwa vizuri, anaweza kupata afueni kamili. <ref>[156] ^ [http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/faq.htm#treatment If I get malaria, will I have it for the rest of my life?] uchapishaji la CDC, Ilitumika 14 Novemba 2006</ref> === Madawa ya malaria === {{main|Dawa za malaria}} Kuna aina kadhaa ya madawa yanayotumika kutibu malaria. {0Aina ya Chloroquine{/0} ina bei nafuu sana, hadi hivi majuzi, ilikuwa madhubuti sana, jambo lililoifanya kuwa dawa ya malaria iliyopendelewa na wengi kwa miaka mingi katika sehemu nyingi za dunia. Hata hivyo, usugu wa ''Plasmodium falciparum'' kwa dawa ya Chloroquine kumeenea hivi karibuni kutoka Asia hadi Afrika, na kuifanya isiweze kutibu aina nyingi za Plasmodium hatari katika maeneo mengi ya dunia yaliyoathirika. {1/ Katika maeneo ambapo klorokwini bado ni madhubuti kuponyesha inabakia kuwa chaguzi ya kwanza. Kwa bahati mbaya, usugu dhidi ya chloroquine unahusishwa na usugu kwa madawa mengine kama [[quinine]] na [[amodaquine.]] <ref>{{cite journal | author=Tinto H, Rwagacondo C, Karema C, ''et al.'' | title=In-vitro susceptibility of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' to monodesethylamodiaquine, dihydroartemsinin and quinine in an area of high chloroquine resistance in Rwanda | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | volume=100 | issue=6 | pages=509–14 | doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.09.018 | year=2006 | pmid=16337665 | last1=Tinto | first1=H | last2=Rwagacondo | first2=C | last3=Karema | first3=C | last4=Mupfasoni | first4=D | last5=Vandoren | first5=W | last6=Rusanganwa | first6=E | last7=Erhart | first7=A | last8=Van Overmeir | first8=C | last9=Van Marck | first9=E }}</ref> Kuna dutu nyingine kadhaa zinatumiwa kutibu, na kwa kiasi, kuzuia [[(Prophylaxis).]] Madawa mengi yanaweza kutumiwa kwa madhumuni hayo mawili; dozi kubwa hutumiwa kutibu malaria. Kutolewa kwao kunategemea sana marudio ya matukio ya vimelea kuwa sugu katika eneo ambapo dawa inatumika. Dawa moja inayochunguzwa kwa madhumuni ya kutumiwa kama dawa ya malaria, hasa kutibu vimelea sugu ni [[beta blocker propranolol]]. Propranolol imepatikana kuwa na uwezo wa kuzuia Plasmodium kuingia katika chembechembe nyekundu za damu na kuanzisha maambukizi, vilevile huzuia vimelea kuzaana. Utafiti wa Desemba 2006 uliofanywa na [[Chuo Kikuu cha Northwestern]] ulipendekeza kuwa propranolol inaweza kupunguza dozi za dawa zinazotumika sasa kuwa na udhibiti mkuu dhidi ya P. falciparum kwa kiwango cha 5 - hadi 10, na kupendekeza jukumu la dawa mchanganyiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Murphy S, Harrison T, Hamm H, Lomasney J, Mohandas N, Haldar K |title=Erythrocyte G protein as a novel target for malarial chemotherapy |journal=PLoS Med |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=e528 |year=2006 | month=Desemba | pmid=17194200 | doi= 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030528}}</ref> Madawa ya malaria yanayopatikana kwa sasa ni pamoja na: <ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malariadrugs.htm Prescription drugs for malaria] Ilipatikana 27 Februari 2007.</ref> * [[Artemether]] - [[lumefantrine]] (Kutibu tu, majina ya kibiashara ni ''[[Coartem]]'' na ''Riamet)'' * [[Artesunate]] - [[amodiaquine]] (Kutibu tu) * [[Artesunate]] - [[mefloquine]] (Kutibu tu) * [[Artesunate]] - [[Sulfadoxine]] / [[pyrimethamine]] (Kutibu tu) * [[Atovaquone]] - [[proguanil]], jina la kibiashara [[Malarone]] (Kutibu na kuzuia) * [[Quinine]] (Kutibu tu) * [[Chloroquine]] (Kutibu na kukinga; manufaa sasa yamepunguzwa kutokana na usugu) * [[Cotrifazid]] (Kutibu na kuzuia) * [[Doxycycline]] (Kutibu na kuzuia) * [[Mefloquine]], jina la kibiashara Lariam (Kutibu na kuzuia) * [[Primaquine]] (Tiba kwa ''P. vivax'' na ''P. ovale'' tu, si ya kuzuia) * [[Proguanil]] (Kuzuia tu) * [[Sulfadoxine]] - [[pyrimethamine]] (Kutibu; hutumika kuzuia kwa wanawake wajawazito walio na nusu-kinga katika nchi ambazo ugonjwa umeenea huitwa "Intermittent Preventive Treatment" - IPT) * [[Hydroxychloroquine]], jina la kibiashara Plaquenil (Kutibu na kuzuia) Utengenezaji wa madawa uliwezeshwa na kufanikiwa kwa [[ukuzaji]] wa vimelea vya ''Plasmodium falciparum''. <ref name="Trager1976">{{cite journal | author= Trager W, Jensen JB | title=Human malaria parasites in continuous culture | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1976-08-20_193_4254/page/n53 | journal=Science| year=1976| volume=193 |issue=4254| pages=673–5 | pmid=781840| doi=10.1126/science.781840}}</ref> Hii ilifanikisha kujaribiwa kwa madawa mapya maabarani. Dutu kutoka katika mmea ''[[Artemisia annua]],'' ulio na msombo wa [[artemisinin]] au vizalika sanisi vyake (dutu isiyohusiana na kwinini), hutoa umadhubuti wa zaidi ya 90%, lakini kutolewa kwao hakutimizi mahitaji. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Senior K | title = Shortfall in front-line antimalarial drug likely in 2005 | journal = Lancet Infect Dis | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 75 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15702504}}</ref> Utafiti mmoja nchini [[Rwanda]] ulionyesha kuwa watoto waliokuwa na maambukizi yasiyo kali ya P. falciparum walionyesha dalili na ishara chache za kuwa na vimelea katika siku ya 28 ya baada ya matibabu wakati walipopewa mchanganyiko wa amodiaquine na [[artesunate]], badala ya kutolewa pekee (AU = 0.34). Hata hivyo, kuongezeka kwa usugu dhidi ya amodiaquine katika kipindi hiki cha utafiti pia ulibainisha. <ref> {{cite journal |author=Rwagacondo C, Karema C, Mugisha V, Erhart A, Dujardin J, Van Overmeir C, Ringwald P, D'Alessandro U |title=Is amodiaquine failing in Rwanda? Efficacy of amodiaquine alone and combined with artesunate in children with uncomplicated malaria |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tropical-medicine-and-international-health_2004-10_9_10/page/1091 |journal=Trop Med Int Health |volume=9 |issue=10 |pages=1091–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15482401 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01316.x}}</ref> Kuanzia mwaka wa 2001, [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] limependekeza kutumiwa kwa dawa mseto ya [[artemisinin]] combination therapy (ACT) kama tiba ya kwanza kwa malaria isiyo kali katika maeneo ambapo kuna usugu kwa madawa ya awali. Hivi karibuni WHO imetoa [http://www.who.int/malaria/docs/TreatmentGuidelines2006.pdf miongozo ya tiba ya malaria] inayopendekeza aina nne tofauti za ACT. Ijapokuwa nchi nyingi, zikiwa ni pamoja na mataifa mengi ya Afrika, zimejumuisha mabadiliko hayo katika sera zao rasmi kuhusu matibabu ya malaria, gharama kubwa bado ni kikwazo katika utekelezaji wa ACT. Kwa sababu ACT hugharamu hadi mara ishirini ya dawa za zamani, zimebakia ghali kwa nchi nyingi ambako maleria imeenea. Kuna utata kuhusu sehemu ambayo artemisisn hulenga, ingawa tafiti za hivi karibuni zinadokeza kwamba [[SERCA]], aina ya kalsiamu ambayo huelekezwa katika [[endoplasmic reticulum]] inaweza kuhusishwa na usugu wa artemisinin. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Eckstein-Ludwig U, Webb R, Van Goethem I, East J, Lee A, Kimura M, O'Neill P, Bray P, Ward S, Krishna S | title = Artemisinins target the SERCA of Plasmodium falciparum | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2003-08-21_424_6951/page/n115 | journal = Nature | volume = 424 | issue = 6951 | pages = 957–61 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12931192 | doi = 10.1038/nature01813}}</ref> Vimelea vya malaria vinaweza kuwa sugu dhidi ya artemisinin na usugu unaweza kuletwa na mgeuko palepale wa SERCA. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Uhlemann A, Cameron A, Eckstein-Ludwig U, Fischbarg J, Iserovich P, Zuniga F, East M, Lee A, Brady L, Haynes R, Krishna S | title = A single amino acid residue may determine the sensitivity of SER`CAs to artemisinins | journal = Nat Struct Mol Biol | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 628–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15937493 | doi = 10.1038/nsmb947}}</ref> Hata hivyo, tafiti nyingine zinadokeza kuwa mitokondria ndiyo inayolengwa sana na artemisinin na analogi zake. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Li W, Mo W, Shen D, Sun L, Wang J, Lu S, Gitschier J, Zhou B | title = Yeast model uncovers dual roles of mitochondria in action of artemisinin | journal = PLoS Genet | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = e36 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16170412 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.0010036}}</ref> Ingawa kuna dawa madhubuti za malaria, ugonjwa huo unaendelea kuwa tishio kwa watu wanaoishi katika maeneo ambapo umeenea na wasioweza kupata dawa hizo madhubuti vyema mapema. Upatikanaji wa madawa na vituo vya afya, pamoja na gharama ya madawa, ni pingamizi kubwa. [[Médecins Sans Frontières]] inakadiria kwamba gharama ya kutibu mtu aliyeambukizwa malaria katika nchi ambapo ugonjwa huo umeenea ilikuwa kati ya $ 0.25 na 2.40 $ kwa kila dozi katika mwaka 2002. Karibu watu milioni moja hufa kila mwaka kwa sababu ya kutoweza kununua dawa sahihi za malaria. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20091102/hl_nm/us_malaria_drugs_1 |title=Millions die because of high malaria drug prices - Yahoo! News |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> === Madawa ghushi === Madawa ghushi [[changamano]] yamepatikana katika nchi kadhaa za Asia kama vile [[Kambodia]], <ref>{{cite journal | author=Lon CT, Tsuyuoka R, Phanouvong S, ''et al.'' | title=Counterfeit and substandard antimalarial drugs in Cambodia | year=2006 | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | volume=100 | issue=11 | pages=1019–24 | doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.01.003 | pmid=16765399 }}</ref> [[Uchina]], <ref>{{cite web | author=U. S. Pharmacopeia | title=Fake antimalarials found in Yunan province, China | url=http://www.uspdqi.org/pubs/other/FakeAntimalarialsinChina.pdf | accessdate=2006-10-06 | year=2004 | format=PDF | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909112739/http://www.uspdqi.org/pubs/other/FakeAntimalarialsinChina.pdf | archivedate=2006-09-09 }}</ref> [[Indonesia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]] na yametuhumiwa kusababisha vifo vingi ambavyo vingeepukwa katika nchi hizo. {3/ [[WHO]] imesema kwamba tafiti zimeonyesha kuwa hadi 40% ya madawa ya malaria yaliyo na msingi wa [[artesunate]] ni bandia, hasa katika kanda ya Greater [[Mekong]] na kuanzisha mpango wa kutoa onyo haraka kupitia habari kuhusu madawa ghushi kuripotiwa kwa kasi kwa mamlaka husika katika nchi shiriki. <ref>{{cite web | author=Jane Parry | title=WHO combats counterfeit malaria drugs in Asia | url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/330/7499/1044-d | accessdate=2008-07-19 | year=2005}}</ref> Hakuna njia ya kuaminika kwa madaktari au watu wa kawaida kugundua dawa bandia bila msaada wa maabara. Makampuni yanajaribu kukabiliana na kuendelea kuwepo kwa dawa ghushi kwa kutumia teknolojia mpya kutoa usalama kutoka uzalishaji hadi usambazaji. == Uenezi == {{main|Maradhi ya ufukara|Maradhi ya tropiki}} [[File:Malaria world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|Vifo kutokana na malaria mwaka 2012 (asilimilioni){{refbegin|3}}{{legend|#ffff20|0-0}}{{legend|#ffa020|1-2}}{{legend|#ff9a20|3-54}}{{legend|#f08015|55-325}}{{legend|#e06815|326-679}}{{legend|#d85010|680-949}}{{legend|#d02010|950-1,358}}{{refend}}]] Malaria husababisha karibu visa milioni 250 vya homa na takriban vifo nusu milioni kila mwaka. <ref name="wmr08"> WHO 2005 [http://www.who.int/malaria/mediacentre/wmr2008/ World Malaria Report 2008]</ref> Idadi kubwa ya visa hutokea kwa watoto chini ya umri wa miaka 5; <ref name="greenwood2005">{{cite journal | author=Greenwood BM, Bojang K, Whitty CJ, Targett GA | title=Malaria | journal=Lancet | year=2005 | volume=365 | pages=1487–1498 | pmid = 15850634 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3 | issue=9469}}</ref> wanawake wajawazito hasa pia huwa hatarini. Licha ya jitihada za kupunguza maambukizi na kuongeza matibabu, kumekuwa na mabadiliko madogo katika maeneo ambapo hatari ya ungojwa huu upo tangu mwaka 1992. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Hay S, Guerra C, Tatem A, Noor A, Snow R | title = The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past, present, and future | journal = Lancet Infect Dis | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | pages = 327–36 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15172341 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01043-6}}</ref> Kwa hakika, ikiwa maambukizi ya malaria yataendelea kuongezeka kama ilivyo sasa, kiwango cha vifo kinaweza kuongezeka mara mbili katika miaka ishirini ijayo. <ref name="Breman"/> Takwimu sahihi hazijulikani kwa sababu kesi nyingi hutokea katika maeneo ya vijijini ambako watu hawana huduma za hospitali au pesa za kuwawezesha kupata huduma za afya. Kwa sababu hiyo, visa vingi havijarekodiwa.. <ref name="Breman">{{cite journal | author = Breman J | title = The ears of the hippopotamus: manifestations, determinants, and estimates of the malaria burden | url = http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/1_suppl/1 | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | date = 1 Januari 2001 | volume = 64 | issue = 1-2 Suppl | pages = 1–11 | pmid = 11425172 | month = Jan | day = 01 | access-date = 2009-11-19 | archive-date = 2010-07-08 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100708013818/http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/abstract/64/1_suppl/1 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> Ingawa maambukizi ya pamoja ya VVU na malaria husababisha ongezeko la vifo, hili si tatizo kuu likilinganishwa na maambukizi ya pamoja ya VVU/[[kifua kikuu]], kwa sababu magonjwa hayo mawili huathiri rika mbili tofauti, huku malaria ikiwa imeenea miongoni mwa watoto ,kifua kikuu kimeenea miongoni mwa watu wazima. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Korenromp E, Williams B, de Vlas S, Gouws E, Gilks C, Ghys P, Nahlen B | title = Malaria attributable to the HIV-1 epidemic, sub-Saharan Africa | url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no09/05-0337.htm | journal = Emerg Infect Dis | volume = 11 | issue = 9 | pages = 1410–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16229771}}</ref> Ingawa maambukizi ya pamoja ya VVU/malaria huleta dalili zisizo kali zaidi zikilinganishwa na maambukizi ya pamoja ya VVU na TB, VVU na malaria huchangia kuenea kwa kila mmojawapo. Athari hii hutokana na malaria kuongeza [[wingi]] wa [[virusi]] mwilini huku VVU ikiongeza uwezekano wa mtu kuambukizwa malaria. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Abu-Raddad L, Patnaik P, Kublin J |title=Dual infection with HIV and malaria fuels the spread of both diseases in sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-12-08_314_5805/page/1602 |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5805 |pages=1603–6 |year=2006 | pmid = 17158329 | doi = 10.1126/science.1132338}}</ref> Kwa sasa malaria imeenea katika ukanda wote wa [[ikweta]], katika maeneo ya [[Amerika]], sehemu nyingi za [[Asia]], na sehemu kubwa ya [[Afrika]], hata hivyo, ni katika mataifa ya Afrika kusini kwa Sahara ambapo 90% ya vifo vya malaria hutokea. <ref>{{cite web | author = Layne SP | title = Principles of Infectious Disease Epidemiology / | work = EPI 220 | publisher = UCLA Department of Epidemiology | url = http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/layne/Epidemiology+220/07.malaria.pdf | accessdate = 2007-06-15 | format = PDF | archivedate = 2006-02-20 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060220083223/http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/layne/Epidemiology+220/07.malaria.pdf }}</ref> Usambaaji kijiografia wa malaria ndani ya maeneo makubwa ni changamano, maeneo yaliyo na malaria na yasiyo na malaria aghalabu hupakana.<ref name="greenwood2002">{{cite journal | author=Greenwood B, Mutabingwa T | title=Malaria in 2002 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-02-07_415_6872/page/n138 | journal=Nature | year=2002 | volume=415 | pages=670–2 | pmid = 11832954 | doi = 10.1038/415670a | issue=6872}}</ref> Katika maeneo kame, mikurupuko ya malaria inaweza kutabiriwa kwa kiasi cha usahihi kwa kutazama ramani ya mvua. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Grover-Kopec E, Kawano M, Klaver R, Blumenthal B, Ceccato P, Connor S | title = An online operational rainfall-monitoring resource for epidemic malaria early warning systems in Africa | url= | journal = Malar J | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 6 | year = 2005 | pmc = 548290 | pmid = 15663795 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2875-4-6}}</ref> Malaria imeenea zaidi katika maeneo ya vijijini kuliko miji; hii ni tofauti na [[homa ya kidingapopo]] ambayo inaenea zaidi katika mijini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Van Benthem B, Vanwambeke S, Khantikul N, Burghoorn-Maas C, Panart K, Oskam L, Lambin E, Somboon P |title=Spatial patterns of and risk factors for seropositivity for dengue infection | url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/72/2/201 |journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=201–8 |date= 1 Februari 2005 | pmid = 15741558 |month=Feb |day=01 }}</ref> Kwa mfano, miji ya [[Vietnam, Laos]] na [[Kambodia]] kimsingi haina malaria, lakini ugonjwa huo upo katika maeneo mengi vijijini. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Trung H, Van Bortel W, Sochantha T, Keokenchanh K, Quang N, Cong L, Coosemans M |title=Malaria transmission and major malaria vectors in different geographical areas of Southeast Asia |journal=Trop Med Int Health |volume=9 |issue=2 | pages = e473 |year=2004 | pmid = 15040560 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01179.x}}</ref> Tofauti na hivyo,katika Afrika malaria ipo katika maeneo ya mijini na vijijini, ingawa hatari yake ni ndogo katika miji. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Keiser J, Utzinger J, Caldas de Castro M, Smith T, Tanner M, Singer B |title=Urbanization in sub-saharan Africa and implication for malaria control | url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/71/2_suppl/118 |journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg |volume=71 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=118–27 |date= 1 Agosti 2004 |pmid=15331827 |month=Aug |day=01 }}</ref> [[Uenezi]] wa malaria duniani haujakadiriwa tangu miaka ya 1960. Hata hivyo, wakfu wa [[Wellcome Trust]], ya Uingereza, umefadhili mradi wa[[Malaria Atlas Project]] <ref>{{cite journal | author = Hay SI, Snow RW | title = The Malaria Atlas Project: Developing Global Maps of Malaria Risk | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030473 | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 12 | pages = e473 | year = 2006 |pmid=17147467 |pmc=1762059 }}</ref> kurekebisha hili, inatoa njia ya kisasa na imara zaidi ya kutathmini [[]]madhara/0} ya ugonjwa wa malaria sasa na baadaye . == Historia == {{main|Historia ya malaria}} Malaria imewaambukiza binadamu kwa zaidi ya miaka 50,000, na ''Plasmodium'' huenda imekuwa [[kijasumu]] kwa binadamu tangu spishi hiyo ilipoanza kuishi. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Joy D, Feng X, Mu J, ''et al.'' | title = Early origin and recent expansion of Plasmodium falciparum | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-04-11_300_5617/page/n126 | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5617 | pages = 318–21 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12690197 | doi = 10.1126/science.1081449 | last12 = Su | first12 = XZ}}</ref> Vimelea vinavyohusiana kwa karibu na vimelea vya malaria kwa binadamu vinapatikana miongoni mwa sokwe kwa wingi. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Escalante A, Freeland D, Collins W, Lal A | title = The evolution of primate malaria parasites based on the gene encoding cytochrome b from the linear mitochondrial genome | doi= 10.1073/pnas.95.14.8124 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci USA | volume = 95 | issue = 14 | pages = 8124–9 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9653151}}</ref> Maelezo kuhusu homa za kipekee za malaria yamenakiliwa katika maandiko ya kihistoria, kuanzia mwaka 2700 KK huko Uchina. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Cox F | title = History of human parasitology | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-microbiology-reviews_2002-10_15_4/page/595| pmc = 126866 | journal = Clin Microbiol Rev | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 595–612 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12364371 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.15.4.595-612.2002}}</ref> Neno malaria lina usuli wake katika[[Kiitaliano cha enzi ya kati:]] ''mala aria'' - [["hewa mbaya";]] ugonjwa huo zamani uliitwa ''ague'' au ''Marsh fever'' kutokana na ukuruba wake na mabwawa na maeneo ya kinamasi. <ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol6no1/reiter.htm From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age.] Paul Reiter. ''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, San Juan, Puerto Rico.'' </ref> Kuna nyakati ambapo visa vya malaria vilikuwa vingi [[Ulaya]] na [[Amerika Kaskazini]], ambako sasa ugongwa huo [[haujaenea]] <ref>[http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780511254819&amp;ss=exc Vector- and Rodent-Borne Diseases in Europe and North America.] Norman G. Gratz. ''World Health Organisation, Geneva.'' </ref> ingawa unaweza kuletwa na mgeni aliyesafiri kutoka nchi nyingine . Tafiti za kisayansi kuhusu malaria zilipata mafanikio muhimu ya kwanza mwaka 1880, wakati daktari wa jeshi la Ufaransa [[Constantine Alphonse Laveran]] aliyekuwa akifanya kazi katika hospitali ya kijeshi nchini [[Algeria]] alipotambua kwa mara ya kwanza vimelea ndani ya [[chembechembe nyekundu za damu]] ya watu waliokuwa wakiugua malaria. Kwa hiyo, alipendekeza kwamba ugonjwa wa malaria unasababishwa na kiumbe huyo, mara ya kwanza kabisa ambapo kijiumbe mwenye seli moja (Protista) alitambuliwa kusababisha ugonjwa. <ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Alphonse Laveran | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1907/laveran-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}} Nobel foundation. Ilitumika 25 Oktoba 2006</ref> Kwa sababu hii na vumbuzi nyingine za baadaye , alipokea [[Tuzo ya Nobel ya Tiba]] mwaka 1907. Kimelea cha malaria kiliitwa ''Plasmodium'' na wanasayansi wa Kiitalia [[Ettore]] [[Marchiafava]] na [[Angelo Celli]]. <ref>{{cite web| title = Ettore Marchiafava| work = | url = http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2478.html| accessdate = 2007-06-15| archive-date = 2019-03-28| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190328043634/http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2478.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> Mwaka mmoja baadaye, [[Carlos Finlay]], daktari wa [[Kuba]] aliyekuwa akitibu wagonjwa wa [[homa ya manjano]] huko [[Havana]], alitoa ushahidi madhubuti kuwa mbu walihusika katika kusambaza ugonjwa huo miongoni mwa binadamu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Tan SY, Sung H |title=Carlos Juan Finlay (1833–1915): of mosquitoes and yellow fever |journal=Singapore Med J |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=370–1 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18465043 |url=http://smj.sma.org.sg/4905/4905ms1.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Kazi hii ilifuata mapendekezo ya awali ya [[Yosia C. Nott]], <ref>{{cite journal |author=Chernin E |title=Josiah Clark Nott, insects, and yellow fever |journal=Bull N Y Acad Med |volume=59 |issue=9 |pages=790–802 |year=1983 |month=Novemba |pmid=6140039 |pmc=1911699 |url=}}</ref> na [[Patrick Manson]] kuhusu maambukizi ya [[homa ya mitoki]]. Hata hivyo, ilikuwa Mwingereza [[Sir Ronald Ross]] aliyekuwa akifanya kazi katika [[Presidency General Hospital]] [[Calcutta]], ambaye hatimaye katika mwaka wa 1898 alidhibitisha kuwa malaria inasambazwa na mbu. Alifanya hivyo kwa kuonyesha kwamba spishi fulani za mbu husambaza malaria kwa ndege na kuchuja vimelea vya malaria kutoka katika matezi ya mate ya mbu ambao walikuwa wamefyonza ndege waliokuwa wameambukizwa. <ref>{{cite web | title = Biography of Ronald Ross | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1902/ross-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> Kwa kazi hii Ross alipokea Tuzo ya Nobel ya Tiba mwaka wa 1902. Baada ya kujiuzulu kutoka Indian Medical Service, Ross alifanya kazi katika chuo kilichokuwa kipya cha [[Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine]] na kuelekezwa juhudi za kudhibiti malaria katika nchi za [[Misri, Panama, Ugiriki]] na [[Morishash.]] <ref>{{cite web | title = Ross and the Discovery that Mosquitoes Transmit Malaria Parasites| work = CDC Malaria website | url = http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/ross.htm | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> Matokeo ya Ross na Finlay baadaye yalithibitishwa na bodi ya matibabu iliyoongozwa na [[Walter Reed]] mwaka 1900, na mapendekezo yake kutekelezwa na [[William C. Gorgas]] katika [[hatua za kiafya zilizorchukuliwaatibiwa]] wakati wa ujenzi wa [[Mfereji wa Panama.]] Kazi hii ya afya ya umma iliokoa maisha ya maelfu ya wafanyakazi na ikasaidia kubuni mbinu zilizotumika katika kampeni za afya ya umma dhidi ya ugonjwa huu baadaye . Tiba ya kwanza madhubuti dhidi ya malaria ilitoka katika gome ya [[mti]] wa [[mkwinini]] ambayo ina [[kwinini.]] Mti huu hukua kwenye miteremko ya [[Andes]], hasa [[Peru.]] Dawa iliyoundwa kutokana na bidhaa hii asili ilitumiwa na wenyeji wa [[Peru]] kudhibiti malaria, [[Wajesuti]] walieneza matumizi haya hadi Ulaya katika miaka ya 1640, ambapo ilikubalika kwa haraka. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Kaufman T, Rúveda E | title = The quest for quinine: those who won the battles and those who won the war | journal = Angew Chem Int Ed Engl | volume = 44 | issue = 6 | pages = 854–85 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15669029 | doi = 10.1002/anie.200400663}}</ref> Hata hivyo, ilikuwa hadi 1820 ambapo kiambato tendi, kwinini, ilipofyonzwa kutoka gome ya mti, kuchujwa na kupewa jina na wanakemia wa Kifaransa [[Pierre Joseph Pelletier]] na [[Joseph Bienaimé Caventou.]] <ref>{{cite journal |author=Kyle R, Shampe M |title=Discoverers of quinine |journal=JAMA |volume=229 |issue=4 | pages = e320 |year=1974 |pmid=4600403 | doi = 10.1001/jama.229.4.462}}</ref> Mapema katika karne ya 20, kabla [[viuavijasumu]] kuvumbuliwa, [[Julius Wagner-Jauregg]] aligundua kwamba wagonjwa wa [[kaswende]] wangeweza kutibiwa kwa kuambukizwa kimakusudi kwa vimelea vya malaria; homa iliyosababishwa iliua [[spirochete]] za malaria, hatimaye [[kwinini]] ingetolewa kudhibiti malaria. Ingawa baadhi ya wagonjwa walikufa kutokana na malaria, hii ilidhaniwa kuwa afadhali kuliko kifo ambacho hakinge epukika kutokana na kaswende. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Raju T | title = Hot brains: manipulating body heat to save the brain | doi= 10.1542/peds.2005-1934 | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 117 | issue = 2 | pages = e320–1 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16452338 |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/117/2/e320}}</ref> Ingawa awamu ya maisha ya kimelea katika damu na katika mbu katika hatua ya mzunguko wa maisha ya kimelea cha malaria iligunduliwa karne ya 19 na mapema karne ya 20, ilikuwa katika miaka ya 1980 ambapo awamu fiche ya kimelea hicho katika ini ilipoonekana. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Krotoski W, Collins W, Bray R, ''et al.'' | title = Demonstration of hypnozoites in sporozoite-transmitted Plasmodium vivax infection | journal = Am J Trop Med Hyg | volume = 31 | issue = 6 | pages = 1291–3 | year = 1982 | pmid = 6816080}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal | author = Meis J, Verhave J, Jap P, Sinden R, Meuwissen J | title = Malaria parasites--discovery of the early liver form | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1983-03-31_302_5907/page/n73 | journal = Nature | volume = 302 | issue = 5907 | pages = 424–6 | year =1983 | pmid = 6339945 | doi = 10.1038/302424a0}}</ref> Ugunduzi huu wa awamu fiche ya kimelea hatimaye ulieleza kwa nini watu wangeweza kuonekana wamepona malaria lakini wakaugua tena miaka baada ya vimelea kutoweka katika mfumo wa damu. === Shinikizo la kubadilisha jeni za malaria === {{main|Mageuko ya spishi}} Malaria inakisiwa kuwa na[[shinikizo kubwa kwa jieni ya binadamu]] katika siku za hivi karibuni. <ref name="Kwiatkowski_2005">{{cite journal |author=Kwiatkowski DP |title=How malaria has affected the human genome and what human genetics can teach us about malaria |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-human-genetics_2005-08_77_2/page/171 |journal=Am J Hum Genet. |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=171–92 |year=2005 |month=Agosti |pmid=16001361 |pmc=1224522 |doi=10.1086/432519 }}</ref> Hii ni kutokana na [[vifo vingi]] na [[maradhi]] yanayosababishwa na malaria, hasa spishi ya ''[[P. falciparum]]''. ==== Ugonjwa wa seli mundu ==== [[Picha:Paludisme - Frequence statistique.png|thumb|right|Matukio na vyanzo vya visa vya malaria mwaka 1996. <ref>Http://www3.chu-rouen.fr/Internet/services/sante_voyages/pathologies/paludisme/monde/frequence/ {{Wayback|url=http://www3.chu-rouen.fr/Internet/services/sante_voyages/pathologies/paludisme/monde/frequence/ |date=20100619103234 }} CHU Hôpitaux de Rouen. Fréquence et tillhörighet des cas de paludisme.</ref>]] Athari iliyotafitiwa sana ya vimelea vya malaria kwa jinomu ya binadamu ni ya ugonjwa wa damu wa kinasaba yaani [[ugonjwa wa seli mundu]]. Seli mundu husababisha ugonjwa, lakini hata walioathirika kwa kiwango kidogo kwa seli mundu huwa na kinga ya kutosha dhidi ya malaria. Katika maradhi ya seli mundu, kuna mabadiliko katika jeni ya ''HBB'', ambayo husimba viwango vidogo vya haemoglobin viitwavyo beta-globini. Aleli ya kawaida husimba [[glutamate]] katika sehemu ya sita ya protini ya beta-globini, ilihali aleli ya seli mundu husimba [[valine.]] Mabadiliko haya kutoka asidi amino inayoyeyuka majini hadi isiyoyeyuka majini husababisha kushikana kwa molekyuli za hemoglobini na upolimishaji wa hemoglobini ambao husababisha kuharibika kwa maumbo ya chembechembe nyekundu za damu kuwa katika umbo la "mundu". Chembe chembe kama hizo zilizoharibika umbo huondolewa haraka kutoka kwa damu, hasa katika wengu, ambapo huharibiwa na kuchakatwa tena. Katika hatua ya merozoiti kwenye mzunguko wa uhai wao, vimelea vya malaria huishi ndani ya chembechembe nyekundu za damu, na umetaboli wavyo hubadili kemia ya ndani ya chembe chembe nyekundu za damu. Seli zilizoambukizwa kwa kawaida huishi hadi vimelea vizaane, lakini, ikiwa chembechembe nyekundu zina mchanganyiko wa mundu na hemoglobini ya kawaida, kuna uwezekano wa seli hizo kuangamizwa kabla vimelea kuzaa. Hivyo basi, watu walio na maumbo ya aina mbili ya seli nyekundu lakini moja ndiyo [[inayotambaa]] yaani aleli iliyogeuka, ijulikanayo kama seli mundu, wanaweza kuwa na kiwango cha chini cha anemia kisicho na athari kubwa, lakini pia uwezekano wa wao kuambukizwa na malaria huwa umepunguzwa kwa kiwango kikubwa. Huu ni mfano wa kipekee wa faida inayotokana na hali ya kuwa na namna mbili za jeni moja ([[heterozygote]]). Watu walio na jeni ya aina moja ya damu iliyobadilika kabisa ([[Homozygous]]) huwa na ugonjwa kamili wa seli mundu ambao ni nadra kuishi zaidi ya umri wa kubaleghe. Hata hivyo, katika maeneo ambapo malaria [[imeenea]], [[maenezi]] ya jeni inayosababisha seli mundu ni takribani 10%. Uwepo wa jeni nne zinazotoshelezana kwa pamoja ([[haplotype]]) za hemoglobini mundu unaashiria kwamba kumekuwa na mabadiliko ya [[kujitegemea]] ya jeni angalau mara nne katika maeneo ambayo malaria imeenea, hii inaonyesha faida ya mabadiliko katika maeneo hayo yaliyoathiriwa. Aidha kuna mabadiliko mengine ya jeni ya HBB yanayosababisha molekyuli za hemoglobini zilizo na uwezo wa kutoa kinga sawa na hiyo dhidi ya maambukizi ya malaria. Mabadiliko hayo husababisha hemoglobini ya aina za HbE na HbC, ambazo kwa kawaida hupatikana [[Kusini Mashariki mwa Asia]] na [[Afrika Magharibi]], kwa usanjari huo. ==== Thalasemia ==== Mabadiliko mengine yaliyothibitishwa yanayopatikana katika jinomu ya binadamu yanayohusiana na ugonjwa wa malaria ni yanayohusika katika kusababisha matatizo ya damu yajulikanayo kama [[thalasemia.]] Utafiti uliofanywa [[Sardinia]] na [[Papua New Guinea]]umeonyesha kwamba [[ueneaji wa jeni]] ya [[β-thalasemia]] unahusiana na kiwango cha kuenea kwa malaria miongoni mwa watu wa eneo fulani. Utafiti uliofanyiwa watoto zaidi ya 500 nchini [[Liberia]] ulibainisha kwamba wale waliokuwa na β-thalasemia walikuwa kiwango cha 50% cha kinga dhidi ya dalili za malaria. Tafiti nyingine kama hizo zimegundua uhusiano baina ya maenezi ya jeni na ueneaji wa malaria katika aina ya α + ya α-thalasemia. Inakadiriwa kuwa jeni hizi pia [[zimechaguliwa]] katika mfululizo wa mabadiliko ya binadamu. ==== Antijeni za Duffy ==== [[Antijeni za Duffy]] ni [[antijeni]] zinazopatikana kwenye chembechembe nyekundu za damu na seli nyingine katika mwili na hufanya kazi kama kipokezi cha [[kemokini]]. Antijeni hiyo ya Duffy hudhihirika kwenye chembechembe za damu kwa kusimbwa na jeni za Fy (Fya, Fyb, Fyc nk). Kimelea cha malaria cha ''[[Plasmodium vivax]]'' hutumia antijeni za Duffy kuingia kwenye seli za damu. Hata hivyo, antijeni za Duffy zisidhihirike kwenye chembechembe nyekundu za damu (Fy-/Fy-). Aina hizi za [[muundojeni]] hutoa kinga kamili dhidi ya maambukizi ya kimelea cha ''P. vivax''. Muundojeni huu ni nadra sana miongoni mwa wakazi wa Ulaya, Asia na Marekani, lakini hupatikana katika takribani wakazi wote wa kiasili wa Afrika Magharibi na Kati. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Carter R, Mendis KN |title=Evolutionary and historical aspects of the burden of malaria |url=http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/15/4/564?view=long&pmid=12364370#RBC%20Duffy%20Negativity |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Rev. |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=564–94 |year=2002 |pmid=12364370 |doi=10.1128/CMR.15.4.564-594.2002 |access-date=2009-11-19 |archive-date=2009-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116020425/http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/15/4/564?view=long&pmid=12364370#RBC%20Duffy%20Negativity |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Hii inafikiriwa kusababishwa na kukumbana sana na vimelea vya ''P. vivax'' katika [[Afrika]] vikwi vichache vilivyopita. ==== G6PD ==== [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase]] (G6PD) ni [[kimeng'enya]] ambacho huzuia athari za [[msongo]] unaotokana na [[uoksidishaji]] chembechembe nyekundu za damu. Hata hivyo, upungufu wa kimeng'enya hicho kwa sababu za kijenetiki huongeza kinga dhidi ya malaria kali. ==== HLA na interleukin-4 ==== [[HLA-B53]] inahusishwa na kupunguzwa kwa hatari ya malaria kali. Molekyuli ya [[MHC]] hii huwawasilisha hatua ya [[ini]] na [[antijeni za spora]] kwa [[seli za T]] Interleukin-4, inayosimbwa na IL4, huzalishwa na seli za T zinazochochewa na hukuza kuzaana na utofautishaji seli B ambazo huzalisha zindikomwili. Utafiti uliofanywa miongoni mwa jamii ya Fulani wa Burkina Faso, ambao huwa na visa vya maambukizi ya malaria vichache na viwango vya juu vya zindikomwili dhidi ya malaria kuliko jamii jirani, uligundua kuwa aleli ya IL4-524 T inahusishwa na viwango vya juu vya zindikomwili dhidi ya antijeni za malaria, hali ambayo inaongeza uwezakano hii inaweza kuwa sababu ongezeko la kinga dhidi ya malaria. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Verra F, Luoni G, Calissano C, Troye-Blomberg M, Perlmann P, Perlmann H, Arcà B, Sirima B, Konaté A, Coluzzi M, Kwiatkowski D, Modiano D |title=IL4-589C/T polymorphism and IgE levels in severe malaria |journal=Acta Trop. |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=205–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15177147 | doi = 10.1016/j.actatropica.2003.11.014 |last12=Modiano |first12=D}}</ref> ==== Usugu Kusini mwa Asia ==== Vilima vya chini ya Mlima Himalaya na [[mabonde ya Terai ama ya Doon]] nchini [[Nepal]] na [[India]] huwa na visa vingi vya malaria kutokana na hali ya hewa ya joto na vinamasi vinavyohimiliwa wakati wa kiangazi na chemichemi inayotiririka kutoka vilima vya juu. Misitu iliyokuwa na malaria ilitunzwa kimakusudi na watawala wa Nepal kama mbinu ya kujihami. Binadamu waliojaribu kuishi katika eneo hili walikufa kwa wingi kuliko katika nyanda za juu zaidi au sehemu kame [[Tambarare za Ganges]], hata hivyo, [[wenyeji wa Tharu]] walikuwa wameishi katika eneo hili kwa muda mrefu kiasi cha kuwa na kinga kupitia kwa mabadiliko katika jeni nyingi. [[Ndoa]]za tabaka au kabila zilionekana kufungia hali hiyo mingoni mwa wenyeji wa Tharu. Vinginevyo jeni hizi pengine zingekuwa zimesambaa karibu kote Kusini mwa Asia na kwingineko kwa sababu ya thamani yao dhahiri na kutokuwa na madhara ikilinganishwa na Anemia ya Seli Mundu. == Jamii na utamaduni == [[File:Saving Lives with SMS for Life.jpg|thumb|right|Kliniki ya Malaria nchini Tanzania.]] Malaria si ungonjwa unaohusishwa tu na umaskini bali pia husababisha umaskini na ni kikwazo kikubwa kwa [[maendeleo ya kiuchumi.]] Maeneo ya hali ya joto yameathirika zaidi, hata hivyo kiwango cha athari kamili ya malaria hufika katika baadhi ya maeneo yenye joto la wastani na misimu isiyotabirika Ugonjwa huu umehusishwa na athari mbaya za kiuchumi katika maeneo ambayo umeenea sana. Mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 na mapema katika karne ya 20, ugonjwa huu ndio uliosababisha kudorora kwa uchumi kwa majimbo ya kusini mwa Marekani. <ref name="humphreys">{{cite book|last=Humphreys|first=M|title=Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/malariapovertyra0000hump|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|date=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/malariapovertyra0000hump/page/n256 256]|isbn=0-8018-6637-5}}</ref>. Ulinganisho wa Pato wastani la Taifa kwa kila mtu mnamo mwaka 1995, iliyorekebishwa kuzingatia tofauti za [[uwezo wa kununua]], kati ya nchi zilizo na zisizo na malaria ulionyesha tofauti za aina tano($ 1.526 dola dhidi ya $ 8.268 USD). Katika nchi ambazo malaria inapatikana kwa wingi, Pato Wastani la Taifa kwa kila mtu limeongezeka (kati ya 1965 na 1990) kwa 0.4% tu kwa kila mwaka, ikilinganishwa na 2.4% kwa kila mwaka katika nchi nyingine. <ref name="sachs2002">{{cite journal | author=Sachs J, Malaney P | title=The economic and social burden of malaria | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2002-02-07_415_6872/page/n150 | journal=Nature | year=2002 | volume=415 | pages=680–5 | pmid = 11832956 | doi = 10.1038/415680a | issue=6872}}</ref> Umaskini ni kisababishi na athari, hata hivyo, kwa sababu maskini hawana uwezo wa kifedha kuzuia au kutibu ugonjwa huo. Watu wa pato la chini nchini Malawi katika mwaka wa (1994) walitumia 32% ya pato lao la kila mwaka katika kugharamia ugonjwa huu ikilinganishwa na 4% ya watu wa pato la chini. Kijumla, athari ya kiuchumi ya malaria kwa Afrika inakadiriwa kugharimu dola za kimarekani $ billion 12 kila mwaka. Athari za kiuchumi ni pamoja na gharama za huduma za afya, siku za kazi kupotea kutokana na ugonjwa huu, siku kupotezwa katika elimu, uzalishaji kupungua kutokana na uharibifu wa ubongo kufuatia malaria ya ubongo, na hasara ya uwekezaji na utalii. <ref name="greenwood2005"/> Katika baadhi ya nchi zilizo athiriwa sana na malaria, ugonjwa huu hugharimu hadi 40% ya fedha zilizotengwa kwa matumizi ya afya ya umma, kati ya 30-50% ya wagongwa waliolazwa, na hadi 50% ya wagonjwa wanaotibiwa na kuruhusiwa kurudi nyumbani. <ref>{{cite web| author=Roll Back Malaria WHO partnership| title=Economic costs of malaria| url=http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/cmc_upload/0/000/015/363/RBMInfosheet_10.pdf| publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]]| accessdate=2009-09-18| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229044311/http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/cmc_upload/0/000/015/363/RBMInfosheet_10.pdf| archivedate=2009-12-29}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.who.int/malaria/ WHO site on malaria] * [http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/gmap/ Global Malaria action plan] {{Wayback|url=http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/gmap/ |date=20100411074836 }} * [http://www.map.ox.ac.uk/ Malaria Atlas Project] {{Wayback|url=http://www.map.ox.ac.uk/ |date=20150330171641 }} * [http://www.mmv.org Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV)] * [http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/wmr2005/ World Malaria Report 2005] {{Wayback|url=http://www.rollbackmalaria.org/wmr2005/ |date=20120313215247 }} * [http://doctorswithoutborders.org/news/issue.cfm?id=2395 Madaktari Wasiokuwa na Mipaka / Doctors Without Borders - ''Malaria'' ] kurasa za habari * [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/malaria.html Medline Plus - ''Malaria'' ] [[Jamii:Malaria]] iz9kh82aoawi9t1o1ds5x0n11isvnb4 0 19123 1564481 1517510 2026-06-02T16:49:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Kujiua | Image = Edouard Manet 059.jpg| Caption = ''Kujiua'' kadiri ya [[Édouard Manet]] [[1877]]–[[1881]] | ICD10 = {{ICD10|X|60||x|60}}–{{ICD10|X|84||x|60}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|E950}} |MedlinePlus = 001554 | eMedicineSubj = article | eMedicineTopic = 288598 | MeshName = Suicide | MeshNumber = F01.145.126.980.875 }} <!-- Fasili na vipengele vya hatari --> '''Kujiua''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "suicide" kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kilatini]] ''suicidium'', lililotokana na ''sui caedere'', "kujiua") ni kitendo cha [[mtu]] kujisababishia [[kifo]] kwa makusudi ama kwa kufanya kitu kinachoharibu [[uhai]] wake au kwa kuacha yale yanayohitajika kuuendeleza kama [[kula]] au [[kunywa]]. Kuna sababu mbalimbali kwa nini watu wanajiua, kama vile *hali mbaya ya [[wasiwasi]], [[hofu]] au matatizo inayomsababisha kutaka kuepukana nayo mara moja<ref>https://www.dailysignal.com/2022/06/13/study-connects-jump-in-youth-suicide-with-transgender-treatments-lack-of-parental-consent/?inf_contact_key=52c5d855ea18910d25fdd65d9dc7222b4dfbc39d7283b2cb89d5189540b69330</ref> *[[ugonjwa wa akili]] *[[maumivu]] makali *kuona [[aibu]] kubwa pamoja na [[utamaduni]] kufundisha ni heri kufa kuliko kuishi na aibu *kujisikia kuwa na [[wajibu]] wa kumaliza [[maisha]] kwa [[heshima]] ya [[taifa]], [[dini]], [[ukoo]], [[familia]] au mengine. Mara nyingi, watu hujiua kufuatia hali ya [[kukata tamaa]] iliyosababishwa na [[tatizo la kiakili]] kama vile [[fadhaiko]], [[maradhi ya hisia mseto]], [[skizofrenia]], [[ulevi]] au matumizi ya [[dawa za kulevya]].<ref name=Hawton2009>{{cite journal |author=Hawton K, van Heeringen K |title=Suicide|journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9672 |pages=1372–81 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19376453 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60372-X}}</ref> Vipengele vya dhiki kama vile [[matatizo ya kifedha]] au matatizo katika [[mahusiano ya kijamii]] huchangia sana. [[Juhudi]] za kuzuia kujiua hujumuisha kupunguza uwezekano wa kufikia [[bunduki]], kutibu [[magonjwa ya akili]], kuzuia matumizi mabaya ya [[dawa]] na kuboresha [[hali ya uchumi]]. <!--Mbinu na Uenezi--> [[Mbinu]] za kujiua ni nyingi na upendeleo hutegemea [[mazingira]] na utamaduni. <ref>[http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-043489.pdf Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database]</ref>. Inayotumika zaidi hutofautiana katika nchi mbalimbali na huhusishwa kwa kiasi na mbinu zinazopatikana. Mara nyingi hujumuisha: [[kujinyonga]], [[kunywa sumu]] na kutumia bunduki. *Watu wa [[Marekani]] hupendelea kujipigia risasi (52[[%]] za wale waliojiua [[mwaka]] [[2005]]); inaonekana sababu kubwa ni ya kwamba kuna bunduki nyingi zinazopatikana kirahisi *[[Wajerumani]] hupendelea kujinyonga kwa [[kamba]] (50%), kujipigia risasi kunatokea mara chache ([[sheria]] kuhusu kumiliki bunduki ni kali) *Katika [[Ulaya ya Mashariki]] karibu wote wanaojiua hujinyonga kwa kamba *Kwenye nchi za [[wakulima]] wengi kama [[Asia]], [[Amerika Kusini]] na pia [[Ureno]] wengi hutumia [[sumu]] mbalimbali hasa za kuua [[wadudu]] *Katika nchi ndogo ambako watu huishi hasa [[Mji|mjini]] kama [[Hong Kong]] au [[Luxemburg]] kuna [[asilimia]] kubwa wanaoruka kutoka [[Jengo|majengo]] marefu. Kwa jumla [[wanaume]] hutumia zaidi mbinu kali kama [[silaha]] au kujinyonga, [[wanawake]] njia ambazo ni pole zaidi kama kunywa sumu au kujizamisha kwenye [[maji]]. [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linakadiria kwamba [[duniani]] kote kila baada ya [[sekunde]] 39 mtu mmoja anajiua, maana yake takriban watu 800,000 hadi [[milioni]] 1 hujiua kila mwaka. Kwa hiyo tendo la kujiua ni kati ya sababu muhimu za [[kifo]] cha watu, ni kisababishi kikuu cha 10 cha vifo vyote [[Ulimwengu|ulimwenguni]].<ref name=Hawton2009/><ref name=Var2012/> [[Idadi]] ya wanaume wanaojiua kwa jumla inazidi mara [[nne]] ile ya wanawake. [[Wazee]] hujiua kushinda [[vijana]]. <ref>[http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicide_rates_chart/en/index.html Taarifa ya [[WHO]]]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Meier|first=Marshall B. Clinard, Robert F.|title=Sociology of deviant behavior|year=2008|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-0-495-81167-1|page=169|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VB3OezIoI44C&pg=PA169|edition=14th ed.}}</ref> Pamoja na wale wanaofaulu, kila mwaka kuna majaribio kati ya milioni 10 hadi 20<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A |title=Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: a worldwide perspective |journal=World Psychiatry|volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=181–5 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=16946849 |pmc=1489848 }}</ref>. Majaribio hayo mara nyingi huwa ya [[watoto]] na [[wanawake]]. [[Waganga]] wa kisasa huona kujiua kama tatizo la [[afya]] ya [[nafsi]]; mara nyingi watu wanaojaribu kujiua hawataki kufa bali kuepukana na matatizo na kama wangeona njia ya kuachana na tatizo wasingejiua. Hivyo majaribio ya kujiua inaweza kuwa ya kuwaonyesha watu wa mazingira ya kwamba kuna tatizo zito na kuomba msaada. Watu wanaorudia mara nyingi majaribio ya kujiua wanafaulu hatimaye kama hali yao haibadiliki. <!--Historia, jamii na utamaduni--> Katika mafundisho ya dini nyingi tendo la kujiua linatazamwa kama [[dhambi]] au kosa. [[Dini za Kiibrahimu]] zinachukulia kujiua kuwa dhambi kwa sababu ya [[imani]] juu ya [[utakatifu wa uhai]], [[heshima]] na [[thamani ya maisha]]. Katika [[Ulaya]] hadi [[karne ya 19]] watu waliojiua hawakuzikwa [[kaburi|makaburini]] pamoja na watu wengine lakini kando. Nchi mbalimbali zilikuwa na sheria dhidi ya wale waliojiua na jaribio lilitazamwa kama [[kosa la jinai]]. Ingawa kosa la kujiua au kujaribu kujiua lilichangia [[adhabu]] ya kisheria hapo awali katika [[mataifa ya magharibi]], kwa sasa haliadhibiwi. Kosa hili limesalia kuwa [[hatia]] katika mataifa mengi ya [[Kiislamu]]. Kuna pia [[jamii]] ambako hatua ile inaheshimiwa kama azimio la kila mtu. Katika utamaduni wa enzi za [[samurai]] nchini [[Japani]] kujiua kulitazamwa kama nafasi ya [[Ukabaila|mkabaila]] kujirudishia heshima yake kama ameshindwa au kuonekana na kosa kubwa. Hivyo [[seppuku]] iliheshimiwa kama mbinu ya kulipia kosa la kushindwa au njia ya utetezi. Katika utamaduni wa [[Uhindi]] [[mjane]] alisifiwa kama alijiua baada ya kifo cha [[mume]] wake hasa kwa kujichoma pamoja na [[maiti]] ya [[marehemu]]. [[Sati]] katika [[mazishi]] ya [[Kihindi]], ambayo sasa imeharamishwa, ilimhitaji [[mjane]] [[kujitoa kafara]] kwa kujichoma katika [[kimbwi]] cha [[mazishi]] ya [[Mume|mumewe]], kwa [[hiari]] au kwa kushinikizwa na [[familia]] na [[jamii]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/news/words/general/020807_witn.shtml|title=Indian woman commits sati suicide |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2002-08-07 |accessdate=2010-08-26}}</ref> Katika [[karne ya 20]] na [[Karne ya 21|21]], kujiua kwa mbinu ya [[kujitoa kafara]] kumetumika kama mbinu ya utetezi, na [[kamikaze]] na [[kujiua kwa bomu]] kama harakati za kijeshi au kigaidi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Aggarwal|first=N|title=Rethinking suicide bombing.|journal=Crisis|year=2009|volume=30|issue=2|pages=94–7|pmid=19525169|doi=10.1027/0227-5910.30.2.94}}</ref> Hivyo katika [[vita]] vilivyopita [[askari]] walisifiwa kama waliamua kujiua kwa kutumia [[miili]] yao kama silaha dhidi ya adui. Mfano mashuhuri ni [[rubani|marubani]] wa [[kamikaze]] wa Japani waliojirusha pamoja na [[Ndege (uanahewa)|ndege]] zao dhidi ya [[meli]] za Marekani wakati wa [[vita kuu ya pili ya dunia]]. [[Wanamgambo]] wa [[Tamil Tiger]] nchini [[Sri Lanka]] walishambulia jeshi la [[serikali]] mara nyingi kwa [[Bomu|mabomu]] hai yaani askari waliobeba bomu na kujilipua karibu na maadui. Mbinu hiyohiyo inatumiwa pia katika dunia ya [[Kiislamu]] na wanamgambo na [[Ugaidi|magaidi]] mbalimbali, hasa katika nchi kama [[Palestina]], [[Irak]] au [[Afghanistan]]. Ilitumiwa pia na magaidi kutoka [[Checheniya]] dhidi ya [[Warusi]]. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Fasili== Kujiua ni kitendo cha "kujitoa uhai".<ref>{{cite book|title=Stedman's medical dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/stedmansmedicald00sted_3|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-3390-8|edition=28th ed.}}</ref> Kujaribu kujiua ni kitendo cha kujidhuru kwa lengo la kujiangamiza, bila kufanikiwa kujiua.<ref name=Krug2002>{{cite book|last=Krug|first=Etienne|title=World Report on Violence and Health (Vol. 1)|year=2002|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Genève|isbn=978-92-4-154561-7|page=185|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=db9OHpk-TksC&pg=PA185}}</ref> [[Usaidizi wa kujiua]] ni pale mtu anapomsaidia mwingine kujiua kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja; kupitia [[ushauri]] au mbinu za kujiua.<ref name=Gullota2002>{{cite book|last=Gullota|first=edited by Thomas P.|title=The encyclopedia of primary prevention and health promotion|year=2002|publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum|location=New York|isbn=978-0-306-47296-1|page=1112|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Elx37xzO0bsC&pg=PA1112|coauthors=Bloom, Martin}}</ref> Hii ni tofauti na [[eutenasia]] ambapo mtu mwingine huhusika zaidi katika kusababisha kifo cha mwingine.<ref name=Gullota2002/> [[Mawazo ya kujiua]] ni kuwaza jinsi ya kujiangamiza.<ref name=Krug2002/> ==Vipengele vya hatari== [[File:Suicide cases from 16 American states (2008).png|thumb|upright=1.35|Hali zinazochangia kujiua katika majimbo 16 ya Marekani mwaka wa 2008.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Karch|first=DL|coauthors=Logan, J; Patel, N; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC)|title=Surveillance for violent deaths—National Violent Death Reporting System, 16 states, 2008.|journal=Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries (Washington, D.C. : 2002)|date=2011 Aug 26|volume=60|issue=10|pages=1–49|pmid=21866088}}</ref>]] Vipengele vinavyoathiri hatari ya kujiua hujumuisha [[ugonjwa wa akili]], [[matumizi mabaya ya dawa]], hali ya [[Saikolojia|kisaikolojia]], kiutamaduni, [[familia]] na vitengo vya kijamii na [[jenetikia]].<ref name=Hawton2012/> [[Ugonjwa wa akili]] na matumizi mabaya ya [[dawa]] mara nyingi hutokea kwa pamoja.<ref name=Drug2011/> Vipengele vingine vya hatari ni pamoja na jaribio la kujiua la hapo awali,<ref name=EB2011/> uwepo wa mbinu za kujiua, historia ya kujiua katika familia au uwepo wa [[jeraha kuu la ubongo]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=G|coauthors=Tate, R|title=Suicidality in people surviving a traumatic brain injury: prevalence, risk factors and implications for clinical management.|journal=Brain injury : [BI]|date=2007 Dec|volume=21|issue=13–14|pages=1335–51|pmid=18066936|doi=10.1080/02699050701785542}}</ref> Kwa mfano, viwango vya kujiua vimetambulika kuwa vya juu katika familia zilizo na bunduki kuliko zisizo nazo.<ref name="Miller 393–408">{{cite journal|last=Miller|first=M|coauthors=Azrael, D; Barber, C|title=Suicide mortality in the United States: the importance of attending to method in understanding population-level disparities in the burden of suicide.|journal=Annual review of public health|date=2012 Apr|volume=33|pages=393–408|pmid=22224886|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124636}}</ref> Vipengele vya kijamii na kiuchumi, kama vile [[ukosefu wa ajira]], [[umaskini]], [[kukosa makazi]] na [[ubaguzi]] vinaweza kusababisha fikira za kutaka kujiua.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Qin P, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB |title=Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: a national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2003-04_160_4/page/765 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=160 |issue=4 |pages=765–72|year=2003 |month=April |pmid=12668367 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.765}}</ref> Takriban 15-40% ya watu huacha [[ujumbe wa kujiua]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Gilliland|first=Richard K. James, Burl E.|title=Crisis intervention strategies|publisher=Brooks/Cole|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-1-111-18677-7|page=215|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=E2sKf-sexZwC&pg=PA215|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> Jenetikia huonekana kuhusika kwa kati ya 38% na 55% ya mitindo ya kujiua.<ref name=Brent2008>{{cite journal|last=Brent|first=DA|coauthors=Melhem, N|title=Familial transmission of suicidal behavior.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatric-clinics-of-north-america_2008-06_31_2/page/157|journal=The Psychiatric clinics of North America|date=2008 Jun|volume=31|issue=2|pages=157–77|pmid=18439442|doi=10.1016/j.psc.2008.02.001|pmc=2440417}}</ref> [[Wakongwe wa vita]] wana hatari zaidi ya kujiua kufuatia viwango vya juu vya [[magonjwa ya akili]] na matatizo ya kiafya yanayohusishwa na [[vita]].<ref name=Martyr2009>{{cite journal|last=Rozanov|first=V|coauthors=Carli, V|title=Suicide among war veterans.|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=2012 Jul|volume=9|issue=7|pages=2504–19|pmid=22851956|doi=10.3390/ijerph9072504|pmc=3407917}}</ref> ===Matatizo ya akili=== [[Matatizo ya akili]] mara nyingi huwepo wakati wa kujiua, huku kadirio zikiwa kati ya 27%<ref name="University of Manchester Centre for Mental Health and Risk">{{cite web|last=University of Manchester Centre for Mental Health and Risk|title=The National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with Mental Illness|url=http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/cmhr/centreforsuicideprevention/nci/reports/annual_report_2012.pdf|accessdate=25 July 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116021945/http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/cmhr/centreforsuicideprevention/nci/reports/annual_report_2012.pdf|archivedate=2013-01-16|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116021945/http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/cmhr/centreforsuicideprevention/nci/reports/annual_report_2012.pdf}}</ref> hadi zaidi ya 90%.<ref name=EB2011/> Katika [[wagonjwa]] waliolazwa katika kitengo cha magonjwa ya akili, hatari yao ya kujiua kikamilifu katika [[maisha]] yao yote huwa takriban 8.6%<ref name=EB2011/> [[Nusu]] ya watu wote wanaofariki kutokana na kujiua wanaweza kuwa na tatizo kuu la fadhaiko; uwepo wa hali hii au mojawapo ya [[matatizo ya kihisia]], kama vile [[maradhi ya hisia mseto]] huongeza hatari ya kujiua kwa mara 20.<ref name=Che2012>{{cite book|last=Chehil|first=Stan Kutcher, Sonia|title=Suicide Risk Management A Manual for Health Professionals.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chicester|isbn=978-1-119-95311-1|pages=30–33|year=2012|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=fV8_1u0c7l0C&pg=PA31|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Hali nyingine zinazochangia kujiua ni pamoja na [[skizofrenia]] (14%), [[matatizo ya nafsi]] (14%),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertolote|first=JM|coauthors=Fleischmann, A; De Leo, D; Wasserman, D|title=Psychiatric diagnoses and suicide: revisiting the evidence.|journal=Crisis|year=2004|volume=25|issue=4|pages=147–55|pmid=15580849}}</ref> [[maradhi ya hisia mseto]],<ref name=Che2012/> na [[tatizo la dhiki baada ya kiwewe]].<ref name=EB2011/> Takriban 5% ya watu wenye [[skizofrenia]] hufa kutokana na kujiua.<ref name=Lancet09>{{vcite journal |author=[[Jim van Os|van Os J]], Kapur S |title=Schizophrenia |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9690 |pages=635–45 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19700006 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8 |url=http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/19525360/611943554/name/Schizophrenia+-+The+Lancet.pdf |accessdate=2013-11-28 |archivedate=2013-06-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623065810/http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/19525360/611943554/name/Schizophrenia+-+The+Lancet.pdf }}</ref> [[Matatizo ya kula]] ni hali nyingine yenye hatari ya juu.<ref name=Tint2010/> Historia ya jaribio la awali la kujiua ni [[ishara]] kuu ya kujiua kikamilifu baadaye.<ref name=EB2011>{{cite journal|last=Chang|first=B|coauthors=Gitlin, D; Patel, R|title=The depressed patient and suicidal patient in the emergency department: evidence-based management and treatment strategies.|journal=Emergency medicine practice|date=2011 Sep|volume=13|issue=9|pages=1–23; quiz 23–4|pmid=22164363}}</ref> Takriban 20% ya visa vya kujiua hutanguliwa na jaribio la kujiua. 1% ya watu waliojaribu kujiua hufaulu kujiua katika mwaka mmoja<ref name=EB2011/>, na zaidi ya 5% hufaulu kujiua baada ya miaka 10&nbsp;.<ref name=Tint2010/> Ingawa vitendo vya kujidhuru havichukuliwi kama majaribio ya kujiua, kuwepo kwa mtindo wa kujidhuru huhusishwa na hatari zaidi ya kujiua.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 17606825 | doi=10.1001/archpedi.161.7.634 | volume=161 | issue=7 | title=The relationship between self-injurious behavior and suicide in a young adult population | year=2007 |month=July | author=Whitlock J, Knox KL | journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | pages=634–40}}</ref> Kwa takriban 80% ya visa vya kujiua kikamilifu, mwathiriwa huwa amemtembelea [[daktari]] katika [[mwaka]] huo kabla ya kujiua,<ref name=Pir1998/> ikijumuisha 45% ya visa katika [[Mwezi (wakati)|mwezi]] uliotangulia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Luoma|first=JB|coauthors=Martin, CE; Pearson, JL|title=Contact with mental health and primary care providers before suicide: a review of the evidence.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2002-06_159_6/page/909|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|date=2002 Jun|volume=159|issue=6|pages=909–16|pmid=12042175}}</ref> Takriban 25%-40% ya watu wanaojiua huwa wamepokea [[huduma]] ya afya ya kiakili katika mwaka uliotangulia. <ref name="University of Manchester Centre for Mental Health and Risk"/><ref name=Pir1998>{{cite journal|last=Pirkis|first=J|coauthors=Burgess, P|title=Suicide and recency of health care contacts. A systematic review.|journal=The British journal of psychiatry : the journal of mental science|date=1998 Dec|volume=173|pages=462–74|pmid=9926074}}</ref> ===Matumizi ya vileo=== [[File:The Drunkard's Progress 1846.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|"Kuendelea kwa Mlevi", 1846 huonyesha jinsi ulevi unavyoweza kupelekea kujiua]] [[Kutumia vileo]] ni [[kipengele cha hatari]] cha pili kikuu kinachopelekea kujiua, baada ya [[mfadhaiko mkuu]] na [[maradhi ya nafsi mseto]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Perrotto|first=Jerome D. Levin, Joseph Culkin, Richard S.|title=Introduction to chemical dependency counseling|year=2001|publisher=Jason Aronson|location=Northvale, N.J.|isbn=978-0-7657-0289-0|pages=150–152|url=http://books.google.com/?id=felzn3Ntd-cC&pg=RA1-PA151}}</ref> Ulevi wa muda mrefu na [[Ulevi|ulevi wa muda mfupi]] huhusishwa na kujiua.<ref name=Drug2011/><ref name=Fadem2004/> Ikiwa hali hii itaambatana na masikitiko ya kibinafsi, kama vile [[Msiba|kufiwa]], hatari huongezeka zaidi.<ref name=Fadem2004>{{cite book|last=Fadem|first=Barbara|title=Behavioral science in medicine|year=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-3669-5|page=217|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=KB-g-oBfApsC&q=217}}</ref> Hali kadhalika, kutumia dawa za kulevya huhusishwa na matatizo ya afya ya kiakili.<ref name=Drug2011/> <!--Vitulizo (EtOH, benzodiazepines, opioids--> Watu wengi huwa wameathiriwa na [[kitulizo|dawa za kutuliza na kuwezesha usingizi]] (kama vile pombe au benzodiazepines) wakati wa kujiua <ref name=Youssef2008>{{cite journal |author=Youssef NA, Rich CL |title=Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review |journal=Ann Clin Psychiatry |volume=20 |issue=3|pages=157–69 |year=2008|pmid=18633742 |doi=10.1080/10401230802177698 |url=}}</ref>,huku ulevi ukiwepo katika 15%-61% ya visa.<ref name=Drug2011/> Nchi zilizo na viwango vya juu vya ulevi wa pombe na idadi kubwa ya baa pia huwa na viwango vya juu vya kujiua<ref name=ETOH2006/>. Uhusiano huu huhusishwa hasa na matumizi ya [[vinywaji vikali vilivyotoneshwa]] kuliko pombe kamili.<ref name=Drug2011/> Takriban 2.2-3.4% ya watu waliotibiwa kutokana na ulevi katika wakati fulani maishani mwao hufa kwa kujiua.<ref name=ETOH2006>{{cite journal|last=Sher|first=L|title=Alcohol consumption and suicide.|journal=QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians|date=2006 Jan|volume=99|issue=1|pages=57–61|pmid=16287907|doi=10.1093/qjmed/hci146}}</ref> Walevi wanaojaribu kujiua kwa kawaida huwa wanaume wazee na ambao wamejaribu kujiua hapo awali.<ref name=Drug2011/>Kati ya 3% na 35% ya vifo vya watu wanaotumia heroini hutokana na kujiua (takriban mara 14 zaidi ya wale wasiotumia).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Darke S, Ross J |title=Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods|journal=Addiction |volume=97 |issue=11 |pages=1383–94 |year=2002|month=November |pmid=12410779 |doi= 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00214.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0965-2140&date=2002&volume=97&issue=11&spage=1383}}</ref> <!--Vichangamshi--> Matumizi mabaya ya [[kokeini]] na [[methamphetamine]] huhusiana pakubwa na kujiua.<ref name=Drug2011/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Darke|first=S|coauthors=Kaye, S; McKetin, R; Duflou, J|title=Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use.|journal=Drug and alcohol review|date=2008 May|volume=27|issue=3|pages=253–62|pmid=18368606|doi=10.1080/09595230801923702}}</ref> Katika watumizi wa kokeini, hatari huwa ya juu zaidi katika awamu ya kusitisha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jr|first=Frank J. Ayd,|title=Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences|year=2000|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-7817-2468-5|page=256|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C&q=256|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Waliotumia [[dawa za kuvuta]] pia huwa katika hatari, na takriban 20% yao hujaribu kujiua wakati fulani, huku zaidi ya 65% wakikusudia kujiua.<ref name=Drug2011/> Hata hivyo, [[bangi]] haitambuliki kuongeza hatari ikitumika pekee.<ref name=Drug2011/> [[Uvutaji tumbaku]] huhusishwa na hatari ya kujiua.<ref name=Hughes2008>{{cite journal|last=Hughes|first=JR|title=Smoking and suicide: a brief overview.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_drug-and-alcohol-dependence_2008-12-01_98_3/page/n4|journal=Drug and alcohol dependence|date=2008 Dec 1|volume=98|issue=3|pages=169–78|pmid=18676099|doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.06.003}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuhusu kuwepo kwa uhusiano huu; hata hivyo, imedhaniwa kuwa watu waliohatarishwa kwa [[moshi]] pia huhatarishwa kwa kujiua. Uvutaji husababisha matatizo ya afya yanayomfanya mtu kutaka kujiua. Pia, uvutaji huathiri [[kemia]] ya [[ubongo]] na kusababisha uwezekano wa kujiua.<ref name=Hughes2008/> ===Kubahatishia matatizo=== Kubahatishia matatizo huhusishwa na ongezeko la [[mawazo ya kujiua]] na majaribio ikilinganishwa na watu wa kawaida. <ref>{{cite book |first1=Stefano |last1=Pallanti |first2=Nicolò Baldini |last2=Rossi|first3=Eric |last3=Hollander |chapter=11. Pathological Gambling |editor1-first=Eric|editor1-last=Hollander |editor2-first=Dan J. | editor2-last=Stein |title=Clinical manual of impulse-control disorders |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u2wVP8KJJtcC&pg=PA253 |year=2006|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub |isbn=978-1-58562-136-1 |page=253}}</ref> Kati ya 12% na 14% ya wabahatishi wa kipatholojia hujaribu kujiua.<ref name=Oliv2008/> Kiwango cha kujiua cha wake zao huwa mara tatu zaidi ya kile cha umma.<ref name=Oliv2008>{{cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=MP|coauthors=Silveira, DX; Silva, MT|title=[Pathological gambling and its consequences for public health].|journal=Revista de saude publica|date=2008 Jun|volume=42|issue=3|pages=542–9|pmid=18461253}}</ref> Vipengele vingine vinavyoongeza hatari kwa wanaobahatishia matatizo hujumuisha ugonjwa wa akili, ulevi wa pombe na dawa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hansen|first=M|coauthors=Rossow, I|title=[Gambling and suicidal behaviour].|journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke|date=2008 Jan 17|volume=128|issue=2|pages=174–6|pmid=18202728}}</ref> ===Hali za kimatibabu=== Kuna uhusiano kati ya uwezekano wa kujiua na matatizo ya afya, ikijumuisha:<ref name=Tint2010/>[[maumivu ya muda mrefu]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Manthorpe|first=J|coauthors=Iliffe, S|title=Suicide in later life: public health and practitioner perspectives.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_2010-12_25_12/page/1230|journal=International journal of geriatric psychiatry|date=2010 Dec|volume=25|issue=12|pages=1230–8|pmid=20104515|doi=10.1002/gps.2473}}</ref> [[jeraha la ubongo lenye kiwewe]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Simpson GK, Tate RL |title=Preventing suicide after traumatic brain injury: implications for general practice |journal=Med. J. Aust. |volume=187|issue=4 |pages=229–32 |year=2007 |month=August|pmid=17708726|url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/187_04_200807/sim11240_fm.html}}</ref> saratani,<ref name=Ang2012>{{cite journal|last=Anguiano|first=L|coauthors=Mayer, DK; Piven, ML; Rosenstein, D|title=A literature review of suicide in cancer patients.|journal=Cancer nursing|date=2012 Jul–Aug|volume=35|issue=4|pages=E14-26|pmid=21946906|doi=10.1097/NCC.0b013e31822fc76c}}</ref> watu wanaofanyiwa [[hemodialisi]], wenye [[VVU]], [[erithematosasi ya kitaratibu ya lupusi]] miongini mwa hali zingine.<ref name=Tint2010/> Utambuzi wa saratani huongeza hatari ya kujiua baadaye kwa takriban mara mbili.<ref name=Ang2012/> Ukithiri wa ongezeko la uwezekano wa kujiua ulijikita hata baada ya kurekebishwa kutokana na maradhi ya mfadhaiko na ulevi. Hatari katika watu wenye hali nyingi za kimatibabu huwa juu zaidi. Matatizo ya afya nchini Japan yanaorodheshwa kama sababu kuu ya kujiua.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yip|first=edited by Paul S.F.|title=Suicide in Asia : causes and prevention|url=https://archive.org/details/suicideinasiacau0000unse|year=2008|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=9789622099432|page=[https://archive.org/details/suicideinasiacau0000unse/page/11 11]|pages=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HuHQbtlyM40C&pg=PA11}}</ref> Matatizo ya usingizi kama vile [[insomnia]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ribeiro|first=JD|coauthors=Pease, JL; Gutierrez, PM; Silva, C; Bernert, RA; Rudd, MD; Joiner TE, Jr|title=Sleep problems outperform depression and hopelessness as cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors of suicidal ideation and behavior in young adults in the military.|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|date=2012 Feb|volume=136|issue=3|pages=743–50|pmid=22032872|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.049}}</ref> na [[apnea ya usingizi]] ni vipengele vya hatari vya mfadhaiko na kujiua. Wakati mwingine, masumbufu ya usingizi yanaweza kuwa vipengele vya hatari ya kujiua bila kutegemea mfadhaiko.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bernert|first=RA|coauthors=Joiner TE, Jr; Cukrowicz, KC; Schmidt, NB; Krakow, B|title=Suicidality and sleep disturbances.|journal=Sleep|date=2005 Sep|volume=28|issue=9|pages=1135–41|pmid=16268383}}</ref> Hali nyingine za kimatibabu zinaweza kuwepo, huku zikiwa na dalili sawa na matatizo ya kihisia, ikiwa ni pamoja na:[[hipouthiroidi]], [[ugonjwa wa Alzheimer|Alzheimer]], [[kansa ya ubongo]], [[erithematosasi ya kitaratibu ya lupusi]] na madhara ya dawa (kama vile [[viziba beta]] na [[steroidi]]).<ref name=EB2011/> ===Hali za kimawazo na kijamii=== Baadhi ya hali za kimawazo na kijamii huongeza hatari ya kujiua, ikujumuisha: [[kukosa matumaini]], kupoteza furaha katika maisha, fadhaiko na wasiwasi.<ref name=Che2012/> Uwezo duni wa kusuluhisha matatizo, ukosefu wa uwezo aliokua nao mtu na udhibiti duni wa hisia pia unaweza kuchangia kujiua.<ref name=Che2012/><ref name=Joiner2005>{{cite journal|last=Joiner TE|first=Jr|coauthors=Brown, JS; Wingate, LR|title=The psychology and neurobiology of suicidal behavior.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-psychology_2005_56/page/287|journal=Annual review of psychology|year=2005|volume=56|pages=287–314|pmid=15709937|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070320}}</ref>Katika watu wazima, wazo la kuwa mzigo kwa watu wengine ni kipengele kikuu.<ref name=Van2011>{{cite journal|last=Van Orden|first=K|coauthors=Conwell, Y|title=Suicides in late life.|journal=Current psychiatry reports|date=2011 Jun|volume=13|issue=3|pages=234–41|pmid=21369952|doi=10.1007/s11920-011-0193-3|pmc=3085020}}</ref><ref name=Van2011/> Dhiki za awali, kama vile kifo cha jamaa au rafiki, kupoteza kazi au kujitenga na jamii (kama vile kuishi pekee) huongeza hatari.<ref name=Che2012/> Watu ambao hawajawai kuoa pia wana hatari ya juu zaidi.<ref name=EB2011/> Kujihusisha na dini kunaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua.<ref name=Religion2009>{{cite journal|last=Koenig|first=HG|title=Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: a review.|journal=Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie|date=2009 May|volume=54|issue=5|pages=283–91|pmid=19497160}}</ref> Hali hii imehusishwa na msimamo hasi wa dini dhidi ya kujiua, na uhusiano mkuu ulioko katika dini.<ref name=Religion2009/> [[Waislamu]], wakilingashwa na watu wa dini zingine, huwa na kiwango cha chini zaidi cha kujiua.<ref name=Islam2006>{{cite journal|last=Lester|first=D|title=Suicide and islam.|journal=Archives of suicide research : official journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=77–97|pmid=16287698|doi=10.1080/13811110500318489}}</ref> Baadhi ya watu wanaweza kujiua ili kuepuka [[ukatili]] au [[ubaguzi]].<ref name=Cox2012>{{cite journal |last1= Cox |first1= William T. L. |last2= Abramson |first2= Lyn Y. |last3= Devine |first3= Patricia G. |last4= Hollon |first4= Steven D. |year= 2012 |title= Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective |journal= [[Perspectives on Psychological Science (journal)|Perspectives on Psychological Science]] |volume= 7 |issue= 5 |pages= 427–449 |publisher= |doi= 10.1177/1745691612455204 |url= http://pps.sagepub.com/content/7/5/427.abstract |accessdate= |archive-date= 2012-10-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121020230619/http://pps.sagepub.com/content/7/5/427.abstract |dead-url= yes }}</ref> Historia ya [[dhuluma za kimapenzi]] dhidi ya watoto u<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wegman|first=HL|coauthors=Stetler, C|title=A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychosomatic-medicine_2009-10_71_8/page/805|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|date=2009 Oct|volume=71|issue=8|pages=805–12|pmid=19779142|doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46}}</ref> na muda aliokaa mtu kwenye [[utunzaji wa walezi]] pia huwa vipengele vya hatari.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Oswald|first=SH|coauthors=Heil, K; Goldbeck, L|title=History of maltreatment and mental health problems in foster children: a review of the literature.|journal=Journal of pediatric psychology|date=2010 Jun|volume=35|issue=5|pages=462–72|pmid=20007747|doi=10.1093/jpepsy/jsp114}}</ref> Dhuluma za kimapenzi huaminika kuchangia hadi takriban 20% ya hatari ya kijumla.<ref name=Brent2008/> Maelezo ya [[saikolojia ya mageuko]] kuhusu kujiua ni kwamba kunaweza kuboresha [[uwezo wa kimalezi]]. Hii inaweza kutokea iwapo mtu anayejiua hawezi kupata watoto wengine na anaendelea kutumia raslimali za jamii kwa kuendelea kuishi. Pingamizi ni kuwa vifo vya watu waliobaleghe wenye afya mara nyingi haviongezi uwezo wa kimalezi. [[Utohozi]] katika mazingira tofauti na aliyozaliwa mtu unaweza kupelekea marekebisho mabaya katika mazingira anayoishi mtu kwa sasa.<ref name=Joiner2005/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Confer|first=Jaime C.|coauthors=Easton, Judith A.; Fleischman, Diana S.; Goetz, Cari D.; Lewis, David M. G.; Perilloux, Carin; Buss, David M.|title=Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations.|journal=American Psychologist|date=1 January 2010|volume=65|issue=2|pages=110–126|doi=10.1037/a0018413|pmid=20141266}}</ref> Umaskini huhusishwa na hatari ya kujiua.<ref name=Stark2011>{{cite journal|last=Stark|first=CR|coauthors=Riordan, V; O'Connor, R|title=A conceptual model of suicide in rural areas.|journal=Rural and remote health|year=2011|volume=11|issue=2|page=1622|pmid=21702640}}</ref>Ongezeko la umaskini ukilinganishwa na watu walio karibu huongeza hatari ya kujiua.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Daly|first=Mary|title=Relative Status and Well-Being: Evidence from U.S. Suicide Deaths|journal=Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Working Paper Series|date=Sept 2012|url=http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/papers/2012/wp12-16bk.pdf|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2012-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019134902/http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/papers/2012/wp12-16bk.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Zaidi ya [[wakulima]] 200,000 nchini [[India]] wametekeleza kujiua kuanzia 1997 kwa sababu ya [[deni]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Lerner|first=George|title=Activist: Farmer suicides in India linked to debt, globalization|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-05/world/india.farmer.suicides_1_farmer-suicides-andhra-pradesh-vandana-shiva?_s=PM:WORLD|accessdate=13 February 2013|newspaper=CNN World|date=Jan 5,2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116020225/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-05/world/india.farmer.suicides_1_farmer-suicides-andhra-pradesh-vandana-shiva?_s=PM%3AWORLD|archivedate=2013-01-16}}</ref> Nchini [[China]], uwezo wa kujiua ni mara tatu zaidi katika maeneo ya mashambani kuliko mijini, kufuatia matatizo ya kifedha katika maeneo hayo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Law|first=S|coauthors=Liu, P|title=Suicide in China: unique demographic patterns and relationship to depressive disorder.|journal=Current psychiatry reports|date=2008 Feb|volume=10|issue=1|pages=80–6|pmid=18269899}}</ref> ===Vyombo vya habari=== [[Vyombo vya habari]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[mtandao]], huchangia pakubwa.<ref name=Hawton2012/> Jinsi vyombo hivi vinavyowasilisha kujiua inaweza kuwa na athari mbaya, huku habari zilizotiliwa mkazo, kusisitizwa na kurudiwa huku zikisifia matukio ya kujiua zikiwa na athari kuu zaidi.<ref name=Boh2012>{{cite journal|last=Bohanna|first=I|coauthors=Wang, X|title=Media guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide: a review of effectiveness.|journal=Crisis|year=2012|volume=33|issue=4|pages=190–8|pmid=22713977|doi=10.1027/0227-5910/a000137}}</ref> Mbinu moja ya kujiua inapoangaziwa kwa kina, umaarufu wake unaweza kuongezeka kwenye umma.<ref name=Yip2012/> Kichochezi cha kusambaza hisia za kujiua au [[uigaji kujiua]] hujulikana kama [[athari ya Werther]] kutokana na [[mhusika]] mkuu katika [[kitabu]] cha [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' aliyejiua.<ref name=Sia2012/>Hatari hii ni kubwa zaidi katika vijana wanaosifia [[kifo]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stack S |title=Suicide in the media: a quantitative review of studies based on non-fictional stories |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_suicide-life-threatening-behavior_2005-04_35_2/page/121 |journal=Suicide Life Threat Behav |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=121–33|year=2005 |month=April |pmid=15843330 |doi=10.1521/suli.35.2.121.62877 }}</ref> Inaonekana kuwa, ingawa vyombo vya habari vina ushawishi mkubwa, ushawishi wa vyombo vya burudani ni wa kupotosha. Kinyume cha athari ya Werther ni ile inayoitwa athari ya Papageno, ambapo kuwasilisha habari kuhusu mbinu mwafaka za ukabilianaji kunaweza kupelekea matokeo bora ya kinga. Neno hili linatokana na mhusika katika [[tamthilia]] ya [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart] iitwayo ''[[The Magic Flute]]''. Mhusika huyu alitaka kujiua kwa kuogopa kumtopeza mpenzi wake hadi marafiki zake wakamshawishi asijiue. <ref name=Sia2012>{{cite journal|last=Sisask|first=M|coauthors=Värnik, A|title=Media roles in suicide prevention: a systematic review.|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=2012 Jan|volume=9|issue=1|pages=123–38|pmid=22470283|doi=10.3390/ijerph9010123|pmc=3315075}}</ref> Hatari ya kujiua inaweza kupungua iwapo vyombo vya habari vitafuatilia miongozo inayofaa ya kuripoti.<ref name=Boh2012/> Inaweza kuwa vigumu kupata uwajibikaji wa wataalamu wa [[mawasiliano]], hasa katika muda mrefu wa usoni.<ref name=Boh2012/> ===Kujiua kirazini=== Kujiua ki[[razini]] ni kujiua baada ya kufanya uamuzi kwa [[akili timamu]], <ref name=Loue2008>{{cite book|last=Loue|first=Sana|title=Encyclopedia of aging and public health : with 19 tables|year=2008|publisher=Springer|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-387-33753-1|page=696|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=rTMrB0AutLwC&pg=PA696}}</ref> ingawa baadhi ya watu husema kuwa kujiua hakuwezi kuwa jambo la [[busara]].<ref name=Loue2008/>Kitendo cha kujiua ili kuwanufaisha watu wengine hujulikana kama [[kujiua kiutu]].<ref name=Moody2010>{{cite book|last=Moody|first=Harry R.|title=Aging : concepts and controversies|year=2010|publisher=Pine Forge Press|location=Los Angeles|isbn=978-1-4129-6966-6|page=158|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=qj8GS77QAgwC&pg=PA158|edition=6th ed.}}</ref> Mfano wa aina hii ni mzee akijiua ili kuwaachia watoto wake mali nyingi katika jamii.<ref name=Moody2010/> Katika baadhi ya tamaduni za [[Eskimo]], hatua ya kujiua kiutu imeonekana kama kitendo cha heshima, ujasiri au hekima.<ref name=Hales2012/> [[Shambulio la kujiua]] ni kitendo cha kisiasa ambapo mshambulizi huwavamia watu wengine akifahamu kuwa kitendo hicho kitapelekea kifo chake. <ref>{{cite book|last=editor|first=Tarek Sobh,|title=Innovations and advances in computer sciences and engineering|year=2010|publisher=Springer Verlag|location=Dordrecht|isbn=978-90-481-3658-2|page=503|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=B-Zf1sQZapMC&pg=PA503|edition=Online-Ausg.}}</ref> Baadhi ya watu wanaojiua kwa bomu hufanya hivyo ili kupata umaarufu wa [[ufiadini]].<ref name=Martyr2009/> Mashambulizi ya [[Kamikaze]] yalitekelezwa kama wito mkuu au wajibu wa kimaadili.<ref name=Hales2012>{{cite book|last=Hales|first=edited by Robert I. Simon, Robert E.|title=The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of suicide assessment and management|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub.|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-1-58562-414-0|page=714|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=H8tigTjBCRkC&pg=PA714|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> [[Kujiua baada ya mauaji]] ni kitendo cha [[uuaji wa binadamu]] kinachofuatiwa punde na mtu aliyetekeleza mauaji hayo kujiua mwenyewe.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eliason|first=S|title=Murder-suicide: a review of the recent literature.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-academy-of-psychiatry-and-the-law_2009_37_3/page/371|journal=The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|year=2009|volume=37|issue=3|pages=371–6|pmid=19767502}}</ref> [[Mauaji ya halaiki]] mara nyingi hutekelezwa chini ya [[ushawishi wa rika|ushawishi wa kijamii]] ambapo washirika humpa kiongozi mamlaka ya kuwafanyia atakavyo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=William Kornblum in collaboration with Carolyn D.|title=Sociology in a changing world|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-1-111-30157-6|page=27|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=DtKcG6qoY5AC&pg=PT51|edition=9e [9th ed].}}</ref> Mauaji ya watu wengi yanaweza kutekelezwa na hata watu wawili tu, maarufu kama [[mkataba wa kujiua]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Robert Jean|title=Campbell's psychiatric dictionary|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-515221-0|page=636|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Vrlsos_O13UC&pg=PA636|edition=8th ed.}}</ref> Katika hali za kujaribu kuhalalisha, ambapo kuendelea kuishi kutapelekea mateso, watu wengi hutumia kujiua kama mbinu ya kuepuka. <ref>{{cite book|last=Veatch|first=ed. by Robert M.|title=Medical ethics|year=1997|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|location=Sudbury, Mass. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-86720-974-7|page=292|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=UCOT4sj-DwUC&pg=PA292|edition=2. ed.}}</ref> Baadhi ya wafungwa katika [[kambi za mkusanyiko]] waliripotiwa kujiua kimakusidi kwa kugusa ua za umeme.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gutman|first=Yisrael|title=Anatomy of the Auschwitz death camp|year=1998|publisher=Publ. in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. by Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-20884-2|page=400|edition=1st pbk. ed.|coauthors=editors, Michael Berenbaum,}}</ref> ==Mbinu== [[File:SuicideCFR.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Uchunguzi vifo kwa kujiua nchini Marekani.<ref name="Miller 393–408"/>]] Mbinu maarufu ya kujiua hutofautiana katika nchi mbalimbali. Mbinu inayoongoza katika maeneo tofauti ni pamoja na [[kujia kwa kujinyonga|kunyonga]], [[kunywa sumu]] na kujiua kwa [[bunduki]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ajdacic-Gross V |title=Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database |journal=Bull. World Health Organ.|volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=726–32 |year=2008|month=September |pmid=18797649 |pmc=2649482 |doi=10.2471/BLT.07.043489 |author-separator=,|author2=Weiss MG |author3=Ring M |display-authors=3 |last4=Hepp |first4=U |last5=Bopp |first5=M|last6=Gutzwiller |first6=F |last7=Rössler |first7=W}}</ref> Tofauti hizi zinaaminika kusababishwa na upatikanaji wa mbinu mbalimbali kulingana na kila eneo.<ref name=Yip2012/> Mapitio ya nchi 56 yalionyesha kuwa mbinu ya kujinyonga ilikuwa maarufu zaidi katika idadi kubwa ya nchi hizi, <ref>Ajdacic-Gross, Vladeta, ''et al''.{{PDFlink|[http://www.scielosp.org/pdf/bwho/v86n9/a17v86n9.pdf "Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database"]|267&nbsp;KB}}. ''[[Bulletin of the World Health Organization]]'' '''86''' (9): 726–732. September 2008. Accessed 2 August 2011.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110920054902/http://www.scielosp.org/pdf/bwho/v86n9/a17v86n9.pdf Archived] 2 August 2011. See[http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-043489/en/index.html html version] {{Wayback|url=http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-043489/en/index.html |date=20131208175622 }}. The data can be seen here [http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/0042-9686_86_07-043489-table-T1.html] {{Wayback|url=http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/0042-9686_86_07-043489-table-T1.html |date=20110923003222 }}</ref> ikihasibia 53% ya visa vya kujiua kwa wanaume na 39% katika wanawake. <ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Rory C.|editor1-last=O'Connor |editor2-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Platt |editor3-first=Jacki|editor3-last=Gordon |title=International Handbook of Suicide Prevention: Research, Policy and Practice|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3fDGLWQtwFkC&pg=PA34 |date=1 June 2011 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-119-99856-3|page=34}}</ref> Kote ulimwenguni, 30% ya visa vya kujiua hutokana na kunywa sumu. Visa vya kutumia mbinu hii, hata hivyo ni tofauti sana, kutoka 4% bara Uropa hadi zaidi ya 50% katika eneo la Pasifiki. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F |title=The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=7 |page=357 |year=2007 |pmid=18154668 |pmc=2262093|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-7-357}}</ref> Mbinu hii pia ni maarufu [[Marekani Kusini]] kwa sababu ya hali rahisi ya kupatikana kwa sumu za ukulima. <ref name=Yip2012/> Katika nchi nyingi, kuzidisha kipimo cha dawa husababisha takriban 60% ya visa vya kujiua miongoni mwa wanawake na 30% katika wanaume.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geddes|first=John|title=Psychiatry|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-923396-0|page=62|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=F4THKWvbAPEC&pg=PA62|edition=4th ed.|coauthors=Price, Jonathan; Gelder, Rebecca McKnight; with Michael; Mayou, Richard}}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya vifo hivi hutokea bila mpango, na hutokea katika kipindi kikali cha mashaka.<ref name=Yip2012/> Kiasi cha vifo hutofautiana na mbinu iliyotumika; bunduki: 80-90%, kuzama: 65-80%, kujinyonga: 60-85%, mivuke ya gari: 40-60%, kujirusha: 35-60%, [[kujiua kwa moshi wa makaa|kuchoma makaa]]: 40-50%, sumu ya kuua wadudu: 6-75%, kuzidisha kiasi cha dawa: 1.5-4%.<ref name=Yip2012/> Mbinu za kujiua zilizojaribiwa zaidi hutofautiana na mbinu kuu zaidi, huku kukiwa na 85% ya majaribio ya kuzidisha kiasi cha dawa katika mataifa yaliyostawi.<ref name=Tint2010/> Nchini Marekani, 57% ya visa vya kujiua vimehusisha kutumia bunduki, huku mbinu hii ikitumiwa zaidi na wanaume kuliko wanawake. <ref name=EB2011/> Mbinu iliyofuatia kwa umaarufu ni kujinyonga katika wanaume na kunywa sumu katika wanawake.<ref name=EB2011/> Mbinu hizi kwa pamoja zilichangia 40% ya visa vya kujiua nchini Marekani. <ref name=USStats2005>{{cite web|url=http://www.suicide.org/suicide-statistics.html |title=U.S. Suicide Statistics (2005) |accessdate=2008-03-24}}</ref> Nchini Uswisi, ambapo takriban kila mtu humiliki bunduki, idadi kubwa zaidi ya visa vya kujiua ni kwa kujinyonga. <ref>{{cite book|last=Eshun|first=edited by Sussie|title=Culture and mental health sociocultural influences, theory, and practice|year=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, U.K.|isbn=9781444305814|page=301|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Y6uUDBBGqF4C&pg=PA301|coauthors=Gurung, Regan A.R.}}</ref> Visa vya kujiua ni maarufu nchini [[Hong kong]] na [[Singapore]] huku vikiwa 50% na 80% mtawalia. <ref name=Yip2012/> Nchini Uchina, mbinu kuu zaidi ni kunywa sumu. <ref name=WRVp196>{{cite book|last=Krug|first=Etienne|title=World Report on Violence and Health, Volume 1|year=2002|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Genève|isbn=9789241545617|page=196|pages=http://books.google.ca/books?id=db9OHpk-TksC&pg=PA196}}</ref> Nchini Japani, kujitoa matumbo, yaani [[seppuku]] au hara-kiri, bado hutokea, <ref name=WRVp196/>ingawa kujinyonga ndiyo njia kuu zaidi. <ref>{{cite book|last=(editor)|first=Diego de Leo|title=Suicide and euthanasia in older adults : a transcultural journey|url=https://archive.org/details/suicideeuthanasi0000unse|year=2001|publisher=Hogrefe & Huber|location=Toronto|isbn=9780889372511|page=[https://archive.org/details/suicideeuthanasi0000unse/page/121 121]}}</ref> ==Pathofisiolojia== Hakuna [[pathofisiolojia]] ya kujiua au mfadhaiko iliyo bayana, unganishi na ya kimsingi. <ref name=EB2011/> Hata hivyo, kujiua huaminika kutokana na mwingilianao wa vipengele vya kimtindo, kimazingira na kijamii na magonjwa ya akili. <ref name=Yip2012/> Viwango vya chini vya [[kipengele cha neurotrofiki zitokanazo na ubongo]] (KNZU) huhusishwa moja kwa moja na kujiua <ref>{{cite journal|last=Pjevac|first=M|coauthors=Pregelj, P|title=Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour.|journal=Psychiatria Danubina|date=2012 Oct|volume=24 Suppl 3|pages=S336-41|pmid=23114813}}</ref> na pasipo moja kwa moja jinsi vinavyochangia mfadhaiko mkuu, matatizo ya baada ya kiwewe, skizofrenia na [[matatizo ya ung’ang’anizi shurutishi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sher|first=L|title=The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the pathophysiology of adolescent suicidal behavior.|journal=International journal of adolescent medicine and health|year=2011|volume=23|issue=3|pages=181–5|pmid=22191181}}</ref> Uchunguzi wa [[Atopsi|Uchunguzi maiti]] umetambua viwango vya chini vya KNZU katika [[hipokampasi]] na [[koteksi ya mbele]] kwa watu walio au wasio na hali za ugonjwa wa akili. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Sher|first=L|title=Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and suicidal behavior.|journal=QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians|date=2011 May|volume=104|issue=5|pages=455–8|pmid=21051476|doi=10.1093/qjmed/hcq207}}</ref> [[Serotonini]], ambayo ni [[niurotransmita]] ya ubongo, huanimika kuwa katika kiwango cha chini katika watu wanaojiua. Hii ni kwa kimsingi wa kupatikana kwa viwango vya juu vya [[kipokezi cha 5- HT2A]] vinavyopatikana baada ya kufa. <ref name=Dwi2012>{{cite book|last=Dwivedi|first=Yogesh|title=The neurobiological basis of suicide|year=2012|publisher=Taylor & Francis/CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-1-4398-3881-5|page=166|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=5hcOf_SM-U0C&pg=PA166}}</ref> Ushahidi mwingine ni pamoja na viwango vya chini vya [[asidi ya hidroksindoletisia-5]], zao linalopatikana baada ya serotonini kumeng’enywa, katika [[kiowevu cha uti wa mgongo]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stein|first=edited by George|title=Seminars in general adult psychiatry|year=2007|publisher=Gaskell|location=London|isbn=978-1-904671-44-2|page=145|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=6PGzHFuS1xkC&pg=PA145|edition=2. ed.|coauthors=Wilkinson, Greg}}</ref> Hata hivyo, ushahidi wa moja kwa moja ni mgumu kupata. <ref name=Dwi2012/> [[Epigenetikia]], somo la mabadiliko ya udhihirisho wa kijeni katika kuitikia vipengele vya kimazingira visivyobadilisha [[DNA]], pia inaaminika kuchangia katika kubaini hatari ya kujiua.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Autry|first=AE|coauthors=Monteggia, LM|title=Epigenetics in suicide and depression.|journal=Biological Psychiatry|date=2009 Nov 1|volume=66|issue=9|pages=812–3|pmid=19833253|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.08.033|pmc=2770810}}</ref> ==Kinga== [[File:suicidemessageggb01252006.JPG|thumb|Kama mpango wa kuzuia visa vya kujiua, picha hii inahamsisha kuhusu simu maalum kwenye [[Daraja la Golden Gate]] iliyounganishwa na [[simu ya dharura ya ushauri]].]] Kuzuia kujiua ni neno linalotumika kumaanisha juhudi za pamoja za kupunguza matukio ya kujiua kupitia hatua za kuzuia. Kupunguza ufikiaji mbinu fulani za kujiua, kama vile bunduki au sumu, hupunguza hatari hii. <ref name=Yip2012/><ref name=WHO2012/> Hatua nyingine ni pamoja na kupunguza ufikiaji makaa na kuweka vizuizi kwenye madaraja na reli za chini ya ardhi. <ref name=Yip2012/> Matibabu dhidi ya uraibu wa dawa za kulevya na pombe, mfadhaiko na majaribio ya kujiua pia yanaweza kuwa mwafaka. <ref name=WHO2012/> Baadhi ya wataalam wamependekeza ufikiaji pombe kama mkakati wa kuzuia (kama vile kupunguza idadi za baa.) <ref name=Drug2011>{{cite journal|last=Vijayakumar|first=L|coauthors=Kumar, MS; Vijayakumar, V|title=Substance use and suicide.|journal=Current opinion in psychiatry|date=2011 May|volume=24|issue=3|pages=197–202|pmid=21430536|doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283459242}}</ref> Ingawa [[simu ya dharura ya ushauri]] hutumika sana, ushahidi uliopo ni mdogo wa kuunga mkono au kupinga ufanisi wake. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Sakinofsky|first=I|title=The current evidence base for the clinical care of suicidal patients: strengths and weaknesses|journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry|date=2007 Jun|volume=52|issue=6 Suppl 1|pages=7S–20S|pmid=17824349}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Suicide|url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter3/sec5_1.html|work=The United States Surgeon General|accessdate=4 September 2011}}</ref> Katika vijana ambao awali wamekusudia kujiua, [[matibabu ya kubadilisha mawazo]] yametambulika kuboresha matokeo. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Robinson|first=J|coauthors=Hetrick, SE; Martin, C|title=Preventing suicide in young people: systematic review.|journal=The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry|date=2011 Jan|volume=45|issue=1|pages=3–26|pmid=21174502|doi=10.3109/00048674.2010.511147}}</ref> [[Ukuaji wa uchumi]] unaweza kupunguza viwango vya visa vya kujiua kupitia uwezo wake wa kupunguza umaskini. <ref name=Stark2011/> Juhudi za kuongeza mahusiano ya kijamii, hasa katika wanaume wazee zinaweza kuwa mwafaka. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Fässberg|first=MM|coauthors=van Orden, KA; Duberstein, P; Erlangsen, A; Lapierre, S; Bodner, E; Canetto, SS; De Leo, D; Szanto, K; Waern, M|title=A systematic review of social factors and suicidal behavior in older adulthood.|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=3|pages=722–45|pmid=22690159|doi=10.3390/ijerph9030722|pmc=3367273}}</ref> ===Uchunguzi wa kimatibabu=== Takwimu zilizopo hazitoshi kuelezea matokeo ya uchunguzi wa kimatibabu kwa umma na viwango vya hatima vya viwango vya kujiua. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=SB|coauthors=O'Connor, EA; Eder, M; Whitlock, EP|title=Screening for child and adolescent depression in primary care settings: a systematic evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2009 Apr|volume=123|issue=4|pages=e716-35|pmid=19336361|doi=10.1542/peds.2008-2415}}</ref> Kwa kuwa kuna watu wengi wasio katika hatari ya kujiua wanaopata matokeo chanya kupitia mbinu hii, kuna wasiwasi kuwa uchunguzi unaweza kuongeza kwa kiasi kikubwa utumiaji wa raslimali za huduma ya afya. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Horowitz|first=LM|coauthors=Ballard, ED; Pao, M|title=Suicide screening in schools, primary care and emergency departments.|journal=Current Opinion in Pediatrics|date=2009 Oct|volume=21|issue=5|pages=620–7|pmid=19617829|doi=10.1097/MOP.0b013e3283307a89|pmc=2879582}}</ref> Hata hivyo, inapendekezwa kuwachunguza watu walio katika hatari kuu ya kujiua. <ref name=EB2011/> Kuuliza kuhusu uwezo wa kujiua hakuonekani kuongeza hatari hii.<ref name=EB2011/> ===Maradhi ya akili=== Katika watu walio na matatizo ya akili, aina kadhaa za matibabu zinaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua. Watu walio na hisia za kujiua wanaweza kulazwa katika kituo cha utunzaji wa kiakili, kwa hiari au bila hiari yao. <ref name=EB2011/> Kwa kawaida, vifaa anavyoweza kutumia mtu kujiumiza huondolewa. <ref name=Tint2010>{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E. |title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)) |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies |location=New York |year=2010|pages=1940–1946|isbn=0-07-148480-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Baadhi ya madaktari huwaagiza wagonjwa kutia saini [[mkataba wa kuzuia kujiua]] ambapo wanaahidi kutojiumiza iwapo wataachiliwa. <ref name=EB2011/> Hata hivyo, ushahidi hauonyeshi matokeo mengi ya hatua hii. <ref name=EB2011/> Iwapo mtu yuko katika kiasi kidogo cha hatari, matibabu ya [[mgonjwa]] wa nje yanaweza kupangiwa. <ref name=Tint2010/> Kulazwa kwa muda mfupi hospitalini hakujatambulika kuwa na ufanisi zaidi ya utunzaji wa kijamii ili kunufaisha matokeo kwa wale walio na [[tatizo la nafsi hafifu]], ambao huwa na hisia za muda mrefu za kujiua. <ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Paris|first=J|title=Is hospitalization useful for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-disorders_2004-06_18_3/page/240|journal=Journal of personality disorders|date=June 2004|volume=18|issue=3|pages=240–7|pmid=15237044|doi=10.1521/pedi.18.3.240.35443}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Goodman|first=M|coauthors=Roiff, T; Oakes, AH; Paris, J|title=Suicidal risk and management in borderline personality disorder.|journal=Current psychiatry reports|date=2012 Feb|volume=14|issue=1|pages=79–85|pmid=22113831|doi=10.1007/s11920-011-0249-4}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha kuwa [[matibabu ya kisaikolojia]], hasa [[matibabu ya kitabia ya upembuzi]], hupunguza uwezo wa kujiua katika vijana baleghe <ref name=Can2010>{{cite journal|last=Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health|first=(CADTH)|title=Dialectical behaviour therapy in adolescents for suicide prevention: systematic review of clinical-effectiveness.|journal=CADTH technology overviews|year=2010|volume=1|issue=1|pages=e0104|pmid=22977392|pmc=3411135}}</ref> pamoja na wale walio na [[tatizo la nafsi hafifu]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stoffers|first=JM|coauthors=Völlm, BA; Rücker, G; Timmer, A; Huband, N; Lieb, K|title=Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Aug 15|volume=8|pages=CD005652|pmid=22895952|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005652.pub2}}</ref> Hata hivyo, ushahidi haujapata upungufu katika visa kamilifu vya kujiua. <ref name=Can2010/> Kuna utata kuhusu manufaa ya [[matibabu ya mfadhaiko]], ikilinganishwa na madhara yake. <ref name=Hawton2012/> Katika vijana, matibabu mapya zaidi, kama vile [[Kizuizi chaguzi cha uchukuzi wa serotonini|KCUS]] huaminiwa kuongeza hatari ya kujiua kutoka watu 25 hadi 40 kwa kila 1000. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Hetrick|first=SE|coauthors=McKenzie, JE; Cox, GR; Simmons, MB; Merry, SN|title=Newer generation antidepressants for depressive disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Nov 14|volume=11|pages=CD004851|pmid=23152227|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004851.pub3}}</ref> Hata hivyo, katika watu wazee,matibabu haya yanawaweza kupunguza hatari ya kujiua.<ref name=EB2011/> [[Lithiamu]] huaminika kuwa mwafaka katika kupunguza hatari katika watu walio na maradhi ya hisia mseto na maradhi ya mfadhaiko mkuu hadi kufikia viwango sawa na watu wengine wa kawaida. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Baldessarini|first=RJ|coauthors=Tondo, L; Hennen, J|title=Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|year=2003|volume=64 Suppl 5|pages=44–52|pmid=12720484}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cipriani|first=A|coauthors=Pretty, H; Hawton, K; Geddes, JR|title=Lithium in the prevention of suicidal behavior and all-cause mortality in patients with mood disorders: a systematic review of randomized trials.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2005-10_162_10/page/1805|journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry|date=2005 Oct|volume=162|issue=10|pages=1805–19|pmid=16199826|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1805}}</ref> ==Uenezi== [[File:Self-inflicted injuries world map - Death - WHO2004.svg|thumb|left| Vifo kutokana na majeraha ya kujidhuru kwa kila watu 100,000&nbsp; mwaka wa 2004. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2009 |work=World Health Organization}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|unknown}} {{legend|#ffff65|<3}} {{legend|#fff200|3-6}} {{legend|#ffdc00|6-9}} {{legend|#ffc600|9-12}} {{legend|#ffb000|12-15}} {{legend|#ff9a00|15-18}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|18-21}} {{legend|#ff6e00|21-24}} {{legend|#ff5800|24-27}} {{legend|#ff4200|27-30}} {{legend|#ff2c00|30-33}} {{legend|#cb0000|>33}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Takriban 0.5% hadi 1.4% ya watu hufikia kifo kwa kujiua. <ref name=Var2012/><ref name=EB2011/> Kote ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2008/2009, kujiua ni kisababishi cha kumi kikuu <ref name=Hawton2009/>, huku takriban watu 800,000 hadi milioni moja wakifa kila mwaka, ikipelekea [[kima cha vifo]] cha watu 11.6 kwa kila 100,00 kwa mwaka. <ref name=Var2012/> Kima cha vifo kimeongezeka hadi 60% kutoka miaka ya 1960 hadi 2012, <ref name=WHO2012>{{cite web |title=Suicide prevention |publisher=World Health Organization|date=Aug 31,2012|work=WHO Sites: Mental Health|url=http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/|accessdate=2013-01-13}}</ref> huku ongezeko hili likitambulika hasa katika [[nchi zinazostawi|mataifa yanayostawi]].<ref name=Hawton2009/> Kwa kila kisa cha kujiua, kuna majaribio mengine 10 hadi 14 ya kujiua. <ref name=EB2011/> Viwango vya kujiua hutofautiana pakubwa kati ya nchi na wakati. <ref name=Var2012>{{cite journal|last=Värnik|first=P|title=Suicide in the world.|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=3|pages=760–71|pmid=22690161|doi=10.3390/ijerph9030760|pmc=3367275}}</ref> Takwimu kwa asilimia ya vifo mwaka wa 2008 zilikuwa: Afrika 0.5%, Kusini Mashariki mwa Asia 1.9%, Marekani 1.2 na Uropa 1.4%. <ref name=Var2012/> Viwango kwa kila watu 100,00 vilikuwa: Australia 8.6, Canada 11.1, Uchina 12.7, India 23.2, Uingereza 7.6, Marekani 11.4. <ref>{{cite web|title=Deaths estimates for 2008 by cause for WHO Member States|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html|publisher=World Health Organization|accessdate=10 February 2013}}</ref> Kujiua kumerodheshwa katika nafasi ya 10 kama [[kifo|kisababishi cha kifo]] kinachoongoza nchini Marekani mwaka wa 2009, ikiwa ni takriban visa 36,000 kila mwaka. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Haney|first=EM|coauthors=O'Neil, ME; Carson, S; Low, A; Peterson, K; Denneson, LM; Oleksiewicz, C; Kansagara, D|title=Suicide Risk Factors and Risk Assessment Tools: A Systematic Review|date=2012 Mar|pmid=22574340}}</ref> Takriban watu 650,000 hupatikana katika idara ya dharura kila mwaka kutokana na majaribio ya kujiua. <ref name=EB2011/> Nchi za [[Lithuania]], Japani na Hangeria zina viwango vikubwa zaidi vya aina za kujiua. <ref name=Var2012/> Nchi zilizo na idadi kuu zaidi ya visa vya kujiua ni Uchina na India, zikihasibia zaidi ya nusu yaidadi yote <ref name=Var2012/> Nchini Uchina, kujiua ni kisababishi cha 5 kikuu cha kifo. <ref name=China2009/> ===Jinsia=== {{Double image|right|Suicide world map - 2009 Male.svg|200|Suicide world map - 2009 Female,2.svg|200|Suicide rate per 100,000 males (left) and female (right) (data from 1978–2008). {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|< 1}} {{legend|#fff200|1–5}} {{legend|#ffdc00|5–5.8}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ffc600|5.8–8.5}} {{legend|#ffb000|8.5–12}} {{legend|#ff9a00|12–19}} {{legend|#ff8400|19–22.5}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff6e00|22.5–26}} {{legend|#ff5800|26–29.5}} {{legend|#ff4200|29.5–33}} {{legend|#ff2c00|33–36.5}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#cb0000|>36.5}} {{Multicol-end}} ||}} Katika mataifa ya magharibi, wanaume hufa mara 3 hadi 4 zaidi kutokana na kujiua kuliko wanawake, ingawa wanawake hujaribu kujiua mara 4 zaidi. <ref name=Var2012/><ref name=EB2011/> Hali hii imesababishwa na wanaume kutumia mbinu kali zaidi za kujiua. <ref name=Sue2012>{{cite book|last=Sue|first=David Sue, Derald Wing Sue, Diane Sue, Stanley|title=Understanding abnormal behavior|publisher=Wadsworth/Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-1-111-83459-3|page=255|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=mTs--Kt-9a0C&pg=PA255|edition=Tenth ed., [student ed.]}}</ref> Tofauti hii inadhihirika zaidi katika watu wa umri wa zaidi ya miaka 65, huku visa vya kujiua kwa wanaume vikiwa zaidi ya vya wanawake kwa hadi mara 10. <ref name=Sue2012/> [[Uchina]] kuna mojawapo ya viwango vikuu zaidi vya kujiua kwa wanawake duniani, na ndiyo nchi pekee ambapo viwango vya kujiua kwa wanawake ni zaidi ya wanaume (uwiano wa 0.9). <ref name=Var2012/><ref name=China2009>{{cite journal|last=Weiyuan|first=C|title=Women and suicide in rural China.|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2009 Dec|volume=87|issue=12|pages=888–9|pmid=20454475|doi=10.2471/BLT.09.011209|pmc=2789367}}</ref> Katika Mashariki mwa [[Mediteranea]], viwango vya kujiua ni karibu sawa baina ya wanaume na wanawake. <ref name=Var2012/> Katika wanawake, viwango vikubwa vya visa vya kujiua vinapatikana [[Korea Kusini]], ikiwa ni watu 22 kwa watu 100,000, huku kukiwa na viwango vya juu Asia ya Kusini Mashariki na Magharibi mwa Pasifiki kwa jumla.<ref name=Var2012/> Siku hizi linajitokeza pia suala la kujiua kwa [[msenge|wasenge]] <ref>https://www.heritage.org/gender/report/puberty-blockers-cross-sex-hormones-and-youth-suicide?inf_contact_key=86b22e8dd681576dcc0588920cc6f65d842e902fbefb79ab9abae13bfcb46658</ref> ===Umri=== Visa vingi vya kujiua katika nchi nyingi hutokea katika watu wa umri wa makamo<ref name=Pit2012>{{cite journal|last=Pitman|first=A|coauthors=Krysinska, K; Osborn, D; King, M|title=Suicide in young men.|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jun 23|volume=379|issue=9834|pages=2383–92|pmid=22726519|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60731-4}}</ref> au wazee.<ref name=Yip2012>{{cite journal|last=Yip|first=PS|coauthors=Caine, E; Yousuf, S; Chang, SS; Wu, KC; Chen, YY|title=Means restriction for suicide prevention.|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jun 23|volume=379|issue=9834|pages=2393–9|pmid=22726520|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60521-2}}</ref> Hata hivyo, idadi kamili ya visa vya kujiua ni vingi katika watu wa umri wa kati ya miaka 15 na 29, kwa sababu ya idadi ya watu iliyopo katika kikundi hiki.<ref name=Var2012/> Nchini Merikani, visa hivi hutokea kwa wingi katika [[wanaume wa asili ya kizungu|kizungu]], hasa wa umri wa zaidi ya miaka 80, ingawa watu wa umri wa chini hujaribu kujiua mara nyingi.<ref name=EB2011/> Kujiua ni kisababishi cha pili kikuu cha vifo katika umri wa [[kubaleghe|baleghe]]<ref name=Hawton2012>{{cite journal|last=Hawton|first=K|coauthors=Saunders, KE; O'Connor, RC|title=Self-harm and suicide in adolescents.|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jun 23|volume=379|issue=9834|pages=2373–82|pmid=22726518|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60322-5}}</ref> na katika wanaume wachanga ni cha pili baada ya vifo vya kiajali. <ref name=Pit2012/> Katika mataifa yaliyostawi, visa hivi ni visababishi vya 30% ya vifo vya wanaume wachanga.<ref name=Pit2012/> Katika mataifa yanayostawi, viwango vya visa hivi ni sawa, ingawa kwa ujumla huchangia idadi ndogo ya vifo vya kijumla kufuatia kiwango cha juu cha vifo kutokana na [[kiwewe (matibabu)|kiwewe]].<ref name=Pit2012/> Kinyume na sehemu zingine, vifo kufuatia kujiua katika Kusini Mashariki mwa Asia hutokea zaidi katika wanawake wachanga kuliko waliokomaa.<ref name=Var2012/> ==Historia== [[Image:106 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel CVI.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kujiua kwa Decebalus, kutoka katika [[Safu ya Trajan]].]] Katika [[Athene|Atheni ya Kale]], mtu aliyejiua bila idhini ya serikali alinyimwa haki ya kuzikwa kwa njia ya kawaida. Mtu huyu alizikwa peke yake, mpakani mwa jiji, bila kiashirio chochote cha kaburi lake.<ref>{{cite book|last=Szasz|first=Thomas|title=Fatal freedom : the ethics and politics of suicide|year=1999|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=978-0-275-96646-1|page=11|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=5AqzlMdurkcC&pg=PA11}}</ref> Katika [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] na [[Roma ya Kale]], njia ya kujiua ilikubaliwa kama njia ya kuonyesha kushindwa vitani <ref name=Maris2000/>. Ingawa kujiua kulikubalika mwanzoni katika Roma ya kale, baadaye kuliharamishwa kama kosa dhidi ya serikali kwa sababu ya gharama za kiuchumi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dickinson|first=Michael R. Leming, George E.|title=Understanding dying, death, and bereavement|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=978-0-495-81018-6|page=290|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=L8ETDRsB8ZYC&pg=PA290|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> Amri ya uhalifu iliyotolewa na [[Louis XIV wa Ufaransa]] mwaka wa 1670 ilitoa adhabu kali zaidi: maiti ya mtu aliyejiua ilibururwa mitaani huku kichwa kikielekezwa chini, kisha kuninginishwa au kutupwa kenye biwi la takataka. Vile vile, mali yote ya mshukiwa ilichukuliwa.<ref>{{cite book|first=ed. by W.S.F. Pickering|title=Durkheim's Suicide : a century of research and debate|year=2000|publisher=Routledge|location=London [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-415-20582-5|page=69|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9KQO6dGY1cwC&pg=PA69|edition=1. publ.}}</ref><ref name=Maris540>{{cite book|last=Maris|first=Ronald|title=Comprehensive textbook of suicidology|year=2000|publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=978-1-57230-541-0|page=540|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Zi-xoFAPnPMC&pg=PA540}}</ref>. Katika historia ya Ukristo, watu waliojaribu kujiua walikuwa [[kutengwa|wakitengwa]], huku waliokufa kufuatia kujiua wakizikwa nje ya eneo takatifu la makaburi.<ref name=McL2007/> Katika miaka ya mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 nchini Uingereza, jaribio la kujiua lilifananishwa na [[jaribio la kuua]] na adhabu yake ilikuwa kunyongwa.<ref name=McL2007/> Katika karne ya 19 barani Uropa, mtazamo wa kujiua ulibadilishwa kutoka mtazamo kuwa kulisababishwa na [[dhambi]], hadi kuwa kulisababiswa na [[wazimu]].<ref name=Maris540/>. ==Jamii na Utamaduni== ===Sheria=== [[File:Wakisashi-sepukku-p1000699.jpg|thumb|A ''[[tantō]]'' Kisu kilichotayarishwia ''[[seppuku]]''.]] Katika mataifa mengi ya Ulaya, kujiua hakuchukuliwi tena kama hatia,<ref>{{cite book|last=White|first=Tony|title=Working with suicidal individuals : a guide to providing understanding, assessment and support|year=2010|publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers|location=London|isbn=978-1-84905-115-6|page=12|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=p_ZvK-DBYfIC&pg=PT12}}</ref> ingawa mtazamo huo ulikuwepo katika mataifa mengi ya Uropa kuanzia [[Enzi za Kati]] hadi angalau [[miaka ya 1800]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Paperno|first=Irina|title=Suicide as a cultural institution in Dostoevsky's Russia|year=1997|publisher=Cornell university press|location=Ithaca|isbn=978-0-8014-8425-4|page=60|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=m3pqf8f-6bMC&pg=PA60}}</ref> Mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu huchukulia bado kujiua kama hatia.<ref name="Islam2006"/> Nchini [[Australia]], kujiua si hatia.<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=David Lanham&nbsp;... [et|title=Criminal laws in Australia|year=2006|publisher=The Federation Press|location=Annandale, N.S.W.|isbn=978-1-86287-558-6|page=229|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=D97doQ1iZx4C&pg=PA229}}</ref> Hata hivyo, ni hatia kumshauri, [[uchochezi|kumchochea]], au kumsadia na kumshawishi mtu kujaribu kujiua. Sheria inamruhusu kikamilifu mtu yeyote kutumia "kiwango chochote cha nguvu kama itakavyohitajika" ili kumzuia mwingine asijiue.<ref>{{cite book|last=Duffy|first=Michael Costa, Mark|title=Labor, prosperity and the nineties : beyond the bonsai economy|year=1991|publisher=Federation Press|location=Sydney|isbn=978-1-86287-060-4|page=315|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=TqZqTHwvCH8C&pg=PA315|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Milki ya Kaskazini mwa Australia iliruhusu, kwa muda mfupi kutoka [[1996]] hadi [[1997]], kifo halali cha kusaidiwa na [[daktari]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Quill|first=Constance E. Putnam; foreword by Timothy E.|title=Hospice or hemlock? : searching for heroic compassion|year=2002|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=978-0-89789-921-5|page=143|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=GmFwa3I7vqMC&pg=PA143}}</ref> Barani Uropa, hakuna taifa lolote linalochukulia kitendo au jaribio la kujiua kama hatia kwa sasa.<ref name=McL2007/> [[Uingereza]] na [[Wales]] ziliondoa sheria iliyoharamisha kujiua kupitia [[Sheria ya kijiua ya 1961]], nayo [[Jamhuri]] ya [[Ayalandi]] ikifuatia mwaka wa [[1993]]. <ref name=McL2007/> Neno "kutenda" lilitumika kurejelea uharamu wa kujiua. Hata hivyo, mashirika mengi yamekoma kulitumia kwa sababu ya mtazamo mbaya ya neno hili.<ref>Holt, Gerry.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-14374296 "When suicide was illegal"]. [[BBC News]] 3 August 2011. Accessed 11 August 2011.</ref><ref name=guardian_style>{{cite web|title=Guardian & Observer style guide|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/s|work=Guardian website|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=29 November 2011}}</ref> Nchini India, kujiua ni hatia, na jamii ya mwathiriwa inaweza kushtakiwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Srivastava|first=editors, Nitish Dogra, Sangeet|title=Climate change and disease dynamics in India|publisher=The Energy and Resources Institute|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-7993-412-8|page=256|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=UGrUgX-nKTIC&pg=PA256}}</ref> Nchini Ujerumani, eutenasia ni haramu na mtu anayeshuhudia mwingine akijiua anaweza kuhukumiwa kwa kutotoa usaidizi wakati wa dharura.<ref>"German politician Roger Kusch helped elderly woman to die"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4251894.ece Times Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4251894.ece |date=20100601051855 }} July 2, 2008</ref> [[Uswisi]] hivi majuzi imepiga hatua katika kuruhusu [[usaidizi wa kujiua]] kwa watu walio na ugonjwa wa muda mrefu wa akili. [[Mahakama kuu]] ya [[Lausanne]], katika hukumu moja mwaka wa [[2006]], ilimpa mtu ambaye hakutajwa jina, mwenye tatizo la kiakili la muda mrefu idhini ya kujiua.<ref name=pmid17649899>{{cite journal|author=Appel, JM |title=A Suicide Right for the Mentally Ill? A Swiss Case Opens a New Debate|journal=Hastings Center Report |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=21–23 |year=2007 |pmid=17649899|doi=10.1353/hcr.2007.0035 |month=May }}</ref> Nchini Merikani, kujiua si hatia, ingawa watu wanaojaribu kujiua wanaweza kuadhibiwa.<ref name=McL2007>{{cite book|last=McLaughlin|first=Columba|title=Suicide-related behaviour understanding, caring and therapeutic responses|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester, England|isbn=978-0-470-51241-8|page=24|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=I2FJRbekdC8C&pg=PA24}}</ref> Kujiua kwa kusaidiwa na daktari ni halali katika [[jimbo]] la [[Oregon]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leg.state.or.us/ors/127.html|title=Chapter 127.800–995 The Oregon Death with Dignity Act|publisher=[[Oregon State Legislature]]|accessdate=2013-11-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916065501/http://www.leg.state.or.us/ors/127.html|archivedate=2013-09-16}}</ref> na Washington.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chapter 70.245 RCW, The Washington death with dignity act|url=http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=70.245|work=[[Washington State Legislature]]}}</ref> ===Dini=== [[File:A Hindoo Widow Burning Herself with the Corpse of her Husband.jpg|thumb|Mjane [[Mhindu]] akijichoma pamoja na maiti ya mumewe, miaka ya 1820.]] Katika [[madhehebu]] mengi ya [[Ukristo]] kujiua huchukuliwa kama [[dhambi]], kwa msingi wa [[maandishi]] ya [[wanateolojia]] wenye ushawishi mkuu kama vile [[Agostino wa Hippo]] na [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Hata hivyo, kujiua hakukuchuliwa kama dhambi katika [[kanuni za Justiniani]] za [[Milki ya Bizanti]], kwa mfano.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dr. Ronald Roth, D.Acu.|url=http://www.acu-cell.com/suicide.html|title=Suicide & Euthanasia – a Biblical Perspective|publisher=Acu-cell.com|accessdate=2009-05-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418073913/http://acu-cell.com/suicide.html|archivedate=2009-04-18|=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418073913/http://acu-cell.com/suicide.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/nholland/suicide.htm|title=Norman N. Holland, Literary Suicides: A Question of Style|publisher=Clas.ufl.edu|accessdate=2009-05-06|archivedate=2009-05-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528090133/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/nholland/suicide.htm}}</ref> Katika [[Kanisa Katoliki]], suala la kujiua liko kwenye msingi wa [[Amri Kumi|amri]] "Usiue" (iliyoidhinishwa na Yesu katika [[Agano Jipya]]; taz. [[Injili ya Mathayo|Math 19:18]]), pamoja na dhana kuwa [[uhai]] ni [[zawadi]] kutoka kwa Mungu, hivyo haufai kudhalilishwa au kuchezewa. Vile vile, kuua ni kinyume cha "amri asilia", hivyo huathiri mpango mkuu wa Mungu hapa duniani.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a5.htm#2280 |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – PART 3 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 ARTICLE 5 |publisher=Scborromeo.org |date=1941-06-01|accessdate=2009-05-06}}</ref> Hata hivyo, inaaminiwa kuwa ugonjwa wa akili au woga mkuu wa kuteseka hupunguza jukumu la mtu anayejiua.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a5.htm#2282|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – PART 3 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 ARTICLE 5 |publisher=Scborromeo.org|date=1941-06-01 |accessdate=2009-05-06}}</ref> Hoja pinzani ni pamoja na ifuatayo: kuwa [[Amri Kumi|Amri ya tano]] imefasiliwa kifasaha kama "usitekeleze mauaji", ambayo hailengi moja kwa moja mtu binafsi; yaani Mungu amempa uhuru kila binadamu kujichagulia; ya kuwa mtu akijiua hajavunja Sheria za Mungu, sawa na kuponya ugonjwa; na kuwa visa kadhaa vya watu waliojiua vimesimuliwa katika Biblia bila kuambatana na laana yoyote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/sui_bibl.htm |title=The Bible and Suicide |publisher=Religioustolerance.org |accessdate=2009-05-06 |archivedate=2014-07-15 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140715063310/http://www.religioustolerance.org/sui_bibl.htm }}</ref> Desturi za Kiyahudi huzingatia umuhimu wa kudhamini maisha yaliyopo, hivyo kujiua huchukuliwa kuwa sawa na mtu kujinyima wema wa Mungu duniani. Licha ya hayo, katika hali mbaya ambapo hakuna chaguo lingine ila kuuawa au kulazimishwa kuisaliti dini yao, Wayahudi walijiua binafsi au [[kujiua kwa umati]] (tazama [[Masada]], [[Mateso ya kwanza ya Wayahudi nchini Ufaransa]], na [[York Castle]], kwa mifano). Kwa ukumbusho wa tahadhari, kuna [[sala]] katika [[liturujia]] ya Kiyahudi ya "kisu kiwapo kooni" kwa watu wanaokufa "kulitukuza jina la Mungu "(tazama [[kifodini]]). Matendo haya yamepokewa kwa njia mbalimbali na watawala wa Kiyahudi, huku yakichukuliwa na baadhi ya watu kama mfano bora wa wafiadini mashujaa, huku wengine wakiyachukulia kama hatia kwa watu kujiua kwa kutazamia ufiadini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm |title=Euthanasia and Judaism: Jewish Views of Euthanasia and Suicide |accessdate=2008-09-16 |publisher=ReligionFacts.com |archivedate=2006-05-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506200930/http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm }}</ref> [[Uislamu]] haukubali kujiua.<ref name="Islam2006"/> Katika [[Uhindu]] kwa jumla, kujiua hakukubaliwi, hivyo huchukuliwa kuwa dhambi sawa na kumuua mtu mwingine katika jamii ya kisasa ya Kihindu. [[Maandiko ya Kihindu]] yanasema kuwa mtu anayejiua huingia katika ulimwengu wa pepo, akitangatanga duniani hadi wakati ambapo angekufa iwapo hangejiua.<ref>Hindu Website. [http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_suicide.asp Hinduism and suicide]</ref> Hata hivyo, Uhindu hukubali [[haki ya kujiua]] kupitia njia isiyo na dhuluma ya kujinyima chakula hadi kufa, inayojulikana kama ''[[Prayopavesa]]''.<ref name="hindu">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/euthanasia.shtml|title= Hinduism –Euthanasia and Suicide|date= 2009-08-25|publisher= BBC}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Prayopavesa hukubalika tu kwa watu wasiokuwa na hamu au matarajio, wala majukumu maishani. [[Ujaini]] una desturi sawa na hii, iitwayo ''[[Santhara]]''. Desturi ya [[Sati]], au kujitoa kafara kwa wajane, ilikuwepo katika [[Karne za Kati]]. ===Falsafa=== Maswali mengi yameulizwa katika falsafa ya kujiua, ikiwa ni pamoja na fasili ya kujiua, ikiwa kujiua ni chaguo la busara au la, na kuruhusika kimaadili.<ref name="StanfordSuicide">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suicide/ |title=Suicide (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |accessdate=2009-05-06}}</ref> Mitazamo ya kifalsafa inayohusu kujiua kama jambo linaloweza kukubalika kimaadili hutofautiana kutoka upinzani, (kwa kuchukulia kujiua kama mwiko) hadi kuchukulia kujiua kama haki ya [[Kimungu]] ya mtu yeyote (hata mtoto mwenye afya njema) anayeamini kwamba amefikia, kwa busara na [[dhamiri]], uamuzi wa kukatisha maisha yake. Wapinzani wa kujiua ni pamoja na wanafalsafa Wakristo kama vile [[Agostino wa Hippo]] na [[Thomas Aquinas]],<ref name="StanfordSuicide" /> [[Immanuel Kant]]<ref>Kant, Immanuel. (1785) ''Kant: The Metaphysics of Morals'', M. Gregor (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-521-56673-5. p177.</ref> na, kwa njia moja [[John Stuart Mill]] – malengo ya Mill kuhusu umuhimu wa [[uhuru]] na [[kujitawala]] yalipelekea yeye kupinga chaguo ambazo zingemzuia mtu kufanya uamuzi wa kibinafsi katika siku za usoni.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Safranek John P | year = 1998 | title = Autonomy and Assisted Suicide: The Execution of Freedom | url = | journal = The Hastings Center Report |volume = 28 | issue = 4| page = 33 }}</ref> Watu wengine huchukulia kujiua kama jambo halali la kujichagulia kibinafsi. Waafiki wa dhana hii husisitiza kuwa mtu yeyote hafai kushurutishwa kuteseka kinyume na mapenzi yake, hasa kutokana na hali kama vile ugonjwa usiotibika, ugonjwa wa akili na uzee usiokuwa na uwezekano wa kuimarika. Waafiki hawa hupinga imani ya kwamba, kila wakati, kujiua ni jambo lisilo la busara, badala yake wakihimiza kuwa linaweza kuwa chaguo halali la mwisho, kwa watu wanopitia maumivu makali au dhiki.<ref>Raymond Whiting: A natural right to die: twenty-three centuries of debate, pp. 13–17; Praeger (2001) ISBN 0-313-31474-8</ref> Dhana nyingine yenye msimamo mkali inahimiza kuwa watu wanapaswa kuruhusiwa wajichagulie kufa bila kuzingatia iwapo wanateseka au la. Waafiki mashuhuri wa [[dhana]] hii ni pamoja na mwanafalsafa [[Mskoti]] [[David Hume]]<ref name="StanfordSuicide" /> na Mmarekani mwana bayojilia na maadili [[Jacob M. Appel|Jacob Appel]].<ref name=pmid17649899 /><ref>[[Wesley J. Smith]], Death on Demand: The assisted-suicide movement sheds its fig leaf, ''The Weekly Standard'', June 5, 2007</ref> ===Utetezi=== [[Image:Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps - The Suicide - Walters 3742.jpg|thumb|Katika picha hii iliyochorwa na Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, kisufugutu, bastola na daftari iliyolazwa sakafuni zinaashiria kwamba tukio hili la kutisha limetendeka; mchoraji amejiua.<ref>{{cite web|publisher= [[The Walters Art Museum]] |url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/1589 |title= The Suicide}}</ref>]] Utetezi wa kujiua umetokea katika tamaduni nyingi. [[Jeshi la Japani]], katika Vita vya pili vya dunia, liliruhusu na kutukuza mashambulizi ya [[kamikaze]]. Haya yalikuwa mashambulizi ya kujiua yaliyotekelezwa na wanajeshi [[wanahewa]] wa Milki ya Japani dhidi ya vyombo vya majini vya Majeshi ya Muungano katika awamu za mwisho za uhamasisho wa Pasifiki wa Vita II vya Dunia. Jamii ya Japani kwa jumla imechukuliwa kama "inayoruhusu" kujiua<ref name="ozawa-desilva">{{cite journal|last=Ozawa-de Silva|first=C|title=Too lonely to die alone: internet suicide pacts and existential suffering in Japan.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_culture-medicine-and-psychiatry_2008-12_32_4/page/516|journal=Culture, medicine and psychiatry|date=2008 Dec|volume=32|issue=4|pages=516–51|pmid=18800195|doi=10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0}}</ref>. Pekuzi mtandaoni kuhusu kijiua hutoa kurasa za mtandao ambazo huruhusu au kuwezesha majaribio ya kujiua kwa kiwango cha 10-30%.<!-- <ref name=Dur2011/> --> Kuna maoni kuwa kurasa kama hizo zinaweza kuchochea watu walio hatarini hadi wakajiua.<!-- <ref name=Dur2011/> -->Baadhi ya watu hutia [[mkataba wa kujiua]] mtandaoni, wakiwa na marafiki waliokuwa wakijuana mbeleni au waliopatana katika [[vyumba vya majadiliano]] au [[vikao vya mtandao|majojpo ya habari]].<!-- <ref name=Dur2011/> --> Hata hivyo, mtandao pia unaweza kusaidia kuzuia kujiua kupitia vikundi vya mahusiano kwa watu waliotengwa.<ref name=Dur2011>{{cite journal|last=Durkee|first=T|coauthors=Hadlaczky, G; Westerlund, M; Carli, V|title=Internet pathways in suicidality: a review of the evidence.|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=2011 Oct|volume=8|issue=10|pages=3938–52|pmid=22073021|doi=10.3390/ijerph8103938|pmc=3210590}}</ref> ===Maeneo=== Baadhi ya maeneo yamekuwa maarufu kwa visa vingi vya majaribio ya kujiua.<ref name=Robinson2012/> Haya ni pamoja na [[Daraja la Golden Gate]], Jimbo la [[San Francisco]]; [[msitu wa Aokigahara]], Japani;<ref>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=ed. by Peter|title=Research themes for tourism|year=2010|publisher=CABI|location=Oxfordshire [etc.]|isbn=978-1-84593-684-6|page=172|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=219aFMSRPqgC&pg=PA172|coauthors=Heitmann, Sine; Dieke, Peter}}</ref> [[Beachy Head]], Uingereza;<ref name=Robinson2012>{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=edited by David Picard, Mike|title=Emotion in motion : tourism, affect and transformation|publisher=Ashgate|location=Farnham, Surrey|isbn=978-1-4094-2133-7|page=176|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=PjuY_4Vy_UUC&pg=PT176}}</ref> na [[Bloor Street Viaduct]], jijini [[Toronto]].<ref name=Dennis2008>{{cite book|last=Dennis|first=Richard|title=Cities in modernity : representations and productions of metropolitan space, 1840 – 1930|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-521-46841-1|page=20|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Gq9_uNNkmKUC&pg=PA20|edition=Repr.}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka wa 2010, Daraja la Golden Gate limekuwa na zaidi ya visa 1300 vya kujiua kwa kuruka tangu daraja hilo kujengwa mnamo [[1937]].<ref name=McDougall2010>{{cite book|last=McDougall|first=Tim|title=Helping children and young people who self-harm : an introduction to self-harming and suicidal behaviours for health professionals|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-49913-2|page=23|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=2VfP1-o0BgcC&pg=PA23|coauthors=Armstrong, Marie; Trainor, Gemma}}</ref> Maeneo mengi ambapo visa vingi vya kujiua hutokea yana vizuizi vilivyojengwa ili kuzuia visa hivi.<ref name=Bateson2008>{{cite book|last=Bateson|first=John|title=Building hope : leadership in the nonprofit world|year=2008|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=978-0-313-34851-8|page=180|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=GUzq5qNegkYC&pg=PA180}}</ref> Maeneo haya ni pamoja na [[Luminous Veil]] jijini Toronto,<ref name=Dennis2008/>na vizuizi katika [[mnara wa Eiffel]] jijini Paris na [[Jengo la Empire State]] jijini New York.<ref name=Bateson2008/> Tangu mwaka wa 2001, kizuizi kinaendelea kujengwa katika daraja la Golden Gate <ref name=Miller2011>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=David|title=Child and Adolescent Suicidal Behavior: School-Based Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60623-997-1|page=46|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bAHcIUDoVEoC&pg=PA46}}</ref> Vizuizi vimeonekana kuwa mwafaka sana. ==Spishi nyingine== Baadhi ya watu hudhani kuwa kujiua hakuwezi kutokea katika [[viumbehai]] wengine, kwa sababu kujiua huhitaji jaribio la hiari la kufa.<ref name=Maris2000>{{cite book|last=Maris|first=Ronald|title=Comprehensive textbook of suicidology|year=2000|publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=978-1-57230-541-0|pages=97–103|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Zi-xoFAPnPMC&pg=PA97}}</ref> Mitindo inayohusishwa na kujiua imetambulika katika [[salmonela]] zinazojitahidi kushindana na [[bakteria]] kwa kuchochea [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] dhidi ya bakteria hizi.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/science/26obsalm.html?ref=science|title=In Salmonella Attack, Taking One for the Team|author=Chang, Kenneth|date=August 25, 2008|publisher=New York Times|postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Hatua za kujikinga kwa kujiua zimetambulika katika aina ya [[mchwa]] wa [[Brazil]], ''Forelius pusillus'', ambapo kikundi kidogo cha mchwa huacha [[usalama]] wa [[kiota]] kila [[usiku]], baada ya kufunga milango wakiwa nje. <ref>{{cite journal|title=Preemptive Defensive Self-Sacrifice by Ant Workers|url=http://www.cyf-kr.edu.pl/~rotofils/Tofilski_etal_2008.pdf|format=PDF|author=Tofilski,Adam; Couvillon, MJ;Evison, SEF; Helantera, H; Robinson, EJH; Ratnieks, FLW|year=2008|volume=172|pmid=18928332|issue=5|journal=The American Naturalist|doi=10.1086/591688|pages=E239–E243}}</ref> [[Afidi ya choroko]], anapotishwa na [[mbawakawa]], anaweza kujilipua na kutapakaa ili kuwakinga wengine, na hata wakati mwingine anaweza kuwaua mbawakawa hao.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|url=http://news.discovery.com/animals/animal-suicide-behavior.html|title=Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior|author=Larry O'Hanlon|date=Mar 10, 2010|publisher=Discovery News|postscript=<!--None-->|journal=|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2010-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725200146/http://news.discovery.com/animals/animal-suicide-behavior.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Baadhi ya spishi za [[mchwa]] wana walinzi wanaojilipua hivyo kuwafunika adui zao na michozo inayoshikamanisha.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/10_october/20/life_horrors.shtml|title=Life In The Undergrowth|publisher=BBC|postscript=<!--None-->|author1=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Suicidal defensive behaviour by frontal gland dehiscence in Globitermes sulphureus Haviland soldiers (Isoptera)|first4=A.|last4=Peppuy|first3=V.|last3=Van Tuyen|volume=44|first2=A.|issue=3|journal=Insectes Sociaux|date=August, 1997|last2=Robert|page=289|doi=10.1007/s000400050049|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/m727aywa4mdf04ln/|publisher=Birkhäuser Basel|author=Bordereau, C|postscript=<!--None-->|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2020-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418174725/http://www.springerlink.com/content/m727aywa4mdf04ln/|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418174725/http://www.springerlink.com/content/m727aywa4mdf04ln/}}</ref> Kumekuwa na ripoti zisizotegemewa za [[mbwa]], [[farasi]] na [[pomboo]] wanaojiua, ingawa ushahidi uliopo ni mdogo na hauaminiki.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Do Animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate|date=Mar. 19, 2010|author=Nobel, Justin|publisher=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1973486,00.html|postscript=<!--None-->|journal=|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817103106/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1973486,00.html|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817103106/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1973486,00.html}}</ref> Kumekuwa na utafiti mdogo wa kisayansi kuhusu kujiua kwa wanyama.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb52352.x|title=Suicide Research|first2=J. John|last2=Mann|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120752899/abstract|author=Stoff, David|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|publisher=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=836|issue=Neurobiology of Suicide, The : From the Bench to the Clinic|year=1997|pages=1–11|postscript=<!--None-->|bibcode=1997NYASA.836....1S|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2020-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418174725/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120752899/abstract|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418174725/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120752899/abstract}}</ref> ==Visa maarufu== Mfano wa kujiua kwa halaiki ni [[kujiua kwa kidini]] mwaka wa [[1978]] mjini [[Jonestown]], ambapo wanachama 918 wa [[Peoples Temple]], wa [[madhehebu]] ya Kimarekani, wakiongozwa naye [[Jim Jones]], walijiua kwa kunywa [[Flavor Aid]] ya [[zabibu]] iliyochanganywa na [[Sianidi ya potasiamu|sianidi]].<ref>Hall 1987, p.282</ref><ref name="tape">[http://jonestown.sdsu.edu/AboutJonestown/Tapes/Tapes/DeathTape/death.html "Jonestown Audiotape Primary Project."] {{Wayback|url=http://jonestown.sdsu.edu/AboutJonestown/Tapes/Tapes/DeathTape/death.html |date=20130518030445 }} ''Alternative Considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple''. San Diego State University.{{WebCite|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5vybbZjSY|date =2011-01-24}}</ref> Mwaka wa 1944, zaidi ya Wajapani 10,000 walijiua katika siku za mwisho za [[Vita vya Saipan]], baadhi yao wakiruka kutoka "Suicide Cliff" na "Banzai Cliff".<ref>John Toland, ''The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945'', Random House, 1970, p. 519</ref> Mgomo wa kususia chakula, nchini Ayalandi mwaka 1981, ulioongozwa na [[Bobby Sands]], ulisababisha vifo vya watu 10. Kisababishi cha vifo hivi kilirekodiwa na [[coroner]] kama "njaa ya kujitakia," badala ya kujiua. Kisababishi hiki kilibadilishwa na kuwa "njaa" kwenye vyeti vya kifo baada ya familia za waathiriwa kulalamika.<ref name=Philosophy59OKeeffe>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/3750951 Suicide and Self-Starvation], Terence M. O'Keeffe, [[Philosophy (journal)|''Philosophy'']], Vol. 59, No. 229 (Jul., 1984), pp. 349–363</ref> Katika Vita vya II vya Dunia [[Erwin Rommel]] aligunduliwa kufahamu mbeleni kuhusu [[Njama ya Julai 20]] kuhusu maisha ya Hitler, hivyo akatishwa kwa [[hukumu ya umma]], kuuawa na jeshi na pia familia yake kulipiziwa kisasi iwapo hatajua.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watson |first=Bruce|title=Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942–43 |url=https://archive.org/details/exitrommeltunisi0000wats |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/exitrommeltunisi0000wats/page/170 170]|isbn=978-0-8117-3381-6}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Saikolojia]] [[Jamii:Maadili]] [[Category:Tiba]] [[Category:Sheria]] [[Category:Dini]] 5wfralfoigaxjyk40f8e3k6e1b0kt7y 0 33027 1564494 1527702 2026-06-02T17:18:10Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Uchambuzi wa SWOT''' ni uwezo, udhaifu, fursa na vitisho ni mbinu ya kimkakati ambayo hutumika kutathmini '''S''' uwezo, '''W''' udhaifu, '''O''' fursa, na '''T''' vitisho vinavyopatikana katika mradi au biashara husika. Inahusisha ubainishaji wa lengo la biashara au mradi na kutambua mambo ya ndani na ya nje ambayo yanafaa au hayafai katika kufikia lengo hilo. Sifa za mbinu hii ni zake Albert Humphrey, ambaye aliongoza makubaliano katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Stanford]] mnamo miaka ya 1960 na 1970 kwa kutumia takwimu kutoka makampuni mia tano ya Fortune. Uchambuzi wa SWOT lazima uanze kwa kufafanua mwisho wa jambo linalotamaniwa au lengo lake. Uchambuzi wa uwezo, udhaifu, fursa na vitisho unaweza kujumuishwa katika kielelezo cha mipango ya kimkakati. Mfano wa mbinu ya kimkakati inayojumuisha lengo linaloendeshwa na uchambuzi wa SWOT ni Uchambuzi wa kimkakati bunifu. Mipango ya kimkakati, ikiwemo Uchambuzi wa SWOT na Uchambuzi wa kimkakati bunifu, imekuwa hoja kuu katika utafiti. :* '''S''' Uwezo: sifa za mtu au kampuni ambazo zitamsaidia katika kufikia lengo. :* '''W''' Udhaifu: sifa za mtu au kampuni ambazo zinazuia kufikia lengo. :* '''O''' Nafasi: hali za nje ambazo zinasaidia katika kufikia lengo. :* '''T''' Vitisho: hali za nje zinazoweza kusababisha uharibifu wa lengo. Ubainishaji wa Uchambuzi wa SWOT ni muhimu kwa sababu hatua zinazofuata mchakato wa kupanga mafanikio ya lengo lililochaguliwa au kadiriwa, laweza kutoka kwa SWOT. Kwanza, lazima waamuzi watambue kama lengo laweza kufikiwa kutokana na Uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho. Kama lengo haliwezi kufikiwa, lazima lengo tofauti lichaguliwe na mchakato kurejelewa. Mara nyingi uchambuzi wa SWOT hutumika katika usomi kuonyesha na kutambua uwezo, udhaifu, fursa na vitisho. Ni wa munufaa hasa katika kutambua maeneo kwa ajili ya maendeleo. === Matumizi bunifu ya SWOT: kuzalisha Mikakati === Kama, kwa upande mwingine, lengo linaonekana kufikiwa, SWOT hutumiwa kama pembejeo kwa ubunifu wa kizazi cha mikakati iwezekanayo, kwa kuuliza na kujibu kila moja ya maswali manne yafuatayo, mara nyingi: :* Tunawezaje kutumia na kufaidika katia kila nguvu au uwezo? :* Tunawezaje kuboresha kila Udhaifu? :* Tunawezaje Kutumia na kufaidika kutokana na kila Nafasi au fursa? :* Tunawezaje kupunguza kila Tishio? Kwa kawaida, kikundi kilicho na uamilifu mwingi au jopo kazi liwakilishalo mitazamo mingi ndilo lipasalo kutekeleza uchambuzi wa SWOT. Kwa mfano, timu ya SWOT inaweza kuhusisha mhasibu, muuzaji, meneja mtendaji, mhandisi, na mpokezi wa maswala ya utenda kazi kwa umma. == Kulinganisha na kubadilisha == Njia nyingine ya kutumia SWOT ni kulinganisha na kubadilisha. Ulinganishaji hutumiwa kupata ''faida'' za ''ushindani'' kwa kulinganisha uwezo na nafasi. Kubadilisha ni kutumia mikakati ya kugeuza vitisho au udhaifu kuwa uwezo au fursa. Mfano wa mkakati wa Kugeuza ni kutafuta masoko mapya. Kama vitisho au udhaifu hauwezi kubadilishwa basi yafaa kampuni ijaribu''kuupunguza'' au ''kuuepuka''. ===Ushahidi katika matumizi ya SWOT=== Uchambuzi wa SWOT huweza kupunguza mikakati inayofikiriwa katika tathmini. "Aidha, watu ambao wanatumia SWOT wanaweza kufikiri kuwa wamefanya kazi nzuri ya kupanga na wapuuze mambo yanayostahili kama kufafanua malengo ya kampuni au kuhesabu [[ROI]] kwa mikakati mbadala." <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304 |title=ManyWorlds.com: usifanye SWOT: Elezo kuhusu Mipango ya Elimu ya Soko |accessdate=2009-12-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323073659/http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304 |archivedate=2009-03-23 }}</ref> Matokeo kutoka Menon na wenzake (1999)[5] <ref>{{cite journal | author = Menon, A. et al. | title = Antecedents and Consequences of Marketing Strategy Making | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-marketing_1999-07_63_3/page/18 | journal = Journal of Marketing | volume = 63 | pages = 18–40 | year = 1999 | doi = 10.2307/1251943}}</ref> na Hill na Westbrook (1997) <ref>{{cite journal | author = Hill, T. & R. Westbrook | title = SWOT Analysis: It’s Time for a Product Recall | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_long-range-planning_1997-02_30_1/page/n49 | journal = Long Range Planning | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–52 | year = 1997 | doi = 10.1016/S0024-6301(96)00095-7}}</ref> yameonyesha kwamba SWOT huweza kudhuru utendaji. Kama mbadala wa SWOT, [[J. Scott Armstrong]] anaelezea mbinu mbadala ya hatua tano (5) ambayo hupelekea utendaji bora wa shirika. <ref>{{cite journal | author = J. Scott Armstrong | title = The Value of Formal Planning for Strategic Decisions | journal = Strategic Management Journal | volume = 3 | pages = 197–211 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.1002/smj.4250030303}}</ref> Ukosoaji huu unaelekezwa kwa toleo la zamani la SWOT linalotangulia uchanganuzi wa Uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho ulioelezewa hapo juu, kwa mada "Mkakati na Matumizi bunifu ya uchanganuzi SWOT." Toleo hili la zamani halikuhitaji SWOT zitolewe kutoka kwa lengo lililokubaliwa. Mifano ya uchanganuzi wa SWOT isiyotaja lengo imetolewa hapa chini katika "Rasilimali za kibinadamu" na "elimu ya soko." ==Vipengele vya ndani na nje == Lengo la uchanganuzi wowote wa Uchambuzi wa SWOT ni kutambua vipengele vya ndani na nje ambavyo ni muhimu katika kufikia lengo. Havi huja kutoka ndani ya mkusanyiko wa thamani ya kipekee ya kampuni. Uchanganuzi wa Uchambuzi wa SWOT unajumuisha vipande muhimu kwa makundi mawili makuu: :* Vipengele vya ndani - ''uwezo'' na ''udhaifu'' wa ndani ya shirika. :*Vipengele vya nje - ''nafasi'' na ''vitisho'' vilivyowakilishwa na mazingira ya nje kwa shirika. - Tumia [[hali ya kisiasa,kiuchumi,kijamii,technologia]] au uchambuzi wa[[hali ya kisiasa, kiuchumi, kijamii, teknolojia,mazingira na ya uhalali]] kusaidia kutambua vipengele Mambo ya ndani yanaweza kutazamwa kama uwezo au udhaifu kulingana na athari zake kwenye malengo ya shirika. Kile kinachoweza kuwakilisha uwezo na heshima katika lengo moja kinaweza kuwa na udhaifu kwa lengo lingine. Sababu zinaweza kujumuisha [[4P's;]]zote, na vile vile wafanyakazi, fedha, uwezo wa viwanda, na kadhalika. Mambo ya nje yanaweza kujumuisha masuala makubwa ya uchumi, mabadiliko ya teknolojia, sheria, na mabadiliko ya kiutamaduni, na vilevile mabadiliko sokoni au katika nafasi ya ushindani. Mara nyingi matokeo hutolewa kwa namna ya matriki. Uchambuzi wa SWOT ni njia moja tu ya uainishaji na ina udhaifu wake. Kwa mfano, inaweza kushawishi makampuni kuandika orodha badala ya kufikiri kuhusu kilicho muhimu hasa katika kufikia malengo. Pia inatoa orodha bila uchunguzi muhimu na bila mpangilio maalum hivi kwamba, kwa mfano, nafasi dhaifu huweza kuonekana kusawazisha vitisho kviuu. Ni jambo la busara kutoondoa kwa haraka mgombea yeyote anayeingizwa na SWOT. Umuhimu wa kila SWOT utafanuliwa au kuabainika kwa thamani ya mikakati inayozalisha. Bidhaa ya SWOT inayozalisha mikakati ya thamani ni muhimu. Bidhaa ya SWOT isiyozalisha mikakati si muhimu. ==Matumizi ya Uchambuzi wa SWOT== Umuhimu wa uchambuzi wa SWOT haukomi tu kwa mashirika ya kutafuta faidaWa viti You may not post si mdogo kwa faida ya kutafuta mashirika. Uchambuzi wa SWOT unaweza kutumika katika maamuzi yoyote wakati lengo la mwisho linalonuiwa limefafanuliwa. Mifano ni kama: [[mashirika yasiyo ya faida]], vitengo vya kiserikali, na watu binafsi. Uchambuzi wa SWOT pia waweza kutumika katika kupanga mikakati ya kabla ya mgogoro na usimamizi wa kuzuia [[tatizo.]] Uchambuzi wa SWOT unaweza pia kutumika katika kujenga mapendekezo wakati wa[[utafiti]] wa uwezekano wa kitu. ==Uchanganuzi wa kimandhari wa SWOT == [[File:SWOT-landscape.jpg|thumb]] Mandhari ya SWOT huchukua usimamizi wa aina mbalimbali kwa maono mapana ya kutazamia utendaji wa kulinganishwa vitu kulingana na matokeo yake Brendan Kitts, Leif Edvinsson na Tord Beding (2000). <ref>Brendan Kitts, Leif Edvinsson na Tord Beding (2000)Kudhihirisha elimu ya kihistoria ya utendaji wa kampuni iwe ya uingiliano, tilia shaka-uwezo 3D Mazingara http://de.scientificcommons.org/534302 {{Wayback|url=http://de.scientificcommons.org/534302 |date=20090506122059 }}</ref> Mabadiliko katika utendaji wa kadiri huendelea kutambuliwa. Miradi (au vitengo vingine vya vipimo ) ambavyo vingeweza kuwa hatari vinazungumziwa. Mandhari ya SWOT pia huonyesha sababu gande za nguvu / udhaifu ambazo zilikuwa au zitakuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika muktadha wa thamani katika matumizi (kwa mfano:kuyumbayumba kwa thamani ya Mtaji. ) == Mipango ya shirika== Kama sehemu ya maendeleo ya mikakati na mipango ya kuwezesha shirika kufikia malengo yake, basi, hilo shirika litatumia mchakato wenye utaratibu / mkali unaojulikana kama[[mipango]] ya shirika. SWOT pamoja na [[hali ya kisiasa, kiuchumi, kijamii na kiteknolojia]] / [[hali ya kisiasa, kiuchumi, kijamii, kiteknolojia, kimazingira na ya uhalali]] huweza kutumika kama kigezo cha uchambuzi wa biashara na mambo ya mazingira. <ref> [[Armstrong]]. M. Kitabu cha Maelezo kuhusu simamizi wa desturi za rasilimali ya binadamu (toleo la kumi) 2006, Kogan Page, London ISBN 0-7494-4631-5</ref> :* '''Kuweka malengo''' - kufafanua yakayofanywa na shirika :* '''Ubainishaji wa Mazingira ''' :** Tathmini ya ndani ya SWOT ya shirika, hii inafaa kujumuisha tathmini ya hali ya sasa pamoja na mpangilio wa bidhaa / huduma na uchambuzi wa muda wa kutumika kwa bidhaa /mzunguko huo. :*'''Uchambuzi wa mikakati iliyopo,''' hii itaamua umuhimu kutokana na tathmini ya matokeo ya ndani / nje. Huenda hii ikajumuisha [[uchambuzi pengo]] ambayo itaangalia maswala ya kimazingira :*'''Masuala ya kimikakati yakiwa yameelezwa ''' - vipengele muhimu katika kuendeleza mpango wa shirika unaohitaji kuangaliwa na shirika :* Ibuwa mikakati mipya / iliyopigwa msasa'''''' - mikakati iliyopigwa msasa yaweza kumaanisha kuwa kuna haja ya malengo kubadilishwa :* Tambua vipengele muhimu vya mafanikio - kuafikia malengo na utekelezaji wa mikakati :*'''Maandalizi''' ya uendeshaji, rasilimali, mipango ya miradi kwa utekelezaji mkakati :* '''Ufuatiliaji''' matokeo - kwenda dhidi ya mipango, kuchukua hatua ya kurekebisha ambayo inaweza kumaanisha marekebisho kiasi kwa malengo / mikakati. <ref> Armstrong.M Usimamizi wa Mchakato na Matumizi, 1996, London CIPD ISBN 0-85292-438-0</ref> === Elimu ya soko === Katika uchanganuzi wa washindani wengi, wauzaji huweka maelezo ya kina kuhusu kila mshindani katika soko, wakilenga hasa nguvu na udhaifu wa ushindani huo wakitumia uchambuzi wa SWOT. Mameneja masoko wataangazia muundo gharama wa kila mshindani , vyanzo vya faida, rasilimali na uwezo, kujiekeza kwa ushindani na kutofautiana kwa bidhaa , kiwango cha mahusiano kati ya walio juu na walio chini, majibu ya kihistoria kwa maendeleo ya kiwanda, na mambo mengine. Usimamizi wa masoko mara nyingi hupata kuwa ni muhimu kuwekeza katika utafiti wa kukusanya takwimu sahihi zinazohitajika ili kuendeleza uchanganuzi wa masoko ulio hakika. Kwa hivyo, mara nyingi usimamizi hufanya utafiti wa soko (au masoko ya utafiti) ili kupata habari hii. Wauzaji hutumia mbinu mbalimbali kufanya utafiti wa soko, lakini baadhi ya zile ambazo ni za kawaida ni kama: :*Utafiti wa uzuri wa masoko, kama vile vikundi vinavyoangaziwa :* Utafiti wa wingi wa masoko, kama vile takwimu tafiti :*Mbinu za majaribio kama vile mtihani wa masoko :*Mbinu za kuangalia kama vile uchunguzi wa kiethnografia (za papo hapo) :*Mameneja wa masoko wanaweza pia kubuni na kusimamia michakato mbalimbali ya ubainishaji mazingira na ushindani wenye werevu ili kusaidia kubaini mielekeo na kurekebisha uchambuzi wa masoko ya kampuni. Kutumia SWOT kuchanganua msimamo wa soko wa usimamizi mdogo unaozingatia usimamizi wa rasilimali za binadamu. <ref> Armstrong.M Usimamizi wa Michakato na Matumizi, 1996, London CIPD ISBN 0-85292-438-0</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Uwezo ! width="25%"| Udhaifu ! width="25%"| Nafasi ! width="25%"| Vitisho |- valign="top" | Sifa katika soko | Uhaba wa washauri katika ngazi ya uendeshaji badala ya kiwango cha wenza | Msimamo imara na eneo la soko lililobainishwa vizuri. | Washauri wakubwa wafanyao kazi katika ngazi ya chini |- valign="top" | Utaalamu katika kiwango cha mwenza kwenye ushauri wa usimamizi wa rasilimali za binadamu | Kutoweza kukabiliana na shughuli nyingi ulizopewa kwa sababu ya kiwango au ukosefu wa uwezo | Soko lililobainishwa kwa minajili ya ushauri katika maeneo mengine mbali na usimamizi wa rasilimali za binadamu | Washauri wengine wadogo ambao wanataka kuvamia soko |- valign="top" | Rekodi ya hapo awali na hata sasa - kazi zilizofanikiwa |} == Marejeo == {{reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.mbatoolbox.org/stories/storyReader$19 Uchambuzi wa misitu na kesi za misitu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mbatoolbox.org/stories/storyReader$19 |date=20120204141117 }} * [http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm Videyo na nakala ya uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho(MindTools.com)] * [http://www.businessballs.com/swotanalysisfreetemplate.htm mbinu na mifano ya uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho (Businessballs.com)] * [http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/corpstrtgy/general/swot-analysis.htm uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho(CIPD)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/corpstrtgy/general/swot-analysis.htm |date=20100427070945 }} * [http://www.inghenia.com/gadgets/swot/swot_en.php Free online software chombo kwa ajili ya uchambuzi wa uwezo,udhaifu,fursa na vitisho (Inghenia.com)] [[Jamii:Usimamizi]] [[Jamii:Utafiti wa soko]] n1bb8zefgu83hmahtpvrj92tflt7pab 0 33334 1564459 1515412 2026-06-02T16:15:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Muigizaji | rangi = Khaki | jina = Jennifer López | picha = 210120-D-WD757-1975 - Jennifer Lopez at the US Capitol (50860511978) (cropped).jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = Jennifer Lopez, mnamo 2021. | jina la kuzaliwa = Jennifer Lynn López | alizaliwa = [[24 Julai]] [[1969]] [[Picha:Flag of the United States.svg|20px]]<br />[[Marekani]] | kafariki = | jina lingine = J.Lo | kazi yake = [[Mwigizaji]]<br />[[Mwimbaji]] | miaka ya kazi = 1986 - | ndoa = Ojani Noa (1997-1998),<br />Cris Judd (2001-2003),<br />Marc Anthony (2004-2011) | rafiki = | watoto = Emme Maribel Muñiz,<br />Maximilian "Max" David Muñiz | wazazi = Guadalupe Lopez,<br />David Lopez | mahusiano = David Cruz (1984-1994),<br />Sean Combs (1999-2001),<br />Ben Affleck (2002-2004) | tovuti = {{URL|jenniferlopez.com}} }} '''Jennifer Lynn Lopez''' (alizaliwa [[New York]], [[24 Julai]] [[1969]]) ni [[mwimbaji]] bora wa [[pop]]/[[R&B]], na [[mwigizaji]] kutoka nchini [[Marekani]]. == Diskografia == === Albamu === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Orodha ya albamu, pamoja na nafasi zilizoshika, mauzo na matunukio. ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| Albamu ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Maelezo ! scope="col" colspan="10"| Nafasi iliyoshika katika nchi tofauti ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:11em;"| Mauzo ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:14em;"| Matunukio |- ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Marekani <br /><ref name="US album positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/jennifer-lopez/chart-history/billboard-200|title=Jennifer Lopez Chart History: Billboard 200|work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=April 17, 2018}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Australia <br /><ref name="Australian positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Jennifer+Lopez|title=Discography Jennifer Lopez|work=''australian-charts.com''|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=April 23, 2011}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Ubelgiji<br /><ref name="Wallonian positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|title=Discography Jennifer Lopez|url=http://www.ultratop.be/fr/artist/Jennifer_Lopez|publisher=[[Ultratop]]. Hung Medien|accessdate=April 12, 2018|language=French|}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Canada <br /><ref name="Canadian album positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/Jennifer-Lopez/chart-history/canadian-albums|title=Billboard Canadian Albums|work=Billboard|accessdate=April 26, 2018}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Ufaransa <br /><ref name="French positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web |url=http://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Jennifer+Lopez|title=Discographie Jennifer Lopez|work= ''lescharts.com''|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=April 23, 2011|language= French}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Ujeremani <br /><ref name="German album positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://www.officialcharts.de/suche.asp?search=Jennifer+Lopez&x=11&y=6&cat=a&country=de|title=Suchen Nach "Jennifer Lopez"|work=''charts.de''|publisher=Media Control GfK International|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, enter the search parameter "Jennifer Lopez" and click the "Album" tab|language=German|archivedate=2014-10-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030064224/http://www.officialcharts.de/suche.asp?search=Jennifer+Lopez&x=11&y=6&cat=a&country=de}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Italy<br /><ref name="Italian positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://www.italiancharts.com/search.asp?cat=a&artist=Jennifer+Lopez&artist_search=exact&title=&title_search=starts|title=Jennifer Lopez|work=''italiancharts.com''|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Spain<br /><ref name="Spanish positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://spanishcharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Jennifer%20Lopez|title=Discography of Jennifer Lopez|work=''spanishcharts.com''|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=June 8, 2014}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Uswisi <br /><ref name="Swiss positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web |url=http://swisscharts.com/search.asp?cat=a&artist=Jennifer+Lopez&artist_search=starts&title=&title_search=starts|title=Jennifer Lopez|work=''swisscharts.com''|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=March 2, 2011}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em; font-size:90%;"| Uingereza <br /><ref name="UK album positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/7995/jennifer-lopez/|title=Jennifer Lopez|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, click the "Albums" tab}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[On the 6]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Juni 1, 1999 * Lebo: Work Group | 8 || 11 || 6 || 5 || 15 || 3 || 15 || 12 || 3 || 14 | * Duniani: 8,000,000.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Jennifer Lopez Gets Better With 'J.Lo'|journal=[[Telegram & Gazette]]|date=February 4, 2001|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WO&p_theme=wo&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADE638DA3B5EA2&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|accessdate=June 8, 2013|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|archive-date=2013-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213170512/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WO&p_theme=wo&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADE638DA3B5EA2&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Marekani: 2,808,000.<ref name="Billboard 2010">{{cite web|title=Ask Billboard: Analyzing 'American Idol'|url=http://billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/955571/ask-billboard-analyzing-american-idol|work=Billboard|date=October 1, 2010|accessdate=March 11, 2012}}</ref> * Uingereza: 236,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jones|first1=Alan|title=The official UK albums charts top 75|url=https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-95682176/official-uk-albums-charts-top-75|website=[[Music Week]]|accessdate=November 6, 2017|date=December 7, 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107060423/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-95682176/official-uk-albums-charts-top-75|archive-date=November 7, 2017|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107060423/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-95682176/official-uk-albums-charts-top-75|archivedate=2017-11-07|=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107060423/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-95682176/official-uk-albums-charts-top-75}}</ref> | * RIAA: 3× Platinum<ref name="RIAA">{{cite web|url=https://www.riaa.com/gold-platinum/?tab_active=default-award&se=Jennifer+Lopez#search_section|title=RIAA – Gold & Platinum: Jennifer Lopez|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018}}</ref> * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA 2002 albums">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-albums-2002.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2002 Albums|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=[[Australian Recording Industry Association]]|accessdate=October 18, 2009}}</ref> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 1999">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/xls/Awards%201999.htm |title=Belgian Awards - 1999|publisher=[[Belgian Entertainment Association]]|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * BPI: Platinum<ref name=BPI>{{cite web|url=https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified|title=BRIT Certified Awards Search|publisher=[[British Phonographic Industry]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, enter the search parameter "Jennifer Lopez"}}</ref> * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI">{{cite web|url=http://www.musikindustrie.de/nc/datenbank/#topSearch|title=Gold-/Platin-Datenbank|publisher=[[Bundesverband Musikindustrie]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, enter "Jennifer Lopez" in the "Interpret" field|language=German}}</ref> * IFPI: Platinum<ref>{{cite web|title=IFPI Platinum Europe Awards - 1999|url=http://ifpi.org/content/section_news/plat1999.html|publisher=[[International Federation of the Phonographic Industry]]|accessdate=September 16, 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127154154/http://ifpi.org/content/section_news/plat1999.html|archivedate=November 27, 2013}}</ref> * IFPI SWI: Platinum<ref name="Swiss certification for On the 6">{{cite web|title=The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards |url=http://www.swisscharts.com/search_certifications.asp?search=on+the+6|work=''swisscharts.com''|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * MC: 5× Platinum<ref name="MC">{{cite web|url=https://musiccanada.com/gold-platinum/?fwp_gp_search=Jennifer%20Lopez|title=Music Canada Gold/Platinum|publisher=[[Music Canada]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018}}</ref> * PROMUSICAE: 2× Platinum<ref name="Spanish certifications 2000-2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.mediafire.com/?7q55521w7go6vh6|title=Solo Exitos 1959–2002 Ano A Ano: Certificados 2000–2002|work=Solo Exitos 1959–2002 Ano A Ano}}</ref> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP">{{cite web|url=http://www.snepmusique.com/les-disques-dor/?awards_cat=0&awards_awd=0&awards_year=0&awards_artist=Jennifer+Lopez&awards_title=&awards_edit_distrib=&awards_sort=date_certif-desc&awards_nb=30&submitAdvanced=Search|title=SNEP - Les Certifications|publisher=[[Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018|language=French|archivedate=2018-04-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427121024/http://www.snepmusique.com/les-disques-dor/?awards_cat=0&awards_awd=0&awards_year=0&awards_artist=Jennifer+Lopez&awards_title=&awards_edit_distrib=&awards_sort=date_certif-desc&awards_nb=30&submitAdvanced=Search}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[J.Lo (album)|J.Lo]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Januari 23, 2001 * Lebo: Epic Records | 1 || 2 || 4 || 1 || 6 || 1 || 5 || 1 || 1 || 2 | * Duniani: 8,000,000<ref>{{cite web|title=The Return of J. Lo|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|publisher=[[The Slate Group]]|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/music_box/2011/05/the_return_of_j_lo.html|first=Ann|last=Powers|date=May 11, 2011|accessdate=November 7, 2017|archivedate=24 December 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224232019/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/music_box/2011/05/the_return_of_j_lo.html|deadurl=no}}</ref> * Marekani: 3,800,000<ref name="Updated US">{{cite web|last=Trust|first=Gary|title=Ask Billboard: Robin Thicke Makes Chart History|url=http://billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/1566453/ask-billboard-robin-thicke-makes-chart-history|work=Billboard|accessdate=June 12, 2013|date=June 11, 2013}}</ref> * Ufaransa: 234,800<ref>{{cite web|title=Les Meilleurs Ventes d'albums depuis 2000|url=http://infodisc.fr/Ventes_Alb_10Ans.php?debut=400|work=Infodisc|accessdate=January 20, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819191946/http://infodisc.fr/Ventes_Alb_10Ans.php?debut=400|archivedate=August 19, 2014|language=French}}</ref> * Uingereza: 510,000 | * RIAA: 4× Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: 2× Platinum<ref name="ARIA 2001 albums">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-albums-2001.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2001 Albums|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=October 18, 2009}}</ref> * BEA: Platinum<ref name="Belgian certifications 2001">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/xls/Awards%202001.htm|title=Belgian Awards - 2001|publisher=Belgian Entertainment Association|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * BPI: Platinum<ref name="BPI"/> * BVMI: Platinum<ref name="BVMI"/> * IFPI: 2× Platinum<ref name="IFPI awards 2002">{{cite web|title=IFPI Platinum Europe Awards – 2002|url=http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/plat2002.html|publisher=International Federation of the Phonographic Industry|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320014141/http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/plat2002.html|archivedate=March 20, 2007|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * IFPI SWI: 2× Platinum<ref name="Swiss certifications">{{cite web|url=http://swisscharts.com/search_certifications.asp?search=Jennifer+Lopez|title=The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards|work=''swisscharts.com''|accessdate=April 26, 2018}}</ref> * MC: 2× Platinum<ref name="MC"/> * PROMUSICAE: Platinum<ref name="Spanish certifications 2000-2002"/> * SNEP: 2× Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[This Is Me... Then]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Novemba 19, 2002 * Lebo: Epic | 2 || 14 || 6 || 5 || 4 || 4 || 11 || 12 || 3 || 13 | * Duniani: 6,000,000<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lambert|first1=Molly|title=Why Is Jennifer Lopez’s ‘A.K.A.’ Poised to Flop?|url=http://grantland.com/hollywood-prospectus/why-is-jennifer-lopezs-a-k-a-poised-to-flop/|website=[[Grantland]]|publisher=[[ESPN]]|accessdate=January 16, 2015|date=June 16, 2014}}</ref> * Marekani: 2,600,000 * Ufaransa: 249,700<ref>{{cite web|title=Les Meilleurs Ventes d'albums depuis 2000|url=http://infodisc.fr/Ventes_Alb_10Ans.php?debut=300|work=Infodisc|accessdate=January 20, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819164151/http://infodisc.fr/Ventes_Alb_10Ans.php?debut=300|archivedate=August 19, 2014|language=French}}</ref> | * RIAA: 2× Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA 2002 albums"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/xls/Awards%202002.htm|title=Belgian Awards - 2002|publisher=Belgian Entertainment Association|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * BPI: 2× Platinum<ref name="BPI"/> * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> * IFPI: Platinum<ref name="IFPI awards 2002"/> * IFPI SWI: Platinum<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * MC: 2× Platinum<ref name="MC"/> * PROMUSICAE: Platinum<ref name="Spanish certifications 2000-2002"/> * SNEP: 2× Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[Rebirth (Jennifer Lopez album)|Rebirth]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Machi 1, 2005 * Lebo: Epic | 2 || 10 || 4 || 2 || 7 || 3 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 8 | * Marekani: 745,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fekadu|first1=Mesfin|title=Jennifer Lopez's new album was created in a 'challenging' music industry, says singer|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Music/2014/0619/Jennifer-Lopez-s-new-album-was-created-in-a-challenging-music-industry-says-singer|website=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|publisher=[[Christian Science Publishing Society]]|accessdate=January 4, 2015|date=June 19, 2014}}</ref> * Ufaransa: 92,300.<ref>{{cite web|title=Les Albums Certifications – Or|url=http://www.infodisc.fr/CDCertif_O.php?debut=1750|work=Infodisc|accessdate=November 4, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018012928/http://www.infodisc.fr/CDCertif_O.php?debut=1750|archivedate=October 18, 2011|language=French}}</ref> | * RIAA: Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA 2005 albums">{{cite web |url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-albums-2005.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2005 Albums|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=October 18, 2009}}</ref> * BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * MC: Platinum<ref name="MC"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[Como Ama una Mujer]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Machi 27, 2007 * Lebo: Epic | 10 || — || 12 || 50 || 11 || 4 || 2 || 2 || 1 || 131 | * Duniani: 800,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jennifer Lopez Biography|url=https://www.sonymusic.de/kuenstler/jennifer-lopez|publisher=[[Sony Music]]|accessdate=April 26, 2018|language=German}}</ref> * Marekani: 213,000 * Uingereza: 7,364.<ref>{{cite web|title=Slow start to fourth quarter album sales|url=http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/slow-start-to-fourth-quarter-album-sales/036274|work=Music Week|accessdate=April 26, 2018|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140308053950/http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/slow-start-to-fourth-quarter-album-sales/036274|archivedate=March 8, 2014|deadurl=bot: unknown}}</ref> | * IFPI SWI: Platinum<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * PROMUSICAE: Platinum<ref>{{cite web|url=http://promusicae.es/files/listassemanales/albumes/historial/TOP%20100%20ALBUMES%2007_41.pdf|title=Archived copy|publisher=[[Productores de Música de España]]|accessdate=2014-06-08|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315184914/http://promusicae.es/files/listassemanales/albumes/historial/TOP%20100%20ALBUMES%2007_41.pdf|archivedate=2012-03-15}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[Brave (Jennifer Lopez album)|Brave]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Oktoba 9, 2007 * Lebo: Epic | 12 || 46 || 18 || 13 || 28 || 41 || 10 || 21 || 6 || 24 | * Duniani: 650,000.<ref>{{cite web|first=Kevin |last=Rutherford|url=http://billboard.com/articles/news/472891/jennifer-lopez-to-premiere-video-for-on-the-floor-on-american-idol|title=Jennifer Lopez to Premiere Video for 'On the Floor' On 'American Idol'|work=Billboard|date=February 24, 2011|accessdate=July 1, 2013}}</ref> * Marekani: 168,000 * Uingereza: 21,179.<ref>{{cite web|title=Key Releases|url=https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-255473174/key-releases-070511|work=Music Week|accessdate=April 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427120454/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-255473174/key-releases-070511|archive-date=April 27, 2018|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427120454/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-255473174/key-releases-070511|archivedate=2018-04-27|=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427120454/https://business.highbeam.com/411456/article-1G1-255473174/key-releases-070511}}</ref> | |- ! scope="row"| ''[[Love?]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Mei 3, 2011 * Lebo: Island Records | 5 || 9 || 18 || 2 || 7 || 4 || 6 || 3 || 1 || 6 | * Marekani: 346,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Gardner|first1=Elysa|title=J. Lo finds 'a different kind of strength'|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2014/06/16/j-lo-finds-a-different-kind-of-strength-on-new-album/10323601/|website=[[USA Today]]|accessdate=January 1, 2015|date=June 16, 2014}}</ref> * Ufaransa: 40,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Série "Les Albums 2011" : Jennifer Lopez avec "Love ?"|url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Jennifer-Lopez/news-76984.html|publisher=[[PureMédias]]|accessdate=November 8, 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401131004/http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Jennifer-Lopez/news-76984.html|archivedate=April 1, 2014|language=French|date=December 11, 2011}}</ref> | * BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI"/> * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> *FIMI: Gold<ref name="Italian album certifications">{{cite web|url=http://www.fimi.it/certificazioni#/category:album/year:2011/page:0/term:Jennifer_Lopez|title=Certificazioni|publisher=[[Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana]]|accessdate=April 12, 2018|language=Italian|archive-date=2018-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116081416/http://www.fimi.it/certificazioni#/category:album/year:2011/page:0/term:Jennifer_Lopez|url-status=dead}}</ref> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * MC: Platinum<ref name="MC"/> |- ! scope="row"| ''[[A.K.A. (album)|A.K.A.]]'' | * Ilitolewa: Juni 17, 2014 * Lebo: Capitol Records | 8 || 24 || 21 || 12 || 70 || 24 || 13 || 14 || 15 || 41 | * Marekani: 71,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/events/year-in-music-2014/6397785/albums-flopped-2014|last=Lynch|first=Joe|title=9 Albums That Flopped in 2014 (Or Did They?)|work=Billboard|date=December 9, 2014|accessdate=December 9, 2014}}</ref> * Ufaransa: 5,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hamard|first1=Jonathan|title=Clip de "Booty" : Jennifer Lopez et Iggy Azalea, brûlantes, rendent hommage à leurs fesses|url=http://www.chartsinfrance.net/Jennifer-Lopez/news-93677.html|publisher=PureMédias|language=French|accessdate=November 9, 2017|date=September 19, 2014}}</ref> | |- !''This Is Me... Now'' | * Ilitolewa: 2024 | | | | | | | | | | | | |} === Nyimbo === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Orodha ya nyimbo, mwaka iliyotoka, na albamu yake ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Nyimbo ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:2em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" colspan="10" style="width:1em;"| Nafasi ilishika katika nchi tofauti ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:16em;"| Matunukio ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:13em;"| Albamu |- ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Marekani <br /><ref name="US singles positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/jennifer-lopez/chart-history/hot-100|title=Jennifer Lopez Chart History: Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=April 17, 2018}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Australia <br /><ref name="Australian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ubelgiji<br /><ref name="Wallonian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Canada <br /><ref name="Canadian singles positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/Jennifer-Lopez/chart-history/canadian-hot-100|title=Billboard Canadian Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=April 26, 2018}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ufaransa <br /><ref name="French positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ujerumani <br /><ref name="German singles positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://www.officialcharts.de/suche.asp?search=Jennifer+Lopez&x=11&y=6&cat=a&country=de|title=Suchen Nach "Jennifer Lopez"|work=''charts.de''|publisher=Media Control GfK International|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, enter the search parameter "Jennifer Lopez" and click the "Single" tab|language=German|archivedate=2014-10-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030064224/http://www.officialcharts.de/suche.asp?search=Jennifer+Lopez&x=11&y=6&cat=a&country=de}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Italy <br /><ref name="Italian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Spain<br /><ref name="Spanish positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Uswisi<br /><ref name="Swiss positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Uingereza <br /><ref name="UK singles positions for Jennifer Lopez">{{cite web|url=http://www.officialcharts.com/artist/7995/jennifer-lopez/|title=Jennifer Lopez|publisher=Official Charts Company|accessdate=April 26, 2018|format=To access, click the "Singles" tab}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "[[If You Had My Love]]" | rowspan="3"| 1999 | 1 || 1 || 3 || 1 || 4 || 5 || 4 || 7 || 5 || 4 | * RIAA: Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 1999">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-1999.htm|title=ARIA Charts - Accreditations - 1999 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> * BEA: Platinum<ref name="Belgian certifications 1999"/> * BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI"/> * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> | rowspan="5"| ''On the 6'' |- ! scope="row"| "No Me Ames" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Marc Anthony]])}} | —<ref name="Hot Latin Songs">{{cite web |url={{BillboardURLbyName|artist=jennifer lopez|chart=Latin Songs C}}|title=Jennifer Lopez Album & Song Chart History|work=Billboard|accessdate=October 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CQ0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA54&lpg=RA1-PA54&dq=%22no+me+ames%22+%22single%22+intitle:billboard#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Lopez's Historic Double|volume=111|issue=26|page=54|last=Lannert|first=John|work=Billboard|date=June 26, 1999|accessdate=October 24, 2011}}</ref> || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"| "Waiting for Tonight" | 8 || 4 || 4 || 13 || 10 || 15 || 6 || 2 || 14 || 5 | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 1999"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 1999"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Feelin' So Good" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Big Pun]] & [[Fat Joe]])}} | rowspan="3"| 2000 | 51 || 20 || 24 || 7 || — || 39 || 27 || — || 22 || 15 | * ARIA Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2000">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-2000.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2000 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "Let's Get Loud" | — || 9 || 21 || — || 40 || 13 || 6 || — || 10 || — | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2000"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/xls/Awards%202000.htm|title=Belgian Awards - 2000|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "Love Don't Cost a Thing" | 3 || 4 || 2 || 1 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 1 || 2 || 1 | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2001">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-2001.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2001 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2001"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> | rowspan="4"| ''J.Lo'' |- ! scope="row"| "Play" | rowspan="3"| 2001 | 18 || 14 || 8 || 5 || 20 || 19 || 8 || 14 || 10 || 3 | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2001"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2001"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Ain't It Funny" | — || 25 || 5 || — || 13 || 13 || 17 || 10 || 9 || 3 | * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2001"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> |- ! scope="row"| "I'm Real" | 1 || 3 || 5 || 6 || 3 || 11 || 16 || — || 6 || 4 | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2001"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2001"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Ja Rule]] & Caddillac Tah)}} | rowspan="5"| 2002 | 1 || 9 || 24 || 12 || — || 18 || — || 16 || 7 || 4 | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2002">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-2002.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2002 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> | rowspan="3"| ''J to tha L–O! The Remixes'' |- ! scope="row"| "Alive" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"| "I'm Gonna Be Alright" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Nas]])}} | 10 || 16 || 26 || 29 || 12 || 6 || 24 || — || 4 || 3 | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2002"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Jenny from the Block" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Jadakiss]] & [[Styles P|Styles]])}} | 3 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 5 || 7 || 4 || 2 || 4 || 3 | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2002"/> * BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2003">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/xls/Awards%202003.htm]]|title=Belgian Awards - 2003|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> | rowspan="4"| ''This Is Me... Then'' |- ! scope="row"| "All I Have" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[LL Cool J]])}} | 1 || 2 || 16 || 6 || 29 || 19 || 13 || — || 4 || 2 | * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2003">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-2003.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2003 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> |- ! scope="row"| "I'm Glad" | rowspan="2"| 2003 | 32 || 10 || 30 || 8 || — || 44 || 17 || 19 || 21 || 11 | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2003"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Baby I Love U!" | 72 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 3 | |- ! scope="row"| "Get Right" | rowspan="2"| 2005 | 12 || 3 || 2 || 3 || 2 || 7 || 1 || 3 || 3 || 1 | * RIAA: Gold<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2005">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/aria-charts-accreditations-singles-2005.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2005 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=April 9, 2009}}</ref> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * SNEP: Gold<ref name="SNEP"/> | rowspan="2"| ''Rebirth'' |- ! scope="row"| "Hold You Down" <br />{{small|(pamoja na Fat Joe)}} | 64 || 17 || — || — || — || 44 || 22 || 12 || 44 || 6 | |- ! scope="row"| "Qué Hiciste" | rowspan="4"| 2007 | 86 || — || 11 || — || — || 10 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 162 | * IFPI SWI: Platinum<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * PROMUSICAE: 8× Platinum<ref name="Spanish certifications 2007">{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://promusicae.com/files/imagenes/file/TOP20ANO2007DESCARGASCANCIONESYTONOS.PDF|title=Canciones Top 20 Anual - 2007|accessdate=July 10, 2014|publisher=Productores de Música de España|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715122845/http://www.promusicae.com/files/imagenes/file/TOP20ANO2007DESCARGASCANCIONESYTONOS.PDF|archivedate=July 15, 2011|language=Spanish}}</ref> | rowspan="2"| ''Como Ama una Mujer'' |- ! scope="row"| "Me Haces Falta" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"| "Do It Well" | 31 || 18 || 20 || 23 || 29 || 30 || 2 || — || 12 || 11 | | rowspan="2"| ''Brave'' |- ! scope="row"| "Hold It Don't Drop It" | —<ref name="Hot Dance Club Songs">{{cite web|url={{BillboardURLbyName|artist=jennifer lopez|chart=Dance/Club Play Songs}}|title=Jennifer Lopez Album & Song Chart History|work=Billboard|accessdate=October 25, 2011}}</ref> || — || — || — || — || — || 4 || — || — || 72 | |- ! scope="row"| "Louboutins" | 2009 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row"| "On the Floor" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]])}} | rowspan="3"| 2011 | 3 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 | * RIAA: 3× Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: 4× Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2011">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/httpwww.aria.com.aupageshttpwww.aria.com.auSINGLEaccreds2011.htm |title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2011 Singles|work=ARIA Charts |publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=October 2, 2011}}</ref> * BEA: Platinum<ref name="Belgian certifications 2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.ultratop.be/nl/goud-platina/2012|title=Belgian Awards - 2012|accessdate=April 12, 2018}}</ref> * BPI: Platinum<ref name="BPI"/> * BVMI: 5× Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> * FIMI: 2x Platinum<ref name="Italian singles certifications">{{cite web|url=http://www.fimi.it/certificazioni#/category:singoli/year:All_years/page:0/term:Jennifer_Lopez|title=Certificazioni|publisher=Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|accessdate=April 12, 2018|language=Italian|archive-date=2018-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116081416/http://www.fimi.it/certificazioni#/category:singoli/year:All_years/page:0/term:Jennifer_Lopez|url-status=dead}}</ref> * IFPI SWI: 4× Platinum<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * MC: 5× Platinum<ref name="MC"/> * PROMUSICAE: 3× Platinum | rowspan="3"| ''Love?'' |- ! scope="row"| "I'm Into You" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Lil Wayne]])}} | 41 || 45 || 27 || 55 || 38 || 16 || 18 || 17 || 22 || 9 | * RIAA: Gold<ref name="RIAA"/> * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> * FIMI: Gold<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> * MC: Gold<ref name="MC"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Papi" | 96 || — || 28 || 50 || 28 || — || 3 || 18 || 37 || 67 | * FIMI: Platinum<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> * MC: Gold<ref name="MC"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Dance Again" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na Pitbull)}} | rowspan="2"| 2012 | 17 || 28 || 9 || 4 || 15 || 14 || 7 || 4 || 14 || 11 | * RIAA: Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> * ARIA: Platinum<ref name="ARIA singles 2012">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/httpwww.aria.com.aupagesSINGLEaccreds2012.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2012 Singles|work=ARIA Charts|publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=July 20, 2011}}</ref> *BEA: Gold<ref name="Belgian certifications 2012"/> * FIMI: Platinum<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> * MC: Platinum<ref name="MC"/> | ''Dance Again... the Hits'' |- ! scope="row"| "Goin' In" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na [[Flo Rida]])}} | — || — || — || 54 || — || 67 || 92 || — || — || — | | ''Step Up Revolution'' |- ! scope="row"| "Live It Up" <br /> {{small|(pamoja na Pitbull)}} | 2013 | 60 || 20 || 32 || 16 || 67 || 36 || 36 || 10 || 33 || 17 | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2013">{{cite web|url=http://aria.com.au/pages/httpwww.aria.com.aupagesaria-charts-accreditations-singles-2013.htm|title=ARIA Charts – Accreditations – 2013 Singles|work=ARIA Charts |publisher=Australian Recording Industry Association|accessdate=September 5, 2013}}</ref> * MC: Gold<ref name="MC"/> | {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row"| "I Luh Ya Papi"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[French Montana]])}} | rowspan="3"| 2014 | 77 || — || — || 78 || — || — || — || — || — || 170 | | rowspan="3"| ''A.K.A.'' |- ! scope="row"| "First Love" | 87 || — || — || — || 193 || — || 41 || — || — || 63 | |- ! scope="row"| "Booty"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Iggy Azalea]] / Pitbull)}} | 18 || 27 || — || 11 || 93 || 78 || 97 || — || — || 137 | * RIAA: Platinum<ref name="RIAA"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Feel the Light" | rowspan="2"| 2015 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | ''Home'' |- ! scope="row"| "A Selena Tribute" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | rowspan="2" {{n/a|Non-album singles}} |- ! scope="row"| "Ain't Your Mama" | rowspan="2"| 2016 | 76 || 85 || 27 || 34 || 11 || 5 || 32 || 4 || 16 || 182 | * RIAA: Gold<ref name="RIAA"/> * BVMI: Platinum<ref name="BVMI"/> * FIMI: Platinum<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> * PROMUSICAE: 3× Platinum<ref>{{cite web|title=Jennifer Lopez - Ain't Your Mama|url=http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-12224-21624-jennifer-lopez-ain-t-your-mama|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=June 1, 2016|language=Spanish|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529094203/http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-12224-21624-jennifer-lopez-ain-t-your-mama|archive-date=May 29, 2016|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all|archivedate=2016-05-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529094203/http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-12224-21624-jennifer-lopez-ain-t-your-mama}}</ref> * SNEP: Diamond<ref name="SNEP"/> |- ! scope="row"|"Chegaste"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Roberto Carlos (singer)|Roberto Carlos]])}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | ''Roberto Carlos'' |- ! scope="row"| "Ni Tú Ni Yo"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Gente de Zona]])}} | rowspan="2"| 2017 | —<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/charts/latin-songs/2017-07-22|title=Top Latin Songs: The week of July 22, 2017|work=Billboard|accessdate=15 July 2017}}</ref>}} || — || — || — || 82 || — || — || 24 || 30 || — | * PROMUSICAE: Gold<ref>{{cite web|title=Jennifer Lopez feat Gente de Zona - Ni Tú Ni Yo|url=http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-15078-26096-jennifer-lopez-feat-gente-de-zona-ni-tu-ni-yo|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=August 30, 2017|language=Spanish|archivedate=2017-07-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721021204/http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-15078-26096-jennifer-lopez-feat-gente-de-zona-ni-tu-ni-yo}}</ref> | rowspan="3" {{TBA}} |- ! scope="row"| "Amor, Amor, Amor"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Wisin]])}} | —<ref name="Bubbling">{{cite web |url=http://www.billboard.com/music/jennifer-lopez/chart-history/bubbling-under-hot-100|title=Jennifer Lopez Chart History: Bubbling Under Hot 100|work=Billboard|accessdate=May 30, 2018}}</ref> || — || — || — || 120 || — || 99 || 60 || 33 || — | |- ! scope="row"| "Us" | rowspan="6"| 2018 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"|"Se Acabó El Amor"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Abraham Mateo]] & [[Yandel]])}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 64 || 83 || — | | ''A Cámara Lenta'' |- ! scope="row"|"El Anillo" | — || — || — || — || 163<br|| — || — || 9<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.promusicae.es/listas/semana/3754-canciones-semana-24-2018|title=Top 100 Canciones – Semana 24: del 8.6.2018 al 14.6.2018|publisher=[[Productores de Música de España]]|language=Spanish|accessdate=June 20, 2018}}</ref> || 93 || — | * RIAA: 2× Platinum </span><ref name="RIAA" /> * PROMUSICAE: Platinum<ref>{{cite web|title=Jennifer Lopez - El Anillo|url=http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-16869-28588-jennifer-lopez-el-anillo|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=June 13, 2018|language=Spanish|archivedate=2018-06-13|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613161307/http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-16869-28588-jennifer-lopez-el-anillo}}</ref> | rowspan="3" {{TBA}} |- ! scope="row"|"Dinero"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[DJ Khaled]] & [[Cardi B]])}} | 80 || — || — || 75 || 140 || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"|"Te Guste"<br />{{small|(pamoja na [[Bad Bunny]])}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 52<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.promusicae.es/listas/semana/3895-canciones-semana-46-2018|title=Top 100 Canciones – Semana 46: del 9.11.2018 al 15.11.2018|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=November 21, 2018|language=Spanish|format=PDF}}</ref> || — || — |- ! scope="row"|"Limitless" | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | ''Second Act'' |- ! scope="row"|"Medicine"<br />{{small|(pamoja na French Montana)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/JLo/status/1108759456609959942|title=Wish I could give you guys a taste of my new single, Medicine, ft. @frenchmontana 😏. I CAN'T WAIT for you guys to hear it. Want to be the first to listen? Pre-save on @Spotify|via=Twitter|date=March 21, 2019|accessdate=March 22, 2019}}</ref> | 2019 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | {{TBA}} |} === Nyimbo nyingine === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ Orodha ya nyimbo ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Nyimbo ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Mwaka ! scope="col" colspan="10"| Nafasi iliyoshika katika nchi tofauti ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:12em;"| Matunukio ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Albamu |- ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Marekani <br /><ref name="US singles positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Australia <br /><ref name="Australian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ubelgiji <br /><ref name="Wallonian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Canada <br /><ref name="Canadian singles positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ufaransa <br /><ref name="French positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ujerumani <br /><ref name="German singles positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Italy <br /><ref name="Italian positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Spain <br /><ref name="Spanish positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Uswisi <br /><ref name="Swiss positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> ! scope="col" style="width:2em; font-size:90%;"| Ungereza <br /><ref name="UK singles positions for Jennifer Lopez"/> |- ! scope="row"| "Control Myself" <br /> {{small|(LL Cool J pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | 2006 | 4 || 17 || — || 4 || — || 25 || — || — || — || 2 | | ''Todd Smith'' |- ! scope="row"| "This Boy's Fire" <br /> {{small|([[Santana (band)|Santana]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | 2008 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | ''Ultimate Santana'' |- ! scope="row"| "T.H.E. (The Hardest Ever)" <br /> {{small|([[will.i.am]] pamoja na [[Mick Jagger]] & Jennifer Lopez)}} | 2011 | 36 || 57 || — || 10 || — || — || — || — || 41 || 3 | * BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI"/> | {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row"| "Follow the Leader" <br /> {{small|([[Wisin & Yandel]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | 2012 | — || — || — || — || 177 || — || — || 26 || — || — | * RIAA: Gold<ref>{{cite web |url=http://riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?artist=Wisin%20&%20Yandel|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2014-10-08|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924151438/http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?artist=Wisin%20&%20Yandel|archivedate=2015-09-24}}</ref> | ''Líderes'' |- ! scope="row"| "Sweet Spot" <br /> {{small|(Flo Rida pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | rowspan="2"| 2013 | — || 25 || — || — || 195 || — || — || — || — || — | * ARIA: Gold<ref name="ARIA singles 2013"/> | ''Wild Ones'' |- ! scope="row"| "Quizás, Quizás, Quizás"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/quizas-quizas-quizas-feat./id745691977|title=Quizàs, Quizàs, Quizàs (feat. Jennifer Lopez) - EP by Andrea Bocelli on Apple Music|work=iTunes Store (US)}}</ref><br /> {{small|([[Andrea Bocelli]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | ''Passione'' |- ! scope="row"| "Adrenalina" <br /> {{small|([[Wisin]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez & [[Ricky Martin]])}} | rowspan="4"| 2014 | rowspan="2"| 94 || — || — || — || — || — || 52 || — || — || — | * FIMI: Gold<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> | ''El Regreso del Sobreviviente'' |- ! scope="row"| "Adrenalina" <br /> {{small|(Ricky Martin pamoja na Jennifer Lopez & Wisin)}} | — || — || — || 122 || — || — || 3 || 57 || — | * PROMUSICAE: 2× Platinum<ref>{{cite web|title=Top 100 Canciones - Semana 1: 29.12.2014 al 04.01.2015 |url=http://www.promusicae.es/listas/semanales|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=April 8, 2015|language=Spanish}}</ref> | {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row"| "We Are One (Ole Ola)" <br /> {{small|(Pitbull pamoja na Jennifer Lopez & [[Claudia Leitte]])}} | 59 || 61 || 1 || 51 || 3 || 6 || 2 || 4 || 2 || 29 | * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> * FIMI: Platinum<ref name="Italian singles certifications"/> * IFPI SWI: Gold<ref name="Swiss certifications"/> * PROMUSICAE: Gold<ref name="Semana 26: Del 23.06.2014 Al 29.06.2014">{{cite web|title=Top 100 Streaming - Semana 26: Del 23.06.2014 Al 29.06.2014|url=http://promusicae.es/listas/semanales|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=July 7, 2014|language=Spanish|archive-date=2022-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403213914/https://www.promusicae.es/listas/semanales|url-status=dead}}</ref> | ''One Love, One Rhythm – The 2014 FIFA World Cup Official Album'' |- ! scope="row"| "Stressin"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/stressin-single/id907616647|title=Stressin - Single by Fat Joe & J-Lo on Apple Music|publisher=}}</ref><br />{{small|(Fat Joe pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | {{n/a|Non-album single}} |- ! scope="row"| "Back It Up" <br /> {{small|([[Prince Royce]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez & Pitbull)}} | rowspan="3"| 2015 | 92 || — || — || 56 || — || — || — || 40 || — || — | | ''Double Vision'' |- ! scope="row"| "El mismo sol" <br /> {{small|([[Álvaro Soler]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez)}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 3 || — || — | * PROMUSICAE: 2× Platinum<ref>{{cite web|title=Alvaro Soler feat Jennifer Lopez - El Mismo Sol (español)|url=http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-10858-19337-alvaro-soler-feat-jennifer-lopez-el-mismo-sol-espanol|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=January 4, 2016|language=Spanish|archivedate=2017-06-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624142809/http://www.elportaldemusica.es/cancion-10858-19337-alvaro-soler-feat-jennifer-lopez-el-mismo-sol-espanol}}</ref> | ''[[Eterno Agosto]]'' |- ! scope="row"| "Try Me" <br /> {{small|([[Jason Derulo]] pamoja na Jennifer Lopez & [[Matoma]])}} | — || — || — || — || 168 || 39 || — || — || — || — | * BVMI: Gold<ref name="BVMI"/> | ''Everything Is 4'' |- | colspan="15" style="font-size:90%" | "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory. |} == Tuzo == ===ALMA Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=2|1998 |rowspan=2|Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film |''Selena'' |{{Won}} |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite journal|title='Selena' Captures 4 Prizes in Latino Media Awards|journal=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=April 20, 1998|page=4|issn=0458-3035}}</ref></center> |- |''Anaconda'' |{{Won}} |- |1999 |Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film |''Out of Sight'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite journal|title=Latino awards short on entrants|journal=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]|date=April 13, 1999|page=35|issn=1553-8478}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan=2|2000 |Outstanding Music Video Performer |rowspan=2|''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite journal|title=ABC to air '2000 ALMA Awards'|journal=[[The Oak Ridger]]|date=June 16, 2000|issn=0890-6009|id=110CAAFEE6259060}}</ref></center> |- |Entertainer of the Year |{{Won}} |- |rowspan=2|2001 |Entertainer of the Year |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite journal|last=Linan|first=Steven|title='ALMA Awards' to Honor Latinos in Arts|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_los-angeles-times_los-angeles-times_2001-06-01_0/page/n195|journal=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=June 1, 2001|page=28|issn=0458-3035}}</ref></center> |- |Outstanding Host of a Variety or Awards Special |''1st Annual Latin Grammy Awards'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |rowspan=5|2002 |Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film |''Angel Eyes'' |Aliyetuzwa |rowspan=5|<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/76077/j-lo-leads-alma-music-nominees |title=J.Lo Leads ALMA Music Nominees |work=Billboard |date=April 18, 2012 |accessdate=October 25, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |Outstanding Performance in a Music, Variety or Comedy Special |''Jennifer Lopez: Let's Get Loud'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |Album of the Year |''J.Lo'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |People's Choice for Outstanding Music Video |''Love Don't Cost a Thing'' |{{Won}} |- |Outstanding Female Performer |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |2007 |Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film |''El Cantante'' |Aliyetuzwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Ugly Betty Leads Alma Award Nominations|url=http://www.showbizspy.com/article/113980/ugly-betty-leads-alma-award-nominations.html|work=ShowbizSpy|accessdate=July 22, 2013|date=July 22, 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927082934/http://www.showbizspy.com/article/113980/ugly-betty-leads-alma-award-nominations.html|archivedate=September 27, 2013|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927082934/http://www.showbizspy.com/article/113980/ugly-betty-leads-alma-award-nominations.html}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan=2|2011 |Favorite Reality, Variety or Comedy Personality Act |''American Idol'' |Aliyetuzwa |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite news|last=Powers|first=Lindsay|title='The Voice's' Christina Aguilera, Selena Gomez Among ALMA Award Nominees|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/alma-voice-christina-aguilera-selena-gomez-216530|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=July 28, 2011}}</ref></center> |- |Favorite Female Music Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |rowspan=3|2012 |Favorite Movie Actress – Comedy or Musical |''What to Expect When You're Expecting'' |Aliyetuzwa |rowspan=3|<center><ref>{{cite news|last=Gratereaux|first=Alexandra|title=2012 NCLR/ ALMA Awards Nominees Include Jennifer Lopez, Pitbull & Selena Gomez|url=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/entertainment/2012/07/10/2012-nclr-alma-awards-nominees-include-jennifer-lopez-pitbull-selena-gomez/|work=Fox News Latino|publisher=[[Fox News Network]]|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=July 10, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |Favorite Reality, Variety or Comedy Personality Act |''American Idol'' |Aliyetuzwa |- |Favorite Female Music Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliyetuzwa |} === American Music Awards === {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=2|2000 |American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Artist | ''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=2|<center><ref name=2000am>{{cite news|title=American Music Awards nominees|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=APAB&d_place=APAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F89AD578A910E72&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=January 17, 2000}}</ref></center> |- |American Music Award for Favorite Latin Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |- |2002 |Hip-Hop/R&B Female Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Nominees for the 30th annual American Music Awards.|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/73407/2002-american-music-awards-nominees|website=Billboard|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=November 19, 2002}}</ref></center> |- |2003 |Hip-Hop/R&B Female Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=30th American Music Awards|url=http://www.rockonthenet.com/archive/2003/amas.htm|publisher=Rockonthenet.com|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=January 13, 2003}}</ref></center> |- |2003 |American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|title=McGraw, Vandross win American Music Awards|newspaper=[[The Advocate (LGBT magazine)|The Advocate]]|date=November 17, 2003}}</ref></center> |- |2007 |American Music Award for Favorite Latin Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/19/entertainment/main3519877.shtml |title=American Music Awards – Winners List |publisher=CBS News. CBS Interactive |date=November 19, 2007 |accessdate=March 20, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |2011 |American Music Award for Favorite Latin Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Vena|first=Jocelyn|title=Lady Gaga, Adele Lead American Music Awards Noms|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1672323/american-music-awards-nominees-2011.jhtml|publisher=[[MTV News]]. Viacom International, Inc.|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=October 11, 2011|archive-date=2012-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104051342/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1672323/american-music-awards-nominees-2011.jhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref><br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/465045/amas-2011-taylor-swift-nicki-minaj-win-big-on-ladies-night|title=AMAs 2011: Taylor Swift, Nicki Minaj Win Big on Ladies' Night|date= October 11, 2011|work=Billboard |accessdate=January 22, 2012}}</ref></center> |} ===ARIA Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |2011 |Most Popular International Artist | ''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web |title=2011 Nominations Announced |url=http://www.ariaawards.com.au/news/8/the-countdown-beginsnominations-announced |publisher=[[Australian Recording Industry Association]] |accessdate=February 28, 2012 |date=October 11, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016020511/http://www.ariaawards.com.au/news/8/the-countdown-beginsnominations-announced |archivedate=October 16, 2011 |df= |=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016020511/http://www.ariaawards.com.au/news/8/the-countdown-beginsnominations-announced }}</ref></center> |} ===BAMBI Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |2000 |Best International Pop Performance | ''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web |title=The Bambi Goes To... |url=http://www.bambi-awards.com/history/past-winners |publisher=Bambi Awards |accessdate=July 2, 2013 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Ho3xfiD0?url=http://www.bambi-awards.com/history/past-winners |archivedate=July 2, 2013 |deadurl=yes |df= |=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926224003/http://www.bambi-awards.com/history/past-winners }}</ref></center> |} ===BMI Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=2|2004 |rowspan=2|Award-Winning Song | ''[[Jenny from the Block]]'' |{{Won}} |rowspan=2|<center><ref name="2004b">{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59 |title=52nd Annual BMI Pop Awards Winners |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=May 22, 2004 |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref></center> |- |''All I Have'' |{{Won}} |} ===Best of Las Vegas Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |2016 |Best Production Show | ''Jennifer Lopez: All I Have'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Best of Las Vegas 2016 Award Winners|url=http://bestoflasvegas.com/winners-2016|website=Best of Las Vegas|publisher=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]], Inc.|accessdate=February 16, 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114035251/http://bestoflasvegas.com/winners-2016|archivedate=November 14, 2016|=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114035251/http://bestoflasvegas.com/winners-2016}}</ref></center> |} ===BET Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |2001 |Video of the Year | ''I'm Real'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite journal|title=Whitney Houston a Sure Bet Singer Honored with Lifetime Achievement Award|journal=[[Akron Beacon Journal]]|date=June 21, 2001|page=3|publisher=Black Press Ltd.}}</ref></center> |} ===Billboard Awards=== ====Billboard Music Video Awards==== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=7|1999 |Maximum Vision Award |rowspan=4| ''If You Had My Love'' |{{Won}} |rowspan=7|<center><ref name="BB99">{{cite journal|title=Arts Beat|journal=[[Dallas Morning News]]|date=October 10, 1999|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3DBD25179FD13&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|accessdate=July 2, 2013|id=0ED3DBD25179FD13|archive-date=2013-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927033947/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0ED3DBD25179FD13&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |Best Video |Aliteuliwa |- |Best New-Artist Video |{{Won}} |- |Best Pop-Clip |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Video |rowspan=2|''Waiting for Tonight'' |Aliteuliwa |- |Best New-Artist Video |Aliteuliwa |- |Best New Artist |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |} ====Billboard Music Awards==== {| class="wikitable" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=4|2001 |Billboard Music Award for Top Artist |rowspan=4| ''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=4|<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Moss|first1=Cory|title=Alicia Keys, Shaggy Top Billboard Music Awards Nominees|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1451229/alicia-keys-shaggy-top-billboard-music-awards-nominees/|publisher=[[MTV News]]|accessdate=September 22, 2017|date=November 28, 2011|archive-date=2015-01-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123170216/http://www.mtv.com/news/1451229/alicia-keys-shaggy-top-billboard-music-awards-nominees/|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |Billboard Music Award for Top Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |Billboard Music Award for Top Hot 100 Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |Female Hot 100 Singles Artist of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |2002 |Female Artist of the Year |''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Alicia Keys, Shaggy Top Billboard Music Awards Nominees|url=http://awardsandwinners.com/category/billboard-music-award/2002/|publisher=awardwinners.com|accessdate=March 21, 2018|year=2002|archive-date=2015-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715201240/http://awardsandwinners.com/category/billboard-music-award/2002/|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |2014 |Billboard Icon Award |''Mwenyewe'' |{{Won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|last1=Lipshut|first1=Jason|title=Jennifer Lopez's 'A.K.A.' Debut: An Icon Reaches a Crossroads|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop-shop/6141007/jennifer-lopez-aka-debut-sales-pop-column|accessdate=August 7, 2014|work=Billboard|date=June 30, 2014}}</ref></center> |} ====Billboard Latin Music Awards==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Year ! style="width:40%;"| Kinachotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="3"|2000 |rowspan="3"|"No Me Ames" |Hot Latin Track of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|<center><ref name="billboardawards">{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/?id=EA8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA20&dq=no+me+ames+intitle:billboard#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Catch Some Rising Stars: Artist Showcases Offer a Glimpse Into The Future of Latin Music|last=Lannert|first=John|work=Billboard|volume=112|issue=18|page=16|date=April 29, 2000|accessdate=May 9, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |Best Vocal Duo |{{won}} |- |Tropical/Salsa Track of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="3"|2002 |"Play" |Latin Dance Club Play Track of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|{{center|<ref>{{cite web|title=2002 Billboard Latin Music Awards|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/75808/2002-billboard-latin-music-awards|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=September 23, 2017|date=May 10, 2002}}</ref>}} |- |"Amor Se Paga Con Amor" |Latin Dance Maxi-Single of the Year |{{won}} |- |"I'm Real" |Latin Dance Maxi-Single of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |2003 |"Alive" |Best-Selling Latin Dance Single of the Year |{{won}} |{{center|<ref>{{cite web|title=2003 Billboard Latin Music Award Winners|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/71168/2003-billboard-latin-music-award-winners|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=September 23, 2017|date=May 9, 2003}}</ref>}} |- |2004 |"I'm Glad" |Best-Selling Latin Dance Single of the Year |{{won}} | |- |rowspan="4"|2008 |rowspan="2"| ''Como Ama Una Mujer'' |Latin Album of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="4"| |- |Latin Pop Album of the Year |{{won}} |- |rowspan="2"| "Que Hiciste" |Latin Pop Airplay Song of the Year |{{won}} |- | Female Latin Dance Club Play Track of the Year |{{won}} |- |rowspan="3"|2012 |Ven A Bailar |Vocal Event Song of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|{{center|<ref>{{cite web|last1=Trivino|first1=Jesus|title=2012 Latin Music Billboard Awards Predictions|url=https://www.latina.com/entertainment/music/2012-latin-music-billboard-awards-predictions?page=1|website=[[Latina (magazine)|Latina]]|accessdate=September 23, 2017|date=April 25, 2012|archivedate=2017-09-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923101153/https://www.latina.com/entertainment/music/2012-latin-music-billboard-awards-predictions?page=1|=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923101153/https://www.latina.com/entertainment/music/2012-latin-music-billboard-awards-predictions?page=1}}</ref>}} |- |Jennifer Lopez |Female Songs Artist of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |"Ven A Bailar" |Latin Pop Song of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="3"|2013 |Dance Again World Tour Summer Tour 2012 (pamoja na [[Enrique Iglesias]]) |Tour of the Year |{{won}} |rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite web|last=Salazar |first=Francisco |url=http://www.latinospost.com/articles/11391/20130206/billboard-latin-music-awards-2013-nominations-unveiled.htm |title=Billboard Latin Music Awards 2013 Nominations Unveiled – Jenni Rivera, Don Omar, Jennifer Lopez, Shakira, Prince Royce Among Nominees |work=Latinos Post |date=February 6, 2013 |accessdate=February 8, 2013}}</ref></center> |- |Jennifer Lopez |Songs Artist of the Year, Female |Aliteuliwa |- |"Follow the Leader" (pamoja na [[Wisin & Yandel]]) |Streaming Song of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="3"|2017 |rowspan="6"|Jennifer Lopez |Hot Latin Songs Artist of the Year, Female |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cobo|first1=Leila|title=Nicky Jam Wins Big at Billboard Latin Music Awards: See the Full Winners List|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/events/latin-awards/7776260/billboard-latin-music-awards-2017-winners-list|website=Billboard|publisher=[[Eldridge Industries]]|accessdate=May 1, 2017|date=April 27, 2017}}</ref></center> |- |Social Artist of the Year |{{won}} |- |Telemundo Star Award |{{won}} |- |rowspan="2"|2018 |Social Artist of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web|title=2018 Billboard Latin Music Awards: See the Full Nominations List|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/2018-billboard-latin-music-awards-nominations-8098517|website=Billboard|publisher=[[Eldridge Industries]]|accessdate=February 8, 2018}}</ref></center> |- |Hot Latin Songs Artist of the Year, Female |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2"|2019 |Hot Latin Songs Artist of the Year, Female | |rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web|title=2019 Billboard Latin Music Awards: See the Full Nominations List|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/8497865/ozuna-leads-2019-billboard-latin-music-awards-finalists-complete-list|website=Billboard||accessdate=February 14, 2019}}</ref></center> |- |"Jennifer Lopez: All I Have" |Tour of the Year | |} ====Billboard.com Mid-Year Music Awards==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"| 2011 |rowspan="3"|Jennifer Lopez |Best Comeback |{{won}} |{{center|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/469332/britney-spears-lady-gaga-rule-billboardcoms-2011-mid-year-music-awards |title=Britney Spears, Lady Gaga Rule Billboard.com's 2011 Mid-Year Music Awards |accessdate=June 24, 2013 |work=Billboard |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623105821/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/469332/britney-spears-lady-gaga-rule-billboardcoms-2011-mid-year-music-awards |archivedate=June 23, 2013}}</ref>}} |- |Comeback of the Year |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Lipshutz|first=Jason|title=Britney Spears, Adele Rule Billboard.com's Readers Poll 2011|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/464714/britney-spears-adele-rule-billboardcoms-readers-poll-2011|work=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |accessdate=January 29, 2012|location=New York City|date=December 15, 2011}}</ref></center> |- |2012 |Sexiest Woman in Music |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Music's Sexiest Man & Woman: Poll Results|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/485392/musics-sexiest-man-woman-poll-results|work=Billboard|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=June 12, 2012}}</ref></center> |} ===Blockbuster Entertainment Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Kilichotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1998 |''Anaconda'' |Favorite Actress – Action & Adventure |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Blockbuster Entertainment Awards Nominees Announced|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/blockbuster-entertainment-awards-nominees-announced-77915327.html|website=''[[PR Newswire]]''|publisher=[[UBM plc]]|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=December 17, 1997}}</ref></center> |- |2001 |''The Cell'' |Favorite Actress – Science Fiction |{{won}} | |} ===Bravo Otto=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"|2000 |rowspan="4"|Mwenyewe |Female Actress |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Bravo Otto – Sieger 2000|url=http://www.bravo-archiv.de/auswahl.php?link=ottosieger2000.php|publisher=[[Bravo Otto]]|accessdate=February 13, 2015|date=August 13, 2001}}</ref></center> |- |Female Singer |Aliteuliwa |- |2001 |rowspan="2"|Female Actress |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Bravo Otto – Sieger 2001|url=http://www.bravo-archiv.de/auswahl.php?link=ottosieger2001.php|publisher=Bravo Otto|accessdate=February 13, 2015|date=August 12, 2002}}</ref></center> |- |2002 |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Bravo Otto – Sieger 2002|url=http://www.bravo-archiv.de/auswahl.php?link=ottosieger2002.php|publisher=Bravo Otto|accessdate=February 13, 2015|date=August 12, 2003}}</ref></center> |} ===Brit Awards=== {| class="wikitable" |- !Mwaka !Tuzo !Aliyetuzwa !Matokeo !Marejeo |- |rowspan=3|2000 |Best International Female Artist |rowspan=3|''Mwenyewe'' |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=3|<ref>{{cite web|title=Brits 2000: The winners|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/entertainment/2000/brit_awards/625884.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=September 23, 2017|date=March 3, 2000}}</ref> |- |Best International Breakthrough |Aliteuliwa |- |Best International Newcomer |Aliteuliwa |} ===Empire Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1998 |''Out of Sight'' |Best Actress |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref name="awards2">{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024094617/http://www.hollywoodactress.org/Jennifer-Lopez-Profile.php|archivedate=October 24, 2009|url=http://www.hollywoodactress.org/Jennifer-Lopez-Profile.php |title=Jennifer Lopez Profile, Professional Details, Awards and Achievements |publisher=Hollywood Actress|date=July 24, 1969 |accessdate=April 9, 2012}}</ref></center> |} ===E! Hot 50 Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2007 |Herself |Best Non-English Performance |{{won}} | |} ===''Entertainment Tonight''=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |Jennifer Lopez |Icon Award |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chestang|first1=Raphael|title=EXCLUSIVE: Jennifer Lopez Reveals She Only Recently Felt Like She Had 'Made It'|url=http://www.etonline.com/news/176187_exclusive_jennifer_lopez_reveals_she_only_recently_felt_like_she_had_made_it|website=[[ETonline]]|accessdate=September 21, 2017|date=November 16, 2015}}</ref> |} ===Golden Globe Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1998 |''Selena'' |Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite journal|title='Titanic' tops Golden Globe picks|journal=[[Los Angeles Daily News]]|date=December 19, 1997|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=LA&p_theme=la&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EF7C34D0C8990F4&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|accessdate=July 2, 2013|archive-date=2022-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326040705/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=LA&p_theme=la&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EF7C34D0C8990F4&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> </center> |} ===Golden Raspberry Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2001 |''The Wedding Planner''<br />''Angel Eyes'' |rowspan="2"|Worst Actress |Aliteuliwa | |- |2002 |''Maid in Manhattan''<br />''Enough'' |Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2003 |rowspan="2"|''Gigli'' |Worst Screen Couple (pamoja na [[Ben Affleck]]) |{{won}} | |- |rowspan="2"|Worst Actress |{{won}} | |- |2006 |''Monster-In-Law'' |Aliteuliwa | |- |2010 |''The Wedding Planner''<br />''Angel Eyes''<br />''Jersey Girl''<br />''Gigli''<br />''Maid in Manhattan''<br />''Monster-In-Law''<br />''Enough'' ||Worst Actress of the Decade |Aliteuliwa | |- |2013 |''What to Expect When You're Expecting'' |Worst Supporting Actress |Aliteuliwa | |- |2016 |''The Boy Next Door'' |Worst Actress |Aliteuliwa | |} === Grammy Awards === {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | 2000 | "Waiting for Tonight" | Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording | Aliteuliwa |<center><ref name=Grammy2000>{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/SHOWBIZ/Music/01/04/grammy.noms.01/list.html|title=42nd Annual Grammy Awards nominations|publisher=CNN|accessdate=June 25, 2010|date=January 4, 2000| archivedate= October 25, 2009| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091025161040/http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/SHOWBIZ/Music/01/04/grammy.noms.01/list.html}}</ref></center> |- | 2001 | "Let's Get Loud" | [[Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording | Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/SHOWBIZ/Music/02/21/grammy.winners/|title=43rd Grammy Awards|date=February 21, 2001|accessdate=June 25, 2010|publisher=CNN| archivedate= November 6, 2008|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081106040823/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/SHOWBIZ/Music/02/21/grammy.winners/}}</ref></center> |} === Guinness World records === {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2003 |''J to tha L–O! The Remixes'' |First No. 1 Remix Album on the Billboard 200 |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.famousqt.com/profile.asp?celeb=38 |title=Jennifer Lopez Biography Page |accessdate=September 6, 2006 |work=''FamoustQt.com'' |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312090217/http://www.famousqt.com/profile.asp?celeb=38 |archivedate=March 12, 2007 }}</ref> |- |2012 |"On the Floor" |Highest Viewed Female Music Video of All Time |{{won}} | |} ===Hollywood Walk of Fame=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2013 |Jennifer Lopez |Star on Hollywood Walk of Fame |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|title=Jennifer Lopez to receive star on Hollywood's Walk of Fame|url=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/entertainment/2013/06/13/jennifer-lopez-to-receive-star-on-hollywood-walk-fame/|publisher=Fox News Latino|accessdate=June 14, 2013|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref></center> |} ===IFPI Top Sales Music Award, Hong Kong=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |-| style="text-align:center;"| 2001 | ''J.Lo'' | Ten Best Sales Releases, Foreign | {{won}} | |- | style="text-align:center;"| 2003 | ''This Is Me... Then'' | Ten Best Sales Releases, Foreign | {{won}} | |} ===iHeartRadio Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2016 |Jennifer Lopez |Best Triple Threat |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.iheart.com/articles/trending-104650/new-iheartradio-music-awards-category-added-14470792/ | title=New iHeartRadio Music Awards Category Added: Biggest Triple Threat | publisher=iHeartMedia, Inc. | date=March 9, 2016 | accessdate=March 9, 2016 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414013251/http://news.iheart.com/articles/trending-104650/new-iheartradio-music-awards-category-added-14470792/ | archivedate=2016-04-14 }}</ref></center> |} ===Imagen Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1998 |''Selena'' |Lasting Image Award |{{won}} |<center><ref name="Notable Caribbeans" /></center> |- | rowspan="2"|2016 | ''Shades of Blue'' | Best Primetime Television Program – Drama | Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2"|<center><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imagen.org/2016/07/18/nominations-announced-for-the-31st-annual-imagen-awards/|title=Nominations Announced for the 31st Annual Imagen Awards|website=''Imagen.org''|accessdate=July 21, 2016}}</ref></center> |- | Jennifer Lopez | Best Actress – Television | Aliteuliwa |} ===International Dance Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"|2000 |Jennifer Lopez |Best New Dance Artist |{{won}} |rowspan="2"|<center><ref>{{cite web |url=http://wintermusicconference.com/events/idmas/index.php?wmcyear=2000 |title=27th Annual International Dance Music Awards&nbsp;– Winter Music Conference 2012 – WMC 2012 |publisher=[[Winter Music Conference]] |accessdate=July 11, 2012 |archivedate=2014-08-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814080436/http://wintermusicconference.com/events/idmas/index.php?wmcyear=2000 }}</ref></center> |- |"Waiting For Tonight" |Best Dance Video |{{won}} |- |2007 |"Control Myself" |Best Rap/Hip Hop Dance Track (pamoja na [[LL Cool J]]) |Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2012 |rowspan="2"|"On The Floor" (pamoja na [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]]) |Best Latin/Reggaeton Track |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|<center><ref name="12D1">{{cite web |url=http://dancemusic.about.com/od/intldancemusicawards/a/27th-Annual-International-Dance-Music-Awards-Nominees-And-Winners.htm |title=27th Annual International Dance Music Awards Nominees and Winners |publisher=[[About.com]]. [[The New York Times Company]] |date=March 22, 2012 |accessdate=April 13, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622032744/http://dancemusic.about.com/od/intldancemusicawards/a/27th-Annual-International-Dance-Music-Awards-Nominees-And-Winners.htm |archivedate=June 22, 2017 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622032744/http://dancemusic.about.com/od/intldancemusicawards/a/27th-Annual-International-Dance-Music-Awards-Nominees-And-Winners.htm }}</ref><br /><ref name=into>{{cite web|title=27th Annual International Dance Music Awards (Nominations) 2012|url=http://wintermusicconference.com/events/idmas/index.php?wmcyear=2012|publisher=Winter Music Conference|accessdate=March 1, 2012|archivedate=2017-03-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302102041/http://wintermusicconference.com/events/idmas/index.php?wmcyear=2012}}</ref></center> |- |Best Commercial/Dance Pop Track<ref name="12D1" /> |Aliteuliwa |} ===Israel Teen Choice Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2001 |rowspan="2"|Jennifer Lopez |International Female Singer |Aliteuliwa | |- |2002 |International Female Singer |{{won}} | |- |2003 |Bennifer |Choice Romance |{{won}} | |} === Latin American Music Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:75%;" |+ |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | 2015 |"Back It Up" {{small|(pamoja na [[Prince Royce]])}} |Favorite Dance Song |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Oyola|first1=Michelle|title=Latin American Music Awards 2015: How to Vote Online?|url=http://heavy.com/entertainment/2015/09/latin-american-music-awards-2015-how-to-vote-online/|website=[[Heavy.com]]|accessdate=September 8, 2015|date=September 2, 2015}}</ref></center> |- | 2016 |"El Mismo Sol" {{small|(pamoja na [[Alvaro Soler]])}} |Favorite Pop/Rock Song |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref name="billboard">{{cite web | url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/7494720/2016-latin-american-music-awards-nominees-nicky-jam-becky-g-banda-ms-juan-gabriel-telemundo | title=Latin American Music Awards 2016 Nominees: Nicky Jam, Becky G, Banda MS & More | work=Prometheus Global Media | date=August 31, 2016 | accessdate=September 1, 2016}}</ref> </center> |- | 2017 |"Olvídame y Pega la Vuelta" {{small|(pamoja na [[Marc Anthony]])}} |Favorite Tropical Song |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Fernandez|first1=Suzette|title=Shakira & Maluma Lead 2017 Latin AMAs Awards Nominations: See Full List|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/7968822/2017-latin-amas-awards-nominations-full-list|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=September 21, 2017|date=September 19, 2017}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan="2"| 2018 |"Jennifer Lopez: All I Have" |Favorite Tour |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| <center><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/8481760/2018-latin-amas-winner-list|title=2018 Latin AMA's Awards Winners: Full List|date=October 25, 2018|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|archive-date=January 10, 2019|dead-url=|accessdate=October 25, 2018}}</ref></center> |- |Jennifer Lopez |Favorite Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |} === Latin Grammy Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:75%;" |+ |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" |2000 | rowspan="2" |No Me Ames |Best Pop Performance by a Duo/Group with Vocals |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" |<center><ref name="latingrammy">{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/jul/08/entertainment/ca-49420|title=The 1st Latin Grammy Nominations – The Full Nominations|date=July 8, 2000|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref></center> |- |Latin Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video |Aliteuliwa |} === Latin Music Italian Awards === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:75%;" |+ |- ! style="width:5%;"|Mwaka ! style="width:45%;" |Kilichotuzwa ! style="width:45%;" | Tuzo ! style="width:10%;" | Matokeo |- | rowspan="4" |2012<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lmiaofficial.wordpress.com/vincitori/vincitori-2012/ |title=VINCITORI 2012 &#124; LATIN MUSIC ITALIAN AWARDS 2016 |publisher=Lmiaofficial.wordpress.com |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref> | Dance Again ft. [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]] |Best Latin Song of The Year |{{won}} |- |Follow the Leader ft. Wisin & Yandel |Best Latin Video of The Year |{{won}} |- |rowspan="2" |Jennifer Lopez |Best Latin Female Artist of The Year |{{won}} |- |Best Latin Fandom |{{won}} |- | rowspan="9" |2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lmiaofficial.wordpress.com/vincitori/vincitori-2014/ |title=VINCITORI 2014 &#124; LATIN MUSIC ITALIAN AWARDS 2016 |publisher=Lmiaofficial.wordpress.com |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref> |We Are One (Ole Ola) ft. Pitbull & [[Claudia Leitte]] |Best Latin Song of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |I Luh Ya Papi ft. [[French Montana]] |Best Latin Urban Song of The Year |{{won}} |- |Booty pamoja na [[Iggy Azalea]] |Best Latin Female Video of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2" | Adrenalina ft. Wisin & [[Ricky Martin]] |Best Collaboration of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2" | My Favorite Lyrics |Aliteuliwa |- |First Love |Aliteuliwa |- |A.K.A. |Best Latin Female Album of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2" |Jennifer Lopez |Best Latin Female Artist of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Latin #InstaVip |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="7" |2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lmiaofficial.wordpress.com/vincitori/vincitori-2015/ |title=VINCITORI 2015 &#124; LATIN MUSIC ITALIAN AWARDS 2016 |publisher=Lmiaofficial.wordpress.com |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref> |rowspan="4" |Back It Up ft. Pitbull & [[Prince Royce]] |Best Latin Song of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin Male Video of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin Collaboration of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin Dance of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="3" |Jennifer Lopez |Best Look |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin #InstaVip |Aliteuliwa |- |Artist Saga |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="5" |2016<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lmiaofficial.wordpress.com/ |title=LATIN MUSIC ITALIAN AWARDS 2016 &#124; PREMIO NAZIONALE PER LA MUSICA LATINOAMERICANA |publisher=Lmiaofficial.wordpress.com |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref> |rowspan="2" |Ain't Your Mama |Best Latin Song of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin Female Video of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="3" |Jennifer Lopez |Best Latin Female Artist of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Artist Saga |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Latin Fandom |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="1" |2017<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://latinmusicoficial.com/2017/11/06/latin-music-italian-awards-2017-le-nomination/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2019-04-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042311/https://latinmusicoficial.com/2017/11/06/latin-music-italian-awards-2017-le-nomination/ |archivedate=2017-12-01 }}</ref> |rowspan="1" |"Ni Tu Ni Yo" ft. Gente de Zona |Best Latin Female Video of The Year |Aliteuliwa |- |} ===Lone Star Film Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1997 |''Selena'' |Best Actress |{{won}} |<center><ref name="Notable Caribbeans">{{cite book|author1=Serafín Mendez Mendez|author2=Neysa Rodríguez Deyne|author3=Gail Cueto|title=Notable Caribbeans and Caribbean Americans: A Biographical Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/notablecaribbean0000mend|date=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313314438}}</ref></center> |} ===Los Premios 40 Principales=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2"|2007 | Jennifer Lopez | Mejor Artista (Best Artist) | Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2"| |- | Que Hiciste | Mejor Canción (Best Song) | Aliteuliwa |- ||2011 | On The Floor | Best International Song | Aliteuliwa | |- |2012 | Jennifer Lopez | Best International Spanish Language Artist | Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="3"|2016 | Jennifer Lopez | Best International Artist of the Year | Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"| |- |rowspan="2"|Ain't Your Mama | Best International Song of the Year | Aliteuliwa |- | International Video of the Year | Aliteuliwa | |} ===MTV Awards=== ==== MTV Movie Awards ==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1997 |''Selena'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance |Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|1998 |rowspan="2"|''Out of Sight'' |Best Female Performance |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |MTV Movie Award for Best Kiss |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2"|2001 |rowspan="2"|''The Cell'' |Best Female Performance |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |Best Dressed |{{won}} |- |2015 |''The Boy Next Door'' |MTV Movie Award for Best Scared-As-S**t Performance |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Wickman|first1=Kase|title=Here Are Your 2015 MTV Movie Awards Nominees|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2095540/mtv-movie-awards-nominations-2015/|website=''[[MTV News]]''|accessdate=March 5, 2015|date=March 4, 2015|archive-date=2015-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412072632/http://www.mtv.com/news/2095540/mtv-movie-awards-nominations-2015/|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |} ==== MTV Video Music Awards ==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan=5|1999 |MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video |rowspan=4|"If You Had My Love" |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=5|<center><ref>{{cite journal|title=Asia Pacific Quarterly|journal=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|date=August 7, 1999|volume=111|issue=32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mAgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA54-IA2&dq=jennifer+lopez+if+you+had+my+love&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eucDULK3OcndigfQudmUCA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=November 29, 2016|issn=0006-2510}}</ref></center> |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Dance Video |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Pop Video |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Artist Website | www.jenniferlopez.com |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan=2|2000 |Best Dance Video |rowspan=2|"Waiting for Tonight" |{{Won}} |rowspan=2| |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Choreography |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan=2|2001 |Best Female Video |rowspan=2|"Love Don't Cost a Thing" |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite web|last=D'Angelo|first=Joe|title=Britney Spears To Debut New Single at Video Music Awards|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1446661/britney-debut-new-single-at-vmas.jhtml|publisher=MTV News. MTV Networks|accessdate=February 16, 2013|date=August 15, 2001|archive-date=2012-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107203526/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1446661/britney-debut-new-single-at-vmas.jhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |Best Dance Video |Aliteuliwa |- |2002 |MTV Video Music Award for Best Hip-Hop Video |"I'm Real" |{{Won}} | |- |rowspan=4|2003 |Best Female Video |rowspan=4|"I'm Glad" |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=4| |- |Best Dance Video |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Choreography in a Video |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan=4|2005 |Best Dance Video |rowspan=4|"Get Right" |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=4| |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Choreography in a Video |Aliteuliwa |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan=2|2012 |Best Choreography |"Dance Again" |Aliteuliwa |rowspan=2|<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kaufman|first1=Gil|title=2012 VMA Nominations: The Complete List|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1690827/video-music-awards-nominees-list-2012/|website=''[[MTV News]]''|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=July 30, 2012|archive-date=2016-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311162922/http://www.mtv.com/news/1690827/video-music-awards-nominees-list-2012/|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Latino Artist |Mwenyewe |Aliteuliwa |- |2013 |Best Choreography |"Live It Up" |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Montgomery|first=James|title=2013 Video Music Award Nominations: Get The Full List!|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1710689/vma-nominations-list-2013.jhtml|publisher=MTV News. Viacom International, Inc.|accessdate=July 17, 2013|date=July 17, 2013|archive-date=2013-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718183305/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1710689/vma-nominations-list-2013.jhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan=3|2018 |MTV Video Music Award for Best Collaboration |rowspan=2|"Dinero" |{{won}} |rowspan=3| |- |MTV Video Music Award for Best Latino Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award |Mwenyewe |{{won}} |} ==== MTV Europe Music Awards ==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1999 |rowspan="7"|Jennifer Lopez |Breakthrough Artist |Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2000 |Best Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |Best R&B Artist |{{won}} |- |2001 |Best Female Artist |{{won}} | |- |rowspan="2"|2002 |Best R&B Artist |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web|title=MTV Europe Music Awards 2002 Nominations|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/74018/mtv-europe-music-awards-2002-nominations|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=September 22, 2017|date=September 30, 2002}}</ref> |- |Best Female Artist |{{won}} |- |2003 |Best R&B Artist |Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2011 |"On the Floor" |Best Song |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |Jennifer Lopez |Best Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |} ====MTV Video Music Awards Japan==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2003 |"Jenny From The Block" |Best Female Music Video |Aliteuliwa | |- |2005 |"Get Right" |Best Female Music Video |Aliteuliwa | |- |2014 |"Live It Up" |Best Collaboration |Aliteuliwa | |} ====MTV Video Play Awards==== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2012 |"On the Floor" <small>(pamoja na [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]])</small> |Platinum Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Jessie J, Adele Receive MTV Video Play Awards|url=http://www.mtv.co.uk/jessie-j/news/jessie-j-adele-receive-mtv-video-play-awards|website=''[[MTV]]''|accessdate=February 13, 2015|date=February 8, 2012|archivedate=2014-12-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222220948/http://www.mtv.co.uk/jessie-j/news/jessie-j-adele-receive-mtv-video-play-awards}}</ref></center> |- |2013 |"Dance Again" <small>(pamoja na Pitbull)</small> |Platinum Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hart|first1=Tina|title=MTV honours most-played music videos of 2012|url=http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/mtv-honours-most-played-music-videos-of-2012/053570|website=[[Music Week]]|publisher=Dave Roberts|accessdate=February 13, 2015|date=February 13, 2013}}</ref></center> |} ===MiTRL Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2007 |Jennifer Lopez |Chica of the Year (Female of the Year) |Aliteuliwa | |} ===MuchMusic Video Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2011 |Jennifer Lopez |People's Choice: Favorite International |Aliteuliwa | |} ===NAACP Image Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2003 |''Maid in Manhattan'' |NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture |Aliteuliwa | |} ===NCLR Bravo Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1995 |''Money Train'' |Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2000 |rowspan="5"|Mwenyewe |Favorite New Music Artist |{{won}} | |- |2001 |Favorite Female Movie Star |Aliteuliwa | |- |2002 |Favorite Female Movie Star |{{won}} |- |2003 |Favorite Female Movie Star |Aliteuliwa | |- |2004 |Favorite Female Singer |Aliteuliwa | |- |2016 |Home |Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie |Aliteuliwa | |} ===NRJ Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2002 |Jennifer Lopez |International Female Artist of the Year |{{won}} | |- |2003 |JenniferLopez.com |Music Website of the Year |{{won}} | |} ===People's Choice Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"|2001 |''On the 6'' |Favorite Female Musical Performer |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |''The Cell'' |Favorite Motion Picture Actress |Aliteuliwa |- |2002 |''J.Lo'' |Favorite Female Musical Performer |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Sun (United Kingdom)|The Sun]]|date=December 10, 2002|page=28}}</ref></center> |- |2005 |Mwenyewe |Best Smile |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2005 |title=People's Choice Awards 2005 Nominees |publisher=PeoplesChoice.com |accessdate=April 9, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |2011 |rowspan="3"|''American Idol'' |rowspan="2"|Choice Competition TV Show |{{won}} |rowspan="2"|<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2011 |title=People's Choice Awards 2011 Nominees |publisher=PeoplesChoice.com |accessdate=April 9, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/63UOErYYD?url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/awards/mtvmusicawards/2011-08-26-video-music-award-winners-list_n.htm |archivedate=November 26, 2011 |df= }}</ref><br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2012 |title=People's Choice Awards 2012 Nominees |publisher=PeoplesChoice.com |accessdate=April 9, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175611/http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2012 |archivedate=March 3, 2016 |df= }}</ref></center> |- |2012 |{{won}} |- |rowspan="4"|2013 |Favorite Celebrity Judge |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="4"|<center><ref name="2013People">{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/nominations/vote.jsp?pollId=120033 |title=Nominate your favorites for People's Choice Awards 2013 |publisher=PeoplesChoice.com |accessdate=October 28, 2012}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan="2"|''Dance Again... the Hits'' |Favorite Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |Favorite Pop Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |''"Dance Again"'' |Favorite Music Video |Aliteuliwa |- |2015 |''A.K.A.'' |Favorite Pop Artist |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{cite web|title=People's Choice Awards 2015: The winner's list|url=http://www.ew.com/article/2015/01/07/peoples-choice-awards-2015-the-winners-list|website=Entertainment Weekly's EW.com|accessdate=November 19, 2016|archive-date=2015-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626173259/http://www.ew.com/article/2015/01/07/peoples-choice-awards-2015-the-winners-list|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |rowspan="2"|2016 |rowspan="2"|''The Boy Next Door'' |Favorite Dramatic Movie Actress |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peopleschoice.com/pca/awards/nominees/index.jsp?year=2016|title=2016 Nominees & Winners|work=People's Choice Awards|accessdate=October 3, 2015}}</ref> |- |Favorite Thriller Movie |Aliteuliwa |- |2017 |''Shades of Blue'' |Favorite TV Crime Drama Actress |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite web|title=People's Choice Awards 2017: Full List of Nominees|url=http://blog.peopleschoice.com/2016/11/15/peoples-choice-awards-2017-full-list-of-nominees/|website=People's Choice|accessdate=November 19, 2016|date=November 15, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117063137/http://blog.peopleschoice.com/2016/11/15/peoples-choice-awards-2017-full-list-of-nominees/|archivedate=2016-11-17|=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117063137/http://blog.peopleschoice.com/2016/11/15/peoples-choice-awards-2017-full-list-of-nominees/}}</ref> |} ===Premios MTV Latinoamérica/MTV Video Music Awards Latinoamérica=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2007 |Jennifer Lopez |MTV Tr3́s Viewer's Choice Award – Best Pop Artist |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Premios Oye!=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2007 |Jennifer Lopez |Pop Español: Solista Femenina |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Premios Juventud=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | rowspan="2"|2004 | rowspan="16"|Jennifer Lopez | Quiero Vestir como Ella (She's Got Style) | {{won}} | rowspan="2"| |- | En la Mira del Paparazzi (Paparazzi's Favorite Target) | {{won}} |- | rowspan="2"|2005 | Actriz que se Roba la Pantalla (She Steals the Show) for ''Shall We Dance?'' | {{won}} | rowspan="2"| |- | Actriz que se Roba la Pantalla (She Steals the Show) for ''Monster-In-Law'' | {{won}} |- | 2006 | Actriz que se Roba la Pantalla (She Steals the Show) for ''An Unfinished Life'' | Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="3"|2007 | Quiero Vestir Como Ella (She's Got Style) | {{won}} | rowspan="3"| |- | En La Mira Del Paparazzi (Paparazzi's Favorite Target) | Aliteuliwa |- | Chica Que Me Quita El Sueno (Girl of My Dreams) | {{won}} |- | rowspan="4"|2008 | Quiero Vestir como Ella (She's Got Style) | {{won}} | rowspan="4"| |- | Chica que me Quita el Sueno (Girl of My Dreams) | {{won}} |- | En la Mira del Paparazzi (Paparazzi's Favorite Target – solo) | {{won}} |- | Actriz que se Roba la Pantalla (She Steals the Show) for ''[[El Cantante]]'' | Aliteuliwa |- | 2009 | Quiero Vestir Como Ella (She's Got Style) | {{won}} | |- | rowspan="2"|2013 |World Icon Award |{{won}} | rowspan="2"|<center><ref>{{cite news | url=http://voces.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/10/premios-juventud-2013-jennifer-lopez-canta-premio_n_3576301.html | work=HuffPost | title=Jennifer Lopez y Marc Anthony en 'Premios Juventud' | date=July 10, 2013 | first=Mandy | last=Fridmann | accessdate=2019-04-06 | archivedate=2015-09-13 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913011949/http://voces.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/10/premios-juventud-2013-jennifer-lopez-canta-premio_n_3576301.html }}</ref><br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latintimes.com/articles/6494/20130718/premios-juventud-2013-winners-list-ganadores-who-won.htm |title=Premios Juventud 2013 Winners List: Who Won? |date=July 18, 2013 |accessdate=September 22, 2017}}</ref></center> |- |Favorite Actress |{{won}} |- | rowspan="2"|2015 | Actriz que se Roba la Pantalla (She Steals the Show) for ''[[The Boy Next Door (film)|The Boy Next Door]]'' | {{won}} |rowspan="2"| <center><ref name="valdez1">{{cite news| url=http://www.latintimes.com/premios-juventud-2015-winners-list-luis-coronel-enrique-iglesias-take-most-awards-330119 | work=Latin Times | title=Premios Juventud 2015 Winners List: Luis Coronel, Enrique Iglesias Take Most Awards! | date=July 17, 2015 | first=Maria | last=Valdez}}</ref></center> |- | rowspan="1"|The Boy Next Door | Pantalla Más Padre (Favorite Movie) [[The Boy Next Door (film)|The Boy Next Door]] | {{won}} |- | rowspan="2"|2016 |[[Back It Up (Prince Royce song)|Back It Up]] ft. [[Prince Royce]] & Pitbull |La Combinación Perfecta | Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| <center><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.univision.com/especiales/premios-juventud/premios-juventud-2016-lista-completa-de-ganadores| title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa| accessdate=2019-04-06| archive-date=2017-05-07| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507065939/http://www.univision.com/especiales/premios-juventud/premios-juventud-2016-lista-completa-de-ganadores| url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |- |Jennifer Lopez |Mi Tuitero Favorito | Aliteuliwa |- |} === Premios TU Mundo === {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"|2012 |[[Follow the Leader (Wisin & Yandel song)|Follow the Leader]] |Best Musical Video |{{won}} |rowspan="2"| |- |Jennifer Lopez | Favorite Latino in Hollywood | {{won}} |} ===Premio Lo Nuestro=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="3"|2000 |Jennifer Lopez & [[Marc Anthony]] |Lo Nuestro Award for Pop Group or Duo of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|<ref>{{Rejea habari | last = Anchea | first = Maximo | title = El 5 de mayo entregan Premio Lo Nuestro a Musica Latina en Miami | language = Spanish | newspaper = [[The Jersey Journal|El Nuevo Hudson]] | date = April 27, 2000 | publisher =[[Advance Publications]] | subscription = yes}}</ref> |- |rowspan="3"|Jennifer Lopez |Lo Nuestro Award for Pop Female Artist of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2"|Lo Nuestro Award for Pop New Artist of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |2008 |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.terra.com/musica/noticias/todos_los_ganadores_premios_lo_nuestro/oci256730 |title=Todos los ganadores Premios Lo Nuestro |work=[[Terra Networks]] |publisher=[[Telefónica]] |date=February 22, 2008 |accessdate=September 27, 2013 |language=Spanish |archivedate=2017-07-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703082401/http://www.terra.com/musica/noticias/todos_los_ganadores_premios_lo_nuestro/oci256730 }}</ref> |- |rowspan="3"|2015 |rowspan="3"|"Adrenalina" <small>(pamoja na [[Wisin]] & [[Ricky Martin]])</small> |Lo Nuestro Award for Urban Song of the Year |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="3"|<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.peopleenespanol.com/article/premio-lo-nuestro-2015-la-lista-completa-de-nominados-univision-enrique-iglesias |title=Premio Lo Nuestro 2015: La lista completa de nominados |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |date=December 2, 2014 |accessdate=December 2, 2014 |language=Spanish}}</ref> |- |Lo Nuestro Award for Collaboration of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |Lo Nuestro Award for Video of the Year |Aliteuliwa |- |2019 |Jennifer Lopez |Social Media Artist| |<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/8492724/premio-lo-nuestro-vote-social-artist-year|title=Social Media Artist 2019|last=Premio Lo Nuestros|website=Billboard|dead-url=}}</ref> |} ===Ritmo Latino Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1999 |Jennifer Lopez |New Artist of the Year |{{won}} | |} ===Record of the Year=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2011 |"On The Floor' |Record of the Year |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Saturn Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |1997 |''Anaconda'' |Saturn Award for Best Actress |Aliteuliwa | |- |2001 |''The Cell'' |Saturn Award for Best Actress |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Soul Train Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2000 |''On The 6'' |Best R&B/Soul Album, Female |Aliteuliwa | |} ===Streemy Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2018 |''Fear BOX Challenge '' (with David Dobrik) |Best Performance – Collaboration |Aliteuliwa |<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://www.streamys.org/2018/10/winners-announced-for-the-8th-annual-streamy-awards/ |title=https://www.streamys.org/nominees-winners/8th-annual-nominees/ |accessdate=2019-04-06 |archivedate=2020-12-05 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205093525/https://www.streamys.org/2018/10/winners-announced-for-the-8th-annual-streamy-awards/ }}</ref> |} ===Teen Choice Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! !Tuzo !Filamu !Matokeo !Marejeo |- | rowspan="2" |1999 |"If You Had My Love" |Teen Choice Award for Choice Music – Summer Song |{{won}} | rowspan="2" | |- | rowspan="3" |Jennifer Lopez |Teen Choice Award for Choice Music – Breakout Artist|Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="2" |2000 |Teen Choice Award for Choice Female Hottie|Aliteuliwa | rowspan="2" | |- |Teen Choice Award for Choice Music – Female Artist|Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="6" |2001 |"Play" |Best Dance Track |{{won}} | rowspan="6" | |- | rowspan="2" |Jennifer Lopez |Female Hottie Award |{{won}} |- |Female Artist|Aliteuliwa|- |''The Wedding Planner'' |Choice Chemistry |Aliteuliwa |- |"Love Don't Cost a Thing" |Choice Music Single |Aliteuliwa |- |"J.Lo" |Choice Music Album|Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="6" |2002 | rowspan="2" |Jennifer Lopez |Female Artist |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="6" | |- |Female Hottie Awards|Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="3" |"Ain't It Funny" {{small|(pamoja na [[Ja Rule]] & [[Caddillac Tah]])}} |Choice Music Hook-Up|Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Music Single|Aliteuliwa |- |Best R&B/Hip-Hop/Rap Single |{{won}} |- |Jennifer Lopez – ''Enough'' ''(Slim Hiller)'' |Choice Actress in a Drama/Action or Adventure Film |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="12" |2003 | rowspan="3" |''Maid in Manhattan'' (Jennifer Lopez ''kama Marisa Ventura'') |Choice Movie Actress – Comedy |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="12" | |- |Choice Movie Liar |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Movie Lip-Lock ''(pamoja na [[Ralph Fiennes]])'' |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="2" |"All I Have" {{small|(pamoja na [[LL Cool J]])}} |Choice Music Single |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Music Hook-Up|Aliteuliwa |- |"I'm Glad" |Choice Love Song |Aliteuliwa |- |''This Is Me... Then'' |Choice Music Album |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="6" |Jennifer Lopez |Choice Hip Hop R&B Artist |{{won}} |- |Choice Crossover Artist (Music/Acting) |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Fashion Icon |{{won}} |- |Female Artist|Aliteuliwa |- |Female Hottie Award|Aliteuliwa |- |2004 |Female Artist|Aliteuliwa | |- | rowspan="7" |2005 | rowspan="2" |"Get Right" |Choice R&B/Hip-Hop Track |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="6" | |- |Choice Party Starter |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="3" |''Monster-In-Law'' ''(kama Charline Cantilini)'' |Choice Chemistry {{small|(pamoja na [[Jane Fonda]])}} |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Movie Actress in a Comedy Film |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Comedy Actress|Aliteuliwa |- |''Shall We Dance?'' |Choice Dance Scene {{small|(pamoja na [[Richard Gere]])}} |Aliteuliwa |- |Jennifer Lopez |Choice Red-Carpet Fashion Icon (Female)|Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2010 |rowspan="2"|''The Back-Up Plan'' |Best Romantic Comedy Actress |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- | Best Romantic Comedy |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2"|2011 |rowspan="2"|Jennifer Lopez |Choice Red Carpet Fashion Icon (Female) |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"| |- |Television Personality {{small|(kwenye ''[[American Idol]]'')}} |{{won}} |- | rowspan="7" |2012 | rowspan="2" |''What to Expect When You're Expecting'' |Choice Actress |Aliteuliwa | rowspan="7" |{{center|<ref>{{cite web |last=Mitchell |first=John |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1685440/teen-choice-awards-nominations.jhtml |title='Vampire Diaries,' Justin Bieber Lead Teen Choice Award Nominations – Music, Celebrity, Artist News |publisher=MTV News. Viacom International, Inc. |date=May 18, 2012 |accessdate=October 25, 2012 |archive-date=2012-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522045043/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1685440/teen-choice-awards-nominations.jhtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} |- |Choice Comedy Actress|Aliteuliwa |- |"Dance Again" {{small|(pamoja na [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]])}} |Choice Music Single – Female |Aliteuliwa |- | rowspan="3" |Jennifer Lopez |Choice Female Artist |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Fashion Icon: Female |Aliteuliwa |- |Choice Summer Female Artist|Aliteuliwa |- |''American Idol -'' Jennifer Lopez |Female TV Personality |{{won}} |- |2013 |''The Fosters'' |Choice TV Breakout Show |{{won}} | |- |2014 |''American Idol -'' Jennifer Lopez |Female TV Personality|Aliteuliwa | |- |rowspan="2"|2016 |''Shades of Blue'' |Choice TV: Drama |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="2"|{{center|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvline.com/2016/05/24/teen-choice-awards-2016-nominations-full-list-tv-nominees/|title=Teen Choice Awards 2016: CW Dramas, Pretty Little Liars Lead Early Noms|accessdate=May 24, 2016}}</ref>}} |- |Jennifer Lopez |Choice TV Actress: Drama |Aliteuliwa |- |2018 |"Dinero" |Choice Latin Song |Aliteuliwa |{{center|<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2018/6/22/selena-gomez-and-cardi-b-lead-second-wave-of-teen-choice-awa.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2019-04-06 |archivedate=2018-06-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220726/http://abcnewsradioonline.com/music-news/2018/6/22/selena-gomez-and-cardi-b-lead-second-wave-of-teen-choice-awa.html }}</ref>}} |- |} ===Top of the Pops Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2001 |Jennifer Lopez |Top of the Pops award for "Artist on Top of the World" |{{won}} | |} ===TMF Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="2"|2001 |rowspan="4"|Jennifer Lopez |Best International Female Artist |{{won}} |rowspan="2"| |- |Best Zangeres (Best Singer) |{{won}} |- |rowspan="2"|2002 |Best International Female Artist |{{won}} |rowspan="2"| |- |Best Zangeres (Best Singer) |{{won}} |} === VH1 Awards === {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"|Marejeo |- |2011 |200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons |<center>15th</center> |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=The 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons Complete Ranked List|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-200-greatest-pop-culture-icons-complete-ranked-list-70807437.html|agency=PR Newswire|accessdate=June 30, 2013}}</ref></center> |- |rowspan="2"|2012 |100 Greatest Women in Music |<center>10th</center> |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Graham |first=Mark |url=http://www.vh1.com/music/tuner/2012-02-13/vh1s-100-greatest-women-in-music-complete-list/ |title=The 100 Greatest Women in Music |publisher=VH1. [[Viacom International Inc.]] |date=February 13, 2012 |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/65vGgxvII?url=http://www.vh1.com/music/tuner/2012-02-13/vh1s-100-greatest-women-in-music-complete-list/ |archivedate=March 4, 2012 |df= }}</ref></center> |- |50 Greatest Women of the Video Era |<center>21st</center> |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=50 Greatest Women of the Video Era |url=http://www.vh1.com/shows/the_greatest/episode.jhtml?episodeID=66355 |publisher=VH1. Viacom International Inc. |accessdate=July 2, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629061423/http://www.vh1.com/shows/the_greatest/episode.jhtml?episodeID=66355 |archivedate=June 29, 2011 |df= }}</ref></center> |- |2013 |100 Sexiest Artists |<center>4th</center> |<center><ref>{{cite web|first=Bené |last=Viera |url=http://www.vh1.com/music/tuner/2013-03-05/vh1-100-sexiest-artists-complete-list/97/ |title=VH1's 100 Sexiest Artists |publisher=VH1. Viacom International Inc. |date=March 5, 2013 |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927185653/http://www.vh1.com/music/tuner/2013-03-05/vh1-100-sexiest-artists-complete-list/97/ |archivedate=September 27, 2013 |df= }}</ref></center> |} ===Virgin Media Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2012 |"[[I'm into You]]" pamoja na [[Lil Wayne]] |Best Collaboration |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mediacentre.virginmedia.com/Stories/Lady-Gaga-beats-new-Grammy-record-holder-Adele-to-sweep-the-board-in-the-Virgin-Media-Music-Awards-236b.aspx |title=Lady Gaga beats new Grammy record holder Adele to sweep the board in the Virgin Media Music Awards |publisher=Vigin Media Centre |date=February 16, 2012 |accessdate=April 6, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326105421/http://mediacentre.virginmedia.com/Stories/Lady-Gaga-beats-new-Grammy-record-holder-Adele-to-sweep-the-board-in-the-Virgin-Media-Music-Awards-236b.aspx |archivedate=2012-03-26 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326105421/http://mediacentre.virginmedia.com/Stories/Lady-Gaga-beats-new-Grammy-record-holder-Adele-to-sweep-the-board-in-the-Virgin-Media-Music-Awards-236b.aspx }}</ref></center> |} ===World Music Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2002 |rowspan="4"|Mwenyewe |World's Best-Selling Latin Female Artist |{{won}} | |- |2005 |World's Best-Selling Pop Female Artist |Aliteuliwa | |- |2007 |World's Best-Selling Latin Female Artist |Aliteuliwa | |- |2010 |World Music Award For Outstanding Contribution to the Arts |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmusicawards.com/index2.html |title=World Music Awards 2010 |publisher=World Music Awards |accessdate=April 9, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918163352/http://www.worldmusicawards.com/index2.html |archivedate=September 18, 2009 |df= }}</ref></center> |- | rowspan="7"|2014 | rowspan="3" | Jennifer Lopez | World's Best Female Artist | Aliteuliwa || |- | Worlds Best Live Act |- | Worlds Best Entertainer of the Year |- | rowspan="2"|"I Luh Ya Papi" | Worlds Best Song |- | Worlds Best Video |- | rowspan="2"|"Live It Up" {{small|(pamoja na [[Pitbull (rapper)|Pitbull]])}} | Worlds Best Song |- | Worlds Best Video |} ===You Choice Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="4"|2011 |rowspan="2"|"On The Floor" |Club Song |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="4"| |- |Best Duet |Aliteuliwa |- |rowspan="2"|"I'm into You" |Best Ballad/Love Song |Aliteuliwa |- |Best Choreography |Aliteuliwa |} ===ACE Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aliyetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2006 |Mwenyewe |ACE Fashion Icon of the Year |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=L'Oreal Paris Announces Jennifer Lopez as the Newest Global Brand Ambassador|url=http://www.sys-con.com/node/1638182|work=Sys-Con Media|publisher=Ulitzer, Inc.|accessdate=July 2, 2013|date=December 6, 2010|archive-date=2019-04-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406123720/http://www.sys-con.com/node/1638182|url-status=dead}}</ref></center> |} ===VH1/Vogue Fashion Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- | 1999 | rowspan="3"|Jennifer Lopez |Most Fashionable Female Artist |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|title=VH1/Vogue dole out fashion awards|url=http://www.cnn.com/1999/STYLE/fashion/12/06/vh1.vogue/index.html|website=''[[CNN.com]]''|publisher=Cable News Network|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=December 6, 1999|archivedate=2015-02-14|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214062408/http://www.cnn.com/1999/STYLE/fashion/12/06/vh1.vogue/index.html}}</ref></center> |- | 2000 |Versace Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/vh1vogue-fashion-awards-to-present-versace-award-to-actress-singer-jennifer-lopez-when-gala-special-is-presented-live-friday-october-20-at-900-1100-pm-etpt-74801232.html |title='VH1/Vogue Fashion Awards' to Present Versace Award to Actress-Singer Jennifer Lopez When Gala Special Is Presented Live Friday, October 20 at 9:00–11:00 P.M. (ET/PT) |location=New York |agency=PR Newswire |accessdate=March 20, 2012}}</ref></center> |- | 2002 |Most Influential Artist |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|title=Winners Unveiled at The 2002 'VH1/Vogue Fashion Awards'|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/winners-unveiled-at-the-2002-vh1vogue-fashion-awards-76274087.html|website=''[[PR Newswire]]''|publisher=[[UBM plc]]|accessdate=February 14, 2015|date=October 15, 2002}}</ref></center> |} === American Telemedicine Association (ATA) Humanitarian Award === {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Kinachotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2013 |Lopez Family Foundation |American Telemedicine Association Humanitarian Award |{{won}} | |} ===AmFAR Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Aina ya tuzo ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2013 |Humanitarian Work in Relation to UNICEF |amfAR, The Foundation for AIDS Research |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fashionweekdaily.com/the-fix/article/josh-wood |title=Josh Wood: The Mind Behind amfAR's Inspiration Gala &#124; Daily Front Row |publisher=Fashionweekdaily.com |date=June 13, 2013 |accessdate=June 14, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102002130/http://www.fashionweekdaily.com/the-fix/article/josh-wood |archivedate=2013-11-02 }}</ref> |} ===Amnesty International Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Kinachotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2007 |''Bordertown'' |Artist for Amnesty International |{{won}} |<ref name="Amnesty">{{Rejea kitabu|first = Robert|last = C. Cottrell|title = Icons of American Popular Culture: From P.T. Barnum to Jennifer Lopez|url = https://archive.org/details/iconsofamericanp0000cott|publisher = [[M.E. Sharpe, Inc.]]|location = New York|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0-7656-2298-3|ref = harv }}</ref> |} ===Celebrity Fight Night Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2013 |Jennifer Lopez |Celebrity Fight Night Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.looktothestars.org/news/9657-jennifer-lopez-to-perform-at-celebrity-fight-night-xix-for-charity |title=Jennifer Lopez To Perform at Celebrity Fight Night XIX For Charity |publisher=Look to the Stars |date=February 4, 2013 |accessdate=February 8, 2013 |archive-date=2023-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008142946/https://www.looktothestars.org/news/9657-jennifer-lopez-to-perform-at-celebrity-fight-night-xix-for-charity |url-status=dead }}</ref></center> |} ===Crystal/ Lucy Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2006 |Jennifer Lopez |Crystal Award for Charity Work |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite news|last=Keck |first=William |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-06-07-jlo-crystal_x.htm |title=J. Lo gets love from Women in Film |publisher=''[[USA Today]]''. [[Gannett Company]], Inc.|date=June 7, 2006 |accessdate=April 9, 2012}}</ref></center> |} ===GLAAD Media Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2014 |Jennifer Lopez |GLAAD Vanguard Award |{{won}} |<ref name="GlAAD Vanguard">{{cite web|last=Adam|first=Seth|title=Jennifer Lopez to be honored at #glaadawards in Los Angeles|url=http://www.glaad.org/blog/jennifer-lopez-be-honored-glaadawards-los-angeles|publisher=Glaad.org|accessdate=April 5, 2014|date=March 24, 2014|archive-date=2014-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407085802/http://www.glaad.org/blog/jennifer-lopez-be-honored-glaadawards-los-angeles|url-status=dead}}</ref> |} ===Human Rights Campaign=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2013 |Jennifer Lopez |Ally for Equality Award |{{won}} |<ref name="HRC">{{cite web|last1=Chasmer|first1=Jessica|title=Jennifer Lopez: Singer-actress to receive Human Rights Campaign award|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/sep/22/human-rights-campaign-honor-jennifer-lopez/|website=[[The Washington Times]]|accessdate=September 21, 2017|date=September 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=HRC to Honor Jennifer Lopez with Ally for Equality Award at 2013 National Dinner|url=http://www.hrc.org/blog/entry/hrc-to-honor-jennifer-lopez-with-ally-for-equality-award-at-2013-national-d|work=HRC Blog|publisher=Human Rights Campaign|accessdate=September 25, 2013|date=September 20, 2013|archivedate=2013-09-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925143143/http://www.hrc.org/blog/entry/hrc-to-honor-jennifer-lopez-with-ally-for-equality-award-at-2013-national-d|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925143143/http://www.hrc.org/blog/entry/hrc-to-honor-jennifer-lopez-with-ally-for-equality-award-at-2013-national-d}}</ref> |} ===Unesco=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Kinachotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2012 |Lopez Family Foundation |UNESCO Award for Charitable Contributions |{{won}} |<ref>{{cite web|last=Lopez |first=Lynda |url=https://twitter.com/LyndaLopez08/status/262267682341130240 |title=LyndaLopez08: Heading home after Unesco event |publisher=Twitter |date=October 27, 2012 |accessdate=October 28, 2012}}{{Primary source inline|date=March 2019}}</ref> |} ===Radio Disney Hero Award=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Kinachotuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2015 |Philanthropic work in the U.S. and around the world |Radio Disney Hero Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/2015-radio-disney-music-awards-jennifer-lopez-hero/story?id=30625481 |title=2015 Radio Disney Music Awards: Jennifer Lopez Gets Hero Award |publisher=ABC News |date=April 27, 2015 |accessdate=November 27, 2016}}</ref> </center> |} ===Empire Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"|Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2002 |Herself |Sexiest Female Movie Star |Aliteuliwa |<center><ref name="awards2"/></center> |} ===''People'' Magazine Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2014 | Jennifer Lopez |Triple Threat Award |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Jordan |first=Julie |url=http://people.com/awards/jennifer-lopez-at-the-people-magazine-awards-wins-triple-threat-award/ |title=PEOPLE Magazine Awards: Jennifer Lopez Wins Triple Threat Award |publisher=''People''. Time Inc. |date=December 18, 2014 |accessdate=November 27, 2016}}</ref></center> |} ===FiFi Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2002 |rowspan="2"|Jennifer Lopez |rowspan="2"|Celebrity Fragrance Star of the Year |{{won}} | |- |2003 |{{won}} | |} ===Glamour Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |2011 |Jennifer Lopez |Glamour Woman of the Year |{{won}} |<center><ref>{{cite web|last=Fonda |first=Jane |url=http://www.glamour.com/women-of-the-year/2011/jennifer-lopez |title=Jennifer Lopez: The All-Star |publisher=''Glamour''. [[Condé Nast Publications]] |date=October 27, 2011 |accessdate=March 20, 2012}}</ref></center> |} ===Shorty Awards=== {| class="wikitable" style="width:75%;" |- ! width=5%|Mwaka ! style="width:40%;"| Anayetuzwa ! style="width:45%;"| Tuzo ! style="width:10%;"| Matokeo ! style="width:5%;"| Marejeo |- |rowspan="4"|2011 |rowspan="4"|Mwenyewe |Celebrity |Aliteuliwa |rowspan="4"|<center><ref>{{cite web |url=http://shortyawards.com/JLo |title=Jennifer Lopez was nominated for a Shorty Award |publisher=[[Shorty Awards]] |date=March 26, 2012 |accessdate=April 9, 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122032635/http://shortyawards.com/JLo |archivedate=2012-01-22 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122032635/http://shortyawards.com/JLo }}</ref></center> |- |Music |ALiteuliwa |- |Actress |Aliteuliwa |- |Singer |Aliteuliwa |} == Marejeo == {{reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://twitter.com/jlo Jennifer Lopez official Twitter] * [http://www.facebook.com/JenniferLopezOfficial Jennifer Lopez official Facebook] * [http://www.jenniferlopezonline.com/default.aspx Jennifer Lopez Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.jenniferlopezonline.com/default.aspx |date=20121105215924 }} * [http://www.lyrics.az/jennifer-lopez/ Jennifer Lopez song lyrics] * [http://www.myspace.com/jenniferlopez Jennifer Lopez Myspace] {{DEFAULTSORT:Lopez, Jennifer}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:New York City]] a8dhru4uemqz4yiw3mywnvkhe41rpvl 0 35059 1564527 1545317 2026-06-03T04:25:47Z Surajr7 89549 1564527 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gauguin - Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897-98).jpg|thumb|right|355px|''Tumetoka Wapi? Sisi ni Nani? Tunakwenda Wapi?''<br />Mmojawapo kati ya michoro maarufu ya msanii [[Paul Gauguin]] wa kipindi cha baada ya [[uimpreshonisti]].]] '''Maana ya maisha''' ni mojawapo kati ya ma[[suala]] makuu kuhusu [[thamani]], [[madhumuni]] na umuhimu wa [[binadamu]] kuwepo [[duniani]] na wa [[maisha]] kwa jumla. Suala hilo linaweza kujitokeza katika ma[[swali]] mengi tofauti yanayohusiana, kama vile ''Mbona tumekuwepo?'', ''Maisha yanahusu nini?'' na ''Ni nini maana ya haya yote?'' Binadamu anajiuliza maswali kama hayo hasa anapokabiliana na [[kifo]], kwa mfano [[msiba]] wa [[ndugu]] au [[rafiki]]. Limekuwa suala kuu la [[udadisi]] wa [[sayansi]], [[falsafa]] na [[teolojia]] tangu zamani. Kumekuwa na [[idadi]] kubwa ya majibu kwa maswali hayo kutoka asili mbalimbali ki[[itikadi]] na ki[[utamaduni]]. Maana ya maisha imechanganyikana kwa undani na [[dhana]] za falsafa na [[imani]] za [[dini]] na hugusia masuala mengine mengi, kama vile [[ontolojia]], [[tunu]], [[kusudi]], [[maadili]], [[hiari]], uwepo wa [[Mungu]], [[roho]], na kinachoendelea baada ya maisha haya kwisha. Michango ya sayansi kawaida ni ya moja kwa moja na inaeleza [[uhalisia]] kutokana na mambo yanayopimika kuhusu [[ulimwengu]]; sayansi inatoa [[muktadha]] na mipaka kwa mazungumzo kuhusu [[mada]] zinazohusika. Mbadala ni mtazamo wa kifalsafa unaokabili swali: "Ni nini maana ya maisha 'yangu'?" Thamani ya swali linalohusu kusudi la maisha huweza kuwiana na kuupata [[ukweli]] wa mwisho, au [[hisia]] za [[umoja]] na [[utakatifu]]. ==Maswali na marejeo yake== [[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 038-crop.jpg|thumb|150px|right|''Mwanafalsafa akitafakari'' alivyochorwa na [[msanii]] [[Rembrandt]].]] Maswali kuhusu maana ya maisha yameulizwa kwa njia mbalimbali zenye upana, yakiwemo yafuatayo: *Maana ya maisha ni nini? Nini maana ya haya yote? Sisi ni nani? <ref name="Westphal">{{cite book |author=Jonathan Westphal |title=Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpro0000west |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0415170532}}</ref><ref name="Nozick">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Nozick]] |title=[[Philosophical Explanations]] |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=0674664795}}</ref><ref name="Jewell">{{cite book |author=Albert Jewell |title=Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=184310167X}}</ref><ref name="WITMOL">{{cite web |title=Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life? |work=[[Philosophy Now]] |publisher=Issue 59 |url=http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth">{{cite book |author=Glenn Yeffeth |title=The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy |url=https://archive.org/details/anthologyatendof0000unse |publisher=BenBella Books, Inc |year=2005 |isbn=1932100563}}</ref><ref name="Seaman">{{cite book |author=David Seaman |title=The Real Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/realmeaningoflif0000unse |publisher=New World Library |year=2005 |isbn=1577315146}}</ref><ref name="Baggini">{{cite book |author=[[Julian Baggini]] |title=What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/whatsitallaboutp0000bagg |publisher=Granta Books |month=Septemba | year=2004 |location=USA |isbn=1862076618}} </ref> *Kwa nini tumekuwepo? Sababu ya sisi kuwa hapa ni nini? <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Thiemann & Placher">{{cite book |author=[[Ronald F. Thiemann]]; William Carl Placher |title=Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life |url=https://archive.org/details/whyarewehereever0000unse |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=1563382369}}</ref><ref name="Marcellino">{{cite book |author=Dennis Marcellino |title=Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand) |publisher=Lighthouse Pub |year=1996 |isbn=0945272103}}</ref><ref name="Curtiss">{{cite book |author=F. Homer Curtiss |title=Why Are We Here |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=0766138992}}</ref><ref name="Badke">{{cite book |author= William B. Badke |title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything |url= https://archive.org/details/hitchhikersguide00badk |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0825420695}}</ref><ref name="Hua">{{cite book |author=Hsuan Hua |title=Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism |publisher=Dharma Realm Buddhist Association |year=2003 |isbn=0881393029}}</ref> *Asili ya [[uhai]] ni nini? <ref name="Davies">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Davies]] |title=The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=Machi 2000 |url=http://www.simonsays.com/content/book.cfm?tab=1&pid=410133 |accessdate=2007-07-26 |isbn=0-684-86309-X}}</ref><ref name="Fadul">{{cite book |author=[[Jose Fadul]] |title=Lessons in Chess, Lessons in Life: Application of the Psychology of the Game in Real Life |publisher=Lulu Press |date= 2008 |isbn=978-0-557-02158-1}}</ref> *Hali ya maisha ni nini? Ukweli ni nini? <ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen">{{cite book |author=Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen |title=Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being |url=https://archive.org/details/occupationalther0000unse_n5j8 |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=1556425309}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsofconscio0000walk |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref> * Madhumuni ya maisha ya mtu ni nini? <ref name="WITMOL" /><ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen" /><ref name="warren">{{cite book |author=[[Rick Warren]] |title=[[The Purpose Driven Life|The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?]] |publisher=Zondervan |year=2002 |isbn=0310255252}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurti">{{cite book |author=[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] |title=What Are You Doing With Your Life? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatareyoudoingw0000kris |publisher=Krishnamurti Foundation of America |year=2001 |isbn=188800424X}}</ref> *Maana ya maisha ni nini? <ref name="Krishnamurti" /> *Cha maana na cha thamani maishani ni nini? <ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="UIUC">{{cite web |last=Puolimatka |first=Tapio |coauthors=Airaksinen, Timo |title=Education and the Meaning of Life |work=Philosophy of Education |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] |date=2002 |url=http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926154148/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |archivedate=2007-09-26 }}</ref> *Thamani ya maisha ni nini? <ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="Van Hooft">{{cite book |author=Stan Van Hooft |title=Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedeathsubject0000hoof |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=9042019123}}</ref> *Sababu ya kuishi ni nini? Kwa nini tunaishi? <ref name="Hua" /><ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="Shafer-Landau & Cuneo">{{cite book |author=Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo |title=Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1405129514}}</ref> ==Uchunguzi wa kisayansi== [[File:DNA Overview.png|thumb|left|140px|[[DNA]] ambayo ina maelekezo ya ki[[jenitikia]] kwa ajili ya [[maendeleo]] na [[utendaji]] wa [[uhai|viumbe hai vyote]].]] Kwamba [[sayansi]] inaweza kutusaidia kuelewa zaidi masuala ya msingi (kama vile maana ya maisha) inazua mabishano mengi katika jamii za sayansi na [[falsafa ya sayansi]]. Hata hivyo, sayansi inaweza kutupa muktadha fulani na huyaweka mipaka kadhaa mazungumzo kuhusu mada kama hizo. ===Umuhimu wa kisaikolojia na thamani katika maisha=== Sayansi huenda ikashindwa kutuambia nini ni cha thamani maishani, lakini baadhi ya [[fani]] zake hugusia maswali yanayohusiana: watafiti katika [[saikolojia chanya]] hutafuta sababu zinazoleta hali ya ndani ya 'kuridhika na maisha',<ref>E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." ''Psychological Inquiry'', Lawrence Earlbaum</ref> kujihusisha kikamilifu katika shughuli,<ref>Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). ''Flow: The Balls of Optimal Experience''. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2.</ref> kutoa mchango mkubwa zaidi kwa kutumia [[vipawa]] vya binafsi,<ref>Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.</ref><ref>Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.'' New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9)</ref>n.k. Aina moja ya mfumo wa thamani iliyopendekezwa na [[wataalamu]] wa [[elimunafsia ya jamii]], iitwayo kwa upana "Nadharia ya Kupambana na Mambo ya Kutisha", inasema kwamba maana yote ya binadamu inatokana na [[hofu]] ya msingi ya [[kifo]], ambapo maadili yanachaguliwa yanapotusaidia kuepukana na kumbukumbu ya kifo. [[Sayansi]] ya [[nyurolojia]] imetunga [[nadharia]] ya [[malipo]], [[raha]] na [[msukumo]] katika masuala ya ki[[mwili]] kama shughuli za kupitisha [[ujumbe za kinyuro]]. Ikiwa mtu anaamini kwamba maana ya maisha ni kufanya raha ziwe nyingi iwezekanavyo, basi nadharia zinatoa [[utabiri]] unaozidi kuongezeka, kuhusu jinsi ya kufanya ili kufanikisha hilo. [[Somo la kijamii]] linapima thamani katika ngazi ya kijamii kwa kubuni nadharia kama vile nadharia ya thamani kanuni n.k. ===Asili na hali ya maisha kibiolojia=== Nadharia ya [[mageuko ya spishi]] haijaribu kuelezea asili ya [[uhai]], bali [[mchakato]] ambao viumbe tofauti vimepitia katika kipindi chote cha [[historia]] ya [[dunia]] kupitia [[mabadiliko ya ghafla ya kijenetikia]] na [[uteuzi wa kiasili]]<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], kwa kuzingatia ufahamu wa mabadiliko ya [[viumbehai]] unaotegemea [[jeni]] hasa, [[wanabiolojia]] [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[David Haig]] na wengineo, walihitimisha kwamba ikiwa kuna kazi msingi ya maisha, ni kujinakilisha kwa [[DNA]] na kuendelea kuwa hai kwa jeni za mtu.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins river">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[River out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref> Ingawa [[wanasayansi]] wameyachunguza maisha yalivyo [[duniani]], kuyafafanua bayana bado ni changamoto.<ref>[http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226 Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life]</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html |title=Defining Life, Explaining Emergence<!-- Bot generated title --> |accessdate=2010-01-15 |archivedate=2012-03-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095044/http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin | title = What is Life? | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 0-521-42708-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Margulis | first = Lynn | coauthors = Sagan, Dorion | title = What is Life? | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-520-22021-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Lovelock | first = James | title = Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-19-286218-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Avery | first = John | title = Information Theory and Evolution | url = https://archive.org/details/informationtheor0000aver | publisher = World Scientific | year = 2003 | isbn = 9812383999}}</ref> [[Wanabiolojia]] kwa jumla wanakubaliana kwamba viumbe mbalimbali ni mifumo inayojipanga inayosimamia mazingira ya ndani ili kudumisha hali hii ya mpango, shughuli za kimetaboli hutumika kutoa nishati, na [[uzazi]] unaruhusu uhai kuendelea kwa vizazi vingi. Kwa kawaida, [[umbile]] huwa sikivu kwa [[uchochezi]] na habari za kijenetikia, hivyo huelekea kubadilika kutoka [[kizazi]] hadi kizazi ili kuruhusu marekebisho kupitia mabadiliko ya mwili. Sifa hizo huongeza nafasi ya kuishi ya kiumbe binafsi na wazao wake kwa mtiririko huo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |title=How to Define Life |accessdate=2008-10-17 |last=Davison |first=Paul G. |publisher=The University of North Alabama |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101024755/http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |archivedate=2008-11-01 }}</ref><ref>Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb.</ref> Viwakala visivyokuwa vya [[seli]] vinavyozaana, hasa [[virusi]], kwa jumla havitazamwi kama viumbehai kwa sababu haviwezi kuzaana kwa "kujitegemea" au kuendesha shughuli za kimetaboliki. [[Pambano]] hilo ni tatizo, ingawa baadhi ya [[vimelea]] na visimbayonti vya ndani ya mwili pia vinaweza kuishi kwa kujitegemea. [[Astrobiolojia]] inajihusisha na uwezekano wa kuwa na aina tofauti ya [[viumbe hai]] katika [[ulimwengu]] mwingine, kama vile miundo ya kujinakilisha kutoka vifaa vingine visivyo DNA. ===Asili na hatima ya ulimwengu=== [[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|right|268px|thumb|[[Upanuzi wa kimetriki wa nafasi]]. Enzi ya kupanda ni kupanuka kwa kivuto cha kimetriki kilichoko upande wa kushoto.]] Ingawa dhana ya [[Mlipuko mkuu]] ilipotolewa mara ya kwanza ilipambana na [[shaka]] kwa wingi, pia kutokana na uhusiano na imani ya dini ya [[uumbaji]], baadaye imekuja kuungwa mkono na [[uchunguzi]] kadhaa wa kujitegemea.<ref>{{cite book | author = Helge Kragh | title = Cosmology and Controversy | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | isbn=069100546X}}</ref> Hata hivyo, [[fizikia]] ya sasa inaweza kuelezea tu ulimwengu ulivyokuwa mapema, [[sekunde]] 10 baada ya kutokea. [[Wanafizikia]] wengi wamedadisi nini inaweza kuwa imetangulia, na jinsi ulimwengu ulivyoanza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle">{{cite book |author=Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle |title=Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe |url=https://archive.org/details/ourcosmicfutureh0000pran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=052177098X}}</ref> Baadhi ya wanafizikia hudhani kuwa Mlipuko mkuu ulitokea kwa [[bahati]] tu, pamoja na uwepo wa ulimwengu maridhawa.<ref name="Edwards">{{cite book |author=Rem B. Edwards |title=What Caused the Big Bang? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatcausedbigban0000edwa |publisher=Rodopi |year=2001 |isbn=9042014075}}</ref> Hata hivyo, haijalishi jinsi ulimwengu ulivyokuja kuwepo, hatima ya binadamu katika ulimwengu huu ni [[maangamizi]] kwani - hata kama ubinadamu utaishi muda mrefu - uhai wa kibiolojia hatimaye yatashindwa kujiendeleza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle" /> ===Maswali ya sayansi kuhusu akili=== Hali ya kweli na asili ya [[fahamu]] na [[akili]] yenyewe pia vinajadiliwa sana katika sayansi. Suala la [[hiari]] pia linaonekana kuwa na umuhimu wa msingi. Masuala hayo hupatikana zaidi katika nyanja za [[sayansi koginitivu]], [[nyurolojia]] na [[falsafa ya akili]], ingawa baadhi ya wanabiolojia wa [[maendeleo ya uhai]] na [[wanafizikia wa kinadharia]] pia wameliashiria sana suala hilo.<ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite book |author=Harvey Whitehouse |title=The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=1859734278}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |author=[[Jeffrey Alan Gray]] |title=Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem |url=https://archive.org/details/conciousnesscree0000jeff |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198520905}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" /> mara nyingi zikijumuisha idadi kubwa ya mitazamo ya ziada.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |url=https://archive.org/details/multidimensional0000mill |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref> [[File:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|125px|right|thumb|''Kuinuka kwa Watakatifu'' ni [[picha]] iliyochorwa na [[msanii]] [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. Inaonyesha sehemu inayofanana na [[pango]] lenye [[mwanga]] na watu wa kiroho, mara nyingi hutajwa katika ripoti za waliokikaribia kifo.]] Mbinu nyingine, kwa vile Mfano wa Rasimu Nyingi, hudai kwamba fahamu inaweza kuelezwa kikamilifu na nyurolojia, kupitia utendaji kazi wa [[ubongo]] na [[nyuroni]] zake.<ref name="Gray" /><ref name="Churchland">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Churchland|Paul M. Churchland]] |title=A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science |publisher= MIT Press |year=1989 |isbn=0262531062}}</ref><ref name="Dennett">{{cite book |author=[[Daniel Dennett|Daniel Clement Dennett]] |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1991 |isbn=0316180661}}</ref> Nadharia za [[sumakuumeme]] za fahamu zinasema eneo la sumakuumeme linalotokana na [[ubongo]] ndilo hasa linalobeba [[fahamu zoefu]]. Hata hivyo kuna kutokubaliana kuhusu kutekelezwa kwa nadharia kama hiyo inayohusu utendaji kazi kwingine kwa akili.<ref>J. McFadden (2002) "[http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm |date=20051218171922 }}". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'' '''9''' (4) pp. 23-50.</ref><ref name="Buccheri & Di Gesù & Saniga">{{cite book |author=R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga |title=Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=030646439X}}</ref> Nadharia za akili za ki[[kwontamu]] hutumia [[nadharia ya kwontamu]] kuelezea baadhi ya sifa za akili. <ref name="Bohm & Hiley">{{cite book |author=[[David Bohm]]; Basil J. Hiley |title=The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=0415065887}}</ref><ref name="Bruce">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Bruce |title=Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!? |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondbleep00alex |publisher=The Disinformation Company |year=2005 |isbn=1932857222}}</ref><ref name="Bohm & Hiley" /><ref name="Libet, Freeman, Sutherland">{{cite book |author=Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland |title=The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will |url=https://archive.org/details/volitionalbraint0000unse |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=1999 |isbn=0907845118}}</ref> Ikitegemea hoja ya maelezo ya akili yasiyoweza kugusika, baadhi ya watu wamependekeza uwepo wa [[fahamu ya kikosmiki]], wakidai kwamba fahamu kwa kweli ndiyo "msingi wa yote kuwepo".<ref name="Walker"/><ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Ho">{{cite book |author=[[Mae-Wan Ho]] |title=The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms |url=https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi0000maew |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi0000maew/page/218 218]–231 |isbn=9810234279}}</ref> Wanaounga mkono mtazamo huo wanaelezea matukio yasiyo ya kawaida, hasa uwezo wa kuhisi usio wa kawaida na uwezo wa kuyasoma mawazo, kama [[ushahidi]] wa uwepo wa fahamu ya juu isiyoeleweka. Ili kuthibitisha uwepo wa mambo hayo yasiyo ya kawaida, wana[[elimunafsia]] wa mambo yasiyo ya kawaida wamefanya ma[[jaribio]] mbalimbali. Uchambuzi unaoangalia mambo yote yaliyopo unaonyesha kuwa [[asilimia]] ya wenye nguvu zisizo za kawaida (ingawa ndogo sana) imebaki thabiti.<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |url=https://archive.org/details/consciousunivers00radi_0 |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1997 |isbn=0062515020}}</ref> Ingawa baadhi ya [[wachambuzi wakosoaji]] wanahisi somo la [[elimunafsia isiyo ya kawaida]] kuwa sayansi, hawaridhishwi na matokeo ya majaribio yake.<ref name=Alcock03>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |year=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archive-date=2007-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810173433/http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |year=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120709142606/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600/ |archivedate=2012-07-09 |=https://archive.today/20120709142606/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Wanaochunguza mambo haya upya, wanabaki na [[wasiwasi]] kwamba matokeo yanayoonekana kuwa na mafanikio huenda yakawa yanatokana na [[utaratibu]] mbaya, na watafiti wasiokuwa na mafunzo ya kutosha, au mbinu hafifu.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 |journal= |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223348/http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L. |title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1987 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 |journal= |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223410/http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |year=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120709230555/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809/ |archivedate=2012-07-09 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |year=2004 |pages=77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810173433/https://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |archivedate=2007-08-10 }}</ref> ==Mitazamo ya kifalsafa== Mitazamo ya falsafa kuhusu maana ya maisha ni [[itikadi]] ambazo huelezea maisha kupitia suala la maadili au dhana zinazofafanuliwa na binadamu. ===Falsafa za Kale za Ugiriki=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Plato na Aristotle katika ''[[Shule ya Athene]]'', [[mchoro wa ukutani]] wa [[msanii]] [[Raffaello]].]] ====Uplato==== [[Plato]] alikuwa mmoja wa [[wanafalsafa]] wa mwanzo, na mwenye ushawishi mwingi hadi leo, hasa kwa uhalisia kuhusu uwepo wa malimwengu. Katika [[Nadharia ya Maumbo]], malimwengu hayapo kimwili, lakini yapo katika maumbo ya ki[[mbingu]]. Katika ''[[Jamhuri ya Plato|Jamhuri]]'' mazungumzo ya [[mhusika]] wa [[mwalimu]] wake [[Sokrates]] yanaelezea Umbo la Zuri, jambo la kimaadili, hali kamili ya [[uzuri]], hivyo basi kipimo cha ujumla cha [[haki]]. Katika falsafa ya Plato, maana ya maisha ni kufikia umbo la juu zaidi la [[elimu]], ambalo ni Umbo la Zuri, ambapo mambo yote mema na ya haki yanatoa umuhimu na thamani. Binadamu wana [[wajibu]] wa kuyatekeleza mazuri, lakini hakuna yeyote anayeweza kufanikiwa katika [[harakati]] hiyo bila fikira za kifalsafa, ambazo zinaruhusu elimu ya kweli. ====Uaristoteli==== [[Aristotle]], [[mwanafunzi]] wa [[Plato]], alikuwa mwanafalsafa mwingine wa mapema, mwenye ushawishi mkubwa, ambaye alisema kuwa maarifa ya maadili si ya ''hakika'' kama [[metafizikia]] na [[somo la maarifa]], lakini ni ''maarifa ya kijumla''. Kwa sababu si [[fani]] ya kinadharia, inambidi mtu asome na afanye mazoezi ili awe 'mzuri', kwa hiyo mtu angekuwa [[mwema]], hangeweza kusoma tu [[fadhila]] ni nini, ingembidi awe na fadhila, kupitia juhudi za kiadili. Kufanya hili, Aristotle alifafanua kitendo kilicho cha fadhila: "Kila tajriba na kila swali, na vilevile kila tendo na chaguo la tendo, linadhaniwa kuwa na uzuri fulani kama lengo lake. Ndiyo sababu lile zuri limefafanuliwa ifaavyo kama lengo la bidii yote [...]<br>Kila kitu hufanywa na lengo, na lengo hilo ni "zuri". ([[Maadili ya Kinikomakea]] 1.1). Hata hivyo, ikiwa kitendo A kinafanyika ili kufikia lengo B, kisha lengo B pia litakuwa na lengo (lengo C), na lengo C pia litakuwa na lengo, hivyo muundo huo utaendelea mpaka kitu kiusimamishe. [[Suluhisho]] la Aristotle ni ''[[Wema mkuu]]'', ambao ni wa kuwaniwa kwa ajili yake pekee, ni lengo lake lenyewe. Wema mkuu hauwaniwi kwa ajili ya kufikia mema mengine, na mema yote yanawaniwa kwa ajili yake. Hili linahusisha kufikia "[[eudemonia]]", ambayo kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa kama "furaha", "ustawi", "kutokosa chochote muhimu", na "ubora". ====Falsafa ya Shaka==== Katika [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[wanafalsafa wa shaka]] walisema kuwa lengo la maisha ni kuishi kwa fadhila yanayowiana na [[viumbe]] wengine. Furaha inatokana na kujitegemea na kuusimamia mtazamo wa kiakili; mateso yanatokana na maamuzi ya [[uongo]] kuhusu thamani, ambayo husababisha hisia mbaya na tabia ya [[uhasama]]. Maisha ya shaka yanakataa tamaa za kawaida za [[mali]], [[nguvu]], [[afya]], na [[umaarufu]], kwa kuwa huru kutoka vitu vinavyopatikana katika kuyatafuta ya kawaida.<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. [[J. O. Urmson]] and [[Jonathan Rée]]), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> Kama viumbe wenye [[uwezo wa kufikiria]], watu wanaweza kufanikisha furaha kupitia mafunzo kabambe, kwa kuishi katika njia iliyo ya kiasili kwao. [[Dunia]] ni ya kila mtu kwa kiwango sawa, hivyo [[mateso]] yanasababishwa na uamuzi wa uongo kuhusu kile ambacho ni cha thamani na kile ambacho hakina maana kulingana na [[tamaduni]] na itikadi za [[jamii]]. ====Ukurene==== Falsafa ya [[Ukurene]], iliyoanzishwa na [[Aristipo wa Kurene]], ilikuwa [[shule]] ya zamani ya [[sokrates|Kisokrate]] iliyotia maanani upande mmoja tu wa mafundisho ya Sokrates - kwamba furaha ni tokeo la mwisho la hatua za kimaadili na kwamba radhi ni zuri kuu; hivyo basi mtazamo wa dunia wa kuipenda raha pekee ambapo kutimiza tamaa za mwili ni za faida kuliko radhi ya akili. Wakurene walipendelea kutimiza tamaa haraka kuliko faida inayopatikana baada ya kusubiri kipindi kirefu; kunyimwa ni huzuni mbaya.<ref>"Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.</ref><ref>"The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org {{Wayback|url=http://www.hedonism.org/ |date=20200522152806 }}>.</ref> ====Uepikuro==== [[File:Epicurus Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|132px|Mchongo wa [[Epikuro]] akimuegemea [[mwanafunzi]] wake Metrodorus katika [[makavazi]] ya [[Louvre]].]] Kwa [[Epikuro]], jambo zuri kuliko yote ni kutafuta raha za wastani, kupata [[utulivu]] na kuwa huru kutoka hofu (“ataraxia”) kupitia maarifa, [[urafiki]] na [[wema]], kuishi kwa kujichunga; maumivu ya kimwili (“aponia”) hayapo kupitia maarifa ya mtu kuhusu hali ya dunia na mipaka ya matamanio ya mtu. Vikiwa pamoja, uhuru kutoka maumivu na uhuru kutoka hofu ndiyo furaha kuu. Kukusifu kwake kufurahia [[anasa]] ambazo hazijapita kiasi kunakaribia dhana ya "kujiepusha" na raha zote kama vile [[ngono]] na anasa: <blockquote>Tunaposema... kuwa radhi ndio mwisho na lengo, hatumaanishi raha za upotevu au raha za kimwili, jinsi tunavyoeleweka na wachache kwa ujinga, ubaguzi au udanganyifu wa makusudi. Tukisema radhi tunamaanisha kutokuwepo kwa maumivu mwilini na taabu katika nafsi. Si kwa mfululizo wa [[ulevi]] na kuponda raha, si kwa tamaa ya ngono, wala kufurahia utamu wa [[samaki]], na vyakula vingine vitamu kutoka [[meza]] iliyojaa vinono, ambavyo huzalisha maisha mazuri; ni fikira za kimakini, kutafuta nje ya misingi ya kila uchaguzi na kuepuka, na kuikataa mitazamo ambayo hufanya shida kubwa kuichukua nafsi.<ref>Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of Eminent Philosophers'', Book X</ref></blockquote> Maana ya Kiepikuro ya maisha inakanusha kutokufa na dhana ya maisha mengine mbali na haya ya duniani; kuna nafsi, lakini inaweza kufa kama mwili. Hakuna maisha baada ya kifo, ingawa mtu hatakiwi kuogopa kifo, kwa sababu "Kifo si chochote kwetu, kwani yale ambao hunywea, ni bila hisia, na kile ambacho hakina hisia si chochote kwetu."<ref name="Russel">[[Bertrand Russell]] (1946). ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin</ref> ====Falsafa ya uvumilivu==== [[Falsafa ya uvumilivu]] hufunza kwamba kuishi kulingana na fikira njema ni kuwa katika uwiano na mpango wa ulimwengu wa Kimungu, unaotokana na mtu kufahamu ''[[logos]]'', ''fikira'' ya ulimwengu wote, thamani muhimu inayopatikana kwa wote. Maana ya maisha ni ''uhuru kutoka mateso'' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: απαθεια, ''apatheia ''). Mashauri ya moja kwa moja ya falsafa ya uvumilivu ni fadhila, fikira na [[sheria ya kimaumbile]], zinazojumuisha kuendeleza kujidhibiti kibinafsi na [[ujasiri]] wa kiakili kama njia za kuzishinda [[hisia haribifu]]. Mwenye kuifuata falsafa ya uvumilivu hanuii kuzizima hisia, bali kuepuka shida za kihisia, kwa kuendeleza uamuzi wazi na utulivu wa ndani kupitia uzoefu makini wa kimantiki, kutafakari, na kuziweka fikira pamoja. Msingi wa kimaadili wa falsafa ya uvumilivu ni kuwa "zuri liko katika hali ya nafsi", yenyewe inaonyeshwa katika [[hekima]] na kujidhibiti, hivyo kuboresha ustawi wa kiroho: "Fadhila" inatokana na "nia" ambayo inawiana na maumbile."<ref name="Russel" /> Kanuni inatumika katika uhusiano wa kibinafsi, yaani: "kuwa huru kutokana na hasira na wivu".<ref name="Russel" /> ===Falsafa ya Mwangaza=== [[Falsafa ya Mwangaza|Enzi ya Kutaalamika]] na ile ya [[ukoloni]] zote [[mbili]] zilibadilisha hali ya falsafa ya [[Ulaya]] na kuieneza [[dunia]]ni kote. [[Ibada]] na kumnyenyekea [[Mungu]] viligeuka kuwa dhana za [[haki za binadamu]] zisizoweza kunyimwa na dhana ya uwezo wake mkuu wa kifikira. Maadili ya ulimwengu mzima ya [[upendo]] na [[huruma]] yaligeuka dhana za kiraia za [[uhuru]], [[usawa]], na [[uraia]]. Maana ya maisha pia yalibadilika, ikiacha kidogo kuhimiza uhusiano na Mungu na kusisitiza uhusiano kati ya watu binafsi na jamii yao. Kipindi hicho kilijaa nadharia zinazolinganisha kuwepo kwa maana na utaratibu wa kijamii. ====Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya jamii==== Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii ni seti ya mawazo yaliyoibuka katika [[karne za 17]] na [[karne ya 18|18]], kwa sababu ya migogoro iliyochukua nafasi kubwa barani Ulaya kati ya waliozidi kuwa ma[[tajiri]], pamoja na utaratibu wa viongozi matajiri, na watu wa dini. Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii ulionyesha binadamu kama viumbe wenye [[haki]] walizozaliwa nazo na wasizowezwa kunyimwa (pamoja na haki ya mtu kubaki na [[mali]] inayotokana na kazi yake binafsi), na ulitafuta mbinu za kupima haki kuwa sawa katika jamii yote. Kijumla, [[uhuru binafsi]] ulitazamwa kuwa lengo kuu,<ref>A: "'Liberalism' is defined as a social ethic that advocates liberty, and equality in general." – [[C. A. J. (Tony) Coady]] ''Distributive Justice'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.440. B: "Liberty is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end." – [[John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|Lord Acton]]</ref> kwa sababu ya kudhani kwamba kupitia hakikisho la uhuru tu haki nyingine zilizojikita kwa ndani zitakapolindwa. Kuna aina nyingi za dhana ya uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii, lakini dhana zao kuu kuhusu maana ya maisha zinaambatana na dhana tatu za msingi. Wanafalsafa wa awali kama vile [[John Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] na [[Adam Smith]] waliona binadamu akianza katika hali ya kimaumbile, kisha akitafuta maana kupitia [[ajira]] na mali, na kutumia [[mkataba wa kijamii|mikataba ya kijamii]] ili kujenga mazingira ambayo yanasaidia juhudi hizo. ====Ukanti==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|right|125px|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]] anafahamika kama mmoja wa wanafalsafa wenye ushawishi mwingi zaidi katika kipindi cha mwisho cha [[Enzi ya Kutaalamika|Kutaalamika]].]] [[Ukanti]] ni falsafa iliyo na msingi katika [[maandishi]] ya kimaadili, ya [[somo la maarifa]] na ya ki[[metafizikia]] ya [[Immanuel Kant]]. Kant anajulikana kwa [[nadharia ya uwajibikaji]] ambayo msingi ni wajibu mmoja wa kimaadili, "dhana ya lazima bila kujalisha", inayotokana na dhana ya [[uwajibikaji]]. Wakanti wanaamini kuwa vitendo vyote vinafanywa kulingana na lengo au kanuni fulani isiyobainika wazi, na kuwa ili vitendo viwe adili, ni lazima viambatane na dhana ya lazima bila kujalisha. Kifupi, [[mtihani]] ni kwamba lazima mmoja afanye lengo litumike ulimwenguni kote, kisha angalia kama bado itawezekana kulitekeleza duniani. Katika [[kitabu]] chake, ''Kazi ya msingi'', Kant anatoa mfano wa mtu ambaye anataka kukopa [[pesa]] bila nia ya kuzirudisha. Huu ni utata kwa sababu kama ingalikuwa hatua ya wote ulimwenguni, hakuna mtu ambaye angemkopesha mwingine, tena kwani yeye angejua kwamba hangerudishiwa pesa hizo. Lengo la hatua hii, anasema Kant, linaleta matokeo ya mkanganyiko katika matazamio (na hivyo linapingana na wajibu kamili). Kant pia alikanusha kwamba matokeo ya tendo huchangia kwa njia yoyote thamani ya kimaadili ya tendo, hoja yake ikiwa kwamba ulimwengu wa kimwili upo nje ya udhibiti kamili wa mtu na hivyo mtu hawezi kuwajibika kwa matukio yanayofanyika hapo. ===Falsafa za [[karne ya 19]]=== ====Falsafa ya faida==== [[File:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Jeremy Bentham]] Asili ya [[falsafa ya faida]] inaweza kurudi nyuma sana hadi [[Epikuro]], lakini, kama shule ya mawazo, inahusishwa na [[Jeremy Bentham]],<ref>Rosen, Frederick (2003). ''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill''. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."</ref> ambaye aligundua kuwa ''asili imemweka mtu chini ya utawala wa mabwana wawili wa kujitegemea, maumivu na raha''. Basi, kutokana na busara hiyo ya kimaadili, na kuiunda ''Sheria ya Utumizi'', ''kwamba wema ni chochote ambacho huleta furaha nyingi zaidi kwa idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu''. Alifafanua maana ya maisha kama "kanuni ya furaha nyingi zaidi". [[Jeremy Bentham]] aliungwa mkono sana na [[James Mill]], mwanafalsafa muhimu katika siku zake, na baba yake [[John Stuart Mill]]. Mill mdogo alifunzwa kulingana na kanuni za Bentham, pamoja na kunakili na kufupisha maandishi mengi ya baba yake.<ref name="Mill">Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.</ref> ====Umaksi==== Kulingana na [[Umaksi]] na [[Ukomunisti]], maana ya maisha ni kutumikiana katika [[amani]] na kwa [[uadilifu]] kama wanadamu walio sawa na wenye haki. ====Ubatilivyote==== [[Ubatilivyote]] ni falsafa inayokataa madai kuwa yeyote ana [[maarifa]] na ukweli, na hivyo inapeleleza umuhimu wa kuishi bila ukweli unaoweza kujulikana. Badala ya kusisitiza kwamba maadili yanabadilika kulingana na mtu, na huenda yasipewe sababu, [[mbatilivyote]] anasema: "Hakuna kitu chenye thamani", maadili hayana thamani, hutumika tu kama maadili bandii ya jamii. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] aliutambulisha ubatilivyote kama kuifanya dunia kuwa tupu, hasa kuhusu uwepo wa binadamu, wa maana, wa kusudi, wa ukweli wa kueleweka, na wa thamani muhimu; kwa ufupi, ubatili wa vyote ni mchakato wa "kuyafanya maadili makuu yasiwe na thamani".<ref name="Bindé">{{cite book|author=Jérôme Bindé|title=The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2004|isbn=1571814426}}</ref> Ubatilivyote ni kama matokeo ya wazo kwamba [[kifo cha Mungu|Mungu amekufa]], na kusisitiza kwamba hicho ni kitu kilichokuwa kinafaa kushindwa.<ref name="Reginster">{{cite book |author=Bernard Reginster |title=The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0674021991}}</ref> Kwa [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], maisha ni ya thamani tu ikiwa kuna malengo yanayomshawishi mtu kuishi. Hivyo, aliona falsafa ya ubatilivyote ("yote ambayo hufanyika ni ubatili") kama bila malengo. Alikana kujiepusha na anasa, kwa sababu kufanya hivyo kunakanusha kuishi katika ulimwengu; alikanusha kuwa maadili ni malengo ya ukweli, ambayo kifikira ni ahadi za lazima zinazotumika ulimwenguni kote: tathmini zetu ni tafsiri, na si tafakari za dunia, kama ilivyo kwa kweli, na basi, dhana zote hufanyika kupitia mtazamo fulani.<ref name="Reginster" /> [[File:MARTIN John Great Day of His Wrath.jpg|thumb|left|''Mwisho wa Dunia'', picha iliyochorwa na msanii [[John Martin]].]] [[Martin Heidegger]], kama Nietzsche, aliona "kifo cha Mungu" kuwa chanzo cha ubatilivyote kuibuka: <blockquote>Kama Mungu, ambaye ndiye lengo na msingi unaozidi yale yanayoweza kuhisika, na wa ukweli wote, amekufa; kama ulimwengu unaozidi yanayoweza kuhisika wa mawazo umeumizwa kwa kupoteza nguvu zake za lazima za kujijenga juu, na juu ya hayo, za kuipa nguvu zaidi, basi hakuna chochote kinachobaki ambacho mtu anaweza kushikilia, na ambacho anaweza tumia kuitafuta njia.<ref>Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.</ref></blockquote><ref name="Bindé" /> Heidegger, ===Falsafa za [[karne ya 20]]=== Kipindi cha sasa kimeyaona mabadiliko makuu katika dhana ya hali ya binadamu. Sayansi ya kisasa imefanikiwa kuandika upya uhusiano kati ya wanadamu na ulimwengu halisia, [[maendeleo]] katika [[matibabu]] na [[teknolojia]] yametufanya tuwe huru kutoka [[maradhi]] ya vipindi vya awali, na falsafa - hasa kufuatia mgeuko wa kilugha - ilibadilisha jinsi uhusiano kati ya watu unavyotazamwa. Maswali kuhusu maana ya maisha pia yamekabiliwa na mabadiliko makuu, kutoka majaribio ya kutazama upya kuwepo kwa binadamu kupitia biolojia na sayansi kwa jumla (kama katika [[#upragmatiki|upragmatiki]] na [[#uchanya wa kimantiki|uchanya wa kimantiki]]), hadi jitihada za kinadharia kuhusu kufanya maana kama shughuli ([[#udhanaishi|udhanaishi]], utu wa kidunia). ====Upragmatiki==== [[Upragmatiki]], ulianzishwa mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 nchini [[Marekani]] ukidokeza kwamba ukweli ''ni katika kukabiliana na mazingira tu'' na kwamba ''matokeo'' pia ni sehemu za ukweli. Isitoshe, upragmatiki unadokeza kwamba ''chochote'' muhimu na chenye vitendo si kweli daima, akisema kwamba kile ambacho huchangia zaidi mema ya binadamu wengi katika kipindi cha muda mrefu ndicho kweli. Katika mazoezi, madai ya kinadharia lazima ''yathibitishwe kwa vitendo'', yaani lazima mtu aweze kutabiri na kupima madai, na kwamba, mwishowe, mahitaji ya watu yanapaswa kuongoza uchunguzi wa kisomi wa binadamu. Wanafalsafa wa Kipragmatiki wanadokeza kwamba kuyaelewa maisha kupitia vitu vinavyotendwa ni muhimu kuliko kutafuta dhana ya kiakili ambayo ni vigumu kuwekwa katika vitendo kuhusu maisha. [[William James]] alisema ukweli unaweza kufanywa, lakini hauwezi kutafutwa.<ref name="James">{{cite book|author=[[William James]]|title=The Meaning of Truth|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1909|isbn=1-57392-138-6}}</ref><ref name="Corti">{{cite book|author=Walter Robert Corti|title=The Philosophy of William James|publisher=Meiner Verlag|year=1976|isbn=3787303529}}</ref> Kwa Wapragmatiki, maana ya maisha yanajulikana tu kupitia uzoefu. ====Udhanaishi==== Kila [[mwanamume]] na kila [[mwanamke]] anaumba maana ya maisha yake; maisha hayadhamiriwi na Mungu mwenye nguvu kuliko binadamu au [[mamlaka]] ya kidunia, bali kila mtu yuko huru. Kwa hiyo, mambo muhimu yanayomuendesha mtu kimaadili ni ''vitendo'', ''uhuru'' na ''uamuzi''. Hivyo, [[udhanaishi]] unapinga ufikiriaji na uchanya. Katika kutafuta maana ya maisha, mdhanaishi anatazama mahali ambapo watu hupata maana ya maisha, ambapo katika kutumia fikira tu kama chanzo cha maana ni pungufu. Upungufu huibua hisia za wasiwasi na hofu, zinazohisika katika kukabiliana na [[uhuru]] mkuu, na kuambatana na mwamko kuhusu kifo. Kwa mdhanaishi, kuwepo kunatangulia kiini; kiini cha maisha ya mtu huja tu baada ya mtu kuwa. [[Søren Kierkegaard]] aliunda neno "mruko wa kiimani", akidokeza kuwa maisha yamejaa mkanganyiko, na mtu lazima aunde maadili yake katika ulimwengu usiojali. Mtu anaweza kuishi maisha yenye maana (yasiyo na kukata tamaa wala wasiwasi) kwa kufanya ahadi kwa vyovyote kuhusu kitu kilicho na mwisho, na kujitolea kwa maisha hayo ya kufanya ahadi, licha ya mazingira magumu yaliyojikita katika kufanya hivyo.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|author=Amy Laura Hall|title=Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love|url=https://archive.org/details/kierkegaardtreac0000hall|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521893119}}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] alijibu: "Ni nini maana ya maisha?" kwa kubainisha kuwa maisha ya mtu yanaonyesha nia yake, na kwamba nia (maisha) kiendeshaji kisichokuwa na lengo, kisichofuata fikira na kinachokuwa chungu. [[Wokovu]], [[ukombozi]], na kuepuka mateso yamo katika kutafakari mambo mazuri, kuhurumia wengine, na kujieupusha na anasa.<ref name="Jacquette">{{cite book|author=Dale Jacquette|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts|url=https://archive.org/details/schopenhauerphil0000unse_f1d6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=0521473888}}</ref><ref name="Murray">{{cite book|author=Durno Murray|title=Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1999|isbn=3110166011}}</ref> ====Ukanganyikaji==== [[Albert Camus]], mwanafalsafa wa [[Kifaransa]] toka [[Algeria]], ambaye mara nyingi anahusianishwa na [[udhanaishi]] lakini alilikataa neno hilo kabisa,<ref>{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Robert C. |authorlink=Robert C. Solomon |title=From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds |url=https://archive.org/details/fromrationalismt0000solo_j5e7 |publisher=[[Rowman and Littlefield]] |date=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fromrationalismt0000solo_j5e7/page/245 245] |isbn=074251241X}}</ref> ni maarufu kwa kudokeza nadharia yake ya mkanganyiko. Mkanganyo wa hali ya binadamu ni kwamba watu wanatafuta maadili ya nje na maana katika dunia ambayo haina maana yoyote, na ambayo haiwajali. Camus anaandika kuhusu wabatilivyote wa thamani kama Meusrault,<ref>Camus (1946) ''L'Etranger''</ref> na pia kuhusu maadili katika ulimwengu wa kuyabatili yote, kwamba watu wanaweza badala yake kujitahidi kuwa "wabatilivyote wa kishujaa", wanaoishi na hadhi wanapopambana na mkanganyiko, kuishi kwa "utakatifu wa kidunia", [[mshikamano wa kindugu]], na kuuasi na kupambana dhidi ya kutojali kwa dunia.<ref>Camus (1955) ''The Myth of Sisyphus''</ref> Kulingana na [[ukanganyikaji]], kuna ukosefu wa umoja wa kimsingi unaotokana na kuwepo kwa ushirikiano wa binadamu na ulimwengu. Mtu ana hamu ya mpango, maana, na kusudi katika maisha, lakini ulimwengu haujali na hauna maana; mkanganyo unatokana na mgogoro huu. Kama viumbe vinavyotafuta matumaini katika dunia isiyokuwa na maana, Camus anasema kuwa binadamu wana njia tatu za kuutatua mtanziko. *[[Kujiua]]: ufumbuzi wa kwanza wa mtanziko ni mtu kuyakomesha maisha yake. Camus anakataa chaguo hili kama la woga. * [[Imani]] ya dini katika Ulimwengu Upitao Fikira: imani ya namna hiyo huenda ikadokeza kuwepo kwa ulimwengu ambao umezidi huu wa kukanganya, na, kwa hivyo, una maana. Camus anauita ufumbuzi huo "kujiua kifalsafa" na anaukataa kwa sababu ni sawa na kuangamizwa kwa fikira, ambayo kwa maoni yake ni [[janga]] sawa na kujiua kimwili. *Kukubali mkanganyo: kwa Camus, huu tu ndio ufumbuzi wa kweli. Ni kukubali na hata kukumbatia mkanganyo wa maisha na kuendelea kuishi. Mkanganyo ni tabia muhimu ya hali ya kibinadamu, na njia pekee ya kweli ya kukabiliana na hili ni kulikubali kwa ujasiri. Kulingana na Camus, tunaweza "kuishi maisha bora zaidi ikiwa hayana maana."<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/camus.htm#SSH5a.i Albert Camus at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] Accessed Mei 25th, 2009</ref> ====Utu wa Kidunia==== [[File:HumanismSymbol.PNG|120px|left|thumb| Picha ya "binadamu mwenye furaha" ishara ya Utu wa Kidunia.]] Kulingana na [[Utu wa Kidunia]], wanadamu walitokana na kuzaana katika maendeleo ya mabadiliko ambayo hayakuongozwa kama sehemu muhimu ya maumbile, ambayo huishi yenyewe.<ref name=humanifesto1>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto I]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html |work=American Humanist Association |year=1933 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name=humanifesto2>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto II]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html work=American Humanist Association |year=1973 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809102124/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |archivedate=2007-08-09 }}</ref> Maarifa hayatoki katika vyanzo vyenye nguvu visivyo vya kawaida, lakini kutoka uchunguzi wa binadamu, majaribio, na uchambuzi wa kimantiki ([[mbinu ya kisayansi]]): asili ya [[ulimwengu]] ni kile ambacho watu huitambua kuwa hivyo.<ref name=humanifesto1 /> Aidha, [[maadili]] na ukweli vinalengwa kwa njia ya uchunguzi wa kiakili<ref name=humanifesto1 /> na yanatokana na mahitaji ya binadamu na hamu kama ilivyopimwa na uzoefu, yaani kupitia akili yenye uchambuzi.<ref name=humanifesto3>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto III]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php work=American Humanist Association |year=2003 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809103515/http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |archivedate=2007-08-09 }}</ref><ref name=CDSH>{{cite web |title=[[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]] [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration work=Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) |year=1980 |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817084107/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |archivedate=2008-08-17 }}</ref> "Kulingana na yale tunayojua, tabia za mtu kiujumla ni [chanzo] cha kiumbe cha kibiolojia kinachoendesha shughuli zake katika muktadha wa kijamii na wa kiutamaduni."<ref name=humanifesto2 /> Watu huamua kusudi la binadamu, bila ya ushawishi wa Kimungu; ni tabia ya binadamu, hisia ya kijumla, ambayo ni lengo la maisha ya binadamu. Utu wa Kidunia unataka kuendeleza na kutimiza ubinadamu:<ref name=humanifesto1 /> "Utu husisitiza [[uwezo]] wetu, na [[uwajibikaji]] wetu, kuishi maisha adili yenye [[utimilifu]] wa binafsi yanayolenga mema makuu ya ubinadamu".<ref name=humanifesto3 /> [[Wanautu]] huendeleza kufunguliwa kifikra ili kuyashughulikia [[maslahi]] ya binafsi na yenye manufaa kwa watu wote. Furaha ya mtu binafsi inahusishwa kwa njia isiyoweza kubadilishwa na ustawi wa binadamu wengine, kwa sababu sisi ni wanyama wanaolazimika kuishi katika jamii, ambayo hupata maana kutokana na uhusiano wa karibu, na kwa sababu maendeleo ya kiutamaduni humnufaisha kila mtu katika [[utamaduni]].<ref name=humanifesto2 /><ref name=humanifesto3 /> Falsafa ndogo za Utu wa Baadaye na Utu Unaopita Yote (ambazo wakati mwingine hutumiwa [[kimbadala]]) ni upanuzi wa [[maadili ya kiutu]]. Mtu anapaswa kutafuta maendeleo ya ubinadamu na ya maisha yote kwa kiasi kikubwa iwezekanavyo ili kupatanisha Utu wa Kirainasansi na utamaduni wa karne ya 20 wa sayasansi na teknolojia. Hivyo, kila kiumbe hai ana haki ya kuamua "maana ya maisha binafsi" kwa mtazamo wa kijamii na kibinafsi.<ref>{{cite web| author=[[Nick Bostrom]] |title=Transhumanist Values |work=[[Oxford University]] |year=2005 |url=http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html |accessdate=2007-07-28}}</ref> Kutoka mtazamo wa kiutu na kielimunafsia ya kupunguza maumivu, suala la maana ya maisha pia linaweza kutafsiriwa tena kama "Ni nini maana ya maisha "yangu"?"<ref>Irvin Yalom, ''Existential Psychotherapy'', 1980</ref> Badala ya kujifunga na swali la kidini au la kikozmiki kuhusu madhumuni makuu, mbinu hii inapendekeza kwamba swali hili ni la binafsi sana. Kuna majibu mengi ya kimatibabu ya kupunguza maumivu kwa swali hili, kwa mfano [[Viktor Frankl]] anadokeza kuwa dhana ya "Kutowaza", ambayo kwa kiasi kikubwa hutafsiriwa kama kukoma kutafakari bila mwisho juu ya ubinafsi, badala ya kujishughulisha na maisha. Kwa ujumla, mwitikio wa matibabu ya kuyapunguza maumivu ni kwamba swali la maana ya maisha huvukiza ikiwa mtu anajishughulisha kikamilifu na maisha. Swali kisha linabadilika kuwa wasiwasi maalum zaidi kama vile "Ni upotovu upi unaonisumbua?", "Ni nini kinachozuia uwezo wangu kufurahia vitu?", "Mbona mimi huwasahau wapendwa wangu?". Angalia pia Matibabu ya Kupunguza Maumivu ya Kidhanaishi kadiri ya [[Irvin Yalom]]. ====Uchanya wa kimantiki==== Wachanya wa kimantiki huuliza: ''Ni nini maana ya maisha?'' na ''Ya nini kuuliza?''<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] |title=Good and Evil |pages="The Meaning of Life" (Chapter 5) |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |month=Januari | year=1970 |isbn=0026166909}}</ref><ref>Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., ''Philosophie als Wissenschaft''.</ref> ''Kama hakuna maadili yanayolengwa, basi, hiyo ni kusema maisha hayana maana?''<ref>{{cite book |last=McNaughton |first=David |month=Agosti | year=1988 |title=Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/moralvisionintro0000mcna |pages="Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life" (Section 1.5) |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0631159452}}</ref> [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] na wachanya wa kimantiki walisema: "Linapoulizwa kilugha, swali ni batili"; kwa sababu, maishani taarifa ya "maana ya x", kawaida inaashiria madhara ya x, au umuhimu wa x, au kile ambacho ni dhahiri kuhusu x na kadhalika, kwa hivyo, wakati dhana ya maana ni sawa na "x", katika taarifa ya "maana ya x", taarifa inakuwa ya kujirudia, na kwa hiyo ya kipuuzi, au inaweza kutaja kama ukweli kwamba maisha ya kibiolojia ni muhimu ili kuwa na maana maishani. Mambo (watu, matukio) katika maisha ya mtu yanaweza kuwa na maana kama sehemu ya uzima, lakini maana isiyobainika ya maisha hayo, yenyewe, mbali na mambo hayo, haiwezi kubainika. Maisha ya mtu yana maana (kwake mwenyewe na kwa wengine) kama matukio ya maisha yanayotokana na mafanikio yake, urithi, familia, na kadhalika, lakini, kusema kwamba maisha yenyewe yana maana ni matumizi mabaya ya lugha, kwani yoyote yaliyo muhimu, au ya mwisho, ni muhimu tu "katika" maisha (kwa walio hai), hivyo basi kuifanya taarifa iwe ya kimakosa. [[Bertrand Russell]] aliandika kwamba ingawa alipata kwamba chuki yake ya mateso haikuwa kama chuki yake ya [[mboga]] ya [[brokoli]], hakupata utaratibu wowote wa kuridhisha, na wa kupimika wa kuthibitisha hili:<ref name="Russel"/> <blockquote> Tunapojaribu kuwa na uhakika, kuhusu kile tunachomaanisha tunaposema kuwa hiki au kile ni "tunu", tunajikuta katika matatizo makubwa sana. Tamko la Bentham, kwamba radhi ndiyo Zuri, lilizua upinzani mkali, na ilisemekana kuwa falsafa ya [[nguruwe]]. Yeye na wapinzani wake walishindwa kuibua hoja zozote. Katika swali la kisayansi, ushahidi unaweza kupatikana kutoka pande zote mbili, na mwishowe, upande mmoja unabainika kuwa na hoja bora au, kama hili halitokei, swali linabaki kama halijajibiwa. Lakini katika swali, kuhusu ikiwa hili, au hilo, ndilo mwisho Mzuri, hakuna ushahidi, kwa vyovyote vile; kila mtetezi anaweza kupendekeza tu hoja kulingana na hisia zake, na kutumia vifaa vya ushawishi ambavyo vitaibua hisia sawa katika wengine... Maswali kuhusu "maadili" - yaani, kuhusu kile ambacho chenyewe ni kizuri au kibaya, bila kutilia maanani madhara yake - yanapatikana nje ya uwanja wa sayansi, jinsi watetezi wa dini wanavyodai kwa msisitizo. Nadhani kwamba, katika hili, wako sawa, lakini mimi napata hitimisho zaidi, ambalo hao hawapati, kwamba maswali kuhusu "maadili" yanapatikana kabisa nje ya uwanja wa maarifa. Hiyo ni kusema, tunaposema kwamba hili au lile lina "thamani", sisi tunaeleza tu hisia zetu wenyewe, si ukweli, ambao bado ungalikuwa kweli ikiwa hisia zetu za binafsi zingalikuwa tofauti.<ref>[[Bertrand Russell]] (1961). [http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html ''Science and Ethics''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html |date=20071114144956 }}</ref></blockquote> ====Baada ya Usasa==== Falsafa ya [[Baada ya Usasa]] - tukizungumza kwa upana- inaona hali ya binadamu ikiwa kama iliyojengwa na lugha, au na miundo na taasisi za jamii ya kibinadamu. Ikitofautiana na aina nyingine za falsafa, ni nadra kwa falsafa ya Baada ya [[Usasa]] kutafuta maana zinazopatikana kabla ya tendo au zilizojikita kwa undani katika uwepo wa binadamu. Badala yake inalenga kuchunguza au kukosoa maana zilizopewa ili kuzitafakari au kuzirekebisha upya. Chochote kinachofana na 'maana ya maisha', katika maana ya falsafa hiyo, kinaweza kueleweka tu ndani ya muundo wa kijamii na wa kilugha, na lazima ufuatwe kama kimbilio kutoka miundo ya nguvu ambayo tayari imejikita katika aina zote za hotuba na mwingiliano. Kama kanuni, wanafalsafa wa Baada ya Usasa wanatazama mwamko wa vikwazo vya lugha kama muhimu kuvikwepa vikwazo vivyo, lakini wananadharia tofauti wana maoni mbalimbali kuhusu asili ya mchakato huu: kutoka ujenzi wa [[dharura]] wa maana na watu binafsi (kama katika falsafa ya Kuharibu Yaliyojengwa) hadi kwa nadharia ambamo watu ni upanuzi wa kimsingi wa lugha na jamii, bila uhuru halisi (kama katika falsafa ya Baada ya Muundo). Kiujumla, falsafa ya Baada ya Usasa inatafuta maana kwa kuangalia miundo ya msingi ambayo inaunda au kulazimisha maana, kuliko yale yanayoonekana kiepifenomenali duniani. ====Dhana ya Uhisia==== Kulingana na dhana ya kihisia, maana kuu ya maisha ni kupata kutosheleza hisia za kibinadamu. Wafuasi wa falsafa hiyo wanaamini kuwa vitendo vyote maishani ni matokeo ya hisia na hasa haja ya kuzaa. Uwepo wa mtu binafsi huwa chanzo cha kuzaa na unamfanya binadamu kutafuta lengo la kuzaa maishani kwa kuufuata mzunguko. Haraka inasisitiza kuwa watu wanapofikiria kwa kina, watapata kuwa lengo kuu la matendo yote wafanyayo ni kuvutia watu wa [[jinsia]] nyingine. Dhana kuu ya uhisia inaweza kufuatwa hivi: <blockquote> Kama inayokubalika kuwa watu hufunzwa kujifunza shuleni. Kwa nini tusome kwa bidii? Ili tufuzu mitihani. Kwa nini tufuzu mitihani? Ili tuweze kuenda chuo kikuu? Kwa nini tuweze kuenda chuo kikuu? Ili tuweze kupata kazi nzuri? Kwa nini tupate kazi nzuri? Ili tuwe na mali. Kwa nini tuwe na mali? Ili tununue magari mazuri; ili tununue nyumba nzuri; ili tununue bidhaa nzuri. Kwa nini vitu vyote vizuri kumfanya mtu aonekana mzuri? Mwishowe kuvutia watu wa jinsia nyingine, kutosheleza haja ya msingi ya kuzaa na kuendeleza familia ya kibinadamu. </blockquote> Wanahisia hutumia mawazo hayo kuendeleza dhana kuwa matukio yote ya kibinadamu yanaweza kuelezwa kwa kutumia lengo letu la kuzaa: Kwa nini watu wanapinga sana ndoa baina ya watu wa jinsia moja? Kwa sababu watu katika jozi la namna hiyo hawawezi kuzaa Kwa nini watu hupendana? Kwa sababu upendo husababisha ngono, ambayo huchangia ustawi wa [[spishi]] ya binadamu Kwa nini akina mama hupenda watoto hata kama hawajazaliwa bado? Kwa sababu inachangia kutunza na kuongeza idadi ya binadamu Kwa nini watu wengi hupinga [[utoaji mimba]]? Kwa sababu inazuia uzazi Kwa nini ma[[daktari]] wengi sana na matibabu mengi? Ili kutunza idadi ya watu Kwa nini [[uuaji]] ni hatia kubwa sana? Kwa sababu kuua kunapunguza idadi ya watu ====Upanthei wa kiasilia==== Kulingana na [[upanthei]] wa kiasilia, maana ya maisha ni kutunza viumbe na mazingira. ==Mitazamo ya kidini== ===Dini za Asia ya Kusini=== ====Falsafa za Kihindu==== [[File:Golden Aum.png|left|thumb|110px|[[Aum]] ya [[dhahabu]] iliyoandikwa katika [[Devanagari]]. Aum ni takatifu katika [[dini]] za [[Uhindu]], [[Ujaini]] na [[Ubuddha]].]] [[Uhindu]] ni jamii ya kidini inayojumuisha itikadi na desturi nyingi. Kwa sababu Uhindu ulikuwa njia ya kuonyesha maisha yenye maana tangu jadi, wakati ambapo hapakuwa na haja ya kutaja Uhindi kama dini tofauti, mafundisho ya Uhindu ni nyongeza na yanayowiana kiasili, kiujumla yasiyo ya kipekee, yenye kudokeza tu na yenye maudhui ya kuvumiliana.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvard reference | author= Simon Weightman | year=1998 | title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions |editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= [[Penguin books]] |chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-140-51480-5}}</ref> Wengi wanaamini kwamba ātman (roho, nafsi), nafsi ya kweli ya mtu, ni ya [[milele]].<ref name="monierwilliams">{{Harvard reference | author= [[Monier Monier-Williams]] | year=1974 | title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus | publisher= Adamant Media Corporation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311 |accessdate=2007-07-08 |series=Elibron Classics | isbn=1421265311}}</ref>. Kwa sehemu, hili linatokana na imani ya Kihindu kwamba maendeleo ya kiroho hufanyika katika maisha mengi, na malengo yanafaa kuwiana na hali ya maendeleo ya mtu binafsi. Kuna malengo manne ya maisha ya binadamu, yanayojulikana kama purusharthas (yamepangwa kuanzia lile dogo zaidi hadi lile kuu): Kama (kazi, upendo na radhi ya kingono), Artha (mali), Dharma (haki, maadili), na Moksha (ukombozi kutoka mzunguko wa kuzaliwa upya).<ref>For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref><ref>For the ''Dharma Śāstras'' as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, {{IAST|kāma}}, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.</ref><ref>For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ ({{IAST|puruṣa-artha}}) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. {{lang|sa|धर्म}}, {{lang|sa|अर्थ}}, {{lang|sa|काम}}, and {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}}" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.</ref> Katika shule zote za Uhindu, maana ya maisha imefungwa ndani ya dhana za karma (kitendo chenye matokeo), samsara (mzunguko wa kuzaliwa na kuzaliwa upya), na moksha (ukombozi). Kuwepo kunaaminika kuwa maendeleo ya atman kupitia vipindi vingi vya maisha, na maendeleo yake ya mwisho kuelekea ukombozi kutoka karma. Malengo hasa ya maisha kwa jumla husongeshwa chini ya (mazoea) pana ya yoga au dharma (kuishi kisahihi) ambayo yanakusudiwa kujenga kuzaliwa kupya kuzuri zaidi, ingawa hayo pia kwa ujumla ni matendo chanya katika maisha haya. Shule za jadi za Uhindu mara nyingi huabudu Madeva ambao ni dhihirisho ya Ishvara (Mungu wa kibinafsi au wa kuchaguliwa). =====Uhindu wa Advaita na Dvaita===== Shule za baadaye zilizitafsiri upya veda kuzingatia Brahman, "Yule Asiye na Wa Pili",<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvard reference | last=Bhaskarananda | first=Swami | year=1994 | title=The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion | place=Seattle, WA | publisher=Viveka Press | isbn=1-884852-02-5}}</ref> kama kielelezo muhimu kinachomfanana Mungu. Katika Advaita Vedanta ya kimoni, atman hatimaye haitofautishwi na brahman, na lengo la maisha ni kujua au kutambua kwamba (nafsi) ya mtu ya atman inafanana na Brahman.<ref>{{Harvard reference | last= Vivekananda | first=Swami | authorlink=Swami Vivekananda | year=1987 | title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | isbn=81-85301-75-1}}</ref> Kwa Maupanishadi, yeyote anayefahamu kikamilifu atman, kama msingi wa ubinafsi, anajitambua na Brahman, na hivyo, anapata Mokasha (ukombozi, uhuru).<ref name="monierwilliams"/><ref name="werner">{{Harvard reference | last= Werner | first=Karel | year=1994 | title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism | place=Richmond, Surrey | editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= Curzon Press | chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-7007-0279-2}}</ref><ref>See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is [[Brahman]])</ref> Dvaita Vedanta yenye pande mbili na shule zingine za bhakti zina tafsiri yenye pande mbili. Brahaman anaonekana kama kiumbe kikuu chenye tabia na sifa wazi. Atman inategemea Brahman kwa kuwepo kwake; maana ya maisha ni kupata Moksha kupitia upendo wa Mungu na neema yake.<ref name="werner" /> =====Uvaishnavi===== Tawi lingine la Uhindu ni Uvaishnavi, ambapo Vishnu ndiye Mungu mkuu. Si shule zote za Uvaishnavi hufunza maana ya maisha, lakini Gaudiya Vaishnavism, kwa mfano, hufunza Achintya Bheda Abheda inayomaanisha Kumuabudu Mungu tofauti na Mungu pekee wa kweli na wakati huo huo ikitambua umoja muhimu wa nafsi zote, huku viumbe vyote hai ni sehemu za milele za Mungu mkuu aitwaye Krsna. Mtazamo wa kikatiba wa kiumbe hai ni kumtumikia Mungu na upendo na kujali. Huduma bila malipo isiyositishwa na isiyosukumwa na chochote kwa Krsna na wafuasi wake ndiyo maana ya maisha katika hali uhuru. Sisi tupo katika Dunia ya kinafsi tukimtumikia Krsna kwa furaha huku tukifahamu vyema kuwa sisi ni roho za kinafsi na tunayo maisha ya milele. Kwa sababu ya kumchukia Krsna na kwa sababu ya mapenzi yetu ya kutaka kuwa na anasa m,bali na Krsnatupo katika Dunia hii ambapo tunapitia mzunguko unaojirudiarudia wa kuzaliwa, magonjwa, uzee na kifo katika miili tuliyopata ya spishi 8.4 za kimaisha, tukihama kutoka mwili mmoja hadi mwingine kulingana na karma yetu na mapenzi yetu. Lengo la maisha ya binadamu haswa ni kufikiria zaidi ya njia ya kinyama ya kula, kulala, kufanya mapenzi na kulinda na kufuata akili ya juu zaidi ili kuanzisha upya uhusiano na Krsna, Baba yetu wa milele, ambaye kutoka kwake vyote vilitoka, ambaye ndiye mwezeshaji na mwenye kuangamiza. Maandiko yaliyoonyehswa kwetu kama vile Bhagavad-Gita na Srimad Bhagavatam yanafunza kuwa Sambandha (Mimi ni nani? Mungu ni nani? Uhusiano kati ya Mungu na mimi ni upi?) na Abhideya (mchakato wa kuanzisha uhusiano ulipotea na Mungu kupitia michakato 9 ya Bhakti - Huduma ya Maombi) na Prayojana - matokeo - kupata upendo wa Mungu. Mchakato rahisi zaidi ni kuimba maha Bhakti "Hare Krsna Hare Krsna KRsna Krsna Hare Hare - Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare" pamoja na wafuasi wa Mungu. Huku maana ya maisha yakiwa kuanzisha upya uhusiano ulioisha na Mungu anayewapenda watu wote, lengo la uumbaji ni kutumia rasilimali kurudi nyumbani kwa Mungu, Dunia ya milele ya kinafsi inayoitwa Goloka Vrindavana - milki ya Mungu. ====Ujaini==== [[Ujaini]] ni dini iliyoanza katika Uhindi ya kale, mfumo wake wa kimaadili unakuza nidhamu ya kibinafsi kushinda yote mengine. Kupitia kuyafuata mafundisho ya kujiepusha na anasa zote, ya ujaini, binadamu anapata kutaalamika (maarifa kamili). Ujaini unaugawanya ulimwengu katika viumbe vilivyohai na visivyohai. Wakati tu visivyohai vinavyoshikilia vyenye uhai ndipo mateso hutokea. Kwa hivyo, furaha ni matokeo ya utekaji-kibinafsi na uhuru kutoka kwa vitu vya nje. Maana ya maisha basi huweza kusemwa kuwa kutumia mwili unaoonekana kupata utambuzi wa kibinafsi na neema..<ref>Shah, Natubhai. ''Jainism: The World of Conquerors.'' Sussex Academic Press, 1998.</ref> Wajaini huamini kwamba kila binadamu anawajibika kwa matendo yake na viumbe wote hai wana roho ya milele, jīva. Wajaini wanaamini nafsi zote ni sawa kwa sababu zote zinamiliki uwezekano wa kufanywa ziwe huru na kufikia Moksha. Mtazamo wa Kijanini wa karma ni kwamba kila hatua, kila neno, kila wazo linazalisha, mbali na yanayoonekana, matokeo yasiyoonekana, na yanayopita fikira kwa nafsi. Ujaini unajumuisha kushikilia vikali ahimsa (au ''ahinsā''), mbinu ya aina ya Kusitisha Vurugu ambayo huzidi kwa mbali ulaji mboga. Wajaini wanakikataa chakula kilichopatikana kwa ukatili usiohitajika. Wengi wana mazoezi ya maisha sawa na ulaji mboga pekee kutokana na vurugu ya mashamba ya maziwa ya kisasa, na wengine huepukana na mboga za mizizi katika maakuli yao ili kulinda maisha ya mimea ambayo wao hula.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |title=Viren, Jain |accessdate=2007-06-14 |publisher=[http://www.retoday.org.uk/ RE Today] |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110256/http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-14 }}</ref> ====Ubudha==== =====Ubudha wa Mapema===== Ubudha ni mafundisho yasiyo na pande mbili, ambapo kichwa, chombo, na hatua yote ni huonekana yakiwa si ya kweli. Wabudha wanaamini kwamba maisha kwa undani yamejaa mateso au kuchanganyikiwa. Hilo si kumaanisha kwamba hakuna raha maishani, lakini kwamba raha hii haisababishi furaha ya milele. Mateso yanasababishwa na kuvishikilia vitu vinavyonekana na kuguzika au visivyoonekana na visivyokuguzika ambavyo mwishowe husababisha mtu kuzaliwa tena na tena katika mzunguko wa kuwepo. Sutra na tantra za Kibudha haziongei kuhusu "maana ya maisha" au "madhumuni ya maisha", bali huzungumzia kuhusu uwezo wa maisha ya binadamu wa kukomesha mateso kupitia kujiepusha na tamaa na kushikilia dhana fulani. Mateso yanaweza kushindwa kupitia shughuli za binadamu, tu kwa kuondoa sababu ya mateso. Kufikia na kutimiza kutopenda raha ni mchakato wa ngazi nyingi ambazo hatimaye matokeo yake ni hali ya Nirvana. Nirvana inamaanisha uhuru kutoka mateso na kuzaliwa upya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html |title=The Four Noble Truths |publisher=Thebigview.com |date= |accessdate=2009-11-06}}</ref> [[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|120px|left|Gurudumu la dharmacakra lenye sehemu nane]] Ubudha wa Kitheravada kwa jumla unadhaniwa kuwa karibu na mazoezi ya mapema ya Wabudha. Unakuza dhana ya Vibhajjavada (Pali), maana ya moja kwa moja "Kufunzwa kwa Uchambuzi", ambao Unasema kwamba lazima ufahamu utokane na uzoefu wa anAyenuia kuupata, uchunguzi makini, na kufikiria badala ya kutumia imani ya kipofu. Hata hivyo, mapokeo ya Kitheravadin pia yanasisitiza kuutilia maanani ushauri wa wenye busara, hasa ikizingatiwa kuwa ushauri huo na tathmini ya uzoefu wa kibinafsi kuwa vipimo viwili ambavyo vinafaa kutumiwa kuyapima mazoea. Lengo la Kitheravadin ni ukombozi (au uhuru) kutoka mateso, kulingana na Kweli Nne Adimu. Hili linapatikana katika kuipata Nirvana,au kufunguliwa ambao pia husitisha 0}mzunguko unaorudiwa wa kuzaliwa, uzee, maradhi na kifo. =====Ubudha wa Kimahayana===== Shule za Ubudha wa Kimahayana zinasita kusisitiza mtazamo wa jadi (ambao bado unatekelezwa katika Kitheravada) wa kuachiliwa kutoka Mateso (Dukkha) ta kibinafsi na kufikia Mwamko (Nirvana). Katika Mahayana, Budha huonekana kama kiumbe wa milele, asiyebadilika, asiyeeleweka, na ambaye yupo kila mahali. Misingi mikuu ya mafundisho ya Kimahayana imejikita katika uwezekano wa ukombozi kutoka mateso wa viumbe vyote, na kuwepo kwa Budha-asili apitaye fikira , ambaye ni kiini cha Budha wa milele aliopo, lakini aliyejificha na asiyetambulika, katika viumbe wote. Shule za kifalsafa za Ubudha wa Kimahayana, kama vile Chan / Zen na shule za Utibeti wa vajrayana na Shingon, hufunza wazi kwamba boddhisattva lazima wajiepushe na ukombozi kamili, wajiruhusu wenyewe kuzaliwa tena ulimwenguni hadi viumbe wote wapate kutaalamika. Shule za kiibada kama vile Ubhuda wa Ardhi Takatifu hutafuta msaada wa mabudha wa mbinguni - watu binafsi ambao wametumia maisha yao wakikusanya karma chanya, na kuutumia mkusanyiko huo kuwasaidia wote. ====Kalasinga==== [[File:Khanda.svg|thumb|110px|left|Ishara ya kidini ya Khanda, ambayo ni ishara muhimu ya dini ya Kalasinga.]] Dini yenye Mungu mmoja ya [[Kalasinga]] ilianzishwa na [[Guru]] [[Nanak Dev]]. Neno "Kalasinga" linamaanisha mwanafunzi, kuashiria kwamba wafuasi wataishi maisha yao milele wakijifunza. Mfumo huu wa falsafa ya dini na kueleza imejulikana tangu jadi kama Gurmat (maana yake shauri la maguru) au Sikh Dharma. Wafuasi wa Kalasinga wametakaswa kuyafuata mafundisho ya maguru wa Sikh kumi, au viongozi wa kutaalamika, na pia maandiko matakatifu yaitwayo Gurū Granth Sāhib yanayojumuisha maandiko mbalimbali yaliyochaguliwa na wanafalsafa wengi kutoka mazingira mbalimbali ya kijamii, kiuchumi na kidini. Maguru wa Kikalasinga hutuambia kwamba wokovu unaweza kupatikana kwa kuzifuata njia mbalimbali za kiroho, kwa hivyo si Wakalasinga pekee wanaopata wokovu: "Bwana anakaa ndani ya kila moyo, na kila moyo una njia yake yenyewe ya kumfikia."<ref name="Singh">{{cite book |author=Daljeet Singh |title=Guru Tegh Bahadur |publisher=Language Dept., Punjab |year=1971}}</ref> Wakalasinga huamini kwamba watu wote ni muhimu mbele ya Mungu.<ref name="Mayled">{{cite book |author=Jon Mayled |title=Modern World Religions: Sikhism |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=2002 |isbn=0435336266}}</ref> Wakalasinga hupima maadili yao ya kitabia na ya kiroho na kuyatafuta maarifa, na lengo la kukuza maisha ya amani na usawa, na pia yenye hatua chanya.<ref>[http://www.sikhcoalition.org The Sikh Coalition]</ref> Sifa muhimu na tofauti ya Kalasinga ni dhana ya Mungu isiyo ya kumtazama Mungu akiwa na umbo fulani, kiasi kwamba mtu anaweza kumtafsiri Mungu kama Ulimwengu wenyewe (upanthei). Kalasinga kwa hivyo inayaona maisha kama fursa ya kumuelewa huyu Mungu na pia kuugundua uungu ambao upo katika kila mmoja. Ingawa ufahamu kamili wa Mungu unazidi ubinadamu,<ref name="p252">{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | year=1971 | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | location=United States | isbn = 0-87196-129-6}}</ref> Guru Nanak alielezea Mungu kama asiye eleweka kikamilifu, na kusisitiza kwamba Mungu lazima aonekana kutoka kwa "jicho la ndani", au "moyo", wa binadamu: wanaoamini lazima watafakari ili kuelekea kutaalamika. Nanak alihimiza ufunuo kupitia kutafakari, kwani kutumika kwake kila wakati kunaruhusu kuwepo kwa mawasiliano kati ya Mungu na binadamu.<ref name="p252"/> ===Dini za Mashariki ya mbali=== ====Ushinto==== [[File:Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg|thumb|right|100px|Shinto torii, mlango wa kitamaduni wa Kijapani]] [[Ushinto]] ni dini iliyoanzia [[Ujapani]]. Neno Shinto linamaananisha "njia ya kami", lakini kwa ufasaha zaidi, linaweza kumaanisha "sehemu yenye njia nyingi ambapo kami anachagua njia yake". Njia yenye sehemu nyingi ya 'kimungu' inaashiria kwamba ulimwengu wote ni roho ya kimungu. Msingi wa nia huru kuichagua njia ya mmoja, inamaanisha kwamba maisha ni mchakato wa ubunifu. Ushinto Unayataka maisha ya kuishi, siyo ya kufa. [[Ushinto]] unakitazama kifo kama uchafuzi na inatazama maisha kama eneo ambapo roho ya kimungu inanuia kujitakasa yenyewe kwa kujiendeleza inavyostahili. Ushinto unayataka maisha ya kibinafsi ya kibinadamu kuendelezwa milele duniani kama ushindi wa roho ya kimungu katika kuhifadhi tabia yake ya usawa kwa hali ya juu kabisa. Kuwepo kwa uovu duniani, kama inavyodokezwa na Ushinto, hakupingi hali ya kimungu kwa kuweka juu ya uungu jukumu la kuweza kuyapunguza mateso ya binadamu huku ikikataa kufanya hivyo. Mateso ya maisha ni mateso ya roho ya kimungu katika kuyatafuta mafanikio katika ulimwengu unaolenga usawa.<ref name="Mason">{{cite book |author=J. W. T. Mason |title=The Meaning of Shinto |publisher= Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1412245516}}</ref> ====Utao==== [[File:Yin yang.svg|right|thumb|100px|''Taijitu'' ni ishara ya umoja wa vinyume vya yin na yang.]] Kosmojenia ya Watao inasisitiza haja ya viumbe wote wenye fahamu na watu wote kurudi kwa mwanzo au kuungana na Umoja wa Ulimwengu kupitia njia ya kujikuza na kujitambua. Wahumini wote wanapaswa kuelewa na kuwiana na mwisho wa kikweli. Wanaamini yote awali yalikuwa kutoka Taiji na Tao, na maana maishani kwa wahumini ni wao kugundua hali ya muda mfupi ya kuwepo. "Kujiangalia tu kindani ndio kunaoweza basi kutusaidia kupata sababu zetu za undani kabisa za kuishi...jibu rahisi limo humu ndani yetu."<ref name="Ming-Dao">{{cite book |author=Ming-Dao Deng |title=Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life |url=https://archive.org/details/scholarwarriorin0000deng |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1990}}</ref> ====Ukonfusio==== [[Ukonfusio]] unatambua hali ya binadamu kulingana na mahitaji ya nidhamu na [[elimu]]. Kwa sababu binadamu anaendeshewa na ushawishi mzuri na mbaya, Wakonfiuso huona lengo katika kupata tabia nzuri kupitia uhusiano wa nguvu na kufikiria na pia kukanusha nishati hasi. Msisitizo huu wa maisha ya kawaida unaonekana katika msemo wa mwanachuoni wa Kikonfiuso Tu Wei-Ming, "tunaweza kutambua maana kuu ya maisha katika kuwepo kwa kawaida kwa binadamu."<ref>Tu, Wei-Ming. ''Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.'' Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.</ref> ====Dini mpya==== Kuna harakati nyingi mpya za kidini katika Asia ya Mashariki, baadhi yao zikiwa na mamilioni ya wafuasi: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, na Seicho-No-ie. Dini mpya kawaida zina maelezo ya kipekee kuhusu maana ya maisha. Kwa mfano, katika Tenrikyo, mtu anatarajiwa kuishi Maisha ya Furaha kwa kushiriki katika mazoea yanayokuza furaha yake binafsi na pia ya watu wengine. ===Dini za Magharibi na Mashariki ya Kati=== ====Uzoroastro==== [[Uzoroastro]] ni dini na falsafa inayopata jina lake kutoka kwa [[nabii]] wake [[Zoroaster]], ambayo labda iliathiri imani za [[Uyahudi]] na dini zilitokana na Uyahudi. Wazoroastro wanaamini ulimwengu na Mungu apitaye fikra, [[Ahura Mazda]], ambaye [[ibada]] yote inaelekezwa kwake. Kiumbe cha Azhura Mazda ni asha, ukweli na mpango ambao unazozana na kinyume chake, druj, uwongo na machafuko. Kwa sababu binadamu wana hiari, ni lazima wawe na uwajibikaji kwa maadili wanayoyachagua. Kwa kutumia hiari, watu lazima wawe na jukumu tendaji katika mgogoro wa dunia nzima, wawe na mawazo mema, maneno mema na matendo mema ili kuhakikisha furaha na kuepuka machafuko. ====Uyahudi==== Kipengele muhimu zaidi cha Uyahudi ni ibada ya [[Mungu]] mmoja anayejua yote, mwenye nguvu kuliko wote, ambaye ni [[mkarimu]] kila wakati, anayepita fikra zote, na ambaye [[uumbaji|aliumba]] ulimwengu na anautawala. Kulingana na Uyahudi wa awali, Mungu alifanya [[agano]] na [[Waisraeli]] katika [[mlima Sinai]], alipowapa sheria na amri zake zinazopatikana katika [[Torati]]. Katika Uyahudi wa Kirabi, Torati inajumuisha maandishi ya [[Torati]] na sheria ya [[mapokeo ya mdomo]] (iliyoandikwa baadaye kama maandiko matakatifu). Katika mtazamo wa ulimwengu wa Kiyahudi, maana ya maisha ni kumtumikia Mungu pekee wa kweli na kujiandaa kwa [[ulimwengu ujao]].<ref name="Cohn-Sherbok">{{cite book |author=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |title=Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/judaismhistorybe0000cohn |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0415236614}}</ref><ref name="Heschel">{{cite book |author=Abraham Joshua Heschel |title=Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations |url=https://archive.org/details/heavenlytorahasr0000hesc |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2005 |isbn=0826408028}}</ref> Fikira za "Olam Haba"<ref name="Shuchat">{{cite book |author=Wilfred Shuchat |title=The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah |publisher=Devora Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1932687319}}</ref> Inahusu kujiinua kiroho, ni mtu kutumia "Olam Hazeh" (dunia hii) kwa kuunganika na Mungu na kujiandaa kwa "Olam Haba" (ulimwengu ujao). <ref name="Braham">{{cite book |author=Randolph L. Braham |title=Contemporary Views on the Holocaust |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryview0000unse_n9q0 |publisher=Springer |year=1983 |isbn=089838141X}}</ref> ====Ukristo==== [[File:Das Jüngste Gericht (Memling).jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Picha]] ya [[Hans Memling]] inayoitwa ''[[Hukumu ya Mwisho]]'', inaonyesha [[Malaika mkuu]] [[Mikaeli]] akipima nafsi na kuwafukuza waliohukumiwa kuelekea [[jehanamu]].]] Ingawa [[Ukristo]] una mizizi yake katika Uyahudi, na unafanana sana na [[ontolojia]] ya Uyahudi, imani kuu ya Ukristo inatokana na mafundisho ya [[Yesu Kristo]] yaliyotolewa katika [[Agano Jipya]]. Kusudi la maisha kwa Mkristo ni kutafuta [[wokovu]] wa Kimungu kupitia [[neema]] ya Mungu iliyoletwa na [[Yesu]] ([[Yoh]] 11:26). Agano Jipya linaongea kuhusu Mungu kutaka uhusiano na binadamu wote katika maisha haya na yale yajao, jambo ambalo linaweza kufanyika tu kama [[dhambi]] za mtu zimesamehewa ([[Yoh]] 3:16-21), ([[2 Pet]] 3:9). Katika mtazamo wa Kikristo, watu waliumbwa katika hali njema kwa mfano wa Mungu, lakini kuanguka kwao ([[dhambi ya asili]]) kulisababisha wanaozaliwa kuirithi dhambi hiyo. [[Sadaka]] ya [[Yesu Kristo]] ya upendo, kifo na ufufuko hutoa njia ya kuishinda hali hiyo chafu ([[Rum]] 6:23). Njia ya kufanya hivyo inatofautiana kati ya [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali ya Wakristo, lakini yote yanategemea imani kwa Yesu, kazi yake [[msalaba]]ni na [[ufufuko wa Yesu|kufufuka kwake]] kama msingi wa uhusiano mpya na Mungu. Chini ya mtazamo wa Ukristo, watu wanafanywa waadilifu kupitia imani katika [[kafara]] ya Yesu kufa msalabani. [[Injili]] inafundisha kwamba, kupitia imani hiyo, kizuizi ambacho dhambi imeunda kati ya mtu na Mungu kinaondolewa, ili kumruhusu Mungu kuwageuza watu na kuweka ndani yao [[moyo mpya]] unaotii mapenzi yake, na uwezo wa kutii hivyo. Hii ndiyo maana inayoashiriwa na maneno 'kuzaliwa upya' au 'kuokolewa'. Jambo hili linatofautisha sana Ukristo na dini nyingine ambazo zinadai kwamba waumini ni waadilifu kwake Mungu kwa kushikamana na mwongozo au sheria waliyopewa na Mungu. Katika "[[Katekisimu]] Fupi ya [[Westminster]]", swali la kwanza ni: "Ni nini lengo kuu la binadamu?". Jibu ni: "Lengo kuu la binadamu ni kumtukuza Mungu na kufurahi naye milele. Mungu anataka mtu atii sheria ya maadili aliyomwonyesha akisema tumpende Bwana Mungu wetu kwa moyo wetu wote, kwa roho yetu yote, kwa nguvu zetu zote, na kwa akili zetu zote; na majirani wetu kama sisi wenyewe".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Westminster Shorter Catechism |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html |accessdate=2008-03-21 |archivedate=2008-03-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311000717/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html }}</ref> Katekisimu ya [[Baltimore]] inajibu swali, "Kwa nini Mungu amekuumba?" ikisema "Mungu ameniumba ili nimjue, nimpende na kumtumikia katika dunia hii, na kuwa na heri pamoja naye milele mbinguni."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Baltimore Catechism |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Mtume Paulo]] alijibu swali hilo katika hotuba yake kwenye [[Areopago]] mjini [[Athene]]: "Kutokana na mtu mmoja (Mungu) alifanya kila taifa la wanadamu, ili waishi duniani kote; akapima nyakati hasa zilizowekwa kwao na mahali ambapo wanapaswa kuishi. Mungu alifanya hivyo ili binadamu amtafute kama kwa kupapasa ili kumpata, ingawa hayupo mbali na kila mmojawetu. ([[Mdo]] 17:26-27)<ref>[[Bible]], [[Acts]] 17:26-27, [[NKJV]]</ref> ====Uislamu==== Katika [[Uislamu]], lengo kuu la maisha ya binadamu ni kumtumikia [[Allah]] (kwa Kiarabu sawa na "Mungu") na kukaa na miongozo ya Kimungu iliyofafanuliwa katika [[Qur'an]] na [[Mapokeo ya Mtume]]. Maisha ya duniani ni [[mtihani]] tu ambao huamua maisha ya mtu baada ya kifo, katika Jannat (Mbinguni) au katika Jahannum (Kuzimu). Kwa ajili ya radhi ya Mwenyezi Mungu, kupitia Qur'ani, lazima Waislamu wote waamini katika Mungu, ufunuo wake, malaika wake, wajumbe wake, na katika "Siku ya Kiyama".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Qur'an inaelezea madhumuni ya uumbaji kama ifuatavyo: "Heri yeye ambaye mkononi mwake ana ufalme, yeye ana nguvu juu ya kila kitu, ambaye aliumba mauti na uhai ili apate kuchunguza nani kati yenu ndiye bora katika matendo, na yeye ni mwenyezi, Mwenye kusamehe "(Qur'an67 :1-2) na" 'Mimi tu niliumba malaika na binadamu kuniabudu Mimi "(Qur'an 51:56). Ibada inashuhudia kuwepo kwa umoja wa Mungu katika uongozi wake, majina yake, na sifa yake. maisha ya Duniani ni mtihani; jinsi mtu anavyotenda huamua kama nafsi ya mtu inakwenda Jannat (Mbinguni) au Jahannam (Motoni). [[Nguzo Tano za Kiislamu]] ni [[wajibu]] wa kila Muislamu; yaani: [[Shahadah]] ([[ungamo la imani]]); [[Salah]] (Maombi); [[Zakah]] (ukarimu); [[Sawm]] (kufunga wakati wa Ramadhan) na [[Hajj]] ([[Hija]] kwenda [[Makka]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Zinatokana na maandiko ya [[Hadith]], hasa ya [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]] na [[Sahih Muslim]]. Imani ni tofauti kati ya Kalam. Dhana ya Kisunni ya mwisho wa safari iliyoamuliwa awali ni amri ya Kimungu;<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> aidha, dhana ya Kishi'a ya nafsi kuwa na mahali pa kwenda kabla ya kifo ni haki ya Kimungu; katika mtazamo wa Kisufi unaoeleweka na wachache Ulimwengu upo tu kwa radhi ya Mungu; Uumbaji ni mchezo mkubwa, ambapo Mwenyezi Mungu ndiye tuzo kuu.<ref name="Yusuf Ali">{{cite book |author=[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] |title=[[Qur'an|The Holy Qur'an]] |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |year=2000 |isbn=1853267821}}</ref><ref name="Yusuf Ali" /> ====Imani ya Bahá'í==== [[Imani ya Bahai]] inasisitiza umoja wa ubinadamu.<ref>{{Citation | year = 2007 | title = "Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | volume = Fourth Edition | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism}}</ref> Kwa Wabahá'í, madhumuni ya maisha ni kukua kiroho na kutoa huduma kwa ubinadamu. Binadamu wanatazamwa kama viumbe wa kiroho kwa undani. Maisha ya watu katika dunia hii tunayoishi hutoa fursa zilizopanuliwa za kukua, kukuza sifa na fadhila za Kimungu, na manabii walitumwa na Mungu kuwezesha hili.<ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = P. |year = 1999 |title = A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher = Oneworld Publications |location = Oxford, UK |pages = 325–328|isbn = 1851681841 }}</ref><ref>For a more detailed Bahá'í perspective, see {{Citation | title = "The Purpose of Life" Bahá'í Topics An Information Resource of the Bahá'í International Community| url = http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html}}</ref> ==Katika sanaa== Siri ya maisha na maana yake ni jambo linalorudiwa mara nyingi katika utamaduni maarufu, unaoonyeshwa katika [[burudani]] ya [[vyombo vya habari]] na aina mbalimbali za [[sanaa]]. [[File:Charles Allan Gilbert - All is Vanity.jpg|thumb|120px|''Yote ni bure'', picha ya [[Charles Allan Gilbert]], ni mfano wa ''vanitas''. Inaonyesha mwanamke akitazama uso wake katika kioo, lakini vyote vimepangwa ili kuifanya picha ya kifuvu kuonekana.]] Katika mfululizo maarufu wa vitabu vya kuchekesha vya [[Douglas Adams]] kwa jina "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", Jibu la Swali Kuu la Maisha, Ulimwengu, na Yote lina ufumbuzi wa kinambari wa 42, ambayo ilipatikana baada ya muda wa zaidi ya miaka milioni saba na nusu kupitia tarakilishi yenye nguvu kubwa kwa jina "Deep Thought". Baada ya kunganyika kwingi kutoka wazao wa waumbaji wake, "Deep Thought" anaelezea kuwa tatizo ni kuwa hawajui Swali Kuu, na ingewabidi kujenga [[kompyuta]] yenye nguvu zaidi ili kulibainisha. Kompyuta inaonyeshwa kuwa [[Dunia]], ambayo, baada ya kuhesabu kwa miaka milioni, inaharibiwa ili kuunda Barabara ya Kiulimwengu dakika tano kabla ya kukamilisha kufanya hesabu.<ref name="Yeffeth"/><ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Badke"/><ref name="Adams H2G2 book1">{{cite book|title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1979|isbn=0-330-25864-8|year=1979|publisher=Pan Books|location=London}}</ref> Katika Maisha, Ulimwengu na Kila kitu, inathibitishwa kwa kweli kuwa 42 ndilo Jibu Kuu, na kwamba haiwezekani kwa Jibu Kuu na Swali Kuu kujulikana katika ulimwengu mmoja, kwani zitafutana na kuuchukua ulimwengu, na kubadilishwa na kitu cha maajabu zaidi,(mhusika mmoja, Prak, anapendekeza kwamba hili huenda likawa limetokea tayari).<ref name="Adams H2G2 book3">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-26738-8|title=[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1982|year=1982|publisher=Pan|location=London}}</ref> Hatimaye, katika matumaini kwamba fahamu yake ina swali, Arthur Dent anajaribu kuliwaza swali, na anapata "unapata nini ukizidisha sita mara tisa?", Pengine ni dhana isiyosahihi, kwani kuwasili kwa "Golgafrinchans" katika Dunia ya kabla ya historia ingeharibu mchakato wa kuhesabu.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book2">{{cite book|title=[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|date=1 Januari 1980|isbn=0-345-39181-0|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Dent, Fenchurch, na Marvin anayekaribia kufa waliona ujumbe wa mwisho wa Mungu kwa uumbaji wake: "Sisi tunaomba msamaha kwa shida tuliyowaletea".<ref name="Adams H2G2 book4">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-28700-1|title=[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1984|year=1985|publisher=Pan|location=London}}</ref> [[File:HamletSkullHCSealous.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Hamlet na fuvu la kichwa la Yorick]] Katika maana ya maisha ya Monty Python,kuna kugusia kwingi kwa maana ya maisha. Katika "Sehemu ya VI B: Maana ya Maisha" mwanamke anayefanya kazi ya kusafisha anaelezea "Maisha ni mchezo, wakati mwingine unashinda au kushindwa" na baadaye mtu wa kupelekea watu vyakula hotelini anaelezea falsafa yake ya kibinafsi "Dunia ni pahali pazuri. Lazima uende ndani yake, na upende kila mtu, usiwachukie watu. Lazima hujaribu na kumfanya kila mtu awe na furaha, na upeleke amani na ridhaa kokote uendapo.<ref name="useless website">[http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script]</ref> Katika mwisho wa filamu, tunaweza kumuona Michael Palin akipewa bahasha, anaifungua, na kupea watazamaji 'maana ya maisha': "Basi, si kitu maalumu sana. Uh, jaribu kuwa mzuri kwa watu, epuka kula mafuta, soma kitabu kizuri kila wakati, pata kutembea, na jaribu kuishi pamoja kwa amani na utulivu na watu wa Imani zote na mataifa yote.<ref name="useless website" /><ref name="Burnham">{{cite book |author=Terry Burnham |title=Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality |url=https://archive.org/details/meanmarketslizar0000burn |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0471716952}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">{{cite book |author=Yolanda Fernandez |title=In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders |url=https://archive.org/details/intheirshoes0000unse |publisher=Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1885473486}}</ref> Katika kipindi kimoja cha "The Simpsons" kilichoitwa "Homer the Heretic", mfano wa Mungu unakubali kumwambia Homer maana ya maisha, lakini majina ya wahusika wa kipindi yanaanza kuonekana anapoanza kusema ni nini. Mapema katika kipindi hicho, Homer anaanzisha dini yake mwenyewe, ambapo anajaribu kumwabudu Mungu kwa njia yake mwenyewe, baadaye akimwwambia Moe kwamba dini hiyo haina kuzimu na haina kupiga magoti. Hata hivyo, Homer anaiacha kwa haraka dini yake ya anasa na ubinafsi baada baada ya nyumba yake kunusurika kuchomeka, akitafsiri moto kama ishara ya kulipiza kisasi kwa kimungu, na kuita "O Mwenye Nguvu za Kuumiza, nionyeshe nani wa kuumiza, naye ataumizwa." Ned anamfariji Homer kuwa moto haukuwa kisasi cha Mungu na Lovejoy anaelezea kwamba Mungu alikuwa "akifanya kazi katika mioyo ya marafiki na majirani wako walipokuja kukusaidia."<ref name="Pinsky">{{cite book|author=Mark I. Pinsky|title=The Gospel According To The Simpsons: The Spiritual Life Of The World's Most Animated Family|url=https://archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt00mark|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2001|isbn=0664224199}}</ref> Mwishoni mwa "The Matrix Revolutions", Smith anahitimsha kwamba "madhumuni ya maisha ni kuisha" na anakusudia kuharakisha lengo hilo.<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book|author=Matt Lawrence|title=Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy|url=https://archive.org/details/likesplinterinyo0000lawr|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1405125241}}</ref> [[The Matrix (series)|''The Matrix'' series]]. Mfululizo wa filamu wa "The Matrix" pia unatoa wazo la "wanaoishi katika ukweli uliobuniwa" na swali linalohusika na wazo hilo ikiwa kuwepo huko kunafaa kutazamwa kama kusiokuwa na maana, katika njia inayoweza kulinganishwa na Hadithi fupi yenye mafunzo ya pango ya Plato na jinsi baadhi ya mifumo ya imani hutazama ukweli, kama Ubuddha au Uaginostiki.<ref>Christopher Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press.</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Maadili]] * [[Maisha]] * [[Ubora wa maisha]] * [[Uhai]] * [[Ulimwengu]] * [[Teleolojia]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|2}} ==Viungo vya nje== ===Jumla=== * [http://meaningoflife.tv/ Meaningsoflife.tv] &ndash; Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders. *[http://www.erinstoddard.com/meaningoflife.html Meaning of life”] {{Wayback|url=http://www.erinstoddard.com/meaningoflife.html |date=20100104110401 }} * [http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life] {{Wayback|url=http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html |date=20070927211431 }} * [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/whylife.html Why Life Extension &mdash; or Why Live at All?] ===Kisayansi=== * [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] &ndash; Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of [[Positive psychology]]. ===Kifalsafa=== * [http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html Einstein's credo] {{Wayback|url=http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html |date=20220311035821 }} * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/ "The Meaning of Life" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] * [http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist?] {{Wayback|url=http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ |date=20080514151238 }} &ndash; by Martin G. Walker. *[http://eneida.over-blog.net/ Hedonism & Meaning of life] {{Wayback|url=http://eneida.over-blog.net/ |date=20080626035211 }} *[http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 The Logic of Existential Meaning] {{Wayback|url=http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 |date=20070709004210 }} * [http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning] {{Wayback|url=http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless |date=20110706174824 }} * [http://www.originofhumannature.ca The Origin of Human Nature, A Zen Buddhist Looks a Evolution] {{Wayback|url=http://www.originofhumannature.ca/ |date=20090113141910 }} by [[Albert Low]] ===Kiroho=== * [http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx |date=20071210070232 }} &ndash; by [[E. F. Schumacher]] * [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/MeaningofLife.htm The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective)] &ndash; by Rabbi [[Noah Weinberg]] * [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books2/Dhammananda_Human_Life.htm Human Life] {{Wayback|url=http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books2/Dhammananda_Human_Life.htm |date=20091205205727 }} &ndash; by [[K. Sri Dhammananda]] * [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Handbook_for_Mankind.pdf Handbook for Mankind] {{Wayback|url=http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Handbook_for_Mankind.pdf |date=20081216225943 }} &ndash; by [[Buddhadasa Bhikkhu]] * [http://www.mormon.org Answers to Life's questions] &ndash; by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] * [http://www.humanmindmap.net Human life on earth - A Spiritual Perspective] {{Wayback|url=http://www.humanmindmap.net/ |date=20170913154041 }} &ndash; by [[New age]] [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] k7j87qpgiekrpiu32osceey8phf8a1w 0 35613 1564479 1092285 2026-06-02T16:46:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Mto | jina = Arno | picha= LocationArno.PNG | caption = Mto Arno | chanzo = [[Mlima Falterona]] |mdomo = [[Bahari ya Liguria]] | Eneo la beseni = [[Italia]] | urefu = km 241 | elevation = m 1,385 | discharge = m³/s 110 (mdomoni) | watershed = km² 8,228 }} '''Arno''' ni [[mto]] katika [[mkoa]] wa [[Toscana]] nchini [[Italia]]. Ni mto muhimu wa [[Italia ya kati]] baada ya [[Tiber]]. == Chanzo na njia == [[Picha:Ponte Vecchio.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Arno katikati ya Florence]] Mto huu huanzia katika [[Mlima Falterona]], katika eneo la [[Casentino]] la [[milima]] ya [[Apenini]], kuelekea [[kusini]]. Mto huu hugeukia [[magharibi]] karibu na [[Arezzo]] kupitia [[Florence]], [[Empoli]] na [[Pisa]], unaingia katika [[bahari ya Liguria]] huko [[Marina di Pisa]]. Ukiwa na [[urefu]] wa [[kilomita]] 241, ndio mto mkubwa zaidi katika kanda hilo. [[Tawimto|Matawimto]] yake makuu ni: [[Sieve]] (kilomita 60), [[Bisenzio]] (kilomita 49), [[Ombrone]], [[Era]], [[Elsa]], [[Pesa (mto)|Pesa]] na [[Pescia]]. Eneo la kumwagia [[maji]] yake ni [[km²]] 8,200 na humwaga maji yake katika mabeseni yafuatayo madogo: * [[Casentino]] katika [[wilaya ya Arezzo]], lililoundwa na mkondo wa juu wa mto huu hadi kwenye maktano yake na mtaro wa Maestro della Chiana. * [[Val di Chiana]], eneo lililokauka katika [[karne ya 18]], ambayo, hadi karne ya 18, lilikuwa tawimto wa Tiber. * [[Valdarno]] ya juu, bonde refu lililopakana mashariki na [[Pratomagno]] na magharibi na milima karibu na [[Siena]]. * Beseni la Sieve, ambalo huingia katika Arno kabla ya Florence. * Valdarno ya kati, na [[tambarare]] pamoja na Florence, [[Sesto Fiorentino]], [[Prato]] na [[Pistoia]]. * Valdarno ya chini, pamoja na bonde la matawimto muhimu kama vile Pesa, Elsa na Era na ambayo, baada ya [[Pontedera]], Arno huingia katika [[Bahari ya Liguria]]. Mto huu huwa na kiwango cha maji kinachobadilika kuanzia chini ya 6 m³/s hadi zaidi ya 2,000. [[Mdomo]] wa mto uliwahi kuwa karibu na [[Pisa]], lakini sasa uko kilomita kadhaa magharibi. Huvuka [[Florence]], ambapo hupitia chini ya [[Ponte Vecchio]] na [[daraja la Santa Trinità]] (lililojengwa na [[Bartolomeo Ammanati]], lakini kuhimizwa na [[Michelangelo]]). Kiwango cha mtiririko cha Arno si sawa. Husemekana wakati mwingine kuwa na tabia ya [[kijito]], kwa sababu inaweza kwa urahisi kutoka kwenye karibu kavu hadi karibu-mafuriko katika siku chache. Katika hatua ambapo Arno hutengana na Apenini, vipimo vya mtiririko vinaweza kutofautiana kati ya 0.56 m³/s na 3540 m³/s. [[Mafuriko]] ya mto huu yalijaza mji maji mara kwa mara katika nyakati za kihistoria; tukio la mwisho ni mafuriko maarufu ya tarehe [[4 Novemba]] [[1966]], yakiwa na 4500 m³/s baada ya [[mvua]] ya mm 437.2 katika Badia Agnano na milimita 190 mjini Florence, katika masaa 24 tu. Mafuriko hayo yaliangusha kuta mjini Florence, na kuua watu angalau 40 na kuharibu au kuangamiza mamilioni ya kazi za [[sanaa]] na [[vitabu]] vya nadra. Mbinu mpya za kuhifadhi zilizinduliwa baada ya maafa hayo, lakini hata miaka 40 baadaye mamia ya matendo bado yanategea kurekebishwa. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Alison McLean | year = 2006 | month = Novemba | title = This Month in History | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_smithsonian_2006-11_37_8/page/n37 | journal = Smithsonian | volume = 37 | issue = 8 | pages = 34 }}</ref> [[Bwawa]] mpya zilizojengwa juu ya Florence zimeweza kutatua shida hii katika miaka ya hivi karibuni. == Picha == <gallery> File:Arno_river.jpg|Mto Arno katika Florence File:Arno River in Pisa.honeydew.jpg|Mto Arno katika Pisa, karibu Ponte della Fortezza (Daraja la Ngome ) File:Firenze.Arno.jpg|Fuko za Arno, kuonekana kutoka Ponte Vecchio (Daraja la zamani), Florence File:Arno_Mouth_Italy_aerial_view.jpg|Kinywa cha Arno karibu Pisa File:Ponte amerigo vespucci.JPG|Ponte Amerigo Vespucci (Daraja la Amerigo Vespucci ) File:View From the Ponte Vecchio of the River Arno.jpg|Mtazamo wa Arno kutoka Ponte Vecchio. </gallery> == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons|Lung'Arno (Firenze)}} * [http://www.adbarno.it/cont/testo.php?id=1 Mamlaka ya beseni ya Arno] {{it icon}} {{coord|43|41|N|10|17|E|display=title|region:IT_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}} [[Jamii:Mito ya Italia|Arno]] [[Jamii:Toscana]] [[Jamii:Firenze]] [[Jamii:Pisa]] 7lpgpemhh7vdbc72lyvguh0ubqqc6jx 0 36299 1564482 1510009 2026-06-02T16:53:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Kaswende - Syphilis | Image = Treponema pallidum.jpg | Caption = Electron micrograph of ''Treponema pallidum'' | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|50||a|50}}-{{ICD10|A|53||a|50}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|090}}-{{ICD9|097}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | DiseasesDB = 29054 | MedlinePlus = 000861 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2224 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|563}} {{eMedicine2|derm|413}} | MeshID = D013587 | }} [[Image:Chancres on the penile shaft due to a primary syphilitic infection caused by Treponema pallidum 6803 lores.jpg|thumb|200px|Vipele vya awali vya kaswende katika [[uume]].]] [[Image:Secondary Syphilis on palms CDC 6809 lores.rsh.jpg|right| thumb|200px|Hatua ya pili ya kaswende inavyojitokeza mikononi.]] [[Image:Tertiary syphilis head.JPG|image|thumb|200px|Mfano wa kichwa cha mtu mwenye kaswende katika hatua ya tatu.]] '''Kaswende''' ([[ing.]] ''syphilis'') ni mojawapo kati ya [[maradhi ya zinaa]] ambayo inasababishwa na [[bakteria]] inayofahamika kama ''Treponema pallidum''. Katika hatua za mwanzo, vipele katika sehemu za uzazi huanza kujitokeza muda mfupi baada ya maambukizi ambavyo baadaye hupotea vyenyewe. Kama [[ugonjwa]] hautatibiwa, maambukizi huendelea kwa miaka, yakishambulia [[mifupa]], [[ubongo]] na [[moyo]] na kusababisha madhara mengine yanayotokana na matatizo katika [[mfumo wa fahamu]] kama vile [[homa ya uti wa mgongo]] na magonjwa ya [[moyo]] na [[kiharusi]]. Kaswende wakati wa ujauzito unaweza kuwa hatari kubwa kwa kiumbe tumboni, kama vile kusababisha kutoumbika vizuri (''deformity'') na [[kifo]]. Wanawake wengi wajawazito katika [[nchi zilizoendelea]] huchunguzwa kwa uwepo wa ugonjwa huu katika majuma ya kwanza ya [[mimba]] ili kutibu ugonjwa kabla kitoto hakijaathirika. Siku hizi kaswende inaweza kutibika kwa urahisi fulani kwa [[penicillin]]. ==Maelezo zaidi ya msingi== Kaswende inasababishwa na [[bakteria ya]] spirochete ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'' baadhi ya spishi ''pallidum''. Njia ya kawaida zaidi ya kuambukizwa ni kupitia [[ngono]]; hata hivyo, kaswende pia inaweza kuambukizwa kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa [[mimba]] wakati wa ujauzito au wakati wa kuzaliwa kwa mtoto, na kusababisha [[kuzaliwa na kaswende]]. Magonjwa mengine ya binadamu yanayohusiana ni''[[Treponema pallidum]]''bakteria inajumusiha [[buba]] (baadhi ya spishi ''pertenue''), [[Pinta (ugonjwa)|pinta]] (baadhi ya spishi ''carateum'') na [[bejel]] (baadhi ya spishi ''endemicum''). Dalili na ishara za kaswende hutofautiana kulingana na hatua iliyoko kati ya hatua nne. Hatua ni ya kwanza, ya pili, fiche, na ya mwisho. Hatua ya kwanza kawaida inajitokeza kimoja na [[shanka]] utokeaji wa kidonda kwa ngozi isiyowasha, ngumu, isiyokuwa na uchungu). Hatua ya pili ya kaswende hujitokeza na upele ambayo mara kwa mara inahusisha viganja vya mikono na nyayo za miguu. Hatua fiche ya kaswende hujitokeza na dalili kiasi au hata bila. Hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende hujitokeza na [[Guma (patholojia)|guma]], dalili zinazohusiana na mfumo wa neva, au zinazohusiana na moyo. Hata hivyo, kaswende imeitwa "mwiigaji mkuu" sababu mara nyingi hujitokeza kwa njia isiyo ya kawaida. Kwa kawaida kaswende hutambulika kwa [[kuchunguzwa na serolojia|uchunguzi wa damu]];hata hivyo, bakteria inaweza kuonekana kwa kutumia hadubini. Kaswende inaweza kutibiwa kwa njia inayofaa kwa kutumia [[antibiotiki]], haswa ndani ya misuli [[penisilini G]]. Hii inapendekezwa kwa watu walio na aleji ya penisilini, [[seftriaksoni]]. Inaaminika kwamba kufikia mwaka wa 1999 watu milioni 12 walikuwa wameambukizwa kaswende ulimwenguni na zaidi ya asilimia 90 ya hali hizi kutoka kwa [[nchi zinazoendelea]]. Hali za kaswende zilipungua kwa kasi baada ya penisilini kupatikana kwa urahisi katika miaka ya 1940, lakini viwango vya maambukizi vimeongezeka tangu mwaka 2000 katika nchi nyingi. Mara nyingi kaswende hupatikana pamoja na [[virusi vinavyosababisha UKIMWI]] (VVU). Hii imehusishwa na sehemu ya matendo ya ngono yasiyokuwa salama kati ya [[wanaume wanaofanya ngono na wanaume wengine]];Ongezeka la uasherati; ukahaba; na kupungua kwa matumizi ya kondomu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coffin|first=LS|coauthors=Newberry, A, Hagan, H, Cleland, CM, Des Jarlais, DC, Perlman, DC|title=Syphilis in Drug Users in Low and Middle Income Countries|journal=The International journal on drug policy|date=2010 Jan|volume=21|issue=1|pages=20–7|pmid=19361976|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.02.008|pmc=2790553}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gao|first=L|coauthors=Zhang, L, Jin, Q|title=Meta-analysis: prevalence of HIV infection and syphilis among MSM in China|journal=Sexually transmitted infections|date=2009 Sep|volume=85|issue=5|pages=354–8|pmid=19351623|doi=10.1136/sti.2008.034702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Karp|first=G|coauthors=Schlaeffer, F, Jotkowitz, A, Riesenberg, K|title=Syphilis and HIV co-infection|journal=European journal of internal medicine|date=2009 Jan|volume=20|issue=1|pages=9–13|pmid=19237085|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2008.04.002}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Dalili na ishara== Kaswende inaweza kuwa katika hatua moja kati ya hatua nne tofauti: ya kwanza, ya pili, fiche, na ya mwisho,<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |author=Kent ME, Romanelli F |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Ann Pharmacother |volume=42|issue=2 |pages=226–36 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2008-02_42_2/page/226}}</ref> na pia inaweza kujitokeza [[wakati wa kuzaliwa]].<ref name=ST10/> ilirejelewa kama "mwiigaji mkuu" na [[Sir William Osler]] kutokana na njia mbalimbali inavyojitokeza<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=TUS00/> ===Hatua ya kwanza=== [[Image:Extragenital syphilitic chancre of the left index finger PHIL 4147 lores.jpg|thumb|200px|Vipele vya awali vya kaswende katika mkono.]] Hatua ya kwanza ya kaswende kawaida hupatikana kwa kuwasiliana kwa njia ya moja kwa moja kwa ngono na vidonda vilivyoambukizwa vya mtu mwingine.<ref name=RedBookSyphilis>{{cite book|author=Committee on Infectious Diseases |editor = Larry K. Pickering |title=Red book 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases|url=https://archive.org/details/redbook0000larr |year=2006| pages=[https://archive.org/details/redbook0000larr/page/631 631]–44|publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics|location=Elk Grove Village, IL|isbn=9781581102079|edition=27th}}</ref>Takriban siku 3 hadi 90 baada ya kuathiriwa hapo awali ( wastani ya siku 21&nbsp;) kidonda kwa ngozi, iitwayo [[shanka]], hutokea mahali palipogusana.<ref name=Kent08/> Huu ni mfano hasa&nbsp;(Asilimia 40 ya wakati) kidonda kimoja, kigumu, kisichokuwa na uchungu, kisichowasha na sehemu yake ya chini iliyokuwa safi na mipaka mikali kati ya sentimita 0.3 na 3.0 kwa ukubwa .<ref name=Kent08/> Hata hivyo, kidonda, kinaweza kuonekana kuwa tofauti sana. <ref name=Pri2008>{{cite journal|last=Eccleston|first=K|coauthors=Collins, L, Higgins, SP|title=Primary syphilis|journal=International journal of STD & AIDS|date=2008 Mar|volume=19|issue=3|pages=145–51|pmid=18397550|doi=10.1258/ijsa.2007.007258}}</ref> Katika viwango, hugeuka kutoka[[macule]] hadi [[kipele]]na kisha kwa [[uyeyukaji (ugonjwa wa ngozi)#Hatua ya kwanza ya vidonda|uyeyukaji]] au [[Donda (ngozi)|donda]].<ref name=Pri2008/> Mara chache, kutakuwa na vidonda kadhaa. (~40%),<ref name=Kent08/> Hii pia ni ya kawaida mtu anapoambukizwa Virusi Vya Ukimwi<!-- Pri2008 --> Shanka yanaweza kuwa na uchungu au nyororo (30%),<!-- Pri2008 --> na zinaweza kutokea nje viungo vya uzazi (2–7%).<!-- Pri2008 --> Mahali pa kawaida zaidi pa chanikeri kwa wanawake ni [[kwa seviksi]](44%). Mahali pa kawaida zaidi kwa wanaume wanaovutiwa na jinsia tofauti ni [[Kwa uume]] (99%). Wakati mwingine shanka hutokea kwa tupu ya nyama au rektamu kwa[[wanaume wanaojishirikisha ngono na wanaume wengine]] (34%).<ref name=Pri2008/> [[Tenzi]] kuvimba mara kwa mara&nbsp;(80%)hutokea pahali palipo ambukizwa,<ref name=Kent08/> hutokea siku 7 hadi 10&nbsp;baada ya kutokea kwa shanka<ref name=Pri2008/> [[kidonda]] kinaweza kuendelea kutokea wiki watatu hadi sita bila matibabu<ref name=Kent08/> ===Hatua ya pili=== [[image:Syphilis second state 2.jpg|thumb|Nyekundu [[vipele]] na [[Uvimbe (daktari wa ngozi)#Hatua ya kwanza ya vidonda|vipele]] kuzidi mwilini kutokana na hatua ya pili ya kaswende]] Hatua ya pili ya kaswende hutokea takriban wiki nne hadi kumi baada ya hatua ya kwanza ya maambukizi.<ref name=Kent08/> hatua ya pili ya ugonjwa unaweza kujitokeza kwa njia nyingi tofauti, lakini kwa kawaida dalili sana sana huhusisha ngozi, [[membreni ute]], na [[tezi ya limfu]].<ref name=Sec2010/> kunaweza kuwa na upele mwekundu-waridi-isiyokuwa na mwasho kwa kiwiliwili pamoja na limbu (miguu na mikono), ikiwa ni pamoja na viganja na nyayo.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=2darySyphilis>{{cite journal | author=Dylewski J, Duong M | title=The rash of secondary syphilis | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-medical-association-journal_2007-01-02_176_1/page/33 | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | date= 2 January 2007 |volume=176 | issue=1 | pages=33–5 | doi= 10.1503/cmaj.060665 | pmid=17200385 | pmc=1764588}}</ref> Vipele vinaweza kuwa [[makulopapula]] au [[usaha|yenye pustuli]].<!-- Kent08 --> inaweza kutengeneza chunjua kama vidonda iliyopana, nyeupe na sawa sawa inayojulikana kama [[kondiloma latum]] kwa [[membreni yenye ute]]s.<!-- Kent08 --> Vidonda hivi vyote vinamaambukizi na yanahifadhi bakteria.<!-- Kent08 --> Dalili zingine inaweza ni pamoja na [[homa]], [[uchungu wa koo]], [[hitilafu ya mwili]],[[kupunguza uzito]], [[kutokwa na nywele]], na [[maumivu ya kichwa]].<ref name=Kent08/> matokeo yasiyo kuwa ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[hepatitisi]], [[figo]] ugonjwa, [[athritisi]],[[periostitisi]], [[neuritsi ya kuona]], [[uveitisi]], na [[keratitisi ya interstitial]].<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=Eye07/> Kwa kawaida dalili kali uyeyuka baadaye kati ya wiki tatu hadi sita;<ref name=Eye07/> hata hivyo, katika hali iliyokaribia 25%, dalili ya hatua ya pili yanaweza kurudi. <!-- Sec2010 --> Watu wengi walio katika hatua ya pili ya kaswende (40–85% ya wanawake, 20–65% ya wanaume) hawatoi ripoti kuwa na shanka ya kiwango kilicho juu cha hatua ya kwanza ya kaswende.<ref name=Sec2010>{{cite journal|last=Mullooly|first=C|coauthors=Higgins, SP|title=Secondary syphilis: the classical triad of skin rash, mucosal ulceration and lymphadenopathy|journal=International journal of STD & AIDS|date=2010 Aug|volume=21|issue=8|pages=537–45|pmid=20975084|doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010243}}</ref> ===Hatua fiche=== Hatua fiche ya kaswende imefafanuliwa kama kuwa na [[serolojia|serologic]] utambuzi wa maambukizi bila dalili ya magonjwa.<ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> Imeelezwa zaidi kama ya hapo awali (chini ya mwaka wa 1&nbsp;mwaka mmoja baada ya hatua ya pili ya kaswende) katika Marekani<ref name=Eye07/> Uingerezani, masaa hizi huitwa miaka miwili ya hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema na iliyochelewa.<ref name=Pri2008/> Dalili ya hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema huweza kurudi tena.<!-- Eye07 --> Hatua fiche ya kaswende iliyochelewa huwa [[haina dalili za magonjwa]] (hayana dalili), na hatua fiche ya kaswende iliyochelewa haiambukizwi kwa urahisi kama hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema.<ref name=Eye07/> ===Hatua ya mwisho=== Hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende inaweza kutokea takriban miaka mitatu hadi 15 baada ya maambukizi ya kwanza, na inaweza kugawanywa kwa aina tatu tofauti: kaswende iliyosababishwa na guma (15%), iliyochelewa [[kaswende katika mfumo wa neva]] (6.5%), na kaswende inayoathiri moyo na mishipa ya damu (10%).<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=Eye07/> Bila matibabu, theluthi moja ya watu ambao wameambukizwa kaswende hupata hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende.<ref name=Eye07/> Watu walio na awamu ya mwisho ya kaswende hawawezi kuambukiza wengine.<ref name=Kent08/> Kaswende inayosababishwa na gum, pia inayoitwa [[mwanzo|hafifu]] kaswende, kwa kawaida hutokea moja kwa miaka&nbsp;46 baada ya maambukizi ya awali, kwa wastani wa miaka.15&nbsp; <!-- Kent08 --> Hatua hii ni sifa ya muundo sugu wa [[guma(patholojia)|guma]], ambayo ni uvimbe nyororo zinazofanana na vidonge vya inflamesheni vinavyoweza kuwa zinabadilika kulingana na ukubwa.<!-- Kent08 --> Kawaida huathiri ngozi, mifupa, na ini, lakini inaweza kutokea mahali popote.<ref name=Kent08/> [[Kaswende katika mfumo wa neva]] inamaanisha maambukizi inayohusisha [[mfumo mkuu wa neva]]. Unaweza kutokea mapema, ikiwa aidha isiyo kuwa na dalili ya ugonjwa au ya kusababisha kaswende [[meninjitisi]]; au inaweza kuchelewa, kama kaswende ya veni za tando za ubongo, [[paresi ya jumla]], au [[tabesi dorsalisi]], ambayo inahusu usawa wa mwili na uchungu mkali kwa limbu za chini.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende ya neva iliyochelewa huja kabisa baada ya miaka minne hadi 25 baada ya maambukizi ya hapo awali.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende ya veni za utando za ubongo hufanana hasa ikiwa haiwezi kuzuiliwa [[kifafa]], na paresi ya jumla hufanana hasa na [[dimenshia]] na [[tabtesi dorsalisi]].<ref name=Kent08/> Pia, kunaweza kuwa na [[Mboni za Agryll Robertson]] ambazo ni mboni ndogo kwa macho zinazofinyika mtu anapotazama vitu vilivyokaribu, lakini hayafinyiki zikiwa wazi kwa mwanga mkali. Kaswende ya moyo na mishipa kwa kawaida hutokea miaka 10 hadi30&nbsp;baada ya maambukizi ya awali.<!-- Kent08 --> Tatizo la kawaida kabisa ni ule wa [[kaswende ya kuvimba kwa aota]], ambayo inaweza kusababisha [[aneurisimi wa aota|aneurisimi]] kuundwa.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Ya kuzaliwa nayo=== [[Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo]] inaweza kutokea wakati wa mimba au wa kuzaa.<!-- Wood09 --> Theluthi-mbili ya watoto wazawa wanazaliwa bila dalili.<!-- Wood09 --> Dalili ambazo huendelea zaidi ya miaka michache ya kwanza ya maisha ni pamoja na: [[kunenepa nenepa kwa ini au wengu]] (70%), upele (70%), joto jingi mwilini (40%), kaswende ya neva (20%), na [[ugonjwa wa mapafu kuvimba]] (20%).<!-- Wood09 --> Ikiwa haita tibiwa, [[kaswende ya kuzaliwa ya baadae]] inaweza kutokea kwa 40 %, ikiwa ni pamoja na: [[pua lenye umbo la tandiko]]ulemavu, [[Higoumenakis sign]], [[saber shin]], au [[Clutton's joints]], miongoni mwa zingine.<ref name=Wood09/> ==Chanzo== ===Bakteriolojia=== [[Picha:Treponema pallidum 01.png|thumb|Histopatholojia ya ''Treponema pallidum'' spirosheti zinazotumia kifaa chembamba cha kutia waa cha kisasa]] ''Treponema pallidum'', kundi la spishi ''pallidum'' ni wa umbo la mzunguko, [[gramu-hasi]], bakteria inayosambaa kwa kasi.<ref name=Pri2008/><ref name=Music08/>Magonjwa mengine matatu ya binadamu husababishwa na zinazohusiana na ''Treponema pallidum'', ikiwa ni pamoja na [[buba]] (kundi la spishi ''pertenue''), [[Pinta (maradhi)|pinta]](kundi la spishi ''carateum''), na [[bejel]] (kundi la spishi ''endemicum'').<ref name=Kent08/> Tofauti na aina ya ''pallidum'' haya hayasababishi ugonjwa wa neva.<ref name=Wood09>{{cite journal |author=Woods CR|title=Congenital syphilis-persisting pestilence|journal=Pediatr. Ambukiza. Dis. J. |volume=28|issue=6 |pages=536–7 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19483520|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3181ac8a69 |url=}}</ref> Wanadamu tu ndio wanaojulikana kuwa na [[hifadhi asili]] kwa kundi la spishi ''pallidum''.<ref name=ST10/> Bakteria hii haiwezi kuishi bila kimelea.<!-- Pri2008 --> Hii ni kwa sababu ya jenomu yake ndogo (1.14&nbsp;[[Yuniti ya masi atomu|MDa]])na hivyo basi haitaweza kutengeneza virutubishi vikuu.<!-- Pri2008 --> Ina wakati mfupi wa kujiongeza zaidi ya saa&nbsp;30.<ref name=Pri2008/> ===Maambukizi=== Kaswende huambukizwa kimsingi kwa kupitia ngono [[ujauzito]] kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa [[fetasi]]; spirosheti huweza kupitia ukiwa mzima kwa membreni ya utetelezi au ngozi yenye haina kinga.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10>{{cite journal |author=Stamm LV |title=Global Challenge of Antibiotic-Resistant Treponema pallidum |journal=Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=583–9 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=19805553 |pmc=2812177 |doi=10.1128/AAC.01095-09 |url=http://aac.asm.org/content/54/2/583.full.pdf |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2014-04-25 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6P5jOzkSb?url=http://aac.asm.org/content/54/2/583.full.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> na hivyo husambazwa kwa[[kubusu]], pia mdomo kwa, uke, na tupu ya nyuma wakati wa ngono.<ref name=Kent08/> Takriban 30% hadi 60% kwa wale wako wazi kwa hatua ya kwanza au ya pili ya kaswende watapata ugonjwa huo.<ref name=Eye07>{{cite journal |author=Bhatti MT |title=Optic neuropathy from viruses and spirochetes |journal=Int Ophthalmol Clin |volume=47|issue=4 |pages=37–66, ix |year=2007 |pmid=18049280 |doi=10.1097/IIO.0b013e318157202d |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-ophthalmology-clinics_fall-2007_47_4/page/37}}</ref> Maambukizi ya kaswende imefananishwa na ukweli kwamba mtu ambaye amechanjwa na mshushio 57 pekee ana nafasi 50% ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Pri2008/> Nyingi ya (60%) hali mpya Marekani hutokea kwa wanaume ambao hufanya ngono na wanaume wengine.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende inaweza kusambazwa kupitia [[vifaa vya damu]]. Hata hivyo, bidhaa za damu hupimwa kama kuna kaswende katika nchi nyingi, na hivyo hatari hupunguka.<!-- Kent08 --> Hatari ya maambukizi kutoka kwa [[kugawana sindano]] imeonekana kuwa ni chache.<ref name=Kent08/> Kaswende haiwezi kusambazwa kwa kupitia makalio ya choo, shughuli za kila siku, beseni ya maji moto, au kugawana vyombo vya kukulia au mavazi.<ref name="CDC Fact Sheet">{{cite web | title = Syphilis - CDC Fact Sheet | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) | date = 16 September 2010 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/STDFact-Syphilis.htm | accessdate = 2007-05-30 }}</ref> ==Utambuzi== [[Picha:Syphilis false shame and fear may destroy your future.png|thumb|Bango ya kupima kaswende, inaonyesha mwanamke na mwanaume wakiinamisha vichwa vyao kwa aibu (1936 hivi)]] Ni vigumu kutambua kaswende kwa kliniki mapema katika uwasilishaji wake.<ref name=Pri2008/> Uthibitisho wake hufanywa aidha kupitia [[kupima damu]] au moja kwa moja kukagua kwa kupitia [[uchunguzi kwa kutumia hadubini]].<!-- Kent08 --> Kwa kawaida vipimo vya damu hutumika, kwa sababu hutambulika kwa urahisi zaidi.<ref name=Kent08/> Vipimo vya kutambua ugonjwa haziwezi, hata hivyo, hutofautisha kati ya hatua ya ugonjwa.<ref name= Orgin10/> ===Kupima damu=== Kupimwa kwa damu hugawanywa katika [[Uchunguzi wa kaswende usiokuwa na treponemal |nontreponemal]] na vipimo vya treponemal .<ref name=Pri2008/> Vipimo vya Nontreponemal hutumika hapo awali, na ni pamoja na [[utafiti wa ugonjwa wa zinaa maabarani]] na [[vipimo vya]] Kuongeza ghafla tena kwa plasma. Hata hivyo, kwa vile vipimo hivi ni vya mara kwa mara[[Matokeo chanya#Kosa la kuandika I |matukio chanya]],uthibitisho inahitajika kwa kupima treponemal, kama vile [[treponemal pallidum particle agglutination]] au [[Uchunguzi wa ufonyzaji wa antibodi ya treponemal iliyo na mwangaza]] (FTA-Abs).<ref name=Kent08/> matukio chanya usiokuwa ya ukweli katika uchuguzi wa usio kuwa wa treponemal inaweza kutokea na maambukizi fulani ya virusi kama vile [[tetekuwanga]] na [[ukambi]], pia inaweza kutokea na [[limfoma]], [[kifua kikuu]], [[malaria]],[[uvimbemoyo]], [[ugonjwa wa kuungana kwa tishu]], na [[mimba]].<ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> Vipimo vya antibodi vya treponemal kawaida huwa chanya baada ya wiki mbili hadi tano ya maambukizi ya hapo awali.<ref name=Pri2008/> Kaswende ya neva hutambulika kwa kupata idadi ya juu ya [[lukosaiti]] (kuzidi[[limfositi]]) na kiwango cha juu cha protini [[viowevu vya ubongo na uti wa mgongo]] katika mazingira ya kaswende inayojulikana.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> ===Uchunguzi wa moja kwa moja=== [[Eneo la giza linalochunguzwa kwa kutumia hadubini|Eneo la giza linalochunguzwa kwa kutumia hadubini]] ya [[viowevu vya seramu]] kutoka shanka inaweza kutumika kwa kufanya utambuzi wa haraka.<!-- Pri2008 -->Hata hivyo, sio kawaida kupata vifaa au wakazi wenye ujuzi hospitalini, na vipimo hivi lazima vifanywe kati ya dakika &nbsp;10 ya kupata sampuli.<!-- Pri2008 --> [[kiwango cha hisi na udhihirishaji|Kiwango cha hisi]] kimeripotiwa kuwa takriban 80%, hivyo vipimo hivi vinaweza kutumika tu kuthibitisha utambuzi, lakini si kwa kuchuja moja nje.<!-- Pri2008 --> Vipimo vingine viwili vina weza kufanywa kwa sampuli iliyo toka kwa shanka ni [[antibodi ya mwangaza ya moja kwa moja]] na [[msururu wa athari za polima na vipimo vya|asidi ya kiini]] .<!-- Pri2008 --> antibodi ya floresini ya njia ya moja kwa moja [[antibodi]]zilizobandikwa na[[floresini]], ambayo inajishikilia kwa protini maalum za kaswende. Asidi ya kiini hutumia ufundisanifu, kama vile [[msururu wa athari za polima]], kutambua uwepo wa jeni maalum ya kaswende.<!-- Pri2008 --> Uchunguzi hizi sio shida kwa wakati kama makroskopu inayotumia giza, kwa sababu bakteria hahitajiki ili kufanya utambuzi.<ref name=Pri2008/> ==Udhibiti== Hakuna chanjo inayofaa kudhibiti. <ref name=ST10/> Kujiepusha na uhusiano kimwili na mtu aliyeambukizwa ni shahihi kwa kupunguza maambukizi ya kaswende, kama ilivyo kiasi kwa matumizi sahihi ya [[kondomu]], ambayo, hata hivyo, hayaondoi kabisa hatari.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Koss CA, Dunne EF, Warner L |title=A systematic review of epidemiologic studies assessing condom use and risk of syphilis |journal=Sex Transm Dis |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=401–5 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19455075 |doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181a396eb|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sexually-transmitted-diseases_2009-07_36_7/page/401}}</ref><ref name="CDC Fact Sheet" /> Hivyo, [[Vituo vya kudhibiti na kuzuia magonjwa]]vinapendekeza uhusiano wa muda-mrefu, kwa kushirikiana na mtu mmoja hajaambukizwa na kujiepusha na vitu kama [[vinywaji vinavyolewesha|pombe]] na dawa zingine ambazo huongeza hatari za kufanya ngono kiholela.<ref name="CDC Fact Sheet" /> Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo inaweza kuzuiwa kwa kuchunguzi mama mapema wakati wa ujauzito na kutibu wale ambao wameambukizwa.<ref name=Screening04>{{cite journal|last=Schmid|first=G|title=Economic and programmatic aspects of congenital syphilis prevention|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2004 Jun|volume=82|issue=6|pages=402–9|pmid=15356931|pmc=2622861}}</ref> [[Muungano wa Wahudumu wa kutoa udhibiti Merikani]] inapendekeza sana uchunguzi kwa wanawake wote wajawazito,<ref>{{cite journal|last=U.S. Preventive Services Task|first=Force|title=Screening for syphilis infection in pregnancy: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2009-05-19_150_10/page/n69|journal=Annals of internal medicine|date=2009 May 19|volume=150|issue=10|pages=705–9|pmid=19451577}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] inapendekeza wanawake wote kupimwa mara ya kwanza wakitembelea kliniki(kabla ya kujifungua)na tena katika[[kipindi cha tatu cha ujauzito]].<ref name=Lancet11/> Iwapo vipimo vinaonyesha uwepo wa ungojwa,inapendekezwa washirika wa akina mama hawa pia watibiwe.<ref name=Lancet11>{{cite journal|last=Hawkes|first=S|coauthors=Matin, N, Broutet, N, Low, N|title=Effectiveness of interventions to improve screening for syphilis in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet infectious diseases|date=2011 Jun 15|pmid=21683653|volume=11|issue=9|pages=684–91|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70104-9}}</ref>. Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo, hata hivyo, bado iko kawaida katika inch zinazoendelea, kwa kuwa wanawake wengi hawapati [[huduma ya kliniki ya wajauzito]] > kabisa, na wengine huduma ya kliniki ya wajawazito wanayopata haijumulishi uchunguzi wa kaswende.<ref name=Screening04/> Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo huaipatikani mara kwa mara katika nchi zilizoendelea, kwa sababu wale wanaoweza kupata kaswende (kupitia matumizi ya dawa, n.k) pia wako uwezo mdogo zaidi wa kupata huduma wakati wa ujauzito.<ref name=Screening04/> Hatua zingine za kuongezea upatikanaji wa kupimwa huonekana kuwa na ufanisi katika kupunguza viwango vya kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo katika chini zilizo na mapato ya chini na ya kati.<ref name=Lancet11/> Kaswende ni [[ugonjwa inayohitaji kutolewa taarifa]] katika nchi nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na Canada,<ref>{{cite web|title=National Notifiable Diseases|url=http://dsol-smed.phac-aspc.gc.ca/dsol-smed/ndis/list-eng.php|publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada|date=2005-04-05|accessdate=2 August 2011|archivedate=2011-08-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809162040/http://dsol-smed.phac-aspc.gc.ca/dsol-smed/ndis/list-eng.php}}</ref> Umoja wa Ulaya,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Viñals-Iglesias|first=H|coauthors=Chimenos-Küstner, E|title=The reappearance of a forgotten disease in the oral cavity: syphilis|journal=Medicina oral, patologia oral y cirugia bucal|date=2009 Sep 1|volume=14|issue=9|pages=e416–20|pmid=19415060}}</ref> na Marikani.<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 6.5. Infectious Diseases Designated as Notifiable at the National Level-United States, 2009 [a]|url=http://www.unboundmedicine.com/redbook/ub/view/RedBook/187389/all/Table_6_5__Infectious_Diseases_Designated_as_Notifiable_at_the_National_Level_United_States__2009_%5Ba%5D|work=Red Book|accessdate=2 August 2011}}</ref> Hii inamaanisha kuwa wahuduma wa Afya wanatakiwa kutoa taarifa kwa[[wizara ya Afya]] ambayo itatoa [[taarifa kwa washirika]] hadi kwa washirika wa watu. <ref>{{cite book|title=Brunner & Suddarth's textbook of medical-surgical nursing.|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781785891|pages=2144|edition=12th|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SmtjSD1x688C&pg=PA2144}}</ref> Madaktari pia wanaweza kuhimiza wagonjwa kutumia washirika wao kupata huduma.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hogben|first=M|title=Partner notification for sexually transmitted diseases|journal=Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2007 Apr 1|volume=44 Suppl 3|pages=S160–74|pmid=17342669|doi=10.1086/511429}}</ref> Kituo cha kudhibiti na kuzuia magonjwa kinapendekeza kwamba wanaume wanaoshiriki ngono na wanaume wengine lazima wapimwe angalau kila mwaka.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trends in Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the United States: 2009 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia and Syphilis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats09/tables/trends-table.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|date=22 November 2010|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> ==Matibabu== ===Maambukizi ya mapema=== Chaguo la kwanza kwa matibabu ya kaswende isiyo na tatizo bado tu ni dosi kimoja ya shindano kwa misuli[[Benzlipenisillini|penisilini G]] au dosi moja ya dawa ya kumeza[[azithromycin]].<ref>{{cite book|author = David N. Gilbert, Robert C. Moellering, George M. Eliopoulos, ''et al.''|title=The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2011|publisher=Antimicrobial Therapy |location=Sperryville, VA|isbn=9781930808652|pages=22| edition = 41st }}</ref><!-- ST10 -->[[Doksiklini]] na [[tetrasaiklini]] ni chaguo mbadala; hata hivyo, hazitumiki kwa akina mama wajawazito.<!-- ST10 --> [[Pingamizi kwa antibiotiki]]imetokezea kwa baadhi ya maajenti, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[makrolidi]], [[klindamisini]], na [[rifampini]].<ref name=ST10/> [[seftriaksoni]], sephalosporini-za tokeo la tatu [[antibiotiki]], zinaweza kufanya kazi kama penisilini kulingana na matibabu.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Maambukizi ya baadaye=== Kwa kaswende kwa sababu ya uingiaji duni wa penisilini G kwenye [[mfumo mkuu wa neva]], watu walioathiriwa wanashauriwa kupewa dosi kubwa za penisilini kwa mshipa kwa muda usiopungua siku 10 .<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10/> Iwapo mtu ana aleji ya penisilini, seftriaksoni inaweza kutumiwa, au utoaji wa aleji ya penisilini unaweza kujaribiwa.<!-- Kent08 --> Zinaotokea baadaye zinaweza kutibiwa na shidano ya penisilini G kwa misuli mara moja-kwa wiki kwa muda wa wiki tatu.<!-- Kent08 --> Ikiwa mgonjwa ana aleji, doksikilini au tetrasaikilini zinaweza kutumiwa, lakini kwa muda mrefu.<!-- Kent08 -->Matibabu kwa wakati huu huzuia uendeleaji wa ugonjwa, lakini ina mabaadiliko madogo tu kwa madhara yenye tayari yametokea.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Athari ya Jarisch-Herxheimer=== Moja wapo ya athari inayoweza kutokana na matibabu ni [[athari aina ya Jarisch-Herxheimer]].<!-- Kent08 --> Mara nyingi inaanza ndani ya saa moja baada ya matibabu na hudumu kwa masaa 24, kukiwa na dalili za joto nyingi mwilini, maumivu kwa misuli, maumivu ya kichwa, na [[takikadia]].<ref name="Kent08"/> Inasababishwa na [[saitokini]] zinazotolewa na mfumo wa kinga kutokana na lipoprotini zinazotolewa wakati bakteria za kaswende zinazopasuka.<ref name=Radolf2006>{{cite book |author= Radolf, JD; Lukehart SA (editors)| year=2006 |title=Pathogenic ''Treponema'': Molekiuli na bayolojia ya chembechembe |url= https://archive.org/details/pathogenictrepon0000unse| publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 1-904455-10-7}}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[Image:Syphilis world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] death from syphilis per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=Disease and injury country estimates |year=2004 |publisher = [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |accessdate=11 November 2009}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<35}} {{legend|#fff200|35-70}} {{legend|#ffdc00|70-105}} {{legend|#ffc600|105-140}} {{legend|#ffb000|140-175}} {{legend|#ff9a00|175-210}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|210-245}} {{legend|#ff6e00|245-280}} {{legend|#ff5800|280-315}} {{legend|#ff4200|315-350}} {{legend|#ff2c00|350-500}} {{legend|#cb0000|>500}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Inaaminiwa kuwa kaswende iliathiri watu milioni 12 mwaka wa 1999, 90% ya maambukizi yakiwa kwa [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref name=ST10/> Huathiri kati ya mimba 700,000 na milioni 1.6&nbsp; kwa mwaka, na kusababisha [[kuharibika kwa mimba bila hiari]]s, [[kuzaa mtoto aliyekufa]] na kuzaliwa na kaswende.<!-- Wood09 --> Katika[[sub-Saharan Africa]], kaswende huchangia takriban 20% ya [[vifo vya watoto wakati wa kuzaliwa]].<ref name=Wood09/> Viwango viko juu zaidi vikilinganishwa na [[wanaotumia dawa ya kulevya|wanaojidunga dawa kwa mshipa]], walio na maambukizi ya VVU, na wanaume wanaofanya ngono na wanaume wengine.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coffin|first=LS|coauthors=Newberry, A, Hagan, H, Cleland, CM, Des Jarlais, DC, Perlman, DC|title=Syphilis in Drug Users in Low and Middle Income Countries|journal=The International journal on drug policy|date=2010 Jan|volume=21|issue=1|pages=20–7|pmid=19361976|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.02.008|pmc=2790553}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gao|first=L|coauthors=Zhang, L, Jin, Q|title=Meta-analysis: prevalence of HIV infection and syphilis among MSM in China|journal=Sexually transmitted infections|date=2009 Sep|volume=85|issue=5|pages=354–8|pmid=19351623|doi=10.1136/sti.2008.034702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Karp|first=G|coauthors=Schlaeffer, F, Jotkowitz, A, Riesenberg, K|title=Syphilis and HIV co-infection|journal=European journal of internal medicine|date=2009 Jan|volume=20|issue=1|pages=9–13|pmid=19237085|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2008.04.002}}</ref> Nchini Marekani viwango vya kaswende mno mwaka wa 2007 vilikuwa mara sita zaidi kwa wanaume kuliko ya Wanawake, hata ingawa viwango hivi vilikuwa karibu sawa mwaka wa 1997.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trends in Reportable Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the United States, 2007|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats07/trends.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]](CDC)|date=13 January 2009|accessdate=2 August 2011}}</ref> [[Wafrika Wamarika]] walichangia kwa takriban nusu ya walioambukizwa mwaka wa 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=STD Trends in the United States: 2010 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Syphilis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats10/tables/trends-table.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|date=22 November 2010|accessdate=20 November 2011}}</ref> Kaswende ilikuwa ni kawaida nchini Ulaya wakati wa karne ya 18 na 19.<!-- Music08 --> -!>. Katika nchi zilizoendelea mwanzo wa karne ya 20, maambukizi yalipungua kwa haraka kwa sababu ya ongezeko la matumizi ya [[antibiotiki]], hadi miaka ya 1980 na 1990.<ref name=Music08/> Tangu mwaka wa 2000, viwango vya kaswende vimeongezeka nchini Marekani, Uingereza, Australia na Ulaya, hasa kati ya wanaume wanaofanya mapenzi na wanaume wengine.<ref name=ST10/> viwango vya kaswende miongoni mwa wanawake wa Marekani, hata hivyo,imebakia sawa wakati huu, na viwango kati ya wanawake Uingereza vimeongezeka, lakini katika kiwango cha chini kuliko kile cha wanaume.<ref name=AOP08>{{cite journal|last=Kent|first=ME|coauthors=Romanelli, F|title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2008-02_42_2/page/226|journal=The Annals of pharmacotherapy|date=2008 Feb|volume=42|issue=2|pages=226–36|pmid=18212261|doi=10.1345/aph.1K086}}</ref> Ongezeko kwa viwango miongoni mwa wapenzi wa jinsia tofauti ilitokea China na Urusi tangu miaka ya 1990.<ref name=ST10/> Hii imehusishwa na mazoea ya kufanya mapenzi bila kinga, kuwa na wapenzi wengi, ukahaba, na upunguvu wa matumizi ya kinga kama vile kondomu.<ref name=ST10/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ficarra|first=G|coauthors=Carlos, R|title=Syphilis: The Renaissance of an Old Disease with Oral Implications|journal=Head and neck pathology|date=2009 Sep|volume=3|issue=3|pages=195–206|pmid=20596972|doi=10.1007/s12105-009-0127-0|pmc=2811633}}</ref><ref name=AOP08/> Bila kutibiwa, kaswende inasababisha vifo kwa 8% hadi 58%,kiwango kikubwa ikiwa kwa wanaume.<ref name=Kent08/> Dalili za kaswende zimepunguka kwa ukali katika karne ya 19 na 20&nbsp;,kwa sababu ya ueneaji na upatikanaji wa matibabu yanayofaa, na pia kupungua kwa[[ukali]] wa spirochaete.<ref name=Sec2010/> Ikitibiwa mapema, matatizo chache hutokea.<ref name=Pri2008/> Kaswende huongeza hatari ya maambukizi ya VVU kwa mara 2-5, na yale yanayoambatana ni ya kawaida (30-60% kwa baadhi ya vituo vya mijini).<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10/> == Historia== [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 095.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Gerard de Lairesse]] na [[Rembrandt van Rijn]], ca. 1665–67, oil on canvas. De Lairesse,mwenyewe ni mchoraji na mwanasanaa, aliathiriwa na kaswende kutoka kuzaliwa iliyomwaribu uso wake na hatimaye ikasababisha upofu kwake<ref>''[[Metropolitan Museum of Art|The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin]]'', Summer 2007, pp. 55–56.</ref>]] Mwanzo halisi wa kaswende haujulikani <ref name=Kent08/> Kuna nadharia tete mbili za kimsingi:. Moja inapendekeza kuwa kaswende ililetwa Ulaya na wafanyikazi wa meli kutoka [[Christopher Columbus]] safari kuelekea [[Marikani]], na nyingine inapendekeza kwamba kaswende ilikuwepo Ulaya hapo awali, lakini haikuwa imetambuliwa. <!-- Orgin10 --> nadharia hizi hujulikana kama nadharia "Columbian" na "kabla ya Columbian", mtawalio.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal|last=Farhi|first=D|coauthors=Dupin, N|title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies|journal=Clinics in dermatology|date=2010 Sep-Oct|volume=28|issue=5|pages=533–8|pmid=20797514|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> Nadharia ya Columbia inathibitiswa na ushahidi uliopo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rothschild|first=BM|title=History of syphilis|journal=Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2005-05-15|volume=40|issue=10|pages=1454–63|pmid=15844068|doi=10.1086/429626}}</ref> Taarifa ya kwanza iliyoandikwa kuhusu mlipuko wa kaswende katika Ulaya iliyotokea katika mwaka wa 1494/1495 katika[[Naples|Naples, Italia]], wakati waliingiliwa na Ufaransa.<ref name=Music08>{{cite journal|last=Franzen|first=C|title=Syphilis in composers and musicians--Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases |date=2008 Dec|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1151–7|pmid=18592279|doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x}}</ref><ref name=Orgin10/> Kutokana na kuenezwa na kundi la wapiganaji wafaransa waliporudi, hapo awali ilijulikana kama "ugonjwa wa Kifaransa". Mwaka wa 1530, jina "kaswende" lilitumiwa kwanza na daktari Mwitaliano na mshairi [[GirolamoFracastoro]] kama kichwa cha[[Kilatini]] shairi lake kuelezea ongezeko la ugonjwa huo Italia.<ref> Nancy G. "Siraisi, Drugs and Diseases: New World Biology and Old World Learning," in Anthony Grafton, Nancy G. raisi, with April Shelton, eds., New World, Ancient Texts (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1992), 159-94 </ref> Kaswende pia ilijulikana kihistoria kama "Poksi Kuu".<ref name=Old05>{{cite journal|last=Dayan|first=L|coauthors=Ooi, C|title=Syphilis treatment: old and new|journal=Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy|date=2005 Oct|volume=6|issue=13|pages=2271–80|pmid=16218887|doi=10.1517/14656566.6.13.2271}}</ref><ref name=Euro04>{{cite journal|last=Knell|first=RJ|title=Syphilis in renaissance Europe: rapid evolution of an introduced sexually transmitted disease?|journal=Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society|date=2004-05-07|volume=271 Suppl 4|pages=S174–6|pmid=15252975|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0131|pmc=1810019|issue=Suppl 4|url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_4/S174.full.pdf|archive-date=2014-08-03|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803093827/http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_4/S174.full.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Viumbe visababishi, ''Treponema pallidum'', vilitambuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na [[Fritz Schaudinn]] na [[Erich Hoffmann]] mwaka wa 1905. <ref name=Music08/> matibabu yaliyofaa ya kwanza([[Salvarsan]]) yalitengezwa mwaka wa 1910 na [[Paul Ehrlich]], ambayo ilifuatiliwa na majaribio ya [[penisilini ]] na uthibitisho wa ufanisi wa dawa hiyo mwaka wa 1943 <ref name=Music08/><ref name=Old05/> Kabla ya kuwepo kwa matibabu yaliyofaa, [[mercury (elementi)|mercury]] na kwa kawaida utengaji ulitumika mara nyingi, pamoja na matibabu yaliyokuwa mara nyingi mbaya zaidi kuliko ugonjwa <ref name=Old05/> Watu wengi maarufu wa kihistoria, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Franz Schubert]],[[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[ÉdouardManet]]<ref name=Music08/> and [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref>{{cite news | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2842819.stm | title = Hitler syphilis theory revived | publisher = BBC News | date = 12 March 2003}}</ref> waliaminika kuwa walikuwa na ugonjwa huo. ==Jamii na Utamaduni== ===Sanaa na Fasihi=== [[Picha:400Behandlung der Syphilis.jpg|thumb|The earliest known medical illustration of patients suffering from syphilis, Vienna, 1498]] Sanamu ya kwanza Ulaya iliyoonyesha kaswende ni ya[[Albrecht Dürer]] ''Mtu aliye kuwa na Kaswende'', sanamu ilioyo katwa kutoka kwa mti aliaminika kuonyeza [[Landsknecht]], mtu wa kutoka Ulaya kaskazini[[kufanya kwa lengo la pesa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eisler|first=CT|title=Who is Dürer's "Syphilitic Man"?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_perspectives-in-biology-and-medicine_winter-2009_52_1/page/48|journal=Perspectives in biology and medicine|date=2009 Winter|volume=52|issue=1|pages=48–60|pmid=19168944|doi=10.1353/pbm.0.0065}}</ref> kisasili cha''[[femme fatale]]'' au "Wanawake sumu" wa karne ya 19 inaaminika kuwa ilitokana na uharibifu wa kaswende, ikiwa na mifano maarufu katika maelezo pamoja na [[John Keats]]' [[La Belle Dame sans Merci]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Robert|title=Things I didn't know : a memoir|url=https://archive.org/details/thingsididntknow00unse|year=2007|publisher=Vintage|location=New York|isbn=9780307385987|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thingsididntknow00unse/page/346 346]|edition=1st Vintage Book}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=[ed]: Joanne Entwistle, Elizabeth|title=Body dressing|year=2005|publisher=Berg Publishers|location=Oxford|isbn=9781859734445|pages=205|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Msanii [[Jan van der Straet]] alichora mtu tajiri akipokea matibabu ya kaswende kwenye mti wa tropiki [[guaiacum]] hapo karibu mwaka wa 1580.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Basil A.|title=Myths and realities of Caribbean history|year=2009|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=9780817355340|pages=113|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KtT0_P-9xiAC&pg=PA113|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Kichwa cha kazi hiyo ni "Maandalizi na Matumizi ya Guayaco kwa Kutibu Kaswende".Kwa kuwa msanii alichagua kuweka picha hii kwa kazi zilizofuatana za kuadhimisha Dunia mpya inayoonyesha umuhimu wa matibabu ya kaswende, hata ingawa yasiofaa, ya kaswende ulivyokuwa kwa wasomi wa Ulaya wakati huo. Mchoro uliyokuwa na rangi nyingi na tondoti inaonyesha wafanyi kazi wanne wakiandaa mchanganyiko huo wakati daktari akiangalia, akiwa ameficha kitu nyuma wakati mgonjwa hasio bahatika anakunywa.<ref name="ALLPOSTERS">[http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Preparation-and-Use-of-Guayaco-for-Treating-Syphilis-Posters_i1587366_.htm"Preparation and Use of Guayaco for Treating Syphilis"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Preparation-and-Use-of-Guayaco-for-Treating-Syphilis-Posters_i1587366_.htm |date=20110521060238 }}. Jan van der Straet. Retrieved 6 August 2007.</ref> ===Utafiti wa Tuskegee na Guatemala=== Moja ya hali iliyokuwa na sifa mbaya Merikani kuhusu [[maadili ya kimatibabu]] katika karne ya 20 ilikuwa [[Utafiti wa kaswende ya Tuskegee]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, ''et al.''|title=The Tuskegee Legacy Project: Willingness of Minorities to Participate in Biomedical Research |journal=J Health Care Poor Underserved |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=698–715|year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17242525|pmc=1780164 |doi=10.1353/hpu.2006.0126 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-health-care-for-the-poor-and-underserved_2006-11_17_4/page/698}}</ref> Utafiti ulifanywa [[Tuskegee, Alabama]], ilifadhiliwa na [[Huduma ya afya ya umma Marikani]] (PHS) ikisaidiana na [[Taasisi ya Tuskegee]].<ref name=CDCTime>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |title=U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) | date = 15 June 2011 |accessdate=2010-07-07 }}</ref> Utafiti huu ulianza mwaka wa 1932, wakati kaswende ilikuwa tatizo sana na hakukuwa na matibabu yaliyofaa na salama.<ref name=TUS00>{{cite journal|last=White|first=RM|title=Unraveling the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis|journal=Archives of internal medicine|date=2000-03-13|volume=160|issue=5|pages=585–98|pmid=10724044|doi=10.1001/archinte.160.5.585}}</ref> Utafiti huo ulinuia kupima Maendeleo ya kaswende bila matibabu. Kufikia 1947, penisilini ilikuwa imekubaliwa kuwa ndio tiba sahihi kwa matibabu yaliofaa kwa kaswende na ilikuwa ikitumika sana kwa kutibu ugonjwa huo. <-! CDCTime ->Wakurugenzi wa utafiti huu, hata hivyo, waliendelea na utafiti na hawakuwapa washiriki matibabu na penisilini. <ref name=CDCTime/>hiiimejadiliwa, na baadhi yao wamegundua kwamba penisilini alipewa washirika wengi<ref. name="TUS00"/>Utafiti haukuisha hadi 1972.<ref name=CDCTime/> Majaribio ya kaswende pia yalifanywa katika[[Guatemala]] kutoka 1946 hadi 1948. Yalikuwa yamefadhiliwa na[[marikani]] [[|utafiti kwa binadamu|majaribio kwa binadamu]], yaliyofanywa wakati wa serikali ya [[Juan José Arévalo]] ikiwa na ushirikiano na baadhi ya wizara za afya na maafisa wa Guatemala. Madaktari waliambukiza askari, wafungwa, na [[wagonjwa wa akili]] na kaswende na magonjwa mengine[[magojnwa ya zinaa]], bila [[ridhaa]] ya washiriki, na kisha kuwatibi na [[antibiotiki]]. Mwezi wa Oktoba 2010, Marekani iliomba msamaha rasmi kwa Guatemala kwa kufanya majaribio haya.<ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=U.S. apologizes for newly revealed syphilis experiments done in Guatemala|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/01/AR2010100104457.html |quote=The United States revealed on Friday that the government conducted medical experiments in the 1940s in which doctors infected soldiers, prisoners and mental patients in Guatemala with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases.|work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=1 October 2010}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya zinaa]] [[Jamii:Maradhi ya ngozi]] [[Jamii:magonjwa ya bakteria]] lipua6z067ckhohpvafk3gezf44fp21 0 55350 1564487 1510729 2026-06-02T17:03:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564487 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Prozac.jpg|thumb|right|Fluoxetine (Prozac), ni SSRI]] [[Picha:Venlafaxine-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|Venlafaxine, ni SNRI]] '''Dawamfadhaiko''' (''[[ing.]] antidepressant'') ni [[dawa]] za [[ugonjwa wa akili]] zinazotumika kupunguza mivurugo ya halihisi ya moyo, kama vile mfadhaiko mkubwa na ukataji tamaa na hali ya wasiwasi kama vile woga wa kuingiliana na watu. Dawa kama vile vizuia oksidesi vya monoamini (MAOIs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tetrasaikliki (TeCAs), vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini kinachochagua (SSRIs), na vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini-norepinefrini(SNRIs) ndizo zinazohusishwa kwa kawaida na neno hilo. Dawa hizo ni kati ya zile ambazo kwa kawaida huagizwa na wataalamu wa magonjwa ya akili na madaktari wengine, na ufanifu pamoja na athari zake ni mada ya tafiti nyingi na madai mengi yanayoshindana. Dawa nyingi husababisha athari za dawamfadhaiko, lakini vikwazo kuhusu matumizi yake yameleta utata unaosababishwa na kuzitumia kutibu maradhi mengine mbali na yale yaliyokusudiwa, licha ya madai kuwa yana ufanisi wa kiwango cha juu. Ufanifu wa dawamfadhaiko ya kisasa aina ya thaimoleptiki haijawahi kudhihirishwa kikamilifu kuwa ni bora zaidi ya ule wa kipozaungo hai, kulingana na tafiti mbili za shirika la Cochrane Collaboraton.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60">{{cite journal |author=Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R |title=Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2008-01-17_358_3/page/n74 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=3 |pages=252–60 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18199864 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsa065779 }}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"> Moncrieff J, Wessely S, Hardy R. (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=Display&amp;DB=pubmed Vipozaungo hai dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko kwa mfadhaiko.] ''Cochrane Database Syst Rev'' (1): CD003012.</ref> Kwa maandishi yaliyochapishwa, tibamifadhaiko ilikuwa na mafanikio ya 94% katika kutibu mfadhaiko. <ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/> Kwa maandishi ambayo hayakuchapishwa, mafanikio yalikuwa ni chini ya 50%.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> Kwa ujumla, tafiti zote zilionyesha ufanisi<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> wa 51% - pointi mbili tu zaidi kuliko ile ya kipozaungo. Hii iliongeza dhahiri ufanifi wa dawamfadhaiko tofauti kutoka 11% hadi 69% zaidi ya kipozaungo.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> Dawa ambayo huenda ikawa ni tofauti na ile ya mirtazepine- pinzani ya norepinefrini na serotonini, yenye athari zilizo kinyume na zile za SSRI na SNRIS - na venlafaksini, SNRI iliyo na usawa katika mfumo wa kemikali kwa kiwango kikubwa na tramadoli ya afyuni iliyonyumbuliwa. Afyuni zilitumika kutibu mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha juuu hadi mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950. Ampfetamini zilitumika hadi katikati ya miaka ya 1960. Kuagiza afyuni au amfetamini kwa kutibu mfadhaiko ni jambo linaloleta utata kisheria. Utafiti kuhusu uwezo wa afyuni ya kunyumbuliwa wa kutibu mfadhaiko umefanywa mara chache tu katika kipindi cha miaka sitini iliyopita, ili hali amfetamini zimepata soko linalostawi kwa hali mbalimbali kama vile maradhi ya upungufu wa makini, nakolepsi, na [[unene wa kupindukia]] na zinaendelea kuchunguzwa kwa matumizi mengi. Afyuni na amfetamini zote husababisha mwitiko wa haraka sana wa matibabu. Huonyesha matokeo kwa muda usiopita masaa ishirini na manne hadi arobaini na manane; uwiano wa matibabu kwa afyuni na amfetamini ni mkubwa kuliko ule wa dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki. Katika baadhi ya tafiti hizi zenye vikwazo vikuu, buprenofini ya afyuni imeonyesha uwezo mkubwa wa kutibu mfadhaiko mkali ulio sugu kwa matibabu wa dawa yoyote inayojulikana katika utafiti mdogo ambao kwa ujumla ilitambuliwa na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 1995, lakini haijawahi kufwatiliwa kutokana na unyanyapaa wa kijamii unaohusishwa na afyuni pamoja na ile inayohusishwa na ugonjwa wa akili nchini Marekani.<ref> Bodkin JA. et al. (1995): "Buprenorphine treatment of refractory depression", Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 15:49-57. PMID 7714228</ref> Aina nyingi za dawamfadhaiko zinazofanana na asili huchelewa kuanza utekelezaji kwa (kati ya wiki 2-6) na kwa kawaida hutolewa kwa muda wa wakati wowote kati ya miezi hadi miaka. Licha ya jina hilo, dawamfadhaiko mara nyingi hutumika kwa njia ya ubishi, na katika muktadha wa upungufu wa ushahidi unaotegemea majaribio kusaidia dalili zao, matumizi ya dawa kutibu maradhi mengine bali na yale yaliyokusudiwa awali, kama vile hali ya wasiwasi, ugonjwa wa akili ambapo mtu huwa na kiwango cha juu cha tamaa au shauku, matatizo ya kula, maumivu sugu, na baadhi ya hali zinazotatiza urazini wa upatanisho wa homoni kama vile hedhi chungu. Zikiwa peke yao au pamoja na kinza msukosuko (kwa mfano Tegretoli au Depakote), dawa hizi zinaweza kutumika kutibu upungufu makini wa kupepesuka (ADHD) na matumizi mabaya ya dawa kwa kushughulikia mfadhaiko msingi. Pia, dawamfadhaiko zimetumika wakati mwingine kutibu kukoroma na vipandauso. Dawa zingine ambazo kwa kawaida haziitwi dawamfadhaiko, ikiwa ni pamoja na vizuia magonjwa ya akili vya vipimo vya chini <ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.4088/JCP.v64n0512 |author=Wheeler Vega JA, Mortimer AM, Tyson PJ |title=Conventional antipsychotic prescription in unipolar depression, I: an audit and recommendations for practice |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=568–74 |year=2003 |month=Mei |pmid=12755661 |url=http://www.psychiatrist.com/abstracts/abstracts.asp?abstract=200305/050311.htm |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2011-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717000127/http://www.psychiatrist.com/abstracts/abstracts.asp?abstract=200305/050311.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> na benzodiazepini, <ref>{{cite journal |author=Petty F, Trivedi MH, Fulton M, Rush AJ |title=Benzodiazepines as antidepressants: does GABA play a role in depression? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-psychiatry_1995-11-01_38_9/page/n13 |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=578–91 |year=1995 |month=Novemba |pmid=8573660 |doi=10.1016/0006-3223(95)00049-7}}</ref> zinaweza kutumika kwa kudhibiti mfadhaiko, ingawa benzodiazepini - pamoja na dawa zote zinazoitwa "dawamfadhaiko" - husababisha utegemezi wa mwili. Kuacha matibabu ya benzodiazepini (au SSRI) kwa ghafla kunaweza kusababisha dalili zisizopendeza za kuachishwa. Kizinduo cha mmea wa St John's Wort hutumika kwa kawaida kama dawamfadhaiko, ingawa imealamishwa kama kijalizo cha chakula katika nchi zingine. Neno ''dawamfadhaiko'' wakati mwingine hutumiwa kwa tiba (kwa mfano, matibabu ya kisaikolojia, tiba ya msukosuko ya umeme, tiba vitobo) au mchakato (kwa mfano kuvuruga usingizi, kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha mwanga, mazoezi ya mara kwa mara) yametambulika kama njia za kudhibiti mfadhaiko wa kimawazo. Vipozaungo tepetevu vinaweza kuleta athari kuu za dawamfadhaiko, kwa hivyo, ili kudhibitisha Dutu kama "dawamfadhaiko", katika utafiti wa kiafya wa kliniki ni muhimu kuonyesha ukuu wake ukilinganishwa na kipozaungo. <ref>" [http://healthlifeandstuff.com/2009/07/do-we-know-anything-about-antidepressants/ Je, dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi kama ilivyoahidiwa?] {{Wayback|url=http://healthlifeandstuff.com/2009/07/do-we-know-anything-about-antidepressants/ |date=20100924095828 }}</ref> == Historia == [[Picha:Saint John's wort flowers.jpg|thumb|right|250px|St John's Wort]] Afyuni mbalimbali (kupitia kipokezi cha μ-cha afyuni na kipokezi cha k-cha afyuni) na ya amfetamini zilitumika mara nyingi kama dawamfadhaiko hadi miaka ya 1950, wakati zilipopoteza umaarufu wao kutokana na hali yao ya kulevya na madhara yake. <ref name="Weber 1988 255–66">{{cite journal|last=Weber|first=MM|year=1988|month=Julai|title=Current and Historical Concepts of Opiate Treatment in Psychiatric Disorders|journal=International Clinical Psychopharmacology|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–66|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |pmid=3153713 |url=http://journals.lww.com/intclinpsychopharm/Abstract/1988/07000/Current_and_Historical_Concepts_of_Opiate.7.aspx |doi=10.1097/00004850-198807000-00007 |accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Emrich|first2=HM}}</ref> Dondoo kutoka kwenye mmea wa St John's Wort zimetumika kwa muda mrefu kama "dawa ya kuchangamsha neva" ili kupunguza mfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Czygan|first=FC|date=8 Mei 2003|title=Kulturgeschichte und Mystik des Johanniskrauts: Vom 2500 Jahre alten Apotropaikum zum aktuellen Antidepressivum|journal=Pharmazie in unserer Zeit|volume=32|issue=3|pages=184–190|publisher=WILEY-VCH Verlag|location=Weinheim|doi=10.1002/pauz.200390062|language=German|accessdate=2009-05-28|pmid=12784538}}</ref> === Isoniazidi na iproniazidi === Katika mwaka wa 1951, watu wawili kutoka Hospitali ya Sea View katika kisiwa cha Staten, Irving Selikoff na Edward Robitzek, walianza kufanya utafiti wa kiafya kwa vikolezo viwili vipya vya [[Kifua kikuu|kupambana na kifua kikuu]] kutoka Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazidi na iproniazidi. Ni wagonjwa waliolemewa na ugonjwa pekee waliotibiwa hapo awali; hata hivyo, hali yao iliendelea kuwa bora kwa kasi kikubwa. Selikoff na Robitzek waligundua "mchangamsho mpole kwa ujumla...wagonjwa walionekana kuwa na nguvu mpya na kwa kweli, mara kwa mara jambo hili lilisababisha matatizo ya kinidhamu." Matumaini ya tiba ya kifua kikuu katika majaribio ya hospitali ya Sea View yalijadiliwa kwa msisimuko katika vyombo vikuu vya habari. Katika mwaka wa 1952, baada ya kujifunza kuhusu madhara ya uchochezi ya isoniazidi, mtaalamu wa saikolojia kutoka Cincinnati, Max Lurie, aliijaribu kuitumia kwa wagonjwa wake. Katika mwaka uliofuata, yeye na Harry Salzer waliripoti kuwa isoniazidi ilipunguza mfadhaiko katika theluthi mbili ya wagonjwa wao na wakaunda neno ''dawamfadhaiko'' kuelezea kitendo hiki. <ref name="isbn0-88048-397-0">{{cite book|last=Healy|first=D|editor=Weissman MM|title=The treatment of depression: bridging the 21st century|url=http://books.google.com/?id=LAmBVolIG5kC|accessdate=2009-05-28|year=2001|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=978-0-88048-397-1|pages=10–11|chapter=The Antidepressant Drama|chapterurl=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LAmBVolIG5kC&printsec=frontcover#PPA7,M1}}</ref> Tukio sawa na hili lilifanyika Paris, ambako Jean Delay, mkuu wa taaluma ya tiba ya magonjwa ya akili katika hospitali ya Sainte-Anne, aligundua madhara ya isoniazidi kutoka kwa wenzake wa taaluma ya magonjwa ya mpumuo katika hospitali ya Cochin. Katika mwaka wa 1952, kabla ya Lurie na Salzer, Delay, pamoja na mkaazi Jean-Francois Buisson, alitoa taarifa kuhusu athari chanya ya isoniazidi kwa wagonjwa waliofadhaika. <ref name="Healy96"> " {{cite book|last=Healy|first=David|title=The psychopharmacologists : interviews|accessdate=2009-05-28|year=c1996|publisher=Chapman and Hall|location=London|isbn=978-1-86036-008-4|page=8}}</ref> Kwa sababu zisizohusiana na ufanisi wake, matumizi ya isoniazidi kama dawamfadhaiko hatimaye yalitolewa maanani na kubadilishwa na dawa yenye sumu zaidi ya iproniazid, <ref name="isbn0-88048-397-0"/> ingawa bado ni msingi wa matibabu ya kifua kikuu. Njia ya utendakazi ya dawamfadhaiko ya isoniazidi bado haieleweki vyema. Inakisiwa kwamba athari zake zinatokana na kuzuiliwa kwa oksidesi diamini, pamoja na uzuiaji dhaifu wa oksidesi ya monoamini A. <ref name="isbn1-86036-010-6">{{cite book |author=Healy, David |title=The Psychopharmacologists: Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000heal |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000heal/page/132 132]–4 |isbn=978-1-86036-010-7 }}</ref> Dawa nyingine ya kifua kikuu iliyojaribiwa wakati huohuo na Selikoff na Robitzek, iproniazidi, ilionyesha athari kuu zaidi za "kichocheaakili", lakini ilikuwa na kiwango cha juu zaidi cha kusumisha. Baada ya chapisho kuhusu isoniazidi, majarida ya Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George Crane, na Frank Ayd yalijitokeza, yakieleza namna mbalimbali ambavyo dawa ya iproniazid inaweza kutumika kutibu magonjwa ya akili. Zeller Ernst alitambua kuwa dawa ya iproniazidi ni kizuia oksidesi ya monoamini yenye nguvu. <ref name="pmid18004120">{{cite journal |author=López-Muñoz F, Alamo C, Juckel G, Assion HJ |title=Half a century of antidepressant drugs: on the clinical introduction of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclics, and tetracyclics. Part I: monoamine oxidase inhibitors |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychopharmacology_2007-12_27_6/page/555 |journal=J Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=555–9 |year=2007 |pmid=18004120 |doi=10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181bb617 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, dawa ya iproniazidi ilibaki pembeni kiasi hadi pale ambapo Nathan Kline, mkuu wa utafiti katika hospitali ya Rock state mwenye ushaufu na ushawishi mkuubwa, alianza kuieneza katika vyombo vya habari vya uuguzi na vile maarufu kama "changamsho la akili". <ref name="pmid18004120"/> <ref>{{cite news|title=Psychic Energizer|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,862555,00.html|date=15 Aprili 1957|publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=2009-05-28|archivedate=2013-08-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811223331/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C862555%2C00.html}}</ref> Roche ilitia juhudi za uuzaji wa iproniazid, ikiwa ni pamoja na ukuzaji wa matumizi yake kutibu maradhi mengine bali na yale yaliyokusudiwa awali kwa kutibu mfadhaiko. <ref name="pmid18004120"/> Mauzo yake yalikuwa kwa kiasi kikubwa katika miaka iliyofuata, hadi pale ambapo zilibatilishwa kutoka sokoni mwaka wa 1961 kutokana na matukio kadhaa ya uharibifu wa ini unaobababisha mauti. <ref name="pmid18004120"/> === Dawa ya Imipramini === Ugunduzi kwamba mchanganyiko wa duara tatu ("wenye duara tatu") uliokuwa na athari kubwa kama dawamfadhaiko iliundwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1957 na Roland Kuhn katika hospitali ya magonjwa ya akili nchini Uswisi. Kufikia wakati huo, vinyumbuliwa vya kimaliza kemikali za mzio vilitumiwa zaidi kutibu mshtuko wa upasuaji na baadaye kama niuroleptiki ya magonjwa ya akili. Ingawa katika mwaka wa 1955 risapini ilionyeshwa kuwa bora zaidi kuliko kipozaungo kwa kupunguza niuroleptiki za mfadhaiko (kwa maana iliyo wazi, "kushika neva" au "kukamata neva") zilikuwa zinaundwa kama vitulizo na vizuia magonjwa ya akili. Akijaribu kuboresha ufanisi wa klorpromazini, Kuhn, akishirikiana na kampuni ya madawa ya Geigy, aligundua kwamba mchanganyiko "G 22355" (uliotengenezwa na kuwekwa chini ya amri ya serikali dhidi ya uigaji wake nchini Marekani katika mwaka wa 1951 na Häfliger na Schinder) ilikuwa na athari ya manufaa kwa wagonjwa wa mfadhaiko unaofuatana na kudumaa kwa mwendo. Kuhn kwanza aliripoti matokeo yake kuhusu kile alichokiita "thaimoleptiki" (kwa maana iliyo wazi, "kukamata hisia," kinyume na niuroleptiki, "kukamata neva") katika miaka ya 1955-56. Hatua kwa hatua, yaliimarishwa, na kusababisha uuzaji na ununuzi wa dawa ya kwanza dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki, imipramini, ambayo punde ilifuatwa na vibadala. === Historia ya baadaye === Tiba hizi mpya za dawa ziligeuka kuwa dawa zinazoagizwa na daktari katika miaka ya 1950. Ilikadiriwa kuwa watu chini ya 50-100 kwa kila watu milioni moja waliugua kutokana na aina ya mfadhaiko ambao dawa hizi mpya zingetibu, na makampuni ya dawa hayakuwa na hamu. Mauzo katika miaka ya 1960 yaliendelea kuwa ya kiwango cha chini yakilinganishwa na dawa muhimu za kutuliza maumivu (nyuroleptiki / vizuia magonjwa ya akili) na dawa hafifu za kutuliza maumivu (kama vile benzodiazepini), ambazo ziliuzwa kwa matumizi mbalimbali. <ref name="3faces">{{cite journal |author=Healy D |title=The three faces of the antidepressants: a critical commentary on the clinical-economic context of diagnosis |journal=J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. |volume=187 |issue=3 |pages=174–80 |year=1999 |month=Machi |pmid=10086474 |doi=10.1097/00005053-199903000-00007 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0022-3018&volume=187&issue=3&spage=174 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2012-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111120405/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0022-3018&volume=187&issue=3&spage=174 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Imipramine ilibaki kwa matumizi ya kawaida na dawa zingine nyingi zilivumbuliwa. Uwanja wa vizuizi vya MAO ulikimya kwa miaka mingi hadi miundo "inayoweza kupinduliwa" na zinazoathiri tu aina ndogo ya MAO-A ziliingizwa, ili kuepuka baadhi ya athari mbaya. <ref name="3faces"/> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Pletscher A |title=The discovery of antidepressants: a winding path |journal=Experientia |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=4–8 |year=1991 |month=Januari |pmid=1999242 |doi= 10.1007/BF02041242|url=}}</ref> Kufikia miaka ya 1960, wataalamu wengi wa madawa walifikiri kuwa kazi muhimu ya matibabu ya trisaikliki ilikuwa ni kuzuia ufyonyaji mpya wa norepinefrini, lakini hatua kwa hatua ilidhihirika kwamba kitendo hiki kilihusishwa na athari za uchangamshaji na uchochezi wa misuli ya mwendo, ilhali baadhi ya michanganyiko ya dawamfadhaiko zilionekana kuwa na athari tofauti kupitia utendaji katika mifumo ya serotonini (hasa iliyopendekezwa katika mwaka wa 1969 na Carlsson na Lindqvist pamoja na Lapin na Oxenkrug). Watafiti walianza mchakato wa ubunifu wa madawa ya razini ili kutenga michanganyiko iliyozalishwa kutoka kwa kimaliza kemikali za mzio ambazo zingelenga mifumo hii kwa njia ya uteuzi. Mchanganyiko wa kwanza kama huu kulindwa na serikali dhidi ya uigaji ilikuwa zimelidini katika mwaka wa 1971, ili hali ya kwanza kuidhinishwa kwa matumizi ilikuwa indalpini. Fluoxetini iliidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya kibiashara na ya Shirika la Chakula na Dawa (Marekani) mwaka wa 1988, na ikawa SSRI ya kwanza kupata umaarufu. Fluoksetini ilitengenezwa na Eli Lilly katika miaka ya awali ya 1970 akiwa pamoja na Bryan Molloy, David Wong na wengine. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Domino EF |title=History of modern psychopharmacology: a personal view with an emphasis on antidepressants |journal=Psychosom Med |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=591–8 |year=1999 |pmid=10511010 |doi= |url=http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511010}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wong DT, Bymaster FP, Horng JS, Molloy BB |title=A new selective inhibitor for uptake of serotonin into synaptosomes of rat brain: 3-(p-trifluoromethylphenoxy). N-methyl-3-phenylpropylamine |journal=J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. |volume=193 |issue=3 |pages=804–11 |year=1975 |month=Juni |pmid=1151730 |doi= |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1151730 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2021-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119145719/https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/193/3/804.long |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ingawa ilipoteza umaarufu wake katika nchi nyingi kupitia karne za 19 na 20, mmea St John's Wort iliendelea kuwa maarufu nchini [[Ujerumani]], ambapo dondoo za Haiparikamu hatimaye ziliidhinishwa, zikafungwa katika vifurushi na uagizwa na madaktari. Majaribio ya ufanisi kwa kiwango kidogo yalifanywa katika miaka ya 1970 na 1980, na yalitiliwa maanani zaidi katika miaka ya 1990 kufuatia uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa kati ya majaribio haya. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Linde K, Ramirez G, Mulrow CD, Pauls A, Weidenhammer W, Melchart D |title=St John's wort for depression--an overview and meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials |journal=BMJ |volume=313 |issue=7052 |pages=253–8 |year=1996 |month=Agosti |pmid=8704532 |pmc=2351679 |doi= |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8704532}}</ref> Ilibaki kuwa dawa inayoweza kuuzwa bila maelekezo ya daktari (OTC) au ya kuongezea katika nchi nyingi na utafiti uliendelea ili kuchunguza athari zake za nyurotransmita na vijenzi kazi, hasa hyperforini <ref>{{cite journal |author=Müller WE |title=Current St John's wort research from mode of action to clinical efficacy |journal=Pharmacol. Res. |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=101–9 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12543057 |doi= 10.1016/S1043-6618(02)00266-9|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1043661802002669}}</ref> SSRI zilikuja kuwa maarufu kama "dawamfadhaiko mpya" pamoja na dawa nyingine mpya zaidi kama vile SNRI na NRI zilizokwa na athari mbalimbali teuzi, kama vile venlafaksini, duloksetini, nefazodoni na mitazapini. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Freeman | first = H | year = 1996 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VM1-3WJNNMF-TX&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1996&_alid=513741720&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6137&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=72e4e5cb18384ee1f4f599ed1080eda7 | title = Tolerability and safety of novel antidepressants | journal = European Psychiatry | volume = 11 | issue = supplement 4 | pages = 206 | doi = 10.1016/0924-9338(96)88597-X | access-date = 2010-10-18 | archive-date = 2008-12-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081206232457/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VM1-3WJNNMF-TX&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1996&_alid=513741720&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6137&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=72e4e5cb18384ee1f4f599ed1080eda7 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> == Aina za dawamfadhaiko == === Vizuizi chaguzi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini (SSRIs) === ''Vizuizi chaguzi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini'' (SSRIs) ni aina ya dawamfadhaiko zinazozingatiwa kama matibabu ya madawa ya kiwango cha kisasa. Yamkini chanzo kimoja cha mfadhaiko ni kiwango kisichotosha cha serotonini, kemikali inayotumika kwenye ubongo kuhamisha ishara kutoka niuroni moja hadi nyingine. Inaaminika kuwa SSRI hufanya kazi kwa kuzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (inayojulikana pia kama 5 haidroksitriptamini, au 5-HT) kupitia niuroni ya mwanya wa sinapati, na hivyo kudumisha viwango vya juu vya 5-HT katika sinepsi. Wataalamu wa kemia Klaus Schmiegel na Bryan Molloy wa Eli Lilly waligundua fluoksetini ya SSRI ya kwanza. Kategoria hii ya madawa ni pamoja na: *Sitalopramu (Celexa, Cipramili) *Eskitalopramu (Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Lexamili) *Fluoksetini (Prozak, Sarafemu, Symbyax) *Fluvoksamini (Luvox) *Paroksetini (Paxili, Aropax) *Satralini (Zoloft) Kwa kawaida, dawamfadhaiko hizi huwa na athari chache zaidi ikilinganishwa na zile za duara tatu au MAOI, ingawa athari kama kizunguzungu, kinywa kikavu, woga, wasiwasi, kukosa usingizi, kupungua kwa hamu ya chakula, kuongeza uzito kwa muda mrefu na kupunguka kwa uwezo kujamiiana huweza kutokea. Baadhi ya athari zinaweza kupungua kulingana na namna ambavyo mtu anazoea dawa, lakini huenda athari zingine zikaendelea. Ingawa ni salama kuliko kizazi cha kwanza cha dawamfadhaiko, SSRI huenda zisitibu wagonjwa wengi ikilinganishwa na kategoria za awali za dawamfadhaiko, {{Citation needed|date=Mei 2009}} na hivyo kupendekeza kuwa jukumu la norepinefrini katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko bado ni muhimu. Kazi ya watafiti wawili imeibua suala la uhusiano kati ya upungufu wa serotonini na dalili za mfadhaiko, ikibainisha kuwa utendakazi bora wa SSRI kama dawa ya matibabu pekee haithibitishi uhusiano huo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Lacasse J, Leo J |title=Serotonin and depression: a disconnect between the advertisements and the scientific literature |journal=PLoS Med |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=e392 |year=2005 |pmid=16268734 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 |pmc=1277931}} ''[http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 Maelezo kamili] {{Wayback|url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020392 |date=20090122081424 }}''</ref> Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa dawa hizi zinaweza kuingiliana na vipengele vya unukuzi vinavyojulikana kama "jeni za saa" <ref>{{cite journal |author=Uz T, Ahmed R, Akhisaroglu M, Kurtuncu M, Imbesi M, Dirim Arslan A, Manev H |title=Effect of fluoxetine and cocaine on the expression of clock genes in the mouse hippocampus and striatum |journal=Neuroscience |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=1309–16 |year=2005 |pmid=15994025 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.003}}</ref>, zinazoweza kuchangia pakubwa kwa tabia ya uzoefu wa madawa ya kulevya (matumizi mabaya ya madawa), na huenda pia ikasababisha unene wa kupindukia. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Yuferov V, Butelman E, Kreek M |title=Biological clock: biological clocks may modulate drug addiction |journal=Eur J Hum Genet |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=1101–3 |year=2005 |pmid=16094306 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201483}}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal |author=Manev H, Uz T |title=Clock genes as a link between addiction and obesity |journal=Eur J Hum Genet |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=5 |year=2006 |pmid=16288309 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201524}} ''[http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v13/n10/full/5201483a.html Maelezo kamili]'' </ref> Majaribio yaliyodhibitiwa na yasiyo na utaratibu maalumu yaliyochapishwa katika Hifadhi za nyaraka za taaluma ya jumla ya tiba ya magonjwa ya akili yalionyesha kuwa hadi moja kati ya tatu ya athari za matibabu ya SSRI yanaweza kuonekana katika wiki ya kwanza. Athari hizi za awali pia zimeonyesha kuongeza upungufu kamili wa alama za HRSD kwa 50%. === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini-norepinefrini (SNRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini-norepinefrini'' (SNRIs) ni aina mpya ya dawamfadhaiko zinazofanya kazi na norepinefrini na 5-HT zote. Kwa kawaida dawa hizi zina athari sawa na SSRIs, ingawa zinaweza kusababisha athari zinazotokana na kutoendelea kuzitumia na jambo hili linaweza kulazimisha kupunguzwa polepole kwa kipimo cha dawa. Hizi ni pamoja na: *Desvenlafaksini (Pristiq) *Duloksetini (Cymbalta) *Milnasipramu (Ixel) *Venlafaksini (Effexor) === Dawamfadhaiko za norepinefrini na zinazotoa serotonini (NaSSAs) === Dawamfadhaiko za norepinefrini na zinazotoa serotonini (NaSSAs) zinaunda kategoria mpya zaidi ya dawamfadhaiko ambayo inaaminika inatenda kazi kwa kuongeza norepinefrini (noradrenalini) na uhamishaji wa serotonini kati ya niuroni kwa kuzuia vipokezi vya adrenaji vya mwanya wa sinapati alfa 2 na kwa wakati huo huo kuzuia vipokezi fulani vya serotonini. <ref> http://www.cnsforum.com/imagebank/item/Drug_nassa/default.aspx</ref> Athari ni pamoja kizunguzungu, kuongezeka kwa hamu ya chakula, na kuongezeka kwa uzito. <ref name="Stimmel">{{cite journal|last=Stimmel |first=GL|year=1997|month=Jan-Feb|title=Mirtazapine: an antidepressant with noradrenergic and specific serotonergic effects|journal=Pharmacotherapy|volume=17|issue=1|pages=10–21|publisher=American College of Clinical Pharmacy|issn=0277-0008|pmid=9017762|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Dopheide|first2=JA|last3=Stahl|first3=SM}}</ref> Mifano ni pamoja na: *Mianserini (Tolvon) *Mirtazapini (Remeron, Avanza, Zispin) === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini (NRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini'' (NRIs) hutenda kazi kupitia norepinefrini (inayojulikana pia kama ''noradrenalini).'' NRIs zinadhaniwa kuwa na athari chanya hasa kwa umakini na motisha. Hivi ni pamoja na: *Atomoksetini (Strattera) *Mazindoli (Mazanor, Sanorex) *Reboksetini (Edronax) *Viloksazini (Vivalan) === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini'' huzuia na ufyonyaji upya wa dopamini na norepinefrini (noradrenalini). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Stahl|first=SM|year=2004|title=A Review of the Neuropharmacology of Bupropion, a Dual Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitor|journal=Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry|volume=6|issue=4|pages=159–166|publisher=Physicians Postgraduate Press|pmc=514842|accessdate=2009-05-28|doi=10.4088/PCC.v06n0403|pmid=15361919|last2=Pradko|first2=JF|last3=Haight|first3=BR|last4=Modell|first4=JG|last5=Rockett|first5=CB|last6=Learned-Coughlin|first6=S}}</ref> Hivi ni pamoja na: *Bupropioni (Wellbutrini, Zybani) === Vizidishi chaguzi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Serotonini (SSREs) === *Tianeptini (Stablon, Coaxil, Tatinol) === Viondoa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDDIs) === Viondoa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDDIs) hutenda kazi kwa kupingana na kipokezi cha serotonini cha 5-HT2C ambacho kwa kawaida huzuia kuondolewa kwa norepinefrini na dopamini, na hivyo kuendeleza mbubujiko wa nyurotransmita hizi. *Agomelatini (Valdoxan, Melitor, Thymanax) === Dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya Trisaikliki (TCAs) === ''Dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya Trisaikliki'' ni kategoria nzee zaidi ya dawa za dawamfadhaiko. Dawa za Trisaikliki huziba ufyonyaji upya wa nyurotransmita fulani kama vile norepinefrini (noradrenalini) na serotonini. Hazitumiki sana kutokana na uvumbuzi wa madawa salama zaidi na yenye uwezo zaidi wa kuchagua. Madhara ni pamoja na kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha upigaji [[Moyo|moyo]], kuzinzia, mdomo mkavu, uyabisi wa tumbo, uwekaji wa mkojo, kiwaa, kizunguzungu, kuchanganyikiwa, na utendakazi mbaya wa kingono. Kiwango cha sumu hutokea wakati takriban mara kumi ya kipimo cha kawaida cha dawa kinapofikiwa. Mara nyingi madawa haya husababisha mauti yakizidisha kiasi cha dawa kinachohitajika, na yanaweza kusababisha arithimia mbaya. Hata hivyo, dawa za dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki bado zinatumika kutokana na ufanisi wao, hasa katika matukio mabaya ya mfadhaiko mkuu. Hizi ni pamoja na: '''Dawamfadhaiko za kiwango cha juu aina ya trisaikliki amini''' *Amitriptailini (Elavil, Endep) *Klomipramini (Anafranili) *Doksepini (Adapini, Sinequani) *Imipramini (Tofranili) *Trimipramini (Surmontil) '''Dawamfadhaiko za kiwango cha kati aina ya trisaikliki amini''' *Desipramini (Norpramini) *Nortriptailini (Pamelor, Aventili, Noritreni) *Protriptailini (Vivactili) === Kizuizi cha oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) === ''Vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini'' (MAOIs) vinaweza kutumika ikiwa dawa zingine za dawamfadhaiko hazijafaulu kufanya kazi. MAOIs hufanya kazi za kuzuia kimeng'enya cha oksidesi ya monoamini inayovunja nyurotransmita dopamini, serotonini, na norepinefrini (noradrenalini). Kutokana na uwezekano wa mwingiliano unaoweza kusababisha kifo kati ya kategoria hii ya madawa na vyakula fulani (hasa vile vyenye tairamini), pamoja na baadhi ya madawa, MAOIs za zamani huagizwa mara chache zaidi siku hizi. Hata hivyo, Emsam,dawa yenye muundo wa kiraka wa selegilini inayopitia kwenye ngozi, ni tofauti. Kutokana na ukwepaji wake wa tumbo, ina uwezekano mdogo zaidi wa kusababisha matukio sawa na yale ya madawa mengine katika kikundi cha MAOIs. <ref name="Cascade01">{{cite journal |author=Cascade EF, Kalali AH |journal=Psychiatry 2007 |month=Juni |year=2007 |title=EMSAM: The First Year |url=http://www.psychiatrymmc.com/emsam-the-first-year/ |accessdate=2009-11-30 |archive-date=2010-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228220220/http://www.psychiatrymmc.com/emsam-the-first-year/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Madawa ya MAOIs yanaweza kuleta matokeo bora sawa na yale ya madawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic, ingawa kwa ujumla hayatumiki sana kwa sababu yamerekodi matukio mengi zaidi ya athari hatari na kuathiriana. Kizazi kipya cha MAOIs kimeanzishwa; moklobemidi (Manerix), inayojulikana kama kizuizi kinachopindulika cha oksidesi ya monoamini A RIMA), na kinafanya kazi kwa kipindi kifupi zaidi na kwa njia ya kuchagua na haihitaji chakula maalum. Kikundi cha madawa ya MAOI ni pamoja na: *Aisokaboksazidi (Marplan) *Moklobemidi (Aurorix, Manerix) *Fenilzini (Nardili) *Selegilini (Eldepryl, Emsamu) *Tranilsaipromini (Parnati) === Dawa za Kukuza === Imetambulika kuwa baadhi ya dawa za mfadhaiko zinafanya kazi vizuri zaidi kwa wagonjwa wengine yakitumiwa pamoja na dawa zingine. Dawa kama hizo za "kukuza" ni pamoja na: *Buspironi (Buspar) *Gepironi (Ariza) *Nefazodoni (Serzoni) *Tandospironi (Sedieli) *Trazodoni (Desyreli) *Bupropioni (Wellbutrini / Zybani) ''Vitulizo na vipozo'', hasa vile vya benzodiazepini, huagizwa kwa kupunguza wasiwasi na kuleta usingizi. Kwa sababu ya hatari kubwa ya utegemezi, dawa hizi zinanuiwa kutumika kwa kipindi kifupi au mara chache pekee. Mara nyingi madawa huwa hayatumiki kwa utendakazi wao msingi, bali kwa ajili ya kutumia kile ambacho kwa kawaida ni athari yao. Fumarati ya Kwetiapini (Seroquel) imebuniwa kimsingi kwa kutibu skizofrenia na ugonjwa wa furaha-mfadhaiko, lakini mara kwa mara husababisha kusinzia kutokana na mshikamano wake na vipokezi vya histamini (H1 na H2); na hivyo inatumia madhara sawa na kidhibiti mzio wa hewa (Benadryl). ''Vizuia magonjwa ya akili'' kama vile risperidoni (Risperdal), olanzapini (Zyprexa), na kwetiapini (Seroqueli) yanaagizwa kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo na kwa kutibu wasiwasi. Matumizi yao kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo ni jambo la hivi karibuni, na limeibua utata kati ya wagonjwa wengine. Vizuia magonjwa ya akili, viwe ni vya kawaida au visokawaida vinaweza pia kuagizwa ili kukuza dawamfadhaiko, kuongeza ukolezi kwenye damu wa dawa nyingine, au kupunguza dalili za kichaa au za wazimu ambazo mara nyingi huandamana na mfadhaiko wa kimawazo. Hata hivyo, vinaweza kusababisha madhara makubwa, hasa vikichukuliwa kwa vipimo vya juu. Madhara ni pamoja na Kiwaa, mkazoghafla wa misuli, kutotulia, kutoweza kusongeza viungo kwenye dalili zinazoonekana polepole, na kuongezeka kwa uzito. Vichocheaakili wakati mwingine huongezwa kwenye utaratibu wa matibabu dhidi ya mfadhaiko ikiwa mgonjwa anaugua kutokana na anihedonia, na kulala kupindukia na/ au kula kupindukia pamoja na kiwango cha chini cha motisha. Dalili hizi ni za kawaida kwa mfadhaiko usio wa kawaida, na zinaweza kutatuliwa kwa kuongeza kipimo cha chini hadi wastani cha amfetamini (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin) au modafinili (Provigil, Alertec), kwa kuwa kemikali hizi zinaweza kuongeza motisha na kuboresha maingiliano ya kijamii, na kuzuia hamu ya chakula na usingizi. Modafinili ni ya kipekee kutokana na athari zake kwa usingizi: inaongeza umakini na kupunguza kizunguzungu wakati mgonjwa yuko macho, lakini haizuii kulala kwa kawaida. Dawa hizi pia zinaweza kurejesha msukumo wa ngono, ingawa hii ni athari hasi na sio sababu ya kuagizwa kwa vichocheaakili. Hata hivyo, tahadhari ni lazima ichukuliwe vikitumika kwa watu fulani. Vichangamsha vimetambuliwa kuchokonoa vipindi vya wazimu kwa watu wanaougua maradhi ya hisia mseto. Usimamizi wa karibu unasisitizwa kwa walio na matatizo ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa. Wagonjwa wenye mhemuko unaobadilika kwa urahisi wanapaswa kujiepusha na vichangamsha kwa kuwa vinatibua kubadilika kwa halihisi ya moyo. ''Lithiamu'' bado ndiyo tiba ya kiwango kilichokubalika kutibu maradhi ya hisia mseto, na mara nyingi hutumika pamoja na madawa mengine, ikitegemea ikiwa kinachotibiwa ni wazimu au mfadhaiko. Madhara ya Lithiamu ambayo huenda yakajitokeza ni pamoja na kiu, kutetemeka,udhaifu, kichefuchefu na kuendesha. Baadhi ya kinza-msukosuko, kama vile kabamazefini (Tegretol), valiproati ya sodiamu (Epilim), na lamotrijini (Lamictal), pia hutumika kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo, hasa kwa kutibu maradhi ya hisia mseto. Lithiamu na lamotrijini zote pia zimechunguzwa na kutumika kwa kukuza dawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko sugu ya hisia aina moja. == Mikondo ya uagizaji dawa == Nchini Uingereza matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko yameongezeka kwa 234% katika kipindi cha miaka 10 kufikia mwaka wa 2002. <ref>[74] ^ (Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu, 2004)</ref> Nchini Marekani, ripoti huru iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2005 ilionyesha kuwa 11% ya wanawake na 5% ya wanaume wasioishi katika nyumba za utunzaji wa wenye mahitaji maalum (2002) hutumia dawamfadhaiko. <ref>[http://www.meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_stats/Pub_ProdResults_Details.jsp?pt=Statistical%20Brief&amp;opt=2&amp;id=685 ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_stats/Pub_ProdResults_Details.jsp?pt=Statistical%20Brief&opt=2&id=685 |date=20250626193041 }} Stagnitti, M. (2005) Matumizi ya Dawamfadhaiko kati ya wananchi wa Marekani wasio katika vyumba vya ustawi wa jamii, 2002. Takwimu fupi # 77. Rockville, MD: Jopo la Matumizi ya pesa kwa Uuguzi, Shirika la Utafiti kuhusu Ubora wa Huduma za Afya.</ref> Uchunguzi uliofanywa mwaka wa 1998 uligundua kuwa 67% ya wagonjwa waliotambuliwa kuwa na mfadhaiko waliagiziwa dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Sleath B, Shih YC |title=Sociological influences on antidepressant prescribing |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-medicine_2003-03_56_6/page/1335 |journal=Soc Sci Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1335–44 |year=2003 |month=Machi |pmid=12600369 |doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00132-6 }}</ref> Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2007 ulionyesha kuwa 25% ya Wamarekani walitambulishwa kuwa na ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko zaidi ya idadi kamili iliyougua ugonjwa huo, hata bila kuzingatia matibabu yoyote.<ref>{{cite news|title=Depression could be overdiagnosed|url=http://www.heraldnet.com/article/20070403/NEWS02/704030755|agency=The Washington Post|publisher=HeraldNet|year=2007|month=Aprili|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Msingi wa matokeo haya yalikuwa ni utafiti wa kitaifa wa watu 8,098. Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2002 ulitambua kuwa karibu 3.5% ya watu wote nchini [[Ufaransa]] walikuwa wakiagiziwa dawamfadhaiko, ikilinganishwa na 1.7% mwaka wa 1992. Mara nyingi dawa hizi huagizwa bila kuzingatia amri wala miongozo <ref name="Ol">{{cite journal|last=Olié|first=JP|year=2002|month=Oktoba|title=Antidepressants consumption in the global population in France|journal=L'Encéphale|volume=28|issue=5 pt. 1|pages=411–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=12386542 |doi=ENC-10-2002-28-5-0013-7006-101019-ART4|accessdate=2009-05-29|language=French|doi_brokendate=2009-10-24|last2=Elomari|first2=F|last3=Spadone|first3=C|last4=Lépine|first4=JP}}</ref> Kati ya mwaka wa 1996 na 2004 katika [[British Kolumbia|British Columbia]], matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko yaliongezeka kutoka 3.4% hadi 7.2% ya wananchi. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Raymond|first=CB|year=2007|month=Januari|title=Antidepressant utilization in British Columbia from 1996 to 2004: increasing prevalence but not incidence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatric-services_2007-01_58_1/page/79|journal=Psychiatric Services|volume=58|issue=1|pages=79–84|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|pmid=17215416|doi=10.1176/appi.ps.58.1.79|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Morgan|first2=SG|last3=Caetano|first3=PA}}</ref> Takwimu ya mwaka wa 1992 hadi 2001 kutoka [[Uholanzi]] ulionyesha ongezeko la kiwango cha maagizo ya SSRIs, na kuongezeka kwa muda wa matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Meijer W, Heerdink E, Leufkens H, Herings R, Egberts A, Nolen W |title=Incidence and determinants of long-term use of antidepressants |journal=Eur J Clin Pharmacol |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=57–61 |year=2004 |pmid=14985889 |doi=10.1007/s00228-004-0726-3}}</ref> Utafiti unaonyesha kwamba matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko, hasa ya SSRIs, yameongezeka kwa haraka katika nchi nyingi zilizoendelea. Jambo hili linaendeshwa na kuongezeka kwa ufahamu kuhusu mfadhaiko pamoja na matangazo ya kibiashara kuhusu dawa mpya za dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=McManus P, Mant A, Mitchell PB, Montgomery WS, Marley J, Auland ME |title=Recent trends in the use of antidepressant drugs in Australia, 1990-1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_2000-11-06_173_9/page/n10 |journal=Med. J. Aust. |volume=173 |issue=9 |pages=458–61 |year=2000 |month=Novemba |pmid=11149300 }}</ref> Dawamfadhaiko pia zinazidi kutumiwa duniani kote kwa kutibu wagonjwa wasio na mfadhaiko na utafiti unaendelea kuonyesha uwezo wa sifa za dawamfadhaiko wa kubadili hali ya kinga mwilini, kutuliza maumivu, na kuzuia uvimbe. Uchaguzi wa aina fulai ya dawamfadhaiko unaripotiwa kufanyika kwa misingi isiyokuwa na ushahidi wa utafiti wa tofauti katika utendakazi, ili kuepuka athari fulani na kuzingatia magonjwa ambatani ya akili (yanayojitokeza kwa wakati mmoja), dalili maalumu ya ugonjwa na historia kabla ya matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=M|year=2004|month=Julai|title=Which factors influence psychiatrists' selection of antidepressants?|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=161|issue=7|pages=1285–9|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|pmid=15229063|url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/7/1285|accessdate=2009-05-29|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.161.7.1285|last2=Posternak|first2=M|last3=Friedman|first3=M|last4=Attiullah|first4=N|last5=Baymiller|first5=S|last6=Boland|first6=R|last7=Berlowitz|first7=S|last8=Rahman|first8=S|last9=Uy|first9=K|archive-date=2008-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926121035/http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/7/1285|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pia imeripotiwa kwamba, licha ya ushahidi babaishi unaoonyesha tofauti kubwa ya utendakazi kati ya dawamfadhaiko za awali na zile za karibuni zaidi, matabibu wanaona kuwa madawa mapya zaidi, ikiwa ni pamoja na SSRIs na SNRIs, yana ufanisi zaidi kuliko dawa za awali (dawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki na MAOIs). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Petersen|first=T|year=2002|month=Januari|title=A survey of prescribing practices in the treatment of depression|journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry|volume=26|issue=1|pages=177–87|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=11853110|doi=10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00250-0 |accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Dording|first2=C|last3=Neault|first3=NB|last4=Kornbluh|first4=R|last5=Alpert|first5=JE|last6=Nierenberg|first6=AA|last7=Rosenbaum|first7=JF|last8=Fava|first8=M}}</ref> Utafiti nchini Uingereza ulionyesha kwamba madaktari wa kiume walikuwa na uwezekano mkubwa zaidi wa kuagiza dawamfadhaiko kuliko madaktari wa kike. <ref>{{cite news|title=Male GPs depression pills 'bias' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4704053.stm|date=21 Julai 2005|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-05-29}}</ref> Idadi ya dawamfadhaiko iliyoagizwa na NHS nchini Uingereza iliongezeka karibu mara dufu katika kipindi cha mwongo mmoja, kulingana na ripoti ya serikali katika mwaka wa 2010. Aidha idadi iliongezeka sana katika mwaka wa 2009 wakati maagizo milioni 39.1 yalitolewa ikilinganishwa na milioni 20.1 mwaka wa 1999. Pia, madaktari walitoa maagizo ya dawa milioni 3.18 zaidi mwaka wa 2009 kuliko mwaka wa 2008. Wizara za afya ziliamimi kuwa ongezeko hili kwa kiwango fulani lilitokana na kuzorota kwa uchumi. Hata hivyo, sababu nyingine ni pamoja na kuboreshwa kwa mchakato wa utambuzi wa magonjwa, na kupunguka kwa unyanyapaa kwa magonjwa ya akili, na dhiki zaidi iliyosababishwa na kuzorota kwa uchumi. Aidha, wasiwasi wa madaktari ni kuwa baadhi ya watu wanaoonyesha dalili kidogo zaidi za mfadhaiko wanaagiziwa dawa zisizohitajika kutokana na ukosefu wa chaguo zingine ikiwa ni pamoja na tiba kwa njia ya kuzungumza, kupata ushauri na tabia ya utambuzi wa tabia. Kipengele kimoja kingine ambacho huenda kinaongeza matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko ni kwamba dawa hizi sasa zinatumiwa kutibu magonjwa mengine ikiwa ni pamoja na wasiwasi wa kijamii na dhiki baada ya kiwewe. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/jun/11/antidepressant-prescriptions-rise-nhs-recession| title=Antidepressant Use Rises as Recession Feeds Wave of Worry|date=2010-06-11|accessdate= 2010-07-01 | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Rowenna | last=Davis}}</ref> Matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko nchini Marekani yameongezeka mara dufu katika mwongo mmoja, kutoka mwaka wa 1996 hadi 2005. Dawamfadhaiko ziliagizwa kwa watu milioni 13 katika mwaka wa 1996 na kwa watu milioni 27 kufikia mwaka wa 2005. Katika mwaka wa 2008, zaidi ya maagizo milioni 164 yaliandikwa. Katika kipindi hiki, kulikuwa na uwezekano wa chini zaidi kwa wagonjwa kupitia matibabu ya kisaikolojia. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5725E720090804| title=Antidepressant Use Doubles in U.S., Study Finds|date=2009-08-04|accessdate= 2010-07-01 | work=Reuters}}</ref> === Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi === [[Picha:Escitalopram2DACS.svg|thumb|right|Fomula ya muundo wa eskitalopramu ya SSRI, katika hali yake ya msingi ya bure.]] Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi katika soko la Marekani katika mwaka wa 2007 <ref>Idadi ya maagizo ilikadiriwa kama jumla ya maagizo kwa madawa yanayolingana ya mwigo na asilia kwa kutumia data kutoka kwa chati kwa majina ya madawa ya mwigo na asilidawa brand-generiska. {{cite web | title = Top 200 generic drugs by units in 2007. | work = Drug Topics, 18 Februari 2008 | url = http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/Top200Drugs/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491194 | accessdate = 2008-10-23 | archivedate = 2009-07-18 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090718184023/http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/Top200Drugs/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491194 }} {{cite web | title = Top 200 brand drugs by units in 2007. | work = Drug Topics, 18 Februari 2008 | url = http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/PharmacyFactsAndFigures/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491210 | accessdate = 2008-10-23 }}</ref> zilikuwa: {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" |- ! Dawa ! Chapa ya dawa ! Kategoria ! Maagizo ya mwaka wa 2007 (kwa milioni) |- | Satralini | Zoloft | SSRI | 29.652 |- | Eskitalopramu | Lexapro | SSRI | 27.023 |- | Fluksetini | Prozac | SSRI | 22.266 |- | Bupropioni | Wellbutrin | NDRI | 20.184 |- | Paroksetini | Paxili | SSRI | 18.141 |- | Venlafaksini | Effexor | SNRI | 17.200 |- | Sitalopramu | Celexa | SSRI | 16.246 |- | Trazodoni | Desyrel | SARI | 15.473 |- | Amitriptailini | Elavil | TCA | 13.462 |- | Duloksetini | Cymbalta | SNRI | 12.551 |- | Mitazapini | Remeron | TCA | 5.129 |- | Nortriptailini | Pamelor | TCA | 3.105 |- | Imipramini | Tofranil | TCA | 1.524 |} Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi nchini Ujerumani zinaripotiwa kuwa ni (minyopoo kolezi ya) hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort). <ref>{{cite book|last=Tyler|first=VE|editor=Janick J|title=Perspectives on New Crops and New Uses|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/|accessdate=2009-05-29|year=1999|publisher=ASHS Press|isbn=978-0-9615027-0-6|pages=528|chapter=Herbs Affecting the Central Nervous System|chapterurl=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-442.html}}</ref> Nchini Uholanzi, paroksetini, inayouzwa kama Seroxat kati ya dawa zisizo asilia, ndiyo dawamfadhaiko inayoagizwa zaidi, ikifuatiwa na dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki inayoitwa amitriptailini, Sitalopramu na venlafaksini. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |title=GIPdatabank |publisher=Gipdatabank.nl |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |archivedate=2008-12-06 |https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB }}</ref> === Utaratibu wa utendakazi === Athari za matibabu za dawamfadhaiko zinaaminika kuwa zinasababishwa na madhara kwa nyurotransmita na upitishaji wa msukumo. Nadharia tete ya Monoamini ni nadharia ya bayolojia inayosema kuwa mfadhaiko unasababishwa na kiwango cha chini cha utendaji wa monoamini katika ubongo, kama vile dopamini, serotonini, na norepinefrini. Katika miaka ya 1950, vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) na madawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic ziligunduliwa kimakosa kuwa na ufanisi katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko. Matokeo haya na ushahidi mwingine egemezi yalimfanya Joseph Schildkraut achapishe makala yake yanayoitwa "The Catecholamine Hypothesis of Affective Disorders" katika mwaka wa 1965. Schildkraut alihusisha viwango vya chini ya nyurotransmita na mfadhaiko. Utafiti kuhusu magonjwa mengine ya akili kama vile skizofrenia pia yalitambua kuwa kiwango cha chini cha shughuli za kifisiolojia za baadhi ya nyurotransmita zilihusishwa na matatizo hayo. Nadharia tete hii imelengwa sana katika utafiti wa ngazi za pathofisiolojia na kutibu magonjwa kwa utumia dawa kwa zaidi ya miaka 25. Vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) huzuia uvunjaji wa nyurotransmita za monoamini serotonini, norepinefrini, na dopamini kwa kuzuia [[kimeng'enya]] oksidesi ya monoamini, na hivyo kusababisha kuongezeka kwa ukolezi wa nyurotransmita hizi katika ubongo na kuongezeka kwa upitishaji wa msukumo. Dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs) huzuia ufyonyaji upya wa nyurotransmita mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na serotonini norepinefrini, na kwa kiwango kidogo zaidi dopamini. Siku hizi dawamfadhaiko zinazotumiwa zaidi ni kizuizi cha uchukuzi wa serotonini kinachochagua (SSRIs), ambazo huzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (na hivyo kuongeza kiwango cha serotonini inayofanya kazi katika sinepsi ya ubongo). Dawamfadhaiko zingine zinaathiri ufyonyaji upya wa norepinefrini, au vipokezi vingine kwenye seli ya neva. Wakati MAOIs, TCAs na SSRIs zinaongeza viwango vya serotonini, zingine huzuia serotonini kushikana na vipokezi vya 5-HT <sub>2A</sub>, na hivyo kupendekeza kuwa ni fikra sahili sana kusema kuwa serotonini ni homoni ya furaha. Kwa kweli, wakati dawamfadhaiko za awali hukusanyika kwenye mfumo wa damu na kiwango cha serotonini ikaongezeka, ni kawaida kwa mgonjwa kuhisi ni kama anazidiwa katika wiki za kwanza za matibabu. Mojawapo ya maelezo ya jambo hili ni kuwa vipokezi vya 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> viligeuka kama ishara ya uloweshwaji (watu wanaotumia vipinzani vya 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> mara nyingi huongeza uzito), na hivyo kumwambia mnyama aache kutafuta chakula, mwenzi, n.k., na aanze kutafuta wanyama wanaowawinda wanyama wengine. Katika hali ya hatari ni jambo la manufaa kwa mnyama kutohisi njaa hata kama anahitaji chakula. Mchangamsho wa vipokezi vya 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> utawezesha jambo hili kufanyika. Lakini ikiwa ni tishio la kudumu, mnyama anahitaji kuanza kula na kujamiiana tena - na ukweli kuwa aliponea kifo inaonyesha kuwa tishio halikuwa la kiwango cha hatari kama mnyama huyo alihisi. Kwa hivyo idadi ya vipokezi vya 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> hupungua kupitia mchakato unaojulikana kama urekebishaji kwa njia ya kupunguza na mnyama anarudia tabia yake ya kawaida. Hii inaashiria kwamba kuna njia mbili za kukabiliana na wasiwasi kwa binadamu na serotonergic: dawa za kuzuia kusisimua wa-HT <sub>2A</sub> receptors 5 au kwa kuwasisimua kupita kiasi mpaka upungufu kupitia kuvumiliana. Kusisimua au kuzuia wa vipokezi tofauti juu ya kiini na huathiri maumbile usemi wake. Matokeo ya karibuni yameonyesha kuwa nyurojenesi, na hivyo, mabadiliko katika mofojenesi ya ubongo, hupatanisha athari za madawa ya dawamfadhaiko. <ref name="pmid16425236">{{cite journal |author=Warner-Schmidt JL, Duman RS |title=Hippocampal neurogenesis: opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment |journal=Hippocampus |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=239–49 |year=2006 |pmid=16425236 |doi=10.1002/hipo.20156 |url=}}</ref> Nadharia tete nyingine ni kuwa huenda dawamfadhaiko zikawa na athari za muda mrefu kutokana na ukuzaji wa nyurojenesi katika hipokampasi, athari ambayo inapatikana kwa panya. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Malberg|first=JE|date=15 Desemba 200|title=Chronic antidepressant treatment increases neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=20|issue=24|pages=9104–10|publisher=Society for Neuroscience|pmid=11124987|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9104|accessdate=2009-05-29|author2=E|author3=N|author4=D}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Manev|first=H|year=2001|month=Mei|title=Antidepressants alter cell proliferation in the adult brain in vivo and in neural cultures in vitro|journal=European Journal of Pharmacology|volume=411|issue=1-2|pages=67–70|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=11137860|doi=10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00904-3|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Uz|first2=T|last3=Smalheiser|first3=NR|last4=Manev|first4=R}}</ref> Utafiti wa wanyama wengine unaonyesha kuwa dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kuathiri ukamuaji wa jeni katika seli za ubongo, kwa kuathiri "jeni inayofinyanza protini zinazodhibiti mzunguko wa utendakazi wa mambo mbalimbali mwilini".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Uz|first=T|year=2005|title=Effect of fluoxetine and cocaine on the expression of clock genes in the mouse hippocampus and striatum|journal=Neuroscience|volume=134|issue=4|pages=1309–16|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15994025|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.003|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Ahmed|first2=R|last3=Akhisaroglu|first3=M|last4=Kurtuncu|first4=M|last5=Imbesi|first5=M|last6=Dirim Arslan|first6=A|last7=Manev|first7=H}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine unaonyesha kuwa kucheleweshwa kwa mwanzo wa athari zinazotokana na dawamfadhaiko kunaonyesha kuwepo kwa uwezo wa kubadilika kwa athari za dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti wa wanyama wagugunaji kila mara umeonyesha kuongezeka kwa kasi ya mfumo ya 3, 5-adenosini ya fosfeti moja wenye mzunguko (cAMP), ikisababishwa na aina tofauti za matibabu sugu lakini yasiyo kali ya dawamfadhaiko, ikiwa ni pamoja na serotonini na vizuizi vya ufyonyaji wa norepinefrini,vizuia oksidesi vya monoamini, dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic, lithiamu na matibabu ya mtukutiko meme. cAMP inasanisiwa kutoka kwa trifosfati 5-ya adenosini (ATP) na saiklesi ya adenilili na kufanyiwa umetaboli na mizunguko ya vivunja viungo vya fosfodi nyukleotidi (PDEs). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Zang|first=HT|date=12 Julai 2005|title=Interaction between the antidepressant-like behavioral effects of beta adrenergic agonists and the cyclic AMP PDE inhibitor rolipram in rats |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychopharmacology_2005-10_182_1/page/104|journal=Psychopharmacology|volume=182|issue=1|pages=104–115|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|doi=10.1007/s00213-005-0055-y|pmid=16010541|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Huang|first2=Y|last3=Mishler|first3=K|last4=Roerig|first4=SC|last5=O'Donnell|first5=JM}}</ref> Takwimu pia zinaonyesha kwamba dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kurekebisha kunyumbuka kwa mfumo wa neva yakitumiwa kwa muda mrefu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Carboni|first=L|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Proteomic analysis of rat hippocampus and frontal cortex after chronic treatment with fluoxetine or putative novel antidepressants: CRF1 and NK1 receptor antagonists|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=16|issue=7|pages=521–537|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2006.01.007|pmid=16517129|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Vighini|first2=M|last3=Piubelli|first3=C|last4=Castelletti|first4=L|last5=Milli|first5=A|last6=Domenici|first6=E}}</ref> Nadharia moja kuhusu chanzo cha mfadhaiko ni kwamba ina sifa ya utendaji wa kupita kiasi wa jira ya adrena ya hypothalamiki-tezi (jira ya HPA ) ambayo inafanana na mwitikio wa mfumo wa neva na mwili kwa dhiki. Hali hii ya jira za HPA zisizo za kawaida hushiriki katika kuendeleza ya dalili za mfadhaiko na dawamfadhaiko humtumika kudhibiti utendakazi wa jira ya HPA. <ref>Carmine M. Pariante kazi, Taasisi ya Taaluma ya tiba ya Psychiatry Mfalme wa Chuo cha London [http://www.neuroendo.org.uk/content/view/31/11/ unyogovu, stress och Adrenal axis ya.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.neuroendo.org.uk/content/view/31/11/ |date=20080706035853 }} Jamii ya Uingereza ya Niuroendokrinolojia, 2003.</ref> === Ulinganishaji === Dawamfadhaiko kadhaa zimelinganishwa hapa chini: <ref name="pmid9537821">{{cite journal | author = Tatsumi M, Groshan K, Blakely RD, Richelson E. | title = Pharmacological profile of antidepressants and related compounds at human monoamine transporters. | journal = Eur J Pharmacol. | volume = 340 | issue = 2-3 | pages = 249–258 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9537821 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(97)01393-9 }}</ref> <ref name="pmid9400006">{{cite journal | author = Owens MJ, Morgan WN, Plott SJ, Nemeroff CB. | title = Neurotransmitter receptor and transporter binding profile of antidepressants and their metabolites. | journal = J Pharmacol Exp Ther. | volume = 283 | issue = 3 | pages = 1305–1322 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9400006 }}</ref> <ref name="pmid7855217">{{cite journal | author = Cusack B, Nelson A, Richelson E. | title = Binding of antidepressants to human brain receptors: focus on newer generation compounds. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychopharmacology_1994-05_114_4/page/559 | journal = Psychopharmacology (Berl). | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 559–565 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7855217 | doi = 10.1007/BF02244985 }}</ref> <ref name="bookEssentials of clinical psychopharmacology">{{cite book | author = Alan F. Schatzberg, Charles B. | title = Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology | publisher = American Psychiatric Pub | year = 2006 | page = 7 | isbn = 1585622435, 9781585622436 }}</ref> <!-- table seems broken {| kategoria="sortable wikitable" | ''' Mchanganyiko ''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Serotonini|SERT]]''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Norepinefrini|NET]]''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Dopamini|DAT]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha Histamine H1|H<sub>1</sub>]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha asetilikolini ya Muskarini|M<sub>1-5</sub>]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha andrenaji Alfa-1|α<sub>1</sub>]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha andrenaji Alpha-2|α<sub>2</sub>]]''' || '''[[5-HT1A|5-HT<sub>1A</sub>]]''' || '''[[5-HT2|5-HT<sub>2</sub>]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha D2|D<sub>2</sub>]]''' |- | [[Agomelatini]] || ? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | | 270 | |? | - | [[Amitriptailini]] | | 4.3 | | 35 | | 3250 | | 0.95 | | 9.6 | | 24 | | 690 | | 450 | | 18 | | 1460 | - | [[Amoksapini]] | | 58 | | 16 | | 4310 | | 25 | | 1000 | | 50 | | 2600 | |? | |? | |? | - | [[Atomoksetini]] | | 8.9 | | 2.03 | | 1080 | | 5500 | | 2060 | | 3800 | | 8800 | | 10900 | | 940 | | 35,000 + | - | [[Bupropioni]] | | 45026 | | 1389 | | 2784 | | 11800 | | 35,000 + | | 4200 | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | - | Buspironi | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | | 138 | |? | | 5.7 | | 174 | | 362 | - | Butriptailini | | 1360 | | 5100 | | 3940 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Sitalopramu | | 1.16 | | 4070 | | 28100 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Klomipramini | | 0.28 | | 38 | | 2190 | | 31 | | 37 | | 38 | | 3200 | |? | |? | |? | - | Desipramini | | 17.6 | | 0.83 | | 3190 | | 60 | | 66 | | 100 | | 5500 | | 6400 | | 350 | | 3500 | - | Dosulepini | | 8.6 | | 46 | | 5310 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Doksepini | | 68 | | 29.5 | | 12100 | | 0.17 | | 23 | | 23.5 | | 1270 | | 276 | | 27 | | 360 | - | Duloksetini | | 0.8 | | 7.5 | | 240 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Etoperidoni | | 890 | | 20000 | | 52000 | | 3100 | | 35,000 + | | 38 | | 570 | | 85 | | 36 | | 2300 | - | Femoksetini | | 11 | | | 760 | 2050 | | 4200 | | 184 | | 650 | | 1970 | | 2285 | | 130 | | 590 | - | Fluoksetini | | 0.81 | | 240 | | 3600 | | 5400 | | 590 | | 3800 | | 13900 | | 32400 | | 280 | | 12000 | - | Fluvoksamini | | 0.81 | | 240 | | 3600 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Imipramini | | 1.4 | | 37 | | 8500 | | 37 | | 46 | | 32 | | 3100 | | 5800 | | 150 | | 620 | - | Lofepramini | | 70 | | 5.4 | | 18000 | | 360 | | 67 | | 100 | | 2700 | | 4600 | | 200 | | 2000 | - | Maprotilini | | 5800 | | 11.1 | | 1000 | | 2 | | 570 | | 90 | | 9400 | |? | |? | |? | - | | Mazindoli | 100 | | 1.4 | | 11 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Mianserini | | 4000 | | 71 | | 9400 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Milnasiprani | | 123 | | 200 | | 10,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Mirtazapini | | 1500 + | | ~ 1250 | | 1500 + | | 1 ~ | | ~ 1000 | | 500 ~ | | 100 ~ | | 1500 + | | 10 ~ | | 1,500 + | - | Nefazodoni | | 200 | | 360 | | 360 | | 24000 | | 11000 | | 48 | | 640 | | 80 | | 26 | | 910 | - | Nisoksetini | | 383 | | 5.1 | | 477 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Nomifensini | | 1010 | | 15.6 | | 56 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Nortriptailini | | 18 | | 4.37 | | 1140 | | 6.3 | | 37 | | 55 | | 2030 | | 294 | | 41 | | 2570 | - | Oksaprotilini | | 3900 | | 4.9 | | 4340 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Paroksetini | | 0.13 | | 40 | | 490 | | 22000 | | 108 | | 4600 | | 17000 | | 35,000 + | | 19000 | | 32000 | - | Protriptailini | | 19.6 | | 1.41 | | 2100 | | 25 | | 25 | | 130 | | 6600 | |? | |? | |? | - | Reboksetini | | 720 | | 11 | | 10,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Satralini | | 0.29 | | 420 | | 25 | | 24000 | | 630 | | 380 | | 4100 | | 35,000 + | | 9900 | | 10700 | - | Trazodoni | | 160 | | 8500 | | 7400 | | 1100 | | 35,000 + | | 42 | | 320 | | 96 | | 25.0 | | 35,000 + | - | Trimipramini | | 149 | | 2450 | | 3780 | | 0.27 | | 58 | | 24 | | 680 | |? | |? | |? | - | Venlafaksini | | 82 | | 2480 | | 7647 | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | - | Viloksazini | | 17300 | | 155 | | 100,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Zimelidini | | 152 | | 9400 | | 11700 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? |) --> Nambari zilizo hapo juu zimeandikwa kama nambari zisizobadilika za ulinganifu tenganishi. Unapaswa kukumbuka kuwa kidogo ni zaidi. SERT, NET, na DAT zinalingana na uwezo wa michanganyiko wa kuzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini, norepinefrini, na dopamini, mtawalia. Hizo thamani zingine zinalingana na mvuto wao kwa vipokezi mbalimbali. === Kuzuia uvimbe na kuathiri kinga ya mwili === Utafiti wa karibuni unaonyesha kuwa michakato ya saikotini inayosababisha uvimbe hutendeka wakati wa mfadhaiko wa kimawazo, wazimu, na maradhi ya hisia mseto, na inawezekana kuwa dalili ya hali hizi hupunguzwa na athari za dawa ya dawamfadhaiko kwenye mfumo wa kinga. <ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Brien|first=SM|year=2006|month=Februari|title=Cytokine profiles in bipolar affective disorder: focus on acutely ill patients|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=90|issue=2-3|pages=263–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16410025|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2005.11.015|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Scully|first2=P|last3=Scott|first3=LV|last4=Dinan|first4=TG}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Obuchowicz|first=E|year=2005|month=Sep-OCt|title=Antidepressants and cytokines--clinical and experimental studies|journal=Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr Pol|volume=39|issue=5|pages=921–36|pmid=16358592|oclc=11190611|language=Polish|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Marcinowska|first2=A|last3=Herman|first3=ZS}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Hong|first=C-J|year=2005|month=Novemba|title=Interleukin-6 Genetic Polymorphism and Chinese Major Depression|journal=Neuropsychobiology|volume=52|issue=4|pages=202–5|publisher=Karger AG|location=Basel|pmid=16244501|doi=10.1159/000089003|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Yu|first2=YW|last3=Chen|first3=TJ|last4=Tsai|first4=SJ}}</ref> <ref name="Elen">{{cite journal|last=Elenkov|first=IJ|year=2005|month=Septemba|title=Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being|journal=NeuroImmunoModulation|volume=12|issue=5|pages=225–69|publisher=Karger AG|location=Basel|pmid=16166805|doi=10.1159/000087104|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Iezzoni|first2=DG|last3=Daly|first3=A|last4=Harris|first4=AG|last5=Chrousos|first5=GP}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kubera|first=M|date=30 Aprili 2005|title=Effects of serotonin and serotonergic agonists and antagonists on the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=134|issue=3|pages=251–8|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15892984|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.01.014|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Maes|first2=M|last3=Kenis|first3=G|last4=Kim|first4=YK|last5=Lasoń|first5=W}}</ref> Tafiti pia zimeonyesha kuwa utoaji wa kuselelea wa homoni za dhiki kutokana na ugonjwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na maambukizi ya viungo au dalili za kingamwilinafsi, unaweza kupunguza athari za nyurotransmita au vipokezi vingine katika ubongo kupitia njia zilizopatanishwa na seli zinazosababisha uvimbe, na hivyo kusababisha ya udibiti mbaya wa homoni za mfumo wa neva. <ref name="Elen" /> SSRIs, SNRIs na dawamfadhaiko{/3 aina ya {2}tricyclic zinazotenda kazi kwenye vipokezi vya serotonini, norepinefrini na dopamini vimetambuliwa kuwa dhahiri kuwa za kuathiri kinga ya mwili na kuzuia uvimbe dhidi ya michakato ya [[saitokini]], hasa kwa udhibiti wa [[Intaferoni ya gama]] (IFN-gamma) na [[Intaleukini-10]] (IL-10), pamoja na [[TNF-alfa]] na [[Intaleukini-6]] (IL-6). Imetambulika pia kuwa dawamfadhaiko huzuia kuongezeka kwa kasi ya mfumo wa TH1. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Diamond|first=M|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 cytokine interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=16|issue=7|pages=481–90|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16388933|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Kelly|first2=JP|last3=Connor|first3=TJ}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kubera|first=M|year=2001|month=Aprili|title=Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|volume=21|issue=2|pages=199–206|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pmid=11270917|doi=10.1097/00004714-200104000-00012|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Lin|first2=AH|last3=Kenis|first3=G|last4=Bosmans|first4=E|last5=Van Bockstaele|first5=D|last6=Maes|first6=M}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Maes|first=M|year=2001|month=Januari|title=The immunoregulatory effects of antidepressants|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=16|issue=1|pages=95–103|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pmid=12404604|doi=10.1002/hup.191|accessdate=2009-05-29}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Maes|first=M|year=2005|month=Machi|title=The negative immunoregulatory effects of fluoxetine in relation to the cAMP-dependent PKA pathway|journal=International Immunopharmacology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=609–18|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15683856|doi=10.1016/j.intimp.2004.11.008|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Kenis|first2=G|last3=Kubera|first3=M|last4=De Baets|first4=M|last5=Steinbusch|first5=H|last6=Bosmans|first6=E}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Brustolim D|first=D|year=2006|month=Juni|title=A new chapter opens in anti-inflammatory treatments: the antidepressant bupropion lowers production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma in mice|journal=International Immunopharmacology|volume=6|issue=6|pages=903–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16644475|doi=10.1016/j.intimp.2005.12.007|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Ribeiro-Dos-Santos|first2=R|last3=Kast|first3=RE|last4=Altschuler|first4=EL|last5=Soares|first5=MB}}</ref> Dawamfadhaiko, hasa TCAs na SNRIs (mchanganyiko wa SSRIna NRI), pia zimeonyesha tabia za kutuliza maumivu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Moulin|first=DE|year=2007|month=Spring|title=Pharmacological management of chronic neuropathic pain - consensus statement and guidelines from the Canadian Pain Society|journal=Pain Research & Management|volume=12|issue=1|pages=13–21|publisher=Pulsus Group|pmid=17372630|pmc=2670721|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Clark|first2=AJ|last3=Gilron|first3=I|last4=Ware|first4=MA|last5=Watson|first5=CP|last6=Sessle|first6=BJ|last7=Coderre|first7=T|last8=Morley-Forster|first8=PK|last9=Stinson|first9=J}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=CK|year=2006|month=Desemba|title=Analgesic effects of serotonergic, noradrenergic or dual reuptake inhibitors in the carrageenan test in rats: Evidence for synergism between serotonergic and noradrenergic reuptake inhibition|journal=Neuropharmacology|volume=51|issue=7-8|pages=1172–1180|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=17045620|doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.08.005|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Eastwood|first2=BJ|last3=Need|first3=AB|last4=Shannon|first4=HE}}</ref> Tafiti hizi zinatoa kibali cha kuchunguza dawamfadhaiko kwa matumizi kwa magonjwa ya akili na yale yasiyo ya akili na kuwa huenda mkabala wa mwingiliano kati ya michakato ya kisaikolojia na mifumo ya neva na kinga utahitajika ili kufikia upeo wa kutibu magonjwa kwa dawa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kulmatycki|first=KM|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Drug disease interactions: role of inflammatory mediators in depression and variability in antidepressant drug response|journal=Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=9|issue=3|pages=292–306|publisher=Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences|pmid=17207413|url=http://www.ualberta.ca/~csps/JPPS9_3/Kulmatycki/Kul_Jam.htm|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Jamali|first2=F}}</ref> Huenda dawamfadhaiko za baadaye zitaundwa ili kulenga hasa mfumo wa kinga iwe kwa kuzuia utendaji wa saikotini zinazosababisha uvimbe au kwa kuongeza uzalishaji wa saikotini zinazozuia uvimbe. <ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Brien|first=SM|year=2004|month=Agosti|title=Cytokines: abnormalities in major depression and implications for pharmacological treatment|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=19|issue=6|pages=397–403|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pmid=15303243|doi=10.1002/hup.609|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Scott|first2=LV|last3=Dinan|first3=TG}}</ref> == Ufanifu wa matibabu == Utafiti mwingi umefanywa ili kutathmini uwezekano wa athari za matibabu za dawamfadhaiko, iwe ni kupitia uchunguzi wa utendakazi katika hali ya majaribio (ikiwa ni pamoja na utafiti wa kiafya bila utaratibu maalumu) au kupitia uchunguzi wa ufanisi katika "hali halisi." ''Mwitikio'' unaofaa kwa dawa mara nyingi hufafanuliwa kama kupunguzwa kwa angalau 50% ya dalili zilizoripotiwa na mgonjwa binafsi au zinazoonekana, huku ''sehemu ya majibu'' ikifafanuliwa kama kupunguza angalau 25% ya dalili hizo. Neno ''kupungua'' linarejelea uondoaji wa kweli lakini usio bayana wa dalili za dawamfadhaiko, lakini wenye hatari ya ''kurudi'' kwa dalili au ''kuugua tena'' na ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko. Kupunguka kabisa au ''kupona'' kunaashiria kurudi kabisa kwa hali ya "kawaida" ya saikolojia ikiandamana na utendakazi kamili. === Ukaguzi wa tafiti === Ukaguzi wa tafiti za kimatibabu za hivi karibuni ni pamoja na: * Kulinganisha uhusiano wa utendakazi wa kategoria mbalimbali za dawamfadhaiko<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson IM |title=Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-affective-disorders_2000-04_58_1/page/19 |journal=J Affect Disord |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=19–36 |year=2000 |month=Aprili |pmid=10760555 |doi=10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00092-0 }}</ref> katika mazingira tofauti <ref>MacGillivray, S., Arroll, B., Hatcher, S., Ogston, S., Reid, I., Sullivan, F., Williams, B., Crombie, I. (2003) [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=154760 Utendakazi na uvumilivu wa vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini vinavyochagua ikilinganishwa na dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic kwa mfadhaiko uliotibiwa katika unyogovu kutibiwa katika huduma: ukaguzi wa hatua kwa hatua na uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130801115652/http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=154760 |date=2013-08-01 }} ''BMJ.'' 10 Mei 326 (7397): 1014.</ref> na kwa aina mbalimbali za mfadhaiko<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.4088/JCP.v62n0209 |author=Parker G, Roy K, Wilhelm K, Mitchell P |title=Assessing the comparative effectiveness of antidepressant therapies: a prospective clinical practice study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2001-02_62_2/page/117 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=117–25 |year=2001 |month=Februari |pmid=11247097 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-28 }}</ref> * Utathmini wa dawamfadhaiko ikilinganishwa na "kipozaungo hai" <ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /> * Utathmini wa aina mpya zaidi za ya kategoria ya MAOI <ref> Lotufo-Neto, F., Trivedi, M., &amp; Thase, M.E (1999) [http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v20/n3/full/1395258a.html Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa kuhusu ddI yanaweza kupunguzwa Inhibitors Aina ya Oxidase Monoamine A Moclobemide na Brofaromine kwa ajili ya matibabu ya unyogovu] ''Neuropsychopharmacology'' 20 226-247.10.1038</ref> * Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio kadhaa ya St John's Wort<ref>{{cite journal |author=Linde K, Mulrow CD, Berner M, Egger M |title=St John's wort for depression |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD000448 |year=2005 |pmid=15846605 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000448.pub2 }}</ref> yaliyochaguliwa bila utaratibu maalumu * Ukaguzi wa matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kutibu mfadhaiko kwa watoto<ref> Jureidini JN, CJ Doecke, Mansfield PR, Haby MM, Menkes DB, AL Tonkin. (2004) [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/328/7444/879?ijkey=4f893b9f91cb92fde9abb867c1dd21fb35b7b9d3&amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha Utendakazi na usalama wa dawamfadhaiko kwa watoto na vijana.] BMJ. 2004 10 Aprili, 328 (7444) :879-83.</ref> <ref> Lakhan SE, Hagger-Johnson G. [http://www.cpementalhealth.com/content/3/1/21 Matokeo ya maagizo ya vitatiza akili kwa vijana]. ''Mazoezi ya kimatibabu na Epidemolojia katika Uzima wa Akili'' 2007; 3 (21).</ref> *Ukaguzi wa majaribio yote kuhusu dawamfadhaiko yaliyowasilishwa kwa Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa nchini Marekani (FDA) kutoka mwaka wa 1987 hadi 2004 umeonyesha kuwa karibu nusu ya majaribio hayo yalishindwa kuonyesha faida yoyote ikilinganishwa na kipozaungo. Matokeo yote ya majaribio yaliyofanikiwa ila moja yalichapishwa katika majarida ya kisayansi, huku karibu majaribio yote yaliyofeli ama hayakuchapishwa au yalitolewa kwa njia ya kuwapotosha watu kama matokeo chanya (ikilinganishwa na tathmini ya FDA ya data hiyo). Jambo hili lilitokea kwa kuwa ingawa uchunguzi unahitajika kabla ya kupata idhini ya kimatibabu, uchunguzi unaoonyesha matokeo mengi si lazima yachapishwe au (kama yakichapishwa) yapewe kipaumbele sawa. Kwa hivyo, ingawa vitabu vya utafiti vilionyesha kwamba asilimia 94 ya majaribio yalikuwa na matokeo mazuri, katika data halisi iliyowasilishwa kwa Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa, ni asilimia 51 pekee iliyokuwa na matokeo mazuri. Upendeleo huu katika uchapishaji ulipandisha athari dhairi ya takwimu za kila dawamfadhaiko iliyochunguzwa kwa kati ya 11% na 69%. <ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60" /> * Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio kadhaa uliofanywa na watafiti kutoka Uingereza, Marekani na Kanada na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 2008 ulitafiti majaribio ya madawa yaliyodhaminiwa na kampuni za dawa ili kutambua dawamfadhaiko sita kuu za kizazi kipya zilizoagizwa zaidi na kuwasilishwa kwa idhini ya FDA kati ya mwaka wa 1987 na 1999. Matokeo, kulingana na uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio ya awali, yalionyesha kuwa tofauti katika utendakazi kati ya dawamfadhaiko na kipozaungo ulikuwa mdogo, lakini kuwa uliongezeka kutoka kiwango cha kutokuwa na tofauti hadi kiwango cha wastani cha mfadhaiko wa hadi tofauti ndogo kwa wagonjwa wenye mfadhaiko mkali. Tofauti hii ilifikia kigezo cha kawaida cha matibabu kwa wagonjwa waliokuwa upande wa juu wa kategoria ya walioathirika zaidi na mfadhaiko, kutokana na kupungua kwa utendakazi wa kipozaungo. <ref name="pmid18303940">{{cite journal |author=Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT |title=Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=e45 |year=2008 |pmid=18303940 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045 |pmc=2253608}}</ref> Utafiti ulienea katika vyombo vya habari katika baadhi ya nchi, lakini ulikosolewa na jamii ya wataalamu. <ref>[170] ^ K. Eisele, MD Je, dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi? Ukaguzi wa mapitio. Tovuti ya Doctors Lounge. Inapatikana kwa: http://www.doctorslounge.com/index.php/articles/page/152 {{Wayback|url=http://www.doctorslounge.com/index.php/articles/page/152 |date=20100303180328 }}. Accessed 21 Septemba 2009.</ref> Eli Lilly na wenzake walijibu kwa kusisitiza kuwa utafiti haukuzingatia uchunguzi wa karibuni zaidi wa bidhaa yake, Prozac, na kuwa inajivunia tofauti iliyoletwa na Prozac kwa mamilioni ya watu. GlaxoSmithKline ilionya kuwa utafiti huu mmoja haupaswi kutumiwa kuwapa wasiwasi na kuwatisha wagonjwa. Wyeth alisema kuwa data hiyo ilitosha kwa FDA kuwapa idhini ya kutumia dawa hizo. <ref>Blue, L. (2008) [http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1717306,00.html Dawamfadhaiko hazisaidii pakubwa] {{Wayback|url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1717306,00.html |date=20110211013701 }} Time magazine, Jumanne 26 Februari</ref> Wataalamu wawili maarufu wa magonjwa ya akili/ wataalamu wa dawa, wenye uhusiano wa kifedha na kitaalamu na makampuni ya dawa, walisema kuwa majaribio ya muda mfupi hayafai katika kutathmini ufanisi, na kuwa yale ambayo hayajachapishwa ni duni zaidi. Pia walisema kuwa waandishi wa uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio walitumia misingi ya kisaikolojia badala ya ile ya upimaji wa dawa, na kuwa vyombo vya habari na "vipengele vya jumuia ya kisayansi na tiba havijishughulishi na maswala kuhusu dawamfadhaiko" na kuwa vyombo vya habari havifahamu uzito wa ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko na badala yake vinawashutumu wanaougua kwa njia yenye misingi ya mitazamo ya kidini ya enzi za kati. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Nutt DJ, Malizia AL |title=Why does the world have such a 'down' on antidepressants? |journal=J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=223–6 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18541622 |doi=10.1177/0269881108091877 }}</ref> *Makala katika The Washington Post ya tarehe 7 Mei 2002 yenye kichwa "Against Depression, a Sugar Pill Is Hard to Beat" yalisema kuwa "Uchambuzi mpya umetambua kuwa katika nyingi ya majaribio yaliofanywa na makampuni ya dawa katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, vidonge vya sukari vimeleta matokeo bora yaliyo sawa na -au wakati mwingine bora zaidi ya- dawamfadhaiko. Makampuni yamepaswa kufanya majaribio kadhaa ili yaweze kupata mbili ambazo zinaonyesha matokeo mazuri, jambo ambalo ni hitaji la msingi kwa kupata idhini ya Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa. Isitoshe, vidonge vya sukari, vipozaungo, kusababisha mabadiliko makubwa katika maeneo yaleyale ya ubongo yaliyoathirika na dawa, kulingana na utafiti iliochapishwa wiki iliyopita ... ya watengenezaji wa Prozac walipaswa kufanya majaribio matano ili kupata mawili chanya, na watengenezaji wa Paxil na Zoloft walipaswa hata kufanya majaribio mengi zaidi ... Leuchter alipolinganisha mabadiliko kwenye bongo za wagonjwa waliopewa vipozaungo, alishangaa kutambua kuwa wengi wao walikuwa na mabadiliko katika sehemu sawa za ubongo zinazodhaniwa kuwa hudhibiti vijisehemu muhimu vya hisia ... Baada ya jaribio hilo kuisha na wagonjwa waliopewa vipozaungo kufahamishwa, hali yao ilizorota mara kwa haraka. Imani ya watu kwa nguvu za dawamfadhaiko inaweza kueleza sababu za wagonjwa kufanya vizuri wakipewa vipozaungo... " <ref>[http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/technical/p58.htm Dhidi ya Mfadhaiko, ni vigumu kushindana na kidonge cha sukari] {{Wayback|url=http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/technical/p58.htm |date=20100925021110 }} , The Washington Post, 7 Mei 2002</ref> === Miongozo ya matibabu === Mwongozo wa mwaka wa 2000 wa Ushirikiano wa Marekani wa kuchunguza magonjwa ya akili wa kutibu wagonjwa wenye mfadhaiko mkuu<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder |publisher=Guidelines.gov |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |archivedate=2008-10-28 |https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 }}</ref> unaonyesha kuwa ikipendelewa zaidi na mgonjwa, dawamfadhaiko inaweza kutolewa kama matibabu msingi ya awali kwa ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko mkuu wa kiwango cha chini; dawamfadhaiko inapaswa kutumika tu kwa viwango wastani hadi vikuu vya mfadhaiko isipokuwa kama matibabu ya mtukutiko meme yamepangwa; na mchanganyiko wa dawa za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili na dawamfadhaiko au ya ya mtukutiko meme zinafaa kutumika kwa kutibu mfadhaiko wa kichaa. Inasema kuwa utendakazi unaweza kulinganishwa kwa ujumla kati ya kategoria na ndani ya kategoria na kuwa uteuzi wa awali utategemea pakubwa msingi ya athari zinazotarajiwa kwa mgonjwa binafsi, mapendeleo ya mgonjwa, wingi na ubora wa data ya utafiti wa kiafya kuhusu dawa, na gharama yake. Miongozo ya mwaka wa 2004 wa Taasisi ya Taifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu nchini Uingereza (NICE) inaonyesha kuwa dawamfadhaiko hazipaswi kutumiwa kwa matibabu ya awali ya mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha chini, kwa kuwa uwiano kati ya hatari na manufaa ni wa chini; kwa ule wa mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha wastani hadi kali, dawa aina ya SSRI ina uwezekano mkuu zaidi wa kuvumiliwa kuliko ile ya tricyclic; na kuwa dawamfadhaiko za mfadhaiko mkuu zinafaa kujumuishwa na matibabu ya kisaikolojia kama vile Tiba ya Utambuzi wa Kitabia. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG23 |title=Depression |publisher=Nice.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> === Upungufu wa ufanifu na mikakati === Kati ya 30% na 50% ya watu waliotibiwa na dawamfadhaiko maalumu hawaonyeshi mwitikio kwa dawa. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Baghai TC, Möller HJ, Rupprecht R |title=Recent progress in pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options of major depression |journal=Curr. Pharm. Des. |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=503–15 |year=2006 |pmid=16472142 |doi=10.2174/138161206775474422 }}</ref> <ref name="SSRIswitch">{{cite journal |author=Ruhé HG, Huyser J, Swinkels JA, Schene AH |title=Switching antidepressants after a first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in major depressive disorder: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2006-12_67_12/page/1836 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1836–55 |year=2006 |month=Desemba |pmid=17194261 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v67n1203 }}</ref> Hata pale ambapo kumekuwa na mwitikio mzuri, ni kawaida kupata kuwa mfadhaiko na utendakazi mbaya huendelea, na viwango vya kuugua tena ni vya juu kwa kati ya mara 3 hadi 6 zaidi katika matukio hayo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Tranter R, O'Donovan C, Chandarana P, Kennedy S |title=Prevalence and outcome of partial remission in depression |journal=J Psychiatry Neurosci |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=241–7 |year=2002 |month=Julai |pmid=12174733 |pmc=161658 }}</ref> Aidha, dawamfadhaiko huelekea kupoteza utendakazi katika kipindi cha matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Byrne SE, Rothschild AJ |title=Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_1998-06_59_6/page/279 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=279–88 |year=1998 |month=Juni |pmid=9671339 }}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya mikakati hutumika katika matibabu ili kujaribu kushinda vikomo na tofauti hizi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Mischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Kizilbash L, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M |title=Strategies for managing depression refractory to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment: a survey of clinicians |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-psychiatry_2000-06_45_5/page/476 |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=476–81 |year=2000 |month=Juni |pmid=10900529 }}</ref> ==== Ubadilishaji wa kubahatisha ==== Mwongozo wa mwaka wa 2000 wa Ushirikiano wa Marekani wa kuchunguza magonjwa ya akili unashauri kuwa pale ambapo hakuna mwitikio baada ya kati ya wiki sita na nane ya matibabu kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko maalumu, unafaa kubadili dawa na utumie dawamfadhaiko nyingine katika kategoria hiyo, kisha baadaye utumie dawamfadhaiko kutoka kategoria tofauti. Ukaguzi wa matokeo ya majaribio ya hivi karibuni ulitambua tofauti kubwa katika matokeo ya tafiti za awali; kwa wagonjwa waliokosa kutibiwa na dawamfadhaiko aina ya SSRI, kati ya 12% na 86% walionyesha mwitikio kwa dawa mpya, huku kati ya 5% na 39% wakisimamisha matibabu kutokana na athari mbaya. Mgonjwa ambaye tayari amejaribu aina kadhaa za dawamfadhaiko ana uwezekano mdogo zaidi wa kunufaika kutokana na jaribio jipya la dawamfadhaiko. <ref name="SSRIswitch"/> ==== Ukuzaji na uambatanishaji ==== Kuhusu mwitikio wa kiasi, miongozo ya Ushirikiano wa Marekani kuhusu magonjwa ya akili inashauri kuongeza aina mbalimbali za vikolezo vya dawa kwenye dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa wagonjwa wengi hushindwa kufikia kiwango cha kupunguza tibamfadhiko, na mikakati ya kuongeza inayotimika katika matibabu ni pamoja na matumizi ya [[Lithi|lithiamu]] na kuongezwa kwa homoni ya kikoromeo, lakini hakuna misingi bora ya ushahidi kwa mbinu hizi au kwa mikakati mipya zaidi kama vile kutumia antagonisti za dopamini, steroidi za ngono, NRI, vikolezo maalum vya glukokotikoidi, au vizuiakifafa <ref name="augment">{{cite journal |author=DeBattista C, Lembke A |title=Update on augmentation of antidepressant response in resistant depression |journal=Curr Psychiatry Rep |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=435–40 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=16318821 |doi=10.1007/s11920-005-0064-x }}</ref> Mkakati wa kuchanganya unahusisha kuongeza dawamfadhaiko moja au zaidi ya ziada, kwa kawaida kutoka kategoria tofauti ili kuleta athari mbalimbali kwenye mfumo wa neva. Ingawa hili linaweza kutumika katika matibabu, kuna ushahidi mdogo kuhusu uhusiano wa utendakazi au athari mbaya za mkakati huu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Lam RW, Wan DD, Cohen NL, Kennedy SH |title=Combining antidepressants for treatment-resistant depression: a review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2002-08_63_8/page/685 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=685–93 |year=2002 |month=Agosti |pmid=12197448 }}</ref> ==== Matumizi ya muda mrefu ==== Athari za matibabu ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kawaida hayaendelei kufanya kazi mara tu madawa yanapokomeshwa, na hivyo kusababisha kiwango cha juu cha kuugua tena. Uchambuzi wa karibuni wa matokeo ya majaribio 31 ya dawamfadhaiko yaliyodhibitiwa na vipozaungo, hasa yanayohusu utafiti uliofanywa kwa kipindi cha mwaka mmoja, yalionyesha 18% ya wagonjwa walioitikia dawamfadhaiko waliugua tena wakiwa wangali wanyatumia, ikilinganishwa na 41% ambao tiba zao zilibadilishwa na kupewa vipozaungo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Geddes JR, Carney SM, Davies C |title=Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-02-22_361_9358/page/652 |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9358 |pages=653–61 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12606176 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12599-8 }}</ref> Miongozo ya Ushirikiano wa Marekani kuhusu magonjwa ya akili inashauri kuendelezwa kwa matibabu ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kati ya miezi nne hadi sita kufuatia kumalizika kwa dalili. Kwa wagonjwa wenye historia ya matukio ya mfadhaiko, Miongozo ya Shirika la Uingereza la taaluma ya athari za dawa za magonjwa ya akili ya mwaka wa 2000 ya kutibu magonjwa ya mfadhaiko kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko yanashauri mgonjwa aendelee kutumia dawamfadhaiko kwa angalau miezi sita na kwa muda wa hadi miaka mitano au milele. Iwapo mtu ataugua tena au la baada ya kuacha kutumia dawamfadhaiko haionekani kuhusiana na muda wa matibabu ya awali, hata hivyo, na kupotezwa polepole kwa faida za matibabu pia hutokea wakati huo huo. Mkakati unaohusisha kutibu magonjwa kwa dawa kwa kutibu magonjwa makali, ukifuatiwa na matibabu ya kisaikolojia katika awamu ya mabaki, yamependekezwa na tafiti fulani. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Fava GA, Park SK, Sonino N |title=Treatment of recurrent depression |journal=Expert Rev Neurother |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=1735–40 |year=2006 |month=Novemba |pmid=17144786 |doi=10.1586/14737175.6.11.1735 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Petersen TJ |title=Enhancing the efficacy of antidepressants with psychotherapy |journal=J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) |volume=20 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=19–28 |year=2006 |month=Mei |pmid=16644768 |doi=10.1177/1359786806064314 }}</ref> === Kutofaulu kwa matibabu === Takriban 30% ya wagonjwa hupungukiwa na mfadhaiko baada ya kutumia dawa. <ref name="pmid16390886">{{cite journal |author=Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR |title=Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2006-01_163_1/page/28 |journal=The American journal of psychiatry |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=28–40 |year=2006 |pmid=16390886 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.28}}</ref> Kwa wagonjwa wasio na mwitikio wa kutosha, ama kuendelea kuongeza bupropioni (awali {{nowrap|200 mg}} ichukuliwe {{nowrap|100 mg}} kila siku na baadaye kuongezwa hadi jumla ya {{nowrap|400 mg}} kwa siku) au buspironi (hadi {{nowrap|60 mg}} kwa siku) ya kuongezwa kama dawa ya pili inaweza kusababisha kupunguka kwa karibu 30% ya wagonjwa, <ref name="pmid16554526">{{cite journal |author=Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR |title=Medication augmentation after the failure of SSRIs for depression |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-03-23_354_12/page/n55 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=354 |issue=12 |pages=1243–52 |year=2006 |pmid=16554526 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa052964}}</ref> huku kubadilisha madawa kunaweza kupunguza mfadhaiko kwa karibu 25% ya wagonjwa. <ref name="pmid16554525">{{cite journal |author=Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR |title=Bupropion-SR, sertraline, or venlafaxine-XR after failure of SSRIs for depression |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-03-23_354_12/page/n43 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=354 |issue=12 |pages=1231–42 |year=2006 |pmid=16554525 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa052963}}</ref> ==== Kwa sababu ya mimba ==== Hakuna uhakika ikiwa mimba huchangia kutofaulu kwa dawa, kwa kuwa ripoti ya pekee hadi sasa imekumbwa na utata mwingi: Katika mwaka wa 2006, utafiti maarufu sana uliochapishwa katika jarida la ''Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)'' ulipinga dhana kuwa mabadiliko ya homoni wakati wa ujauzito huwalindwa mama wajawazito dhidi ya mfadhaiko, na kutambua kuwa kutoendelea na matibabu dhidi ya mfadhaiko wakati wa ujauzito husababisha zaidi kuugua tena. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Cohen, MD | first =Lee S. | title = Relapse of Major Depression During Pregnancy in Women Who Maintain or Discontinue Antidepressant Treatment | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume =295 | issue = 5 | pages = 499–507 | publisher = American Medical Association | date= 1 Februari 2006 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/295/5/499 | accessdate = 2007-06-14 | doi = 10.1001/jama.295.5.499 | pmid = 16449615 | last2 = Altshuler | first2 = LL | last3 = Harlow | first3 = BL | last4 = Nonacs | first4 = R | last5 = Newport | first5 = DJ | last6 = Viguera | first6 = AC | last7 = Suri | first7 = R | last8 = Burt | first8 = VK | last9 = Hendrick | first9 = V}}</ref> Makala ya ''JAMA'' hayakufichua kuwa baadhi ya waandishi walikuwa na uhusiano wa kifedha na makampuni ya dawa yanayotengezeza dawamfadhaiko. ''JAMA'' baadaye ilichapisha makala rekebishi ili kubainisha uhusiano huo <ref>{{cite journal | title = Relapse of Major Depression During Pregnancy in Women Who Maintain or Discontinue Antidepressant Treatment—Correction | journal = JAMA | volume = 296 | issue = 2 | page = 170 | date = 12 Julai 2006 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/jama;296/2/170 | accessdate = 2007-06-14 | doi = 10.1001/jama.296.2.170 | archive-date = 2007-09-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122051/http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/jama%3B296/2/170 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> na waandishi walisisitiza kuwa mahusiano hayo hayaathiri kwa vyovyote kazi yao ya utafiti. Daktari wa uzazi na afya ya mama na mtoto Adam Urato aliliambia jarida la ''Wall Street'' kuwa wagonjwa na wataalamu wa matibabu wanahitaji ushauri bila ushawishi wa viwanda. <ref>David Armstrong, "Mwingiliano wa Madawa: Mahusiano ya kifedha na Viwanda yanazingira utafiti mkuu kuhusu mfadhaiko kuhusu: Ikiwa ni salama kwa wanawake wajawazito kuendelea kutumia madawa - JAMA inawauliza Waandishi waeleze zaidi." Wall Street Journal. 11 Julai 2006 ( [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/705022-114.stm nakala] {{Wayback|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/705022-114.stm |date=20111125085721 }} iliyochapishwa kwenye post gazette.com-)</ref> == Dalili za kuacha matumizi == Dawa ya SSRI ikimomeshwa ghafla, inaweza kusababisha dalili za kuacha za kimwili na za kisaikolojia, jambo linalojulikana kama "Dalili za kuacha za SSRI" (Tamam & Ozpoyraz, 2002). Wakati uamuzi wa kuacha kutumia dawamfadhaiko unapofanywa, ni jambo la kawaida "kujiachisha" kwa kupunguza kipimo polepole kwa muda wa wiki kadhaa. Kesi nyingi za dalili za kuachishwa huendelea kwa kati ya wiki mmoja na nne. Uteuzi wa dawamfadhaiko na kipimo kinachofaa kwa tukio fulani na mtu fulani ni mchakato mrefu na wenye utata, unaohitaji maarifa ya mtaalamu. Baadhi ya dawamfadhaiko yanaweza kutibua mfadhaiko katika siku za awali, yanaweza kusababisha wasiwasi, au wanaweza kumfanya mgonjwa awe na fujo, dhiki au ahisi sana kujiua. Katika matukio chache, dawamfadhaiko inaweza kusababisha kubadilika kutoka mfadhaiko hadi wazimu au haipomania. == Athari == Dawamfadhaiko mara nyingi husababisha athari mbaya, na ugumu wa kuvumilia athari hizi ndiyo sababu kuu ya kutoendelea na dawa yenye ufanisi mkuu. Athari za SSRIs ni pamoja na: kichefuchefu, kuendesha, fadhaa, kuumwa na kichwa. Athari kwa ngono pia ni kawaida kwa SSRI, kama vile kupotea kwa hamu ya kufanya mapenzi, kushindwa kufikia mshindo na shida ya kusimika. Dalili za ugonjwa wa serotonini pia ni hali inayoleta wasiwasi inayohusishwa na matumizi ya SSRI. Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa unahitaji SSRI zote ziweke onyo la Pakiti Nyeusi (Black Box), inayosema kuwa zinaongeza mara dufu kiwango cha kujiua (kutoka 2 kati ya 1000 hadi 4 kati ya 1000) kwa watoto na vijana. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Lenzer | first = Jeanne | title = Antidepressants double suicidality in children, says FDA | journal = BMJ | volume = 332 | page = 626 | year = 2006 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/332/7542/626-c | doi = 10.1136/bmj.332.7542.626-c | accessdate = 2008-04-14}}</ref> Hatari iliyoongezeka kwa kutaka kujiua na tabia ya kujiua kati ya watu wazima chini ya umri wa miaka 25 ambayo yanaonekana kwa kuonekana kwa watoto na vijana. <ref> BMJ: [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/339/aug11_2/b2880?maxtoshow=&amp;HITS=10&amp;hits=10&amp;RESULTFORMAT=&amp;fulltext=suicide&amp;searchid=1&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;sortspec=date&amp;resourcetype=HWCIT Hatari ya kujiua katika majaribio ya kliniki ya dawamfadhaiko kwa watu wazima] . 11 Agosti 2009.</ref> Madhara ya TCAs (dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki): Athari zinazojitokeza sana ni pamoja na kinywa kikavu, kiwaa, kusinzia, kizunguzungu, kutetemeka, matatizo ya ngono, ugonjwa wa ngozi, na kupata uzito au hasara. Madhara ya MAOI (vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini): Athari zisizo za kawaida za MAOIs kama fenilzini (Nardil) na tranilsaipromini (Parnate) ni pamoja na homa ya manjano, mshtuko wa moyo, [[Kiharusi|kiharusi]], na kifafa. Ugonjwa wa serotonini ni athari ya MAOIs ukiwekwa pamoja na madawa fulani. === Kujiua === Wagonjwa wa mfadhaiko ndio wenye hatari kubwa zaidi ya [[Jiua|kujiua]] mara tu baada ya kuanza kwa matibabu, kwa kuwa dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kupunguza dalili za mfadhaiko kama vile kudumaa kwa mwendo kunakohusishwa na michakato ya akili au ukosefu wa motisha kabla ya halihisi ya moyo kuanza kuwa bora. Ingawa jambo hili linaonekana kuwa kweli kinzani, uchunguzi unaonyesha kuwa uundaji wa mawazo ya kujiua ni kawaida wakati wa kuanza matibabu kwa dawamfadhaiko, na huenda likawa jambo la kawaida kwa wagonjwa wenye umri mdogo zaidi kama vile watoto walio karibu kubalehe na vijana. Watengenezaji wa madawa na madaktari mara nyingi huwapendekeza familia na wapendwa kufuatilia tabia ya mgonjwa mdogo kwa ishara zozote za mawazo ya kujiua au tabia, hasa katika kipindi cha wiki nane za kwanza za matibabu. Kabla ya onyo za pakiti nyeusi kwa madawa haya kutolewa na FDA na mashirika yaliyo sawa katika mataifa mengine, athari na kuzionya familia kuhusu hatari zilipuuzwa na kuchukuliwa kwa urahisi sana na watengenezaji wa madawa na wauguzi. Huenda jambo hili lilisababisha vifo kadhaa kupitia kujiua ingawa ushahidi wa moja kwa moja unaohusiana na matukio hayo hauna misingi dhabiti ya kisheria. Kuongezeka kwa taarifa kuhusu mawazo ya kujiua katika tafiti kadhaa kumevuta nadhari na kuibua uangalifu zaidi kuhusu namna ambavyo dawa hizi zinavyotumika. Watu wenye umri ulio chini ya miaka 24 wanaougua kutokana na mfadhaiko wanatahadharishwa kuwa matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko huenda yakaongeza hatari ya fikira na tabia ya kujiua. Maafisa wa afya ya ushirikisho walifungua [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023930/http://www.ecanadanow.com/science/health/2006/12/13/fda-antidepressants-increase-suicidal-risk-for -young-adults/proposed changes] kwenye maandiko juu ya madawa ya dawamfadhaiko mnamo Desemba 2006 ili kuwaonya watu kuhusu hatari hii. FDA inasema kuwa Paxil inafaa kuepukwa kwa watoto na vijana na kuwa katika matukio ya matibabu ambapo watoto wanaugua kutokana na mfadhaiko, dawamfadhaiko inayopaswa kutumika ni Prozac. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://antidepressantseffects.com/depression/|title=Depression Antidepressants in Teenagers and Children|date=|accessdate=2010-07-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520234355/http://antidepressantseffects.com/depression/|archivedate=2013-05-20}}</ref> Tarehe 6 Septemba 2007, na Vituo vya Kdhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa viliripoti kuwa kiwango cha kujiua kati ya vijana nchini Marekani, (hasa wasichana, wenye umri wa kati ya miaka 10-24), kiliongezeka kwa 8% (mwaka wa 2003 hadi 2004), ongezeko kubwa zaidi katika muda wa miaka 15, <ref name="NYTimes"> [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/07/health/07suicide.html Visa vya kujiua vinaongezeka kati ya Vijana; Mjadala kuhusu dawamfadhaiko unaendelea] , Carey Benedict, New York Times, 7 Septemba 2007</ref> hadi kesi 4599 za kuiua kwa Waamerika wenye umri wa miaka 10 hadi 24 mwaka wa 2004, kutoka 4,232 mwaka wa 2003, hivyo kuifanya kiwango cha kujiua kiwe 7.32 kwa kila watu 100,000 wenye umri huo. Awali kiwango hicho kilikuwa kimeshuka hadi 6.78 kwa kila watu 100,000 katika mwaka wa 2003 kutoka 9.48 kwa kila watu 100,000 katika mwaka wa 1990. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa magonjwa ya akili wametambua kuwa ongezeko hili linatokana na kushuka kwa idadi ya maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko kama vile Prozac kwa vijana tangu mwaka wa 2003, na visa vingi zaidi vya mfadhaiko vimebaki bila kutibiwa. Katika utafiti wa Desemba 2006, jarida la The American Journal of Psychiatry lilisema kuwa kupungua kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko kwa watoto kwa pointi chache tu za asilimia kulilingana na ongezeko la asilimia 14 ya waliojiua nchini Marekani; nchini [[Uholanzi]], kiwango cha kujiua kilipanda kwa 50% baada ya kupunguzwa kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Simon GE, Savarino J, Operskalski B, Wang PS |title=Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2006-01_163_1/page/41 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=41–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16390887 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.41}}</ref> Wahakiki kadhaa wa utafiti huu wanasema kuwa takwimu za kujiua za mwaka wa 2004 nchini Marekani zililinganishwa kwa njia sahili sana na mwaka uliopita, badala ya kuchunguza mabadiliko katika mwenendo kwa miaka kadhaa". <ref name="pmid18056248">{{cite journal |author=Jureidini J |title=The black box warning: decreased prescriptions and increased youth suicide? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2007-12_164_12/page/1907 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=12 |page=1907 |year=2007 |pmid=18056248 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07091463}}</ref> Shida ya jitihada kama hizo za kuamua mwelekeo kwa kutumia pointi mbili tu za data (miaka ya 2003 na 2004) zimedhihirishwa zaidi kutokana na ukweli kwamba, kwa mujibu wa data mpya ya uambukizaji na udhibiti wa magonjwa, kiwango cha kujiua katika mwaka wa 2005 kwa watoto na vijana kilipungua licha ya kuzidi kupungua kwa maagizo ya SSRI. "Ni hatari kufanya uamuzi kutokana na uchambuzi mdogo na finyu ya visa vichache vya mwaka hadi mwaka vya kupanda na kushuka kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko na kujiua. Njia moja nzuri inayohusu uambukizaji na udhibiti wa magonjwa ni kuchunguza uhusiano kati ya mienendo katika matumizi ya dawa za akili na kujiua kwa muda katika maeneo mengi madogo ya kijiografia. Hadi pale ambapo matokeo ya kina ya uchambuzi yatakapofahamika, ni jambo la busara kuhairisha maoni kuhusu athari za onyo la FDA kwa afya ya umma". <ref name="pmid18056247">{{cite journal |author=Olfson M, Shaffer D |title=SSRI Prescriptions and the Rate of Suicide |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2007-12_164_12/page/1907 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=12 |pages=1907–1908 |year=2007 |pmid=18056247 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07091467}}</ref> <ref name="titleN C H S - Health E Stats - Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/prelimdeaths05/prelimdeaths05.htm |title=N C H S - Health E Stats - Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005 |accessdate=2007-12-12 |author=Kung HC, Hoyert DL, Xu J, Murphy SL |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=National Center for Health Statistics |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=}}</ref> Chunguzi za kufuatilia zilizofanywa baadaye zimeunga mkono nadharia tete kuwa dawa za dawamfadhaiko hupunguza hatari ya kujiua. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Bridge JA, Iyengar S, Salary CB |title=Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2007-04-18_297_15/page/n68 |journal=JAMA |volume=297 |issue=15 |pages=1683–96 |year=2007 |pmid=17440145 |doi=10.1001/jama.297.15.1683}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Beasley CM, Ball SG, Nilsson ME |title=Fluoxetine and Adult Suicidality Revisited: An Updated Meta-Analysis Using Expanded Data Sources From Placebo-Controlled Trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychopharmacology_2007-12_27_6/page/682 |journal=J Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=682–686 |year=2007 |pmid=18004137 |doi=10.1097/jcp.0b013e31815abf21 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, uamuzi kuwa kushuka kwa kiwango cha kujiua katika jamii kunatokana na dawa kuagizwa kwa dawamfadhaiko ni antidepressant haiwezi kuaminika kutokana na wingi wa vigeugeu vinavyofadhaisha. === Ngono === Matatizo ya ngono ni athari ya kawaida sana, hasa kwa dawa za SSRI. Athari zinazohusiana na ngono ni pamoja na matatizo na hamu ya ngono, kutovutiwa na ngono, na anogasmia (shida kupata mshindo). <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/question/antidepressants-and-anorgasmia |title=UCSB's SexInfo |publisher=Soc.ucsb.edu |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archivedate=2009-05-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520055421/http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/question/antidepressants-and-anorgasmia }}</ref> Ingawa zinaweza kupona, athari hizi za ngono zinaweza, katika visa vichache, kuendelea kwa miezi au miaka baada ya kuacha kabisa kutumia dawa. Hii inajulikana kama Utendakazi mbaya wa Kimapenzi baada ya matumizi ya SSRI. Utendakazi mbaya wa ngono uliosababishwa na SSRI huathiri 30% hadi 50% au zaidi ya watu wanaotumia dawa hizi kutibu mfadhaiko. Utaratibu wa kibiokemia unaosemekana kuwa wa kusababisha ni pamoja na kuongezeka kwa serotonini, hasa kunakoathiri vipokezi vya 5HT2 na 5HT3; kupungua kwa dopamini; kupungua kwa norepinefrini; uzuaji wa vipokezi vya kolinjeri na adrenaji alpha-1; kuzuiliwa kwa sinthetesi ya oksidi nitriki; na kupanda kwa viwango vya prolaktini. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Keltner NL, McAfee KM, Taylor CL |title=Mechanisms and treatments of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction |journal=Perspectives in Psychiatric Care |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=111–6 |year=2002 |pmid=12385082 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-6163.2002.tb00665.x}}</ref> Bupropioni, kizuizi cha mara mbili (NE na DA) cha ufyonyaji upya, mara nyingi husababisha ongezeko la wastani la hamu ya kufanya mapenzi kutokana na kuongezeka kwa utendakazi wa dopamini. Athari hii pia hudhihirika kwa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa dopamini, vichangamsha CNS na agonisti za dopamini, na hutokana na kuongezeka kwa uzalishaji wa testosteroni (kutokana na kuzuiliwa kwa prolaktini) na usanisi wa oksidi nitriki. Mirtazapini (Remeron) imeripotiwa kuwa na athari chache zaidi, pengine kwa sababu inakinza vipokezi vya 5-HT2 na 5-HT3. Mitazapini, katika matukio fulani, inaweza kuondoa utendakazi mbaya wa ngono unaosababishwa na SSRI, ambayo pia kuna uwezekano kuwa unatokana na ukinzani wake na vipokezi vya 5-HT2 na 5-HT3<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ozmenler NK, Karlidere T, Bozkurt A |title=Mirtazapine augmentation in depressed patients with sexual dysfunction due to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-psychopharmacology_2008-06_23_4/page/321 |journal=Human Psychopharmacology |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=321–6 |year=2008 |month=Juni |pmid=18278806 |doi=10.1002/hup.929}}</ref> Apomofini, nefazodoni na baruti kali zimeonyeshwa kuwa na uwezo wa kuondoa baadhi ya utendakazi mbaya wa ngono kupitia kuongezeka kwa utendakazi wa nitriki oksidi. MAOI zinaripotiwa kuwa na athari hasi chache zaidi kwa utendakazi wa ngono na hamu ya kufanya mapenzi, hasa moklobemidi kwa kiwango cha 1.9% ya matukio yote. Bethanekoli imeripotiwa kubadili utendakazi mbaya wa ngono unaosababishwa na MAOI kupitia sifa zake za agonisti za kolineji. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Gross MD |title=Reversal by bethanechol of sexual dysfunction caused by anticholinergic antidepressants |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=139 |issue=9 |pages=1193–4 |year=1982 |month=Septemba |pmid=7114318 |doi= |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7114318}}</ref> === Mapenzi === Wanasaikolojia wengi wanaamini kuwamba dawamfadhaiko zinaathiri uwezo wa kupenda au kupokea upendo. Watumiaji wengi wa dawamfadhaiko pia wameripoti kuwa uwezo wao wa kupenda ulipunguzwa na dawamfadhaiko. Madawa ya dawamfadhaiko pia yanaweza kuzuia hisia za kimsingi za binadamu za upendo na mahaba. "Kuna sababu zinazofaa za kufikiri kuwa SSRI hupunguza uwezo wako wa kupenda na kubaki katika upendo," alisema Helen Fisher, mwana anthropolojia kutoka chuo kikuu cha Rutgers aliyeanzisha sayansi ya kisasa ya upendo. Dawamfadhaiko za SSRI hufanya kazi kwa kuongeza viwango vya mzunguko wa serotonini, nyurotransmita inayodhibiti halihisi ya moyo na pia inadhibiti tamaa. Madawa hayo pia hupunguza dopamini, nyurotransmita inayohusika katika michakato mbalimbali ya utambuzi na tabia, ikiwa ni pamoja na hamu na mwamsho. Utafiti mpya unaonyesha kuwa dopamini huenda pia ikawa na jukumu katika mahaba. Wakati wa kufanya mapenzi, mchanganyiko wa homoni hutolewa na unaonekana kuwa na majukumu muhimu katika kukuza uambatishaji wa kimapenzi ndani ya ubongo. Ukiondoa ngono, mapenzi ya kimahaba yanaweza kufifia. Lakini hii ni sehemu tu ya tatizo, anasema Fisher na mtaalamu wa saikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Virginia James Thomson. Wakati wapenzi wanapopendana kwa dhati, kuonana tu kunasababisha kupanda kwa shughuli za ubongo zinazohusiana na dopamini. Wakiweza kuendelea kupendana, na hisia za awali ziweze kukua hadi ziwe mapenzi ya muda mrefu, kwa mvuto wa awali kukua hadi mapenzi ya muda mrefu, ruwaza za ubongo hubaki hai. Kupungua kwa viwango vya dopamini, hata hivyo, ni athari isiyoweza kuepukika ya SSRI. Ukipunguza dopamini, wanasema Fisher na Thomson, uwezekano wa upendo wenyewe ni utapunguka. <ref> http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/02/antidepressants/</ref> Watu wapweke wanaotumia dawamfadhaiko huenda wakaona ugumu zaidi kukutana na watu, kwa kuwa mwitikio wao wa asili wa ngono umepunguka. Baadhi ya watafiti wanaamini kuwa hamu ilitengenezwa ili kuwasaidia watu kuchagua wenzi wanaowafaa kijenetiki. Cheche zinazowaka unapokutana na mtu kwa mara ya kwanza zinakuambia kitu: Huenda huyu ndiye mwenzi wako. Wakati ishara hizo hazijitokezi, uwezekano wako wa kupata mwenzi anayefaa hupungua. <ref> http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200704/sex-love-and-ssris</ref> Kuna tafiti kadhaa kuhusu athari za dawamfadhaiko kwa vipengele mbalimbali vya upendo zaidi ya ashiki na utendaji wa kingono. Lakini katika majaribio ya kuvutia, mwanasaikolojia mmoja wa Kanada, Maryanne Fisher (hana uhusiano na Helen), aliripoti ushahidi katika utafiti mdogo mwaka wa 2004 ya kile alichokiita "kukufisha ganzi uchumba" kwa wanawake wanaotumia dawamfadhaiko. Walipoulizwa wakague uvutivu wa nyuso za wanaume, wanawake wanaotumia madawa hayo walikagua wanaume hao vibaya zaidi, na walizipitia picha kwa haraka zaidi kuliko wanawake wasiotumia dawamfadhaiko. === Thaimoanesthesia === Wenye uhusiano wa karibu na madhara ya ngono ni dhana ya kukufisha hisia ganzi, au ganzi ya halihisi. Watumiaji wengi wa SSRI hulalamika kuhusu hali ya kutojali, ukosefu wa motisha, kuganda hisia, hisia ya kutengwa, na kutojihusisha na mazingira. Wanaweza kueleza jambo hili kama hisia ya "kutojali tena kuhusu kitu chochote." SSRI, SNRI, na TCA za kutoa serotonini zote zinaweza kusababisha tofauti hizi zinazobadilika, hasa vikiwa kwa viwango vya juu. <ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9184611</ref> === Kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi === Madawa yote makuu ya dawamfadhaiko, isipokuwa trimipramini, mirtazapini na nefazodoni huzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi, na imependekezwa kuwa utendakazi wa kiafya wa madawa haya unatokana kwa kiasi kikubwa na athari zao za kuzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. Kategoria tatu kuu za madawa ya dawamfadhaiko, vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs) na vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini vinavyochagua (SSRIs), huzuia pakubwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. <ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert P. |last=Vertes |year=2000 |title=The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_2000-12_23_6/page/n82 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=867–876 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X00004003 |pmid=11515146 |last2=Eastman |first2=KE}}</ref> Mirtazapini ama haina athari kwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi au huiongeza kwa kiwango kidogo. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/2030e2.htm |title=ISP: Mirtazapine Regulates Stress Hormones, Improves Sleep In Depressed Patients |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304235031/http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/2030e2.htm |archivedate=2012-03-04 }}</ref> Dawa za aina ya MAOI huzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi karibu kabisa, huku dawa aina za TCA na SSRI zimetambuliwa kuwa zinazalisha mara moja (40-85%) na kwa kuendelezwa (30-50%) upungukaji wa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. Athari hii mara nyingi huongeza uchovu kwa wagonjwa wanaotumia vipimo vikubwa vya dawamfadhaiko kwa muda mrefu. Uchovu kama huo mara kwa mara unaweza kukatiza shughuli za mgonjwa za kila siku. Ukomeshaji wa ghafla wa MAOI unaweza kusababisha tukio la muda linalojulikana kama "kurudi tena kwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi" ambapo mgonjwa huota ndoto dhairi sana na jinamizi. === Kuongeza Uzito === Dawamfadhaiko nyingi huhusishwa na kuongeza uzito kwa kawaida katika kiwango cha {{Convert|5|–|25|kg|lb|abbr=on}} lakini mara chache kwenda juu hadi {{Convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}} . Chanzo maalum haijulikani, lakini dawamfadhaiko huhusishwa na kuongezeka kwa kutamani vitu, na kutokuwa na uwezo wa kuhisi kama umeshiba licha ya kuingiza kalori za kutosha, viwango vya chini vya nguvu na kuongezeka kwa usingizi wa mchana, ambao unaweza kusababisha kukula kupindukia na ukosefu wa hamu ya kufanya mazoezi, na kinywa kikavu, ambayo inaweza kusababisha unywaji wa vinywaji vyenye kalori nyingi. Sifa za kumaliza kemikali za mzio za dawamfadhaiko kadhaa za kategoria ya TCA na TeCA zimetambulika kuwa zinachangia na upande wa athari wa kuongezeka kwa hamu ya chakula na kuongeza uzito unaohusiana na kategoria hizi za madawa. Ulaji wa asusa za kabohaidreti zenye kiwango cha chini cha mafuta na protini na dhifa zenye kabohaidreti nyingi unaruhusu ubongo kuzalisha serotonini inayodhibiti hamu ya chakula na kusawazisha halihisi ya moyo. Kwa hivyo, kabohaidreti ikiliwa kama sehemu ya chakula bora, kwa mujibu wa athari zao kwa kiwango cha serotonini kwenye ubongo, zinaweza kusaidia kupoteza uzito katika muktadha wa kuongezeka uzito kutokana na dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite book|last=Wurtman|first=JJ|coauthors=Marquis NF|title=The serotonin power diet : use your brain's natural chemistry to cut cravings, curb emotional overeating, and lose weight|accessdate=2009-05-29|year=c2006|publisher=Rodale|location=Emmaus, Penn|isbn=978-1-59486-346-2|pages=290}}</ref> == Ubishani == Tafiti kadhaa zimeibua shaka kuhusu ufanisi wa dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2002 ulionyesha kuwa tofauti kati ya dawamfadhaiko na vipozaungo ni mdogo sana. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kirsch|first=I|year=2002|month=Julai|title=The emperor's new drugs: An analysis of antidepressant medication data submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration|journal=Prevention & Treatment|volume=5|issue=1|publisher=American Psychological Association|doi=10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.523a|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Moore|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Scoboria|first3=Alan|last4=Nicholls|first4=Sarah S.}}</ref> Kupitia ombi la Sheria ya uhuru wa kupata habari, wanasaikolojia wawili walipata tafiti 47 zilizotumiwa na FDA kuidhinisha dawamfadhaiko sita zilizoagizwa sana kati ya mwaka wa 1987 na mwaka wa 1999. Kwa ujumla, vidonge vya dawamfadhaiko vilitenda kazi vizuri zaidi kwa 18% kuliko vipozaungo, kitakwimu inayoleta tofauti kuu, lakini isiyo na maana kwa watu walio katika mazingira ya kliniki ", anasema Irving Kirsch, mwanasaikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Connecticut. Yeye pamoja na mwandishi mwenzake Thomas Moore walitoa matokeo yao kuhusu "Kinga na Tiba", jarida la elektroniki la Shirika la Kisaikolojia la Marekani. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/drugs/2002-07-08-antidepressants.htm |title= Study: Antidepressant barely better than placebo |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=2002-07-07&nbsp;-&nbsp;Updated&nbsp;11:47 PM&nbsp;ET |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine uliofanywa na wanasaikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Pennsylvania, Chuo Kikuu cha Vanderbilt, Chuo Kikuu cha Colorado, na Chuo Kikuu cha New Mexico ulitambua kuwa ni vigumu kwa dawamfadhaiko kuwa na athari bora zaidi kuliko zile za vipozaungo katika visa vya mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha chini au wastani. Utafiti huo ulichapishwa katika jarida la Shirika la Marekani la Uuguzi. Utafiti huo ulilenga Paxili kutoka GlaxoSmithKline na imipramini. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/05/antidepressant-paxil-placebo-business-healthcare-depression.html|title=Study Undermines Case for Antidepressants|date=|accessdate=2010-07-01|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121208170044/http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/05/antidepressant-paxil-placebo-business-healthcare-depression.html|archivedate=2012-12-08}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2005, dawamfadhaiko ilikuwa ndio dawa iliyoagizwa zaidi nchini Marekani, na hivyo kusababisha mjadala zaidi kuhusu swala hilo. Baadhi ya madaktari wanaamini kuwa hii ni ishara nzuri kuwa watu hatimaye wanatafuta msaada kwa ajili ya matatizo yao. Wengine hawakubaliani, huku wakisema kuwa hii inaonyesha kwamba watu wanaendelea kutegemea dawamfadhaiko sana. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/07/09/antidepressants/index.html |title=CDC: Antidepressants most prescribed drugs in U.S. |date= 2007-07-09|accessdate=2008-11-06 | work=CNN}}</ref> == Dawa == Mara nyingi watengenezaji wa dawa za SSRI wameficha habari kutoka kwa FDA na umma ili wachukulie kwa urahisi hatari na athari mbaya zinazohusishwa na SSRI. Hii ilisababisha ubishi dhidi ya watengenezaji wengi wa madawa ya kupambana na mfadhaiko ya SSRI katika visa vinavyohusiana na kujiua, kuachishwa kwa SSRI na kasoro kuzaliwa kwa watoto wachanga kutoka kwa mama wanaonyonyesha wanaotumia SSRI. Kwa moja kati ya kesi tatu pekee zilizowahi kufikishwa mahakamani kuhusu uwezekano kuwa SSRI huchangia kujiua, Eli Lilly na wenzake walishikwa wakiingilia mchakato wa kimahakama kwa kusikilizana na wakili wa mdai kutupa kesi hiyo, kwa sehemu kwa kutotoa ushahidi utakaowaletea hasara mbele ya mahakama. Kesi hiyo, inayojulikana kama Kesi ya Fentress ilihusisha mwanaume mmoja kutoka Kentucky, Joseph Wesbecker, kuhusu Prozac, aliyeenda mahali pake pa kazi na kuanza mashambulio kwa bunduki na kuwaua watu 8 (ikiwa ni pamoja na Fentress), na kuwajeruhi wengine 12 kabla ya kujiua mwenyewe kwa bastola. Juri ilitoa uamuzi wa 9-kwa-3 uliompendelea Lilly. Hakimu, mwishowe aliihamisha kesi hiyo hadi Mahakama Makuu ya Kentucky, iliyoamua kuwa "kulikuwa na ukosefu mkubwa wa uwazi kwa upande wa mahakama na huenda kulikuwa na udanganyifu, mwenendo ulioongozwa na imani mbaya, matumizi mabaya ya mchakato wa kimahakama na, pengine hata udanganyifu. "Hakimu baadaye alibatilisha uamuzi huo na badala yake, akasema kesi hiyo imefungwa. Thamani ya makubaliano ya mpango huo wa siri haujawahi kufichuliwa, lakini iliripotiwa kuwa ni "kubwa". <ref>[http://www.judicialaccountability.org/articles/hideandseek.htm ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.judicialaccountability.org/articles/hideandseek.htm |date=20100610031049 }} kutoka kwa Richard Zitrin &amp; Carol M. Langford. "Hide and Secrets in Louisville" kutoka "The Moral Compass of the American Lawyer". Vitabu vya Ballantine, 1999</ref> Tarehe 22 Desemba 2006, mahakama moja ya Marekani iliamua kuhusu Hoorman, na wenzake. dhidi ya SmithKline Beecham Corp. kuwa watu walionunua Paxil(R) au Paxil CR(TM) (paroksetini) kwa mtoto mdogo huenda wakastahiki kupata ruzuku chini ya maafikiano yaliyopendekezwa ya $ 63,800,000. Daawa lilishinda madai kuwa kampuni ya kutengeneza dawa za GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) ilikampenia uagizaji wa Paxil(R) au Paxil CR(TM) kwa watoto na vijana huku ikikatalia na kuficha habari muhimu kuhusu usalama na ufanisi wa dawa hizo kwa watoto. <ref>[http://www.ahrp.org/risks/SSRI0204/GSKpaxil/pg1.html ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ahrp.org/risks/SSRI0204/GSKpaxil/pg1.html |date=20110614100740 }} Oktoba 1998 Kumbukumbu ya GSK: Mikakati ya ufichuzi</ref> Daawa hilo lilitokana na maandamano ya kutetea watumiaji dhidi ya GSK, watengenezaji wa Paroxetine. Tangu FDA iidhinishe paroxetine mwaka wa 1992, takriban raia 5,000 wa Marekani - na maelfu ya watu wengine duniani - wameishtaki GSK. Wengi wa watu hawa wanaona kuwa hawakuonywa inavyopaswa mapema kuhusu madhara ya dawa hii na sifa zake za utegemezi. Kulingana na [http://www.paxilprotest.com/ tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil] {{Wayback|url=http://www.paxilprotest.com/ |date=20180307152504 }}, mamia ya daawa zaidi ziliwasilishwa dhidi ya GSK. Tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil ilizinduliwa mnamo 8 Agosti 2005 ili kutoa taarifa kuhusu upingaji na habari juu ya Paxil ambayo awali haikupatikana kwa umma. Wiki tatu tu baada ya uzinduzi wake, tovuti hiyo ilitembelewa na zaidi ya watu robo milioni. Tovuti asili ya upingaji wa Paxil haipatikani tena. Inaeleweka kuwa hatua ya kuondoa tovuti hiyo kutoka kwenye mtandao ilichukuliwa kama sehemu ya makubaliano kuhusu usiri au 'amri ya kunyamazisha' ambayo mmiliki tovuti aliingilia kama sehemu ya maafikiano kwa hatua yake dhidi ya GlaxoSmithKline. (Hata hivyo, mnamo Machi 2007, tovuti ya Seroxat Secrets <ref>{{cite web|url=http://seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com/2007/03/03/the-paxil-protest-time-machine/ |title=The Paxil Protest time machine « seroxat secrets… |publisher=Seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> iligundua kuwa nyaraka za tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil<ref>{{cite web|url=http://paxilprotest.com/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519170044/http://paxilprotest.com/|archivedate=2006-05-19|title=The Paxil Protest I Welcome<!-- Bot generated title -->|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=|accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> bado inapatikana kwenye mtandao kupitia Archive.org). Amri zakunyamazisha ni kawaida kwa kesi kama hizo na zinaweza kuhusisha hata hati ambazo washtakiwa wangependelea yaendeleaa kufichwa kwa umma. Hata hivyo, katika hali fulani, hati hizo zinaweza kutolewa kwa umma baadaye, kama zile zilizotolewa kwa umma na Peter Breggin mnamo Februari 2006. Toleo la habari kutoka kwa Dkt Breggin linaweza kuonekana hapa: <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.breggin.com/courtfiling.pbreggin.2006.html |title=Suppressed Paxil Suicide Data Released |publisher=Breggin.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021042112/http://www.breggin.com/courtfiling.pbreggin.2006.html |archivedate=2008-10-21 }}</ref> Mnamo Januari 2007, kulingana na tovuti ya Seroxat Secrets, <ref>{{cite web|url=http://seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |title=seroxat secrets… |publisher=Seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> daawa ya kikundi cha kitaifa dhidi ya GlaxoSmithKline plc [[Ufalme wa Muungano|nchini Uingereza]], kwa niaba ya watu mia kadhaa ambao wanadai wamepata athari za kuachishwa baada ya kutumia dawa ya Seroxat, walichukua hatua ya karibu zaidi hadi Mahakama Kuu ya [[London]], na thibitisho kuwa fedha za umma zilirejeshwa kufuatia uamuzi wa Jopo la Rufaa kuhusu Maslahi ya Umma. Swala kuu kuhusiana na kitendo hiki linadai kuwa Seroxat ni dawa yenye kasoro kwa kuwa ina mwelekeo wa kusababisha mjibizo wa kuachishwa. Mawakili wa Hugh James wanathibitisha habari hii katika tovuti yao <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.hughjames.com/lifestyle/groupactions/seroxt.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2007-02-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222131722/http://www.hughjames.com/lifestyle/groupactions/seroxt.html |archivedate=2007-02-22 }}</ref> Tarehe 29 Januari 2007, shirika la BBC nchini Uingereza ilirushwa hewani filamu ya nne ionyeshayo hali halisi katika mfululizo wake unaoitwa 'Panorama' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/5346938.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Programmes &#124; Panorama &#124; Seroxat update |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=Last Updated: |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> kuhusu dawa ya kulevya Seroxat ya. Kipindi hiki, kinachoitwa Siri za Majaribio ya Dawa, kinahusu majaribio matatu ya kiafya yaliyofanywa na GSK kwa watoto na vijana wenye mfadhaiko. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|2}} == Kusoma zaidi == * {{cite book |author=Healy, David |title=The antidepressant era |url=https://archive.org/details/antidepressanter00heal |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1997 |isbn=0-674-03958-0 }} * {{cite book |author=Kramer, Peter D. |title=Listening to Prozac |url=https://archive.org/details/listeningtoproz000kram |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-14-026671-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Baumel, Syd |title=Natural Antidepressants |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-87983-900-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Stahl, Stephen M. |title=Psychopharmacology of Antidepressants |publisher=Informa Healthcare |year=1997 |isbn=1-85317-513-7 }} * {{cite journal |author=Pacher P, Kecskemeti V |title=Trends in the development of new antidepressants. Is there a light at the end of the tunnel? |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=925–43 |year=2004 |month=Aprili |pmid=15078174 |pmc=2495050 |doi=10.2174/0929867043455594 }} * {{cite journal |author=Pacher P, Kohegyi E, Kecskemeti V, Furst S |title=Current trends in the development of new antidepressants |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=89–100 |year=2001 |month=Februari |pmid=11172668 }} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Antidepressants}} {{Wiktionary|antidepressant}} * [http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm Uumbaji wa Niuroni Mpya zilizo muhimu kwa Utendakazi wa Dawamfadhaiko kwenye Panya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm |date=20121010122000 }} * [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf Jopo la Wataalamu la NIH kuhusu elimu juu ya asili na athari za sumu katika Prozac (Fluoxetine) kwa uzazi na kukua] {{Wayback|url=http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf |date=20090923193919 }} * [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf Monografu ya NIH juu ya athari za Prozac (Fluoxetine) zinazoweza kujitokeza kwa uzazi na ukuaji wa binadamu] {{Wayback|url=http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf |date=20100527103308 }} * [http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/MDD.watch.pdf Mwongozo wa Matibabu wa mwaka wa 1995 wa Ushirika wa Marekani wa Magonjwa ya Akili kwa ajili ya matibabu ya wagonjwa wenye ugonjwa wa Mfadhaiko mkuu] * [http://childadvocate.net/childpresentations/child_medication.htm Watoto na Madawa - wasilisho linalotumia mbinu nyingi] {{Wayback|url=http://childadvocate.net/childpresentations/child_medication.htm |date=20140810061955 }} * [http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf Shirika la Uingereza la Taaluma ya athari za dawa za magonjwa ya akili 2000 Miongozo inayozingatia ushahidi kwa kutibu magonjwa ya mfadhaiko kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf |date=20061012221324 }} * [http://biopsychiatry.com/index.html Mwongozo wa Madawa Mazuri: dawa mpya za kuboresha halihisi ya moyo na dawamfadhaiko] * [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/234 Video ya Loren Mosher, MD] (Mkuu wa kwanza wa tafiti kuhusu Skizofrenia NIMH na mhariri mwanzilishi wa ''Bulletin dhiki)'' * [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/330/7488/420 Joanna Moncrieff: Msingi wa ushahidi kuhusu dawamfadhaiko za awali ni dhaifu pia.] BMJ 2005;330:420 (19 Februari) * [http://www.healyprozac.com/Book/Introduction.pdf Utangulizi kwa ''Let Them Eat Prozac'' na David Healy] * [http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinformation/mentalhealthproblems/depression/antidepressants.aspx Ukurasa wenye habari kutoka Chuo cha Royal College of Psychiatrists] * Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/courtroom.html Putting Science in the Dock, ] , The Nation * [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=60 Bibliografia kuhusu dawamfadhaiko katika historia ya saikolojia] * [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2009/7/recognising_antidepressants.asp Ufahamu ya haraka] unaoonyesha jinsi mabadiliko madogo katika dawamfadhaiko yanaweza kubadilisha kwa kasi lengo lake katika ubongo. Kutoka kwa Royal Society of Chemistry * [http://www.ssristories.com/ Mkusanyiko wa habari 3100 na zaidi pamoja na makala kamili yanayopatikana, hasa kuhusu uhalifu, ambapo dawamfadhaiko zinatajwa.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ssristories.com/ |date=20131212204756 }} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8304782.stm Dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi mara moja - Habari za BBC News] [[Jamii:madawa]] j5s9nko6duflzn9rpr6eviab1nhab2t 0 55351 1564502 1527861 2026-06-02T17:36:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} {{Pp-move-indef}} {{Infobox disease | Name = Ulevi | Image = King Alcohol and his Prime Minister.jpg | Caption = "Mfalme Alkoholi na Waziri Mkuu wake", 1820 hivi | DiseasesDB = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|10||f|10}}.2 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|303}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = alcoholism | eMedicineSubj = | eMedicineTopic = 285913 | MeshID = D000437 }} '''Ulevi''' au '''uraibu wa pombe''' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000944.htm |title=Alcoholism |author=MedlinePlus |coauthors=National Library of Medicine |date=15 Januari 2009 |publisher=National Institute of Health }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nih.gov/about/researchresultsforthepublic/AlcoholDependenceAlcoholism.pdf |title=Alcohol Dependence (Alcoholism) |author=Department of Health and Human Services |authorlink=Department of Health and Human Services |publisher=National Institutes of Health |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-05-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528081546/http://www.nih.gov//about/researchresultsforthepublic/AlcoholDependenceAlcoholism.pdf }}</ref> ni [[ulemavu]] unaotokana na unywaji [[pombe]] bila udhibiti licha ya madhara yake kwa [[afya]] ya mnywaji, mahusiano na hadhi yake machoni pa jamii. Kama matatizo mengine ya kiafya, ulevi ni mojawapo ya [[Ugonjwa|magonjwa]] yanayoweza kutibika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/alcoholism_treatable.pdf |title=DEFINITIONS |first= |last= |author=American Medical Association |authorlink=American Medical Association |publisher=AMA |location=USA |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-03-04 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5nyRluZTi?url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/alcoholism_treatable.pdf }}</ref> Neno "ulevi" hutumika kwa kawaida, lakini [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) limelifafanua kama "neno lililotumika kwa muda mrefu kwa maana tofautitofauti", na matumizi ya neno yalikataliwa na Kamati ya Wataalamu wake mwaka 1979 kama istilali ya kiafya, huku ikipendekeza "utegemezi pombe".<ref name="ladtpwho">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ |title=Lexicon of alcohol and drug terms published by the World Health Organization |author=WHO |publisher=World Health Organisation }}</ref> Katika miktadha ya kitaalamu na kiutafiti, neno "ulevi" wakati mwingine hujumuisha utumiaji mbaya na utegemezi wa pombe.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000002709|alcoholism}}</ref> na wakati mwingine kuchukuliwa kama kisawe cha utegemezi pombe. Hapana uhakika wa sababu za [[biolojia|kibiolojia]] zinazochangia ulevi, hata hivyo, hali hiyo yaweza kutokana na [[mazingira]] ya kijamii, [[mfadhaiko]] wa [[ubongo]],<ref name="Glavas">{{cite book | author = Glavas MM, Weinberg J| year = 2006 | chapter = Stress, Alcohol Consumption, and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis | title = Nutrients, Stress, and Medical Disorders| editor = Yehuda S, Mostofsky DI| publisher = Humana Press | location = Totowa, NJ | isbn = 978-1-58829-432-6 | pages = 165–183}}</ref> tatizo la [[akili]], [[maumbile]], [[umri]], [[kabila]], na [[jinsia]].<ref name="Agarwal-Kozlowski-2000">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Agarwal-Kozlowski | first1 = K. | last2 = Agarwal | first2 = DP. | title = [Genetic predisposition for alcoholism] | journal = Ther Umsch | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 179–84 | month = Apr | year = 2000 | pmid = 10804873 }}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Chen | first1 = CY. | last2 = Storr | first2 = CL. | last3 = Anthony | first3 = JC. | title = Early-onset drug use and risk for drug dependence problems. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_addictive-behaviors_2009-03_34_3/page/319 | journal = Addict Behav | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–22 | month = Mar | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.021 | pmid = 19022584 | pmc = 2677076 }}</ref> Matumizi mabaya ya pombe kwa muda mrefu huleta mabadiliko ya kimwili katika ubongo kama vile uhimili na utegemezi. Mabadiliko ya [[kemia|kikemia]] katika ubongo hudumisha hali ya mlevi kushindwa kuacha pombe na huweza kusababisha dalili za mtegemea-pombe pale aachapo kunywa.<ref name="Hoffman-1996"></ref> Pombe huharibu takribani kila kiungo katika mwili, kwa sababu ya athari jumlishi ya [[sumu]] ya utegemezi pombe, mlevi hukumbwa na hatari nyingi za kimagonjwa na kiakili.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Woody |editor1-last=Caan |editor2-first=Jackie de |editor2-last=Belleroche |title=Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice |url=http://books.google.com/?id=nPvbDUw4w5QC |edition=1st |date=11 Aprili 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-27891-1 |pages=19–20}}</ref> ulevi una madhara makubwa ya kijamii kwa walevi na watu wanaohusika na maisha yao.<ref name="tcemh2006"></ref><ref name="abd2009"></ref> Ulevi ni athari inayodumu ya kuhimili na kutegemea matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi; ukosefu wa kudhibiti ulevi, licha ya kufahamu madhara kwa afya, hudhihirisha kwamba mtu anaweza kuwa mlevi.<ref name="DSMIV"></ref> Uchunguzi kupitia hojaji ni njia ya kutambua mienendo ya unywaji hatari, ikiwemo utegemezi pombe.<ref name="Kahan-1996"></ref> Utoaji sumu ya pombe hufanywa ili kumwondoa mnywaji katika ulevi, kwa kawaida kwa dawa mbalimbali, kama vile benzodiazepini.<ref name="Blondell-2005"></ref> Utunzaji baada ya matibabu kama vile tiba ya kimakundi au katika vikundi vya kujisaidia binafsi, kwa kawaida huhitajika ili kudumisha ususiaji pombe.<ref name="Morgan-Lopez-2006"></ref><ref name="Soyka-2001"></ref> Mara nyingi, walevi pia ni wategemezi wa [[Mihadarati|mihadarati]] mingineyo, hasa benzodiazepini, ambayo inaweza kuhitaji matibabu ya ziada.<ref name="dolpdaa">{{cite journal |author=Johansson BA, Berglund M, Hanson M, Pöhlén C, Persson I |title=Dependence on legal [[psychotropic]] drugs among alcoholics |journal=Alcohol Alcohol. |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=613–8 |year=2003 |pmid=14633651 |doi= 10.1093/alcalc/agg123|url=http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/38/6/613 |format=PDF |month= Novemba|issn=0735-0414}}</ref> [[Mwanamke]] mlevi huathirika zaidi kimwili, kihisia, na kiakili na ongezeko la unyanyapaa wa kijamii, kutokana na hali ya ulevi.<ref name="Blume Laura N., Nielson Nancy H., Riggs Joseph A., et all 1998 861–870"></ref><ref name="Walter H., Gutierrez K., Ramskogler K., Hertling I., Dvorak A., Lesch O.M., et al. 2003 253–268"></ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani linakadiria kuwa pana walevi milioni 140 duniani kote.<ref name="whoemcoypaa"></ref><ref name="whotmbcrtdhrai"></ref> ==Uainisho na istilahi== Utumiaji mbaya, utumiaji tatizi, utegemezi, na matumizi mazito hurejelea unywaji usiofaa wa pombe ambao unasababisha madhara ya kimwili, kijamii, au kimaadili.<ref name="the_american_heritage_dictionary_of_the_english_language_a12">{{Rejea kitabu | author = American Heritage Dictionaries | title = The American Heritage dictionary of the English language | url = http://books.google.com/?id=uPCFIQAACAAJ | date = 12 Aprili 2006 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | edition = 4 |quote = To use wrongly or improperly; misuse: abuse alcohol | isbn = 978-0-618-70172-8 }}</ref> Matumizi ya wastani yanaelezwa na ''Mwongozo wa Lishe kwa Wamarekani'' kuwa yale yasiyozidi chupa mbili za vileo kwa siku kwa ajili ya wanaume na yasiyozidi chupa moja kwa siku kwa wanawake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm |title=Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 |year=2005 |publisher=health.gov |location=USA |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701174135/http://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm |archivedate=2007-07-01 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701174135/http://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm }} malazi Mwongozo</ref> Katika mwaka 1960, Bill W. alisema: : Sisi kamwe hatujawahi kuuita ulevi ugonjwa kwa sababu, kwa mising ya kitaalamu, si namna ya ugonjwa. Kwa mfano, hakuna kitu kama ugonjwa wa moyo. Badala yake kuna aina tofauti ya kuugua moyo, au michanganyiko ya kuugua huko. Ni kitu kama hicho kwa ulevi. Ndiyo maana hatukutaka kuzua makosa na taaluma ya matibabu kwa kuchukulia taathira ya ulevi kuwa aina ya ugonjwa. Ndiyo maana sisi daima tukaiita kuugua, au maradhi - istilahi bora zaidi na salama muda sasa kwa ajili yetu kutumia.<ref name="McGovernWhite2003">{{cite book|author1=Thomas F. McGovern|author2=William L. White|title=Alcohol Problems in the United States: Twenty Years of Treatment Perspective|url=http://books.google.com/?id=3gRwmYohuooC&pg=PA7|accessdate=17 Aprili 2010|date=20 Mei 2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7890-2049-9|pages=7–}}</ref> Licha ya ukosefu wa hakika kuhusu neno hili, pamekuwa na majaribio ya kuelekeza jinsi neno "ulevi" linapaswa kufasiriwa wakati wowote.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morse RM, Flavin DK |title=The definition of alcoholism. The Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to Study the Definition and Criteria for the Diagnosis of Alcoholism |journal=JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association |volume=268 |issue=8 |pages=1012–4 |year=1992 |month=Agosti |pmid=1501306 |doi=10.1001/jama.268.8.1012 |url= |issn=0098-7484 |format=}}</ref> [[File:1904 Claim of Alcoholism being Disease.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Tangazo la mwaka 1904 lililoeleza ulevi kama ugonjwa.]] Katika karne ya 19 na mapema karne ya 20, utegemezi pombe uliitwa dipsomania kabla ya kubadilishwa kuwa ulevi.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Tracy | first1 = Sarah J. | title = Alcoholism in America: from reconstruction to prohibition | url = http://books.google.com/?id=JkYyd4qmme0C&pg=PA31 | date = 25 Mei 2005 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore | isbn = 978-0-8018-8119-0 | pages = 31–52 }}</ref> Kihistoria, jina dipsomania lilibuniwa na daktari Mjerumani C W Hufeland mwaka 1819.<ref name="lexikon_psychiatrie_psychotherapie_medizinische_psychologie">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Peters | first1 = Uwe Henrik | title = Lexikon Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie, Medizinische Psychologie | date = 30 Aprili 2007 | publisher = Urban Fischer bei Elsev | isbn = 978-3-437-15061-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Valverde | first = Mariana | title = Diseases of the Will |page=48|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Kl5ugmvDgH0C&pg=PA48&lpg=PA48&dq=valentin+magnan+dipsomania | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-521-64469-3 }}</ref> Neno "alcoholism" lilitumika mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1849 na daktari Mswidi, Magnus Huss kuelezea madhara ya kitaratibu ya pombe.<ref>{{cite book|title=Alcoholismus chronicus, eller Chronisk alkoholssjukdom:|url=http://books.google.com/?id=wt6r2Zw8sCEC&pg=PR5|publisher=Stockholm und Leipzig|accessdate=19 Februari 2008|year=1852}}</ref> Chama cha Alcoholics Anonymous kinaeleza ulevi kama kuugua kunakohusu mzio wa kimwili<ref name="AABigBook">{{cite book | last = Anonymous | first = | authorlink = Alcoholics Anonymous | coauthors = The first 100 members of AA | title = Alcoholics Anonymous: the story of how many thousands of men and women have recovered from alcoholism | publisher = Alcoholics Anonymous World Services | date = 1939, 2001 | location = New York City | pages = xxxii, 575 p. | url = http://www.aa.org | doi = | id = | isbn = 1-893007-16-2 | nopp = true }}</ref>{{Rp|p.28}} na uzoefu wa kiakili.<ref name="AABigBook"></ref>{{Rp|p.23}}<ref>{{citeweb|title=The Big Book Self Test:|url=http://www.intoaction.us/SelfTest.html|publisher=intoaction.us|accessdate=19 Februari 2008}}</ref> Ufafanuzi wa "mzio" katika muktadha huu si sawa na unavyotumika katika utabibu wa kisasa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kay AB |title=Overview of 'allergy and allergic diseases: with a view to the future' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-bulletin_2000_56_4/page/n6 |journal=Br. Med. Bull. |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=843–64 |year=2000 |pmid=11359624| doi = 10.1258/0007142001903481 |issn=0007-1420}}</ref> Daktari na mtalamu wa uzoefu wa dawa za kulevya William D. Silkworth MD anaandika kwa niaba ya AA kwamba "Walevi hukumbwa na tamaa (ya kimwili) "inayoshinda udhibiti wa akili".<ref name="AABigBook"></ref>{{Rp|XXVI}} Utafiti wa 1960 uliofanywa na E. Morton Jellinek unachukuliwa kuwa msingi wa nadharia ya kisasa ya ugonjwa wa ulevi.<ref>{{citeweb|title=OCTOBER 22 DEATHS|url=http://www.todayinsci.com/10/10_22.htm|publisher=todayinsci.com|accessdate=18 Februari 2008}}</ref> Ufafanuzi wa Jellinek uliwekea mipaka matumizi ya neno "ulevi" "kuwarejelea hasa walio na historia fulani asilia, lakini umerekibishwa mara nyingi tangu wakati huo. Chama cha Matabibu wa Marekani kwa sasa hutumia neno ulevi kurejelea hasa ugonjwa sugu wa msingi.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf |title=Science of Addiction |author=Nora Volkow |publisher=American Medical Association |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2011-06-29 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629022654/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629022654/http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf }}</ref> Maoni ya wachache, hususan Herbert Fingarette na Stanton Peele, yanapinga kuwepo kwa ulevi kama ugonjwa. Wao hupendelea kutumia neno "unywaji mzito" wanapojadili athari hasi za matumizi ya pombe. ==Ishara na dalili== ===Dalili za matumizi mabaya ya pombe ya muda mrefu=== Ulevi hudhihirisha ongezeko la ustahimilivu na utegemezi kimwili katika pombe, na kuathiri uwezo wa mtu kudhibiti matumizi salama ya pombe. Dalili hizi ni huaminika kuchangia kushindwa kwa mlevi kuwa na uwezo wa kuacha kunywa.<ref name="Hoffman-1996">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Hoffman | first1 = PL. | last2 = Tabakoff | first2 = B. | title = Alcohol dependence: a commentary on mechanisms. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_alcohol-and-alcoholism_1996-07_31_4/page/333 | journal = Alcohol Alcohol | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 333–40 | month = Jul | year = 1996 | pmid = 8879279 }}</ref> Ulevi unaweza kuwa na madhara kwa afya ya akili, na kusababisha mvurugiko wa kiakili pamoja na ongezeko la hatari ya kujiua.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=10476237 |year=1999 |month= Machi|last1=Dunn |first1=N |last2=Cook |title=Psychiatric aspects of alcohol misuse. |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=169–72 |issn=1462-3935 |journal=Hospital medicine (London, England : 1998) |author2=Cook }}</ref><ref name="drug_abuse_prevention_a03">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Richard | last2 = Kolander | first2 = Cheryl A. | title = Drug abuse prevention: a school and community partnership | year = 2003 | publisher = Jones and Bartlett | location = Sudbury, Mass. | url = http://books.google.com/?id=Cm1MfcBSucUC | isbn = 978-0-7637-1461-1 | pages = 40–45 }}</ref> ====Dalili za kimwili==== [[File:Possible long-term effects of ethanol.svg|thumb|351px|right|Baadhi ya madhara ya muda mrefu ya ethanol ambayo yanaweza kumkumba mtu. Zaidi ya hayo, pombe inaweza kuathiri mimba kwa wanawake wajawazito,]] Matumizi mabaya ya muda mrefu yanaweza kuzua dalili kadhaa katika mwili, zikiwa ni pamoja na sairosisi ya ini, ugonjwa wa kongosho, kifafa, polineuropathi, usahaulivu wa pombe, maradhi ya moyo, ukosefu wa lishe, na kutosisimka katika ngono. Madhara mengine ya kimwili ni pamoja na ongezeko la hatari ya ugonjwa wa mishipa ya moyo, [[kutofyonza lishe mwilini]], [[ugonjwa wa pombe unaoathiri ini]], na [[kansa]]. Uharibifu wa mfumo mkuu wa neva na mfumo wa neva za pembeni huweza kutokea pia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM |title=[Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse] |language=German |journal=Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=129–32 |year=1985 |month=Machi |pmid=2988001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Testino G |title=Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view |journal=Hepatogastroenterology |volume=55 |issue=82–83 |pages=371–7 |year=2008 |pmid=18613369 }}</ref> Wanawake hukabiliwa na matatizo ya muda mrefu ya utegemezi pombe haraka kuliko wanaume. Zaidi ya hayo, wanawake hufa kwa kiwango cha juu zaidi kutokana na ulevi.<ref name="Blume Laura N., Nielson Nancy H., Riggs Joseph A., et all 1998 861–870"></ref> Mifano ya matatizo ya muda mrefu ni pamoja na uharibifu wa ubongo, moyo, na ini <ref name="Walter H., Gutierrez K., Ramskogler K., Hertling I., Dvorak A., Lesch O.M., et al. 2003 253–268"></ref>, pia ongezeko la hatari ya saratani ya matiti. Zaidi ya hayo, unywaji mzito wa muda mrefu umegunduliwa kuwa na athari hasi katika uwezo wa kuzaa kwa wanawake. Hii husababisha mvurugiko wa uzazi kama vile kutozalisha vijiyai, kupunguka kwa kiwango cha molekuli ya ovari matatizo, au kukosa utaratibu wa hedhi, na kufunga uzazi mapema.<ref name="Blume Laura N., Nielson Nancy H., Riggs Joseph A., et all 1998 861–870"></ref> Ketoasidisi za pombe zinaweza kutokea kwa watu ambao hutumia pombe vibaya mara nyingi na walio na historia ya hivi majuzi ya ulevi kupindukia.<ref name="Mihai-">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Mihai | first1 = B. | last2 = Lăcătuşu | first2 = C. | last3 = Graur | first3 = M. | title = [Alcoholic ketoacidosis] | journal = Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi | volume = 112 | issue = 2 | pages = 321–6 | month = Aprili-Juni | year = 2008 | pmid = 19294998 }}</ref> ====Dalili za akili==== Matumizi mabaya ya muda mrefu wa pombe yanaweza kusababisha matatizo mbalimbali ya afya ya akili. Matatizo sugu ya ubongo si ya nadra, takribani asilimia 10 ya matukio yote ya shida za akili huhusiana na matumizi ya pombe, na hivyo kuifanya sababu kuu ya matatizo ya akili.<ref name="aamaibnc">{{cite web |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-07/econ-ma070808.php |title=Alcoholism-associated molecular adaptations in brain neurocognitive circuits |accessdate=14 Februari 2009 |author=Professor Georgy Bakalkin |date=8 Julai 2008 |publisher=eurekalert.org |archive-date=2011-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130152434/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-07/econ-ma070808.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi husababisha uharibifu wa kazi za ubongo, na afya ya kisaikolojia inaweza kuathirika baada ya muda.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oscar-Berman, Marlene|coauthors=Marinkovic, Ksenija|date=|year=2003 |title=Alcoholism and the brain: an overview|journal=Alcohol Res Health |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=125–33 |pmid=15303622}}</ref> Mvurugiko wa akili ni jambo la kawaida kwa walevi, na hadi asilimia 25 hutatizika kwa mvurugiko sugu wa akili. Dalili ya tatizo la akili inayodhihirika zaidi ni wasiwasi na mfadhaiko. Dalili kwa kawaida huzidi mwanzoni mwa kuacha pombe, lakini hatimaye hupungua au kukoma baada ya mlevi kuacha pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wetterling T |journal=Eur Psychiatry |title=Psychopathology of alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence |year=2000 |month=Septemba |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=483–8 |pmid=11175926 |doi=10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00519-8 |issn=0924-9338 |last2=Junghanns |first2=K }}</ref> Saikosi, kuchanganyikiwa, na dalili za ubongo zinaweza kusababishwa na matumizi mabaya ya pombe, ambayo yanaweza kudhanika kimakosa kuwa skizofrenia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schuckit MA |title=Alcoholism and other psychiatric disorders |journal=Hosp Community Psychiatry |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1022–7 |year=1983 |month=Novemba |pmid=6642446 |doi= |url= |issn=0022-1597}}</ref> Vurugu ya hofu inaweza kuendelea au kuzidi kutokana na matumizi mabaya ya moja kwa moja ya pombe kwa muda mrefu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cowley DS |journal=Am J Med |title=Alcohol abuse, substance abuse, and panic disorder |date= 24 Januari 1992 |volume=92 |issue=1A |pages=41S–48S |pmid=1346485 |doi=10.1016/0002-9343(92)90136-Y |issn=0002-9343 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cosci F |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |title=Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2007-06_68_6/page/n84 |year=2007 |month=Juni |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=874–80 |pmid=17592911 |issn=0160-6689 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v68n0608 |last2=Schruers |first2=KR |last3=Abrams |first3=K |last4=Griez |first4=EJ }}</ref> Kutokea-kuwili kwa mvurugiko wa mfadhaiko na ulevi umeshugulikiiwa kwa mapana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grant BF, Harford TC |title=Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=197–206 |year=1995 |month=Oktoba |pmid=8556968 |doi= 10.1016/0376-8716(95)01160-4|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0376871695011604 |issn=0376-8716}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kandel DB, Huang FY, Davies M |title=Comorbidity between patterns of substance use dependence and psychiatric syndromes |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=233–41 |year=2001 |month=Oktoba |pmid=11543993 |doi= 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00126-0|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_drug-and-alcohol-dependence_2001-10-01_64_2/page/232|issn=0376-8716}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cornelius JR, Bukstein O, Salloum I, Clark D |title=Alcohol and psychiatric comorbidity |journal=Recent Dev Alcohol |volume=16 |issue= |pages=361–74 |year=2003 |pmid=12638646 |doi= 10.1007/0-306-47939-7_24|url= |issn=0738-422X |format=}}</ref> Miongoni mwa walio na hali ya komobidi; tofauti hubainishwa kwa kawaida kati ya mfadhaiko wa akili unaotokana na kuacha pombe ("Kutokana na vileweshaji"), na matukio ya msongangamano wa akili ya kimsingi na yasiyoondoshwa na kuacha ulevi(matukio "huru").<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schuckit MA, Tipp JE, Bergman M, Reich W, Hesselbrock VM, Smith TL |title=Comparison of induced and independent major depressive disorders in 2,945 alcoholics |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=154 |issue=7 |pages=948–57 |year=1997 |month=Julai |pmid=9210745 |doi= |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9210745 |issn=0002-953X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Schuckit MA, Smith TL, Danko GP |title=A comparison of factors associated with substance-induced versus independent depressions |journal=J Stud Alcohol Drugs |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=805–12 |year=2007 |month=Novemba |pmid=17960298 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-studies-on-alcohol-and-drugs_2007-11_68_6/page/805|issn=1937-1888}}</ref> Matumizi ya ziada ya dawa nyinginezo huweza kuzidisha hatari ya unyogovu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Schuckit M |title=Alcoholic patients with secondary depression |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=140 |issue=6 |pages=711–4 |year=1983 |month=Juni |pmid=6846629 |doi= |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6846629 |issn=0002-953X}}</ref> Ugonjwa wa akili hutofautiana kutegemea jinsia. Wanawake walio na matatizo ya kutumia pombe mara nyingi huwa na utambuzi-andamizi wa matatizo ya akili ambayo hutokea kama msukumo mkubwa, wasiwasi, mvurugiko wa hofu, [[bulimia,-kiwewe]] cha baada ya tukio (PTSD), au mvurugo wa hali ya kitabia. Wanaume walio na matatizo ya kutumia pombe aghalabu zaidi hukumbwa na utambuzi-andamivu watabia ya kujienzi au kukosa mlahaka na watu , undumakuwili wa kitabia skizofrenia, matatizo ya msukumo au mvurugano wa hisia.<ref name="Karrol Brad R. 2002 337–356"></ref> Wanawake wanaolewa sana huwa na uwezekano mkubwa kuliko kawaida wa kuwa na historia ya mashambulizi ya kingono, udhalilishwaji na unyanyaswaji wa nyumbani ,<ref name="Karrol Brad R. 2002 337–356"></ref> ambayo yanaweza kusababisha matukio mengi ya kutatizika kiakili na utegemezi zaidi wa pombe. ====Athari za kijamii==== Matatizo ya kijamii kutokana na ulevi ni sugu, husababishwa na mabadiliko katika ubongo na kuleweshwa na pombe.<ref name="aamaibnc"></ref><ref name="Jessica Kingsley Publishers"></ref> Matumizi mabaya ya pombe huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kutenda makosa ya jinai, ikiwa ni pamoja na unyanyasaji wa watoto, ukatili wa nyumbani, ubakaji, uvunjaji na kushambuliaji.<ref name="drug_use_a_reference_handbook">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Isralowitz | first1 = Richard | title = Drug use: a reference handbook | url = http://books.google.com/?id=X0mxxfbIbp4C | year = 2004 | publisher = ABC-CLIO | location = Santa Barbara, Calif. | isbn = 978-1-57607-708-5 | pages = 122–123}}</ref> Ulevi huhusishwa na upotezaji ajira, <ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Langdana | first1 = Farrokh K. | title = Macroeconomic Policy: Demystifying Monetary and Fiscal Policy | url = http://books.google.com/?id=GCYWQn79JYwC | date = 27 Machi 2009 | publisher = Springer | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-387-77665-1 | page = 81 }}</ref> ambayo huweza kusababisha matatizo ya kifedha. Kunywa wakati usiofaa, na matendo yanayosababishwa na kupungua kwa uwezo wa kuamua, kunaweza kusababisha matatizo ya kisheria, kama vile mashtaka ya mtu kuendesha gari akiwa mlevi <ref name="abd2009">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Gifford | first1 = Maria | title = Alcoholism (Biographies of Disease) | date = 22 Oktoba 2009 | publisher = Greenwood Press | url = http://books.google.com/?id=2OJV12astRUC | isbn = 978-0-313-35908-8 | pages = 89–91 }}</ref> au machafuko ya umma, au adhabu za kijamii kwa ukosefu wa nidhamu, na kuhukumiwa kwa uhalifu. Tabia ya mlevi na kutatizika akili inaweza kuwaathiri sana walio karibu nao na kusababisha kutengwa na familia na marafiki. kutengwa huku kunaweza kusababisha migogoro ya ndoa na kutalikiana, au kuchangia vurugu za nyumbani. Ulevi pia unaweza kusababisha kutelekezwa kwa watoto, na uharibifu wa kudumu wa ukuaji kihisia wa watoto wa mlevi.<ref name="tcemh2006">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Schadé | first1 = Johannes Petrus | title = The Complete Encyclopedia of Medicine and Health | date = Oktoba 2006 | publisher = Foreign Media Books | url = http://books.google.com/?id=j8DuEHxSCU4C | isbn = 978-1-60136-001-4 | pages = 132–133 }}</ref> ===Kuacha pombe=== Sawa na vileweshaji vya aina hii vyenye uwezo wa kudumaza-kupagaza, kama babitureti na benzodiazepini, kuacha utegemezi wa pombe kunaweza kuleta madhara kusipotekelezwa vyema.<ref name="Jessica Kingsley Publishers"></ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Galanter |first1=Marc |last2=Kleber |first2=Herbert D. |title=The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Substance Abuse Treatment |url=http://books.google.com/?id=6wdJgejlQzYC |edition=4th |date=1 Julai 2008 |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing Inc |location=United States of America |isbn=978-1-58562-276-4 |page=58 |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= }}</ref> Athari ya msingi ya pombe ni kuzidisha msisimko wa vihisishi vy aGABA <sub>A</sub>, kuendeleza maudhiko ya mfumo mkuu wa neva. Kufutana na matumizi mazito ya pombe, vihisishi hivi hupoteza uwezo wa kuhisi na kupungua kwa idadi, na hivyo kusababisha uzoefu na utegemezi wa kimwili. Matumizi ya pombe yakisimamishwa ghafla mno, mfumo wa neva wa mtu hukumbwa na ukosefu wa udhibiti wa matukio ya kihisia. Hii inaweza kusababisha dalili kama vile wasiwasi, kutishika, kupagawa kudhania, mitetemo wa mwili na kuugua moyo.<ref name="Medical toxicology">{{cite book |last1=Dart |first1=Richard C. |title=Medical Toxicology |url=http://books.google.com/?id=qDf3AO8nILoC |edition=3rd |date=1 Desemba 2003 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=USA |isbn=978-0-7817-2845-4 |pages=139–140}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Idemudia SO, Bhadra S, Lal H |title=The pentylenetetrazol-like interoceptive stimulus produced by ethanol withdrawal is potentiated by bicuculline and picrotoxinin |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=115–22 |year=1989 |month=Juni |pmid=2742726 |doi= 10.1016/0893-133X(89)90014-6|url= |issn=0893-133X |format=}}</ref> Mifumo mingine ya kimawasiliano ya neva pia hushirikishwa, hasa dopamini na NMDA.<ref name="Hoffman-1996"></ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17128954 |date= Oktoba 2006|author=Chastain, G |title=Alcohol, neurotransmitter systems, and behavior. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-psychology_2006-10_133_4/page/329 |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=329–35 |issn=0022-1309 |journal=The Journal of general psychology |doi=10.3200/GENP.133.4.329-335 }}</ref> Dalili kali za kuacha pombe aghalabu hupungua baada ya wiki 1-3. Dalili zisizo kali (k.m. kukosa usingizi na wasiwasi, anhedonia) huendelea kama sehemu ya dalili za baada ya kuacha pombe, na hatimaye hupungua angalau baada ya mwaka au zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martinotti G |journal=Subst Use Misuse |title=Alcohol protracted withdrawal syndrome: the role of anhedonia |year=2008 |volume=43 |issue=3–4 |pages=271–84 |pmid=18365930 |doi=10.1080/10826080701202429 |issn=1082-6084 |last2=Nicola |first2=MD |last3=Reina |first3=D |last4=Andreoli |first4=S |last5=Focà |first5=F |last6=Cunniff |first6=A |last7=Tonioni |first7=F |last8=Bria |first8=P |last9=Janiri |first9=L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Stojek A | year = 1990 | month = Mei–Juni | title = [Correction of the symptoms of late substance withdrawal syndrome by intra-conjunctival administration of 5% homatropine solution (preliminary report)] | journal = Psychiatr Pol | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–201 | pmid = 2084727 | issn = 0033-2674 | url = | format = | last2 = Madejski | first2 = J | last3 = Dedelis | first3 = E | last4 = Janicki | first4 = K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author =Le Bon O | year =2003 |month=Agosti | title =Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of trazodone in alcohol post-withdrawal syndrome: polysomnographic and clinical evaluations | journal =J Clin Psychopharmacol | volume =23 |issue=4 | pages =377–83 | pmid =12920414 | doi =10.1097/01.jcp.0000085411.08426.d3 | issn =0271-0749 | last2 =Murphy | first2 =JR | last3 =Staner | first3 =L | last4 =Hoffmann | first4 =G | last5 =Kormoss | first5 =N | last6 =Kentos | first6 =M | last7 =Dupont | first7 =P | last8 =Lion | first8 =K | last9 =Pelc | first9 =I }}</ref> Dalili za baada ya kuacha pombe huanza kupunguka jinsi mwili na mfumo mkuu wa neva hendelea kurejesha pombe udhibiti wa pombe na GABA kurejelea kazi kikawaida.<ref>{{ cite journal |pmid=14684873 |url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/23/37/11711 |date=17 Desemba 2003 |title=Changes in GABA(A) receptor gene expression associated with selective alterations in receptor function and pharmacology after ethanol withdrawal |volume=23 |issue=37 |pages=11711–24 |issn=0270-6474 |journal=The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience |author1=Sanna, E |author2=Mostallino, Mc |author3=Busonero, F |author4=Talani, G |author5=Tranquilli, S |author6=Mameli, M |author7=Spiga, S |author8=Follesa, P |author9=Biggio, G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Idemudia SO, Bhadra S, Lal H |title=The pentylenetetrazol-like interoceptive stimulus produced by ethanol withdrawal is potentiated by bicuculline and picrotoxinin |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=115–22 |year=1989 |month=Juni |pmid=2742726 |doi= 10.1016/0893-133X(89)90014-6|url= |format=}}</ref> ==Sababu== Mchanganyiko changamano wa maumbile na mazingira huchangia kuendelea kwa ulevi.<ref name="Enoch-2006">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Enoch | first1 = MA. | title = Genetic and environmental influences on the development of alcoholism: resilience vs. risk. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 1094 | pages = 193–201 | month = Dec | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1196/annals.1376.019 | pmid = 17347351 }}</ref> Jeni zinazoathiri metaboli ya pombe pia huchangia hatari ya kutumbukia ulevini, na huweza kuonekana kutokana na historia ya familia ya ulevi.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Bierut | first1 = LJ. | last2 = Schuckit | first2 = MA. | last3 = Hesselbrock | first3 = V. | last4 = Reich | first4 = T. | title = Co-occurring risk factors for alcohol dependence and habitual smoking. | journal = Alcohol Res Health | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 233–41 | year = 2000 | pmid = 15986718 }}</ref> Chapisho moja liligundua kwamba matumizi ya pombe tokea umri mdogo unaweza kuendeleza ukuaji wa jeni ambayo huongeza hatari ya utegemezi wa pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01044.x |pmc=2883563 |title=Evidence for an Interaction Between Age at First Drink and Genetic Influences on DSM-IV Alcohol Dependence Symptoms |pmid=19764935 |year=2009 |last1=Agrawal |first1=Arpana |last2=Sartor |first2=Carolyn E. |last3=Lynskey |first3=Michael T. |last4=Grant |first4=Julia D. |last5=Pergadia |first5=Michele L. |last6=Grucza |first6=Richard |last7=Bucholz |first7=Kathleen K. |last8=Nelson |first8=Elliot C. |last9=Madden |first9=Pamela A. F. |journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research |volume=33 |issue=12 |pages=2047 }}</ref> Watu walio na uwezekano / kimaumbile wa kutegemea ulevi pia huwa na uwezekano mkubwa wa kuanza kunywa katika umri mapema kuliko wastani.<ref name="eattrfad">{{cite web |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/164576.php |title=Early Age At First Drink May Modify Tween/Teen Risk For Alcohol Dependence |date=21 Septemba 2009 |publisher=Medical News Today |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-02-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213100208/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/164576.php |=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213100208/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/164576.php }}</ref> Kuanza unywaji pombe katika umri mdogo pia huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kuzidisha ulevi,<ref name="eattrfad"></ref>na takribani asilimia 40 ya walevi hunywa kupita kiasi kufikia umri wa kubaleghe. Haijaeleweka wazi kabisa iwapo uhusiano huu ndiyo kiini cha ulevi, na watafiti wengine hawakubaliana na mtazamo huu.<ref name="Schwandt-2010">{{Rejea jarida | doi = 10.1016/j.alcohol.2009.09.034 | last = Schwandt | first = M.L. |coauthors= S.G. Lindell, S. Chen, J.D. Higley, S.J. Suomi, M. Heilig, C.S. Barr| title =Alcohol response and consumption in adolescent rhesus macaques | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_alcohol_2010-02_44_1/page/67 | journal = Alcohol | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 67–80 | month = Feb | year = 2010 |pmc=2818103 | pmid= 20113875}}</ref> Kiwewe kikali cha utotoni pia huhusishwa na ongezeko la jumla katika hatari ya utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya.<ref name="Enoch-2006"></ref> Ukosefu wa usaidizi wa rika na familia huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kuendeleza ulevi.<ref name="Enoch-2006"></ref> Maumbile na ujana huhusishwa na ongezeko la athiri za madhara ya ya pombe kwa neva kutokana na matumizi ya pombe kupindukia. Kuzorota kwa gamba la ubongo kutokana na athari za ulevi kwa ubongo huongeza tabia ya kutotulia, ambayo yaweza kuchangia kukua, kudumu na usugu wa matatizo ya matumizi ya pombe. Kuna ushahidi kwamba kuacha pombe, husaidia kugeuza baadhi ya uharibifu ya pombe kwa mfumo mkuu wa neva .<ref name="Crews-2009">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Crews | first1 = FT. | last2 = Boettiger | first2 = CA. | title = Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction. | journal = Pharmacol Biochem Behav | volume = 93 | issue = 3 | pages = 237–47 | month = Sep | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.04.018 | pmc = 2730661 | pmid = 19410598 }}</ref> ===Maumbile tofauti=== Tofauti za kimaumbile huwepo kati ya makundi mbalimbali ya kimbari nazo huchangia hatari ya kuanza utegemezi wa pombe. Kwa mfano, zipo tofauti kati ya Afrika Mashariki, Asia Mashariki na vikundi vya mbari za- Kihindi kuhusu jinsi ya uvunjaji kemikali za pombe. Hali hizi za kimaumbile huaminika, kwa kiasi, kueleza viwango tofauti vya utegemezi pombe miongoni mwa makundi ya kimbari.<ref name="Moore-2007">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Moore | first1 = S. | last2 = Montane-Jaime | first2 = LK. | last3 = Carr | first3 = LG. | last4 = Ehlers | first4 = CL. | title = Variations in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes in people of East Indian and African descent from Trinidad and Tobago. | journal = Alcohol Res Health | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–30 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17718398 }}</ref><ref name="Eng-2007">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Eng | first1 = MY. | last2 = Luczak | first2 = SE. | last3 = Wall | first3 = TL. | title = ALDH2, ADH1B, and ADH1C genotypes in Asians: a literature review. | journal = Alcohol Res Health | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 22–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17718397 }}</ref> Dehaidrojenesi ya pombe allele ADH1 B * 3 husababisha metaboliki ya haraka zaidi ya pombe. Allele ADH1 3 B * hupatikana tu kwa watu wa asili ya Afrika na baadhi ya makabila ya wenyeji asilia wa Marekani. Waafrika na Wamarekani asilia walio na allele huwa katika hatari ndogo ya kulemewa na ulevi.<ref name="Scott-2007">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Scott | first1 = DM. | last2 = Taylor | first2 = RE. | title = Health-related effects of genetic variations of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes in African Americans. | journal = Alcohol Res Health | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–21 | year = 2007 | doi = | pmid = 17718396 }}</ref> Wenyeji asilia wa Marekani hata hivyo, huwa na kiwango cha juu sana cha ulevi kuliko wastani, sababu ya hali hii si wazi.<ref name="Ehlers-2007">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Ehlers | first1 = CL. | title = Variations in ADH and ALDH in Southwest California Indians. | journal = Alcohol Res Health | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 14–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17718395 }}</ref> Hatari nyinginezo kutokana na mazingira ya kitamaduni kama vilekiwewe zimehusishwa na kiwango cha juu cha ulevi miongoni mwa Wamarekani Wenyeji ikilinganishwa na viwango vya ulevi miongoni mwa wazungu.<ref name="Szlemko-2006">{{Rejea jarida | doi = 10.3200/GENP.133.4.435-451 | last1 = Szlemko | first1 = WJ. | last2 = Wood | first2 = JW. | last3 = Thurman | first3 = PJ. | title = Native Americans and alcohol: past, present, and future. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-psychology_2006-10_133_4/page/435 | journal = J Gen Psychol | volume = 133 | issue = 4 | pages = 435–51 | month = Oct | year = 2006 | pmid = 17128961 }}</ref><ref name="Spillane-2007">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Spillane | first1 = NS. | last2 = Smith | first2 = GT. | title = A theory of reservation-dwelling American Indian alcohol use risk. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_2007-05_133_3/page/395 | journal = Psychol Bull | volume = 133 | issue = 3 | pages = 395–418 | month = Mei | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.395 | pmid = 17469984 }}</ref> ==Pathofisiolojia== Athari za msingi za pombe ni kuongezeka kwa msisimuo wa vipohisishi vya GABA <sub>A</sub>, kuendeleza unyongovu wa rmfumo mkuu wa neva. Kwa matumizi ya pombe kwa wingi, vihisishi hivyo hulemazwa na kupungua kwa idadi, na hivyo kusababisha uzoelevu na utegemezi wa kimwili.<ref name="Medical toxicology"></ref> Kiasi cha pombe ambacho kinaweza kuhimilika pamoja na athari zake hutofautiana kati ya jinsia. Kiasi sawa cha pombe kinaponywewa na wanaume na wanawake, kwa ujumla husababisha wanawake kuwa na viwango vilivyokolea vya pombe katika damu (BACs).<ref name="Karrol Brad R. 2002 337–356">{{cite journal |author=Karrol Brad R. |title=Women and alcohol use disorders: a review of important knowledge and its implications for social work practitioners |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-social-work_2002-04_32_3/page/337 |journal=Journal of social work |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=337–356 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/146801730200200305 }}</ref> Hali hiyo inaweza kuhusishwa na sababu nyingi, ya msingi ikiwa kwamba wanawake wana maji machache mwilini kuliko wanaume, hivyo pombe hukolea zaidi katika mwili wa mwanamke. Pia kiasi kilekile cha pombe husababisha athari kubwa kwa wanawake kutokana na homoni tofauti zinazosisimuliwa ikilinganishwa na wanaume.<ref name="Walter H., Gutierrez K., Ramskogler K., Hertling I., Dvorak A., Lesch O.M., et al. 2003 253–268"></ref> ==Utambuzi== ===Vikwazo vya kijamii=== Mitazamo na imani za jamii vinaweza kusababisha vizuizi kwa utambuzi na tiba kwa utumiaji mbaya wa pombe. Hiki ni kikwazo zaidi kwa wanawake kuliko wanaume. Hofu ya unyanyapaa inaweza kusababisha wanawake kukana kuwa wanatatizika na ulevi, kujificha ili kunywa, na hata kunywa peke yao. Mazoea haya kwa upande wake, hupelekea familia, madaktari, na wengine kukosa uwezekano wa kushuku kuwa mwanamke wanayemjua ni mlevi kupindukia.<ref name="Blume Laura N., Nielson Nancy H., Riggs Joseph A., et all 1998 861–870">{{cite journal |author=Blume Laura N., Nielson Nancy H., Riggs Joseph A., ''et all'' |title=Alcoholism and alcohol abuse among women: report of the council on scientific affairs |journal=Journal of women's health |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=861–870 |year=1998 |doi= 10.1089/jwh.1998.7.861|url=}}</ref> Kinyume na hivi, upungufu wa hofu ya unyanyapaa unaweza kusababisha watu wanaokabiliwa na matatizo ya kiafya kuonyesha ulevi wao hadharani, na kunywa katika vikundi. Mazoea haya, kwa upande wake, hupelekea familia, madaktari na wengine kuwa uwezekano wa kumshuku mtu wanayemjua.<ref name="Karrol Brad R. 2002 337–356"></ref> ===Uchunguzi=== Vifaa kadhaa vinaweza kutumika kugundua ukosefu wa udhibiti wa matumizi ya pombe. Vifaa hivi mara nyingi huwa ripoti na fomu za hojaji za mtu binafsi. Suala jingine la kawaida ni kipimo au ujumla wa ukali wa matumizi ya pombe.<ref name="Kahan-1996">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Kahan | first1 = M. | title = Identifying and managing problem drinkers. | journal = Can Fam Physician | volume = 42 | issue = | pages = 661–71 | month = Apr | year = 1996 | doi = | pmid = 8653034 | pmc = 2146411 }}</ref> Hojaji za CAGE, zinazoitwa hivyo kufuatana na maswali yake manne, ni mfano unaoweza kutumika kwa kuchunguza wagonjwa kwa haraka katika ofisi ya daktari. {{Quotation|Two "yes" responses indicate that the respondent should be investigated further. The questionnaire asks the following questions: # Have you ever felt you needed to '''C'''ut down on your drinking? # Have people '''A'''nnoyed you by criticizing your drinking? # Have you ever felt '''G'''uilty about drinking? # Have you ever felt you needed a drink first thing in the morning ('''E'''ye-opener) to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover?<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ewing JA |title=Detecting alcoholism. The CAGE questionnaire |journal=JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association |volume=252 |issue=14 |pages=1905–7 |year=1984 |month=Oktoba |pmid=6471323 |doi=10.1001/jama.252.14.1905 |url= |issn=0098-7484 |format= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whoguidemhpcuk.org/downloads/primary_care/11-1_CAGE_questionnaire.pdf |title=CAGE questionnaire – screen for alcohol misuse |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2011-07-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728175054/http://www.whoguidemhpcuk.org/downloads/primary_care/11-1_CAGE_questionnaire.pdf }}</ref>}} : Hojaji za CAGE zimedhihirisha ufanisi mkubwa katika kuchunguza matatizo kuhusiana na pombe, hata hivyo, huwa na pungufu zitumiwapo kwa watu wasio na matatizo sugu kuhusiana na pombe , wanawake wazungu na na wanafunzi wa chuo.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Dhalla | first1 = S. | last2 = Kopec | first2 = JA. | title = The CAGE questionnaire for alcohol misuse: a review of reliability and validity studies. | journal = Clin Invest Med | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–41 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17716538 }}</ref> Vipimo vingine wakati mwingine hutumika kwa uchunguzi wa utegemezi wa pombe, kama vile Hojaji ya Data ya Utegemezi wa Pombe, ambayo ni utambuzi changanuzi zaidi kuliko ile ya CAGE. Husaidia kutofautisha utambuzi kati ya utegemezi pombe na matumizi sugu ya pombe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index3556EN.html |title=Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire (SADD) |author=Raistrick, D. |coauthors=Dunbar, G. Davidson, R. |year=1983 |publisher=European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2016-07-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721101929/http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index3556EN.html |=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721101929/http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/html.cfm/index3556EN.html }}</ref> Kipimo cha Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) ni chombo cha uchunguzi wa ulevi itumiwayo kwingi na mahakama kuamua adhabu mwafaka kwa watu wapatikanao na makosa yanayohusiana na pombe,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncadd-sfv.org/symptoms/mast_test.html |title=Michigan Alcohol Screening Test |publisher=The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2006-09-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906123532/http://www.ncadd-sfv.org/symptoms/mast_test.html }}</ref>ambapo uendeshaji gari baada ya kunywa ndilo la kawaida mno. Kipimo cha Utambuzi wa Matatizo ya Pombe (Audit),ambayo ni hojaji ya uchunguzi iliyovumbuliwa na [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Duniani]], ina upekee kwa kuwa imeidhinishwa katika nchi sita na hutumiwa kimataifa. Kama vile hojaji za CAGE, matumizi yake ni hutegemea maswali rahisi - kipimo cha juu hupelekea uchunguzi wa kina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf |title=The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, Guidelines for Use in Primary Care |author=Thomas F. Babor |coauthors=John C. Higgins-Biddle, John B. Saunders, Maristela G. Monteiro |month=2001 |publisher=World Health Organization |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2006-05-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502132711/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_MSD_MSB_01.6a.pdf }}</ref> Kipimo cha Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) kiliundwa kuchunguzia matatizo kuhusiana na pombe miongoni mwa wale wanaohudhuria matibabu ya ajali na ya dharura s. Huwiana vyema na hojaji ya AUDIT lakini hutumiwa kwa kiwango cha moja kwa tano ya nyakati zote.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Smith|first=SG|title=Detection of alcohol misusing patients in accident and emergency departments: the Paddington alcohol test (PAT)|journal=Journal of Accident and Emergency Medicine|volume=13|issue=5|pages=308–312|publisher=British Association for Accident and Emergency Medicine|month=Septemba | year=1996|accessdate=19 Novemba 2006|pmid=8894853|doi=10.1093/alcalc/agh049|issn=1351-0622|pmc=1342761|last2=Touquet|first2=R|last3=Wright|first3=S|last4=Das Gupta|first4=N}}</ref> ===Upimaji Hali ya Kimaumbile=== Madaktari wa akili John I. Nurnberger, Jr, na Laura Jean Bierut wanadai kwamba ulevi hauna sababu moja mahususi-ikiwa ni pamoja na maumbile-lakini jeni huwa na jukumu muhimu "kwa kuathiri michakato ya ndani ya mwili na ubongo ambayo huingiliana na na tajriba ya mtu binafsi ya maisha na kusababisha kinga au kuugua ". Pia waliripoti kuwa chini ya dazeni-ya jeni zinazohusishwa na ulevi zimetambuliwa, lakini nyinginezo zaidi zangojea kugunduliwa.<ref name="Nurnberger"> Nurnberger, Jr, John I., na Bierut, Laura Jean. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=5C303E5F-E7F2-99DF-315ADC8A107AE976 "Kubaini Mahusiano: Ulevi na Jeni zetu."] ''Scientific American,'' Apr 2007, Vol. 296, Kua 4.</ref> Angalau upo uchunguzi mmoja wa kimaumbile wa allele ambao huhusiana na ulevi na dawa za kulevya.<ref>[205] ^ New York Daily News (William Sherman) [http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2006/02/12/2006-02-12_test_targets_addiction_gene.html Jaribio Hulenga Jeni ya kulevya ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2006/02/12/2006-02-12_test_targets_addiction_gene.html |date=20200406113524 }}11 Februari 2006</ref> Vihisishi vya dopamini vya jeni huwa na tofauti bainifu zinazojulikana kama polimofi kama vile DRD2 TaqI. Wale walio na (aina hii ya )polimofimi ya A1 allele huwa na uzoefu wa kiwango kidogo lakini muhimu wa dawa za kulevya na vilewevu vya endofini-kutokana dawa kama pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Berggren U, Fahlke C, Aronsson E |title=The taqI DRD2 A1 allele is associated with alcohol-dependence although its effect size is small |journal=Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford, Oxfordshire) |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=479–85 |year=2006 |pmid=16751215 |doi=10.1093/alcalc/agl043 |url=http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/5/479 |month= Septemba|issn=0735-0414 |format=Free full text}}</ref> Ingawa allele hii hupatikana zaidi katika walevi na watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya, yenyewe sio ishara tosha ya mazoea ya ulevi, na baadhi ya watafiti wanasema kuwa ushahidi wa DRD2 ni tofauti.<ref name="Nurnberger"></ref> ===Utambuzi wa DSM=== Utambuzi wa DSM-IV wa utegemezi pombe ni mojawapo ya mitazamo fafanuzi ya ulevi. Hii husaidia kukuza itifaki za kitafiti ambapo matokeo yanaweza kufananishwa na mengine. Kwa mujibu wa DSM-IV, ni utambuzi wa utegemezi pombe :<ref name="DSMIV">{{Rejea kitabu | title = Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV | url = http://books.google.com/?id=W-BGAAAAMAAJ | date = 31 Julai 1994 | publisher = American Psychiatric Association | location = Washington, DC | isbn = 978-0-89042-025-6 | pages = }}</ref> {{quote|...&nbsp;maladaptive alcohol use with clinically significant impairment as manifested by at least three of the following within any one-year period: tolerance; withdrawal; taken in greater amounts or over longer time course than intended; desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control use; great deal of time spent obtaining, using, or recovering from use; social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; continued use despite knowledge of physical or psychological [[sequela]]e.}} ===Mkojo na vipimo vya damu=== Pana majaribio ya kuaminika ya matumizi hakika ya pombe, mojawapo ya majaribio ya kawaida ni ya kiasi cha pombe katika damu (BAC).<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Jones | first1 = AW. | title = Urine as a biological specimen for forensic analysis of alcohol and variability in the urine-to-blood relationship. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_toxicological-reviews_2006_25_1/page/15 | journal = Toxicol Rev | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–35 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16856767 | doi = 10.2165/00139709-200625010-00002 }}</ref> Majaribio haya hayatofautishi walevi na wasiolewa; hata hivyo, unywaji mzito wa muda mrefu una athari chache za kimwili zinazotambulika, ikiwa ni pamoja:<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Das | first1 = SK. | last2 = Dhanya | first2 = L. | last3 = Vasudevan | first3 = DM. | title = Biomarkers of alcoholism: an updated review. | journal = Scand J Clin Lab Invest | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–92 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1080/00365510701532662 | pmid = 17852805 }}</ref> * Makrosaitosi (upanuzi MCV) * GGT iliyoinuka * Mwinuko wa wastani AST na Alt na AST: Alt uwiano wa 02:01 * Upungufu wa juu wa ayoni kutokana na kabohaidreti (CDT) Hata hivyo, hamna hata moja ya vipimo hivi vya damu vya kibiolojia iliyo bora kama hojaji za uchunguzi. ==Kuzuia== [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]], [[Umoja wa Ulaya]] na mashirika mengine ya kimaeneo, serikali za kitaifa na bunge vimeanzisha sera kuhusu pombe ili kupunguza madhara ya ulevi.<ref name="alchwho2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/topics/alcohol_drinking/en/ |title=Alcohol |author=World Health Organisation |year=2010 }}</ref><ref name="apitwhoer">{{cite web |url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/mediacentre/fs1005e.pdf |title=Alcohol policy in the WHO European Region: current status and the way forward |date=12 Septemba 2005 |publisher=World Health Organisation |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-01-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100123105252/http://www.euro.who.int/document/mediacentre/fs1005e.pdf }}</ref> Kulenga wanaobalehe na vijana kunachukuliwa kama hatua muhimu ya kupunguza madhara ya utumizi mbaya wa pombe. Kuongeza umri ambapo dawa halali lewevu kama vile pombe zinaweza kununuliwa; kupiga marufuku au kuzuia matangazo ya pombe kumependekezwa kama njia za ziada za kupunguza madhara na utegemezi wa pombe. Ushahidi wa kuaminika, unaojikita katika kampeni za kuelimisha kupitia vyombo vya habari kuhusu madhara ya utumizi mbaya wa pombe, umependekezwa. Miongozo kwa wazazi kuzuia matumizi mabaya miongoni mwa waliobalehe, na kwa ajili ya kuwasaidia vijana wenye matatizo ya afya ya akili pia imependekezwa.<ref name="acdacpovfa">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Crews | first1 = F. | last2 = He | first2 = J. | last3 = Hodge | first3 = C. | title = Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction. | journal = Pharmacol Biochem Behav | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–99 | month = Feb | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001 | pmid = 17222895 }}</ref> ==Usimamizi== Matibabu ni ya aina mbalimbali kwa sababu pana mitazamo mbalimbali ya ulevi. Wale ambao huchukulia ulevi kama tatizo la kiafya au ugonjwa hupendekeza matibabu mbalimbali, kwa mfano, wale ambao hutazama hali hii kama moja uteuzi mojawapo ya kijamii. Matibabu mengi hulenga kuwasaidia watu kusitisha unywaji pombe, ikifuatiwa na mafunzo ya maisha na / au msaada wa kijamii ili kuwasaidia kujiepusha na kurejelea matumizi ya pombe. kwa vile ulevi huhusisha mambo kadhaa ambayo husababisha mtu kuendelea kunywa, lazima zote kushughulikiwa ili kuzuia kurejelea ulevi. Mfano wa aina hii ya matibabu ni kusafisha ulewevu ukifuatiwa na mchanganyiko wa matibabu saidizi, kuhudhuria vikundi vya kujisaidia kibinafsi, na taratibu endelevu ya kuyakabili. Jumuiya-tiba kwa ulevi kwa kawaida huunga mkono mtazamo wa kutoruhusu pombekamwe, hata hivyo, wapo baadhi ya watu ambao huendeleza mtazamo wa kupunguza madhara pia.<ref name="Gabbard"></ref> ===Usafishaji=== Usafishaji wa ulewevu au 'usafishaji' kwa walevi ni kuacha pombe ghafla na kupata kibadala cha dawa lewevu, kama vile benzodiazepini, zilizo na athari sawa katika uzuiaji athari za kuacha pombe. Watu wanaokumbwa na hatari hafifu hadi wastani ya dalili za kuacha pombe wanaweza kusaidiwa kusafisha pombe bila ya kulazwa. Watu wanaokumbwa na hatari ya dalili kali za kuacha pombe pamoja na walio na hali sugu ya komobidi, hutibiwa kwa jumla kama wagonjwa wa kulazwa. Usafishaji kwa kweli hautibu ulevi, na huhitaji kufuatiliwa na utaratibu mwafaka wa matibabu dhidi ya utegemezi wa pombe , ili kupunguza hatari ya kurejelea ulevi.<ref name="Blondell-2005">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Blondell | first1 = RD. | title = Ambulatory detoxification of patients with alcohol dependence. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2005-02-01_71_3/page/n104 | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 71 | issue = 3 | pages = 495–502 | month = Feb | year = 2005 | pmid = 15712624 }}</ref> ===Tiba ya vikundi na tiba-akili=== [[File:Alcoholics Anonymous Regional Service Center by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|Kituo cha Kieneo cha huduma za Alcoholics Anonymous.]] Aina mbalimbali za tiba ya vikundi au tiba-akili zinaweza kutumika kushughulikia masuala ya kimsingi ya kisaikolojia ambayo huhusiana na utegemezi pombe, na pia kutoa ujuzi wa kuzuia kurejelea pombe. Mtazamo wa-kusaidina kimashauri kwa makundi ni njia moja ya inayotumika zaidi kuwasaidia walevi kudumisha hali ya kutolewa.<ref name="Morgan-Lopez-2006">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Morgan-Lopez | first1 = AA. | last2 = Fals-Stewart | first2 = W. | title = Analytic complexities associated with group therapy in substance abuse treatment research: problems, recommendations, and future directions. | journal = Exp Clin Psychopharmacol | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 265–73 | month = Mei | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1037/1064-1297.14.2.265 | pmid = 16756430 }}</ref><ref name="Soyka-2001">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Soyka | first1 = M. | last2 = Helten | first2 = C. | last3 = Scharfenberg | first3 = CO. | title = [Psychotherapy of alcohol addiction—principles and new findings of therapy research] | journal = Wien Med Wochenschr | volume = 151 | issue = 15–17 | pages = 380–8; discussion 389 | month = | year = 2001 | doi = | pmid = 11603209 }}</ref> Alcoholics Anonymous lilikuwa shirika mojawapo la kwanza kubuniwa ili kutoa ushauri usio wa kitaalamu wa kutegemeana, na ingali ndiyo kubwa. Mengine ni pamoja na LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, na Women For sobriety. ===Mgao na usawazisho=== Mgao na mipango ya usawazisho kama vile Mederation Management na DrinkWise hazipendekezi kuacha pombe kabisa. Ingawa walevi wengi hawawezi kuzuia unywaji wao kwa njia hii, baadhi yao hurudia unywaji wa wastani. Utafiti wa Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Marekani ya Matumizi Mabaya ya Pombe (NIAAA)ya 2002 ulionyesha kuwa asilimia 17.7 ya watu waliotambuliwa kama wategemezi pombe mwaka mmoja kabla ya kurejelea-hatari hafifu ya kunywa. Kundi hili, hata hivyo, ilionyesha dalili chache za awali za utegemezi.<ref name="DAWSON2005">{{cite journal |title=Recovery from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001–2002 |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh29-2/131-142.htm |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00964.x |year=2005 |last1=Dawson |first1=Deborah A. |last2=Grant |first2=Bridget F. |last3=Stinson |first3=Frederick S. |last4=Chou |first4=Patricia S. |last5=Huang |first5=Boji |last6=Ruan |first6=W. Juni |journal=Addiction |volume=100 |pages=281 |pmid=15733237 |issue=3 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2011-07-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719104620/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh29-2/131-142.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Utafiti wa kufuatilia, kwa kutumia wahusika walioonekana kuwa katika hali ya kujirekebisha kutokana na pombe mnamo 2001-2002, ulichunguza kiwango chao cha kerejelea unywaji wa kutatiza 2004-2005. Utafiti uligndua kuwa kujitenga na pombe ndiyo iliyokuwa njia imara zaidi ya marerekebisho kwa walevi wanaorekebika.<ref name="DAWSON2007">{{cite journal |title=Rates and correlates of relapse among individuals in remission from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: a 3-year follow-up |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00536.x |pmid=18034696 |year=2007 |last1=Dawson |first1=Deborah A. |last2=Goldstein |first2=Risë B. |last3=Grant |first3=Bridget F. |journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2036}}</ref> Mfuatilio wa muda mrefu (miaka 60) wa makundi mawili ya wanaume walevi ilihitimisha kuwa "kurudia unywaji uliodhibitiwa hakuwezi kudumishwa kwa zaidi ya miaka kumi bila kurejelea ulevi au kuacha kabisa".<ref name="VAILLANT2003">{{cite journal |title=A 60-year follow-up of alcoholic men |pmid=12873238 |year=2003 |last1=Vaillant |first1=GE |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=1043–51 |journal=Addiction (Abingdon, England)}}</ref> ===Dawa=== Aina tofauti za dawa zinaweza kupendekezwa kusaidia kutibu ulevi. '''Dawa zinazotumika kwa sasa''' * ''Antabuse'' (disulfiram) huzuia uondoaji wa asetaldehide, kemikali itokayo mwilini wakati wa kusagwa kwa ethanoli. Asetaldehidi yenyewe husababisha dalili nyingi za uchovu baada-ulevi kutokana na pombe. Athari jumla ni usumbufu mkubwa wakati pombe inaponywewa: uchovu mbaya ushikao kwa haraka na kudumu kwa muda mrefu. Hii humkatisha mlevi tamaa ya kunywa pombe na unywaji wa kiasi kikubwa wanapotumia dawa hii. Utafiti wa miaka 9 ya hivi karibuni uligundua kwamba ujumuishaji wa disulfiram kwa mpango pamoja na kemikali husika ya carbamide kwa mpangilio mpana wa tiba hupelekea kiwango cha asilimia 50 ya kuacha ya pombe.<ref name="Krampe-2006">{{cite journal |author=Krampe H, Stawicki S, Wagner T |title=Follow-up of 180 alcoholic patients for up to 7 years after outpatient treatment: impact of alcohol deterrents on outcome |journal=Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=86–95 |year=2006 |month=Januari |pmid=16433735 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00013.x |url= |issn=0145-6008}}</ref> * ''Temposil'' (kalsiamu kabimidi) hufanya kazi kwa njia sawa na Antabuse; hata hivyo, ubora wake ni kuwa athari mbaya za mara kwa mara za disulfiram; kama vile sumu ya hepato na kizunguzungu, hazitokei kama vile kwa kabimidi kalsiamu.<ref name="Krampe-2006"></ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Ogborne | first1 = AC. | title = Identifying and treating patients with alcohol-related problems. | journal = CMAJ | volume = 162 | issue = 12 | pages = 1705–8 | month = Juni | year = 2000 | pmid = 10870503 | pmc = 1232509 }}</ref> * ''Naltrexone'' ni kemikali kinzani kwa vihisishi vya opioidi, ambayo huzuia kikamilifu madhara ya endofinina opiati. Naltrexone hutumika kupunguza utashi wa pombe na kuhimiza kuacha. Pombe husababisha mwili ya kutoa endofini ambayo nayo huamsha dopamini na kusisimua kuamsha pathways ya; kwa hivyo wakati naltrexone imo mwilini hupunguza madhara kutokana na unywaji pombe.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Soyka | first1 = M. | last2 = Rösner | first2 = S. | title = Opioid antagonists for pharmacological treatment of alcohol dependence – a critical review. | journal = Curr Drug Abuse Rev | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 280–91 | month = Nov | year = 2008 | pmid = 19630726 }}</ref> Naltrexone pia hutumika katika njia ya kutibu ulevi iitwayo Sinclair, ambayo hutibu wagonjwa kupitia mchanganyiko wa Naltrexone na unywaji pombe.<ref>[243] ^ Hataza ya Marekani No. 4,882,335 (iliyotolewa 21 Novemba 1989), inapatikana kwa: http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u {{Wayback|url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u |date=20210126205602 }} =% 2Fnetahtml% 2FPTO% 2Fsrchnum.htm &amp; r = 1 &amp; f = G &amp; l. &amp; OS = 50 &amp; s1 = 4882335.PN = PN/4882335 &amp; RS = PN/4882335</ref> * ''Campral'' (akamproseti) hudhibiti ya kemikali za ubongo ambazo hubadilishwa na utegemezi wa pombe kupitia matendo kinzani ya glutamati, kiungo wasilifu cha neuro ambacho ni sisimivu katika awamu ya kujitenga na ulevi.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Mason | first1 = BJ. | last2 = Heyser | first2 = CJ. | title = The neurobiology, clinical efficacy and safety of acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence. | journal = Expert Opin Drug Saf | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 177–88 | month = Jan | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1517/14740330903512943 | pmid = 20021295 }}</ref> '''Dawa za jaribio''' * ''Topamax'' (topirameti) ni kizalia katika sukari za kawaida zinazopatikana katika monosakaraidi D fruktosi-zimegundulika kuwa na uwezo wa kumsaidia mlevi kuacha au kupunguza kiasi cha pombe wanachokunywa. Ushahidi unaonyesha kuwa topirameti hukinza visisimuzi vya glutameti eksitatori, hufisha utoaji wa dopamini na kuzidisha utendaji wa asidi ya gamma-aminobutirik fifishi. Tathmini ya mwaka 2008 ya ufanisi wa topirameti aliafiki kuwa matokeo ya majaribio yaliyochapishwa ni ya kutia matumaini, hata hivyo, kufikia 2008, takwimu hazikutosha kusaidia kutumika kwa topirameti pamoja na ushauri mfupi wa kila wiki kama njia ya kimsingi dhidi ya utegemezi pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Olmsted CL, Kockler DR |title=Topiramate for alcohol dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2008-10_42_10/page/1475 |journal=Ann Pharmacother |volume=42 |issue=10 |pages=1475–80 |year=2008 |month=Oktoba |pmid=18698008 |doi=10.1345/aph.1L157 |issn=1060-0280}}</ref> Tathmini ya 2010 iligundua kuwa topirameti inaweza kuwa na upevu kuliko njia nyinginezo zilizopo za kutibu unywaji pombe. Topirameti hupunguza kikamilifu tamaa ya pombe na ukali wa athari za kujitenga na unywaji mbali na kuboresha viwango vya hali ya maisha.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Kenna | first1 = GA. | last2 = Lomastro | first2 = TL. | last3 = Schiesl | first3 = A. | last4 = Leggio | first4 = L. | last5 = Swift | first5 = RM. | title = Review of topiramate: an antiepileptic for the treatment of alcohol dependence. | journal = Curr Drug Abuse Rev | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 135–42 | month = Mei | year = 2009 | doi = | pmid = 19630744 }}</ref> '''Dawa zinazoweza kuvuruga matokeo''' * Benzodiazepini, licha ya kuwa muhimu katika utunzaji wa walioathirika vibaya na kuacha pombe, ikitumika kwa muda mrefu husababisha matokeo mabaya zaidi kwa mlevi. Walevi wanaotumia benzodiazepini sugu huwa na kiwango cha chini cha kufikia kuacha pombe kuliko wale wasiotumia benzodiazepini. Aina hii ya dawa aghalabu hupendekezwa kwa walevi katika kutibu ukosefu wa usingizi au kupunguza wasiwasi.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=S.J.E. |editor1-last=Lindsay |editor2-first=Graham E. |editor2-last=Powell |title=The Handbook of Clinical Adult Psychology |url=http://books.google.com/?id=a6A9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA380 |edition=2nd |date=28 Julai 1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-07215-1 |page=402 |chapter= |chapterurl= }}</ref> Kuanzisha matumizi ya benzodiazepini au vitulizi-hiponozi kwa watu wanaotibiwa hupelekea kiwango cha juu cha urejeleaji ulevi huku mwandishi mmoja akieleza kuwa zaidi ya robo ya watu hurejelea ulevi baada ya kupewa vitulizi-hiponozi. Mara nyingi wagonjwa hufikiria kimakosa kwamba wamelevuka licha ya kuendelea kutumia benzodiazepini. Wale ambao ni watumiaji wa muda mrefu wa benzodiazepini hawafai kuondolewa kwa haraka, kwa vile wasiwasi kali na hofu zinaweza kuibuka, nazo ni hatari bainifu zinazoweza kusababisha kurejelea pombe. Kanuni za Taper za miezi 6-12 zimepatikana kuwa zenye mafanikio zaidi, kwani ina viwangi vya chini zaidi vya athari za kuacha ulevi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gitlow |first1=Stuart |title=Substance Use Disorders: A Practical Guide |url=http://books.google.com/?id=rbrSdWVerBUC |edition=2nd |date=1 Oktoba 2006 |publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins |location=USA |isbn=978-0-7817-6998-3 |pages=52 and 103–121}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kushner MG, Abrams K, Borchardt C |title=The relationship between anxiety disorders and alcohol use disorders: a review of major perspectives and findings |journal=Clin Psychol Rev |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=149–71 |year=2000 |month=Machi |pmid=10721495 |doi= 10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00027-6|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0272-7358(99)00027-6}}</ref> ===Uzoelevu wa ndumakuwili=== Walevi pia wanaweza kuhitaji matibabu kwa uzoelevu wa dawa nyinginezo za kulevya ubongo. Uzoelevu wa ndumakuwili ujulikanao zaidi wa utegemezi pombe ni utegemezi wa benzodiazepini huku tafiti zikionyesha asilimia 10-20 ya wategemezi wa pombe walikuwa na matatizo ya utegemezi au / na matatizo ya matumizi mabaya ya benzodiazepini. Benzodiazepines huongeza utashi wa pombe na kiasi cha pombe kinachnywewa na wanywaji-tatizi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poulos CX, Zack M |title=Low-dose diazepam primes motivation for alcohol and alcohol-related semantic networks in problem drinkers |journal=Behav Pharmacol |volume=15 |issue=7 |pages=503–12 |year=2004 |month=Novemba |pmid=15472572 |doi= 10.1097/00008877-200411000-00006|url= |issn=0955-8810}}</ref> Utegemevu wa benzodiazepini unahitaji kupunguzwa wa kitaratibu kwa vipimo ili kuepuka dalili za athari za kujiondoa katika benzodiazepini na madhara mengine ya kiafya . Utegemevu kwa vitulizi hiponozi kama vile zolpidemi na zopikloni pamoja na opiati na dawa za kulevya haramu ni kitu cha kawaida kwa walevi. Pombe yenyewe ni kitulizi-hiponozi na huweza kuhimiliana na vitulizi-hiponozi nyingine kama vile babitureti, benzodiazepini na zisizo benzodiazepini. Utegemezi na kujiondoa kwa vitulizi-hiponozi kunaweza kuonyesha dalili kali za kiafya, sawa na, kama kujiondoa katika pombe, pana hatari ya kichaa au kutwalika kiakili isiposimamiwa vizuri.<ref name="dolpdaa"></ref> ==Epidemolojia== [[File:Alcohol by Country.png|thumb|300px|right|Jumla ya rekodi za matumizi ya pombe kila mwaka kwa kila mwananchi (15 +), kwa lita ya pombe halisi.]] Madhara ya utumizi wa mihadarati ni tatizo kubwa la afya ya umma linalozikabili nchi nyingi. "Mihadarati inayotumika vibaya na wengi zaidi / inayotegemewa na wagonjwa wanaotafuta matibabu ni pombe".<ref name="Gabbard">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Gabbard | first1 = Glen O. | title = Treatments of psychiatric disorders | year = 2001 | publisher = American Psychiatric Press | location = Washington, DC | url = http://books.google.com/?id=hLVrAAAAMAAJ |edition=3| isbn = 978-0-88048-910-2 }}</ref> [[Ufalme wa Muungano|Nchini]] Uingereza, idadi ya 'wanywaji wategemezi' imlikadiriwa kuwa zaidi ya 2,800,000 mwaka 2001.<ref name="cosu">{{cite web |url=http://www.strategy.gov.uk/downloads/files/econ.pdf |title=Alcohol misuse: How much does it cost? |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=Septemba 2003 |publisher=Cabinet Office Strategy Unit |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061102085849/http://www.strategy.gov.uk/downloads/files/econ.pdf |archivedate=2006-11-02 }}</ref> Takribani asilimia 12% ya watu wazima Marekani wamekuwa na tatizo la utegemezi pombe kwa wakati fulani katika maisha yao.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hasin D et al. |title=Prevalence, Correlates, Disability, and Comorbidity of DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence in the United States |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=64 |issue=7 |year=2007 |pages=830 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.830 |pmid=17606817}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Duniani]] linakadiria kuwa karibu watu 140,000,000 ulimwenguni wanakabiliwa na utegemezi wa pombe.<ref name="whoemcoypaa">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/2001/english/20010219_youngpeoplealcohol.en.html |title=WHO European Ministerial Conference on Young People and Alcohol |author=Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland |authorlink=Gro Harlem Brundtland |date=19 Februari 2001 |publisher=[[World Health Organisation]] }}</ref><ref name="whotmbcrtdhrai">{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2003/pr6/en/index.html |title=WHO to meet beverage company representatives to discuss health-related alcohol issues |author=Ms Leanne Riley |date=31 Januari 2003 |publisher=[[World Health Organisation]] }}</ref> Nchini Marekani na Ulaya magharibi asilimia 10 hadi 20 ya wanaume na aslimia 5-10 ya wanawake kwa wakati mmoja katika maisha yao watafikia vigezo vya ulevi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13448/alcoholism |title=alcoholism |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref> Miongoni mwa jamii za wataalamu wa kimatibabu na kisayansi, pana makubaliano mapana kuhusu ulevi kuwa hali ya ugonjwa. Kwa mfano, Chama cha Matabibu wa Marekani huchukulia pombe kama mihadarati na kuongeza kwamba " utegemevu wa dawa za kulevya ni ugonjwa sugu wa ubongo unaorejearejea ambao una sifa zinazojumuisha utashi wa juu wa kutumia dawa za kulevya licha ya madhara makubwa. Hutokana na maingiliano tata za udhaifu wa kibayolojia, mfichuo wa kimazingira, na sababu za ukuaji (kwa mfano, hatua ya ukomavu ubongo)."<ref name="autogenerated1"></ref> Ulevi una kiwango cha juu cha kutatiza minogni mwa wanaume, ingawa katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, idadi ya walevi wa kike imeongezeka.<ref name="Walter H., Gutierrez K., Ramskogler K., Hertling I., Dvorak A., Lesch O.M., et al. 2003 253–268">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Walter | first1 = H. | last2 = Gutierrez | first2 = K. | last3 = Ramskogler | first3 = K. | last4 = Hertling | first4 = I. | last5 = Dvorak | first5 = A. | last6 = Lesch | first6 = OM. | title = Gender-specific differences in alcoholism: implications for treatment. | journal = Arch Womens Ment Health | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 253–8 | month = Nov | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1007/s00737-003-0014-8 | pmid = 14628177 }}</ref> Ushahidi wa kisasa unaonyesha kwamba asilimia 50-60 ya sababu za ulevi miongoni mwa wanaume na wanawake ni kutokana na jeni , kwa hivyo, asilimia 40-50 iliyobakia ni kutokana na sababu za mazingira.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dick DM, Bierut LJ |title=The genetics of alcohol dependence |journal=Current psychiatry reports |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=151–7 |year=2006 |month=Aprili |pmid=16539893 |doi= 10.1007/s11920-006-0015-1|url= |issn=1523-3812}}</ref> Walevi wengi huingilia ulevi wakati wa ujana au kabla utuzima.<ref name="Enoch-2006"></ref> ==Prognosi== Utafiti wa 2002 wa Taasisi ya Taifa ya Madhara ya Pombe na Ulevi uliochunguza kundi la watu wazima 4,422walioafiki vigezo vya utegemezi pombe na kugundua kwamba baada ya mwaka mmoja, baadhi yao waliafiki vigezo vya mwandishi vya-hatari ya kiwango cha chini, ingawa asilimia 25.5 ya kundi hili hawakupata tiba yoyote, kwa viwango vifuatavyo: asilimia 25 walionekana wangali wategemezi, asilimia 27.3 walikuwa katika hali ya kujaribu kujiondoa (baadhi ya dalili zikiendelea), asilimia 11.8 ya wanywaji wenye dalili (huzidisha hatari ya kurejelea) na asilimia 35.9 walipona kikamilifu - kutokana na asilimia 17.7 walio katika hatari ndogo na asilimia 18.2 ya wanaojiepusha.<ref name="NIAAA2002">{{cite web |url=http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan2005/niaaa-18.htm |title=2001–2002 Survey Finds That Many Recover From Alcoholism |author=The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism |coauthors=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NIH News |date=18 Januari 2005 |publisher=National Institutes of Health |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2006-08-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818230335/http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan2005/niaaa-18.htm |=https://web.archive.org/web/20060818230335/http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan2005/niaaa-18.htm }}</ref> Kinyume na hayo, hata hivyo, matokeo ya mfuatilio wa muda mrefu (miaka 60) wa makundi mawili ya walevi na George Vaillant katika Chuo cha Matibabu cha Harvard alieleza kuwa "ni nadra kwa warejeleaji ulevi wa kudhibitiwa kudumu zaidi ya miaka kumi bila kurejelea au kufikia kuacha".<ref>{{cite journal | author=Vaillant GE | title= A 60-year follow-up of alcoholic men | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2003-08_98_8/page/1043 | journal=Addiction. | year=2003 | volume=98 |pages=1043–51 |pmid=12873238 | doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00422.x | month= Agosti| issue=8 | issn=0965-2140}}</ref> Vaillant pia alibainisha kuwa "kurejelea-unywaji-wa kudhibitiwa, kama ilivyoripotiwa katika chunguzi za muda mfupi, mara kwa mara ni hazina za uhakika." Sababu ya kawaida zaidi ya vifo kwa walevi hutokana na matatizo ya mishipa ya moyo.<ref name="Zuskin-2006">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Zuskin | first1 = E. | last2 = Jukić | first2 = V. | last3 = Lipozencić | first3 = J. | last4 = Matosić | first4 = A. | last5 = Mustajbegović | first5 = J. | last6 = Turcić | first6 = N. | last7 = Poplasen-Orlovac | first7 = D. | last8 = Bubas | first8 = M. | last9 = Prohić | first9 = A. | title = [Alcoholism—how it affects health and working capacity] | journal = Arh Hig Rada Toksikol | volume = 57 | issue = 4 | pages = 413–26 | month = Dec | year = 2006 | doi = | pmid = 17265681 }}</ref> Pana kiwango cha juu cha kujiua miongoni mwa walevi sugu, ambayo huongeza jinsi mnywaji anavyozidi kunywa. Hii huaminika kusababishwa na sababu kwamba pombe husababisha mvurugiko wa kemia za kimwili katika ubongo, na pia kutengwa kijamii. Kujiua pia ni jambo la kawaida sana miongoni mwa watumiaji pombe vijana, na asilimia 25 ya mauaji kwa vijana huhusiana na utumiaji pombe vibaya.<ref name="understanding_suicidal_behaviour_a02">{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = O'Connor | first1 = Rory | last2 = Sheehy | first2 = Noel | title = Understanding suicidal behaviour | url = http://books.google.com/?id=79hEYGdDA3oC | date = 29 Jan 2000 | publisher = BPS Books | location = Leicester | isbn = 978-1-85433-290-5 | pages = 33–37 }}</ref> Takribani asilimia 18 ya walevi hujiua,<ref name="drug_abuse_prevention_a03"></ref> na utafiti umegundua kwamba zaidi ya asilimia 50 ya visa vyote vya kujiua huhusiana na pombe au utegemezi wa dawa. Takwimu hii ni kubwa kwa vijana, wanaokunywa pombe au kutumia vibaya dawa nayo huchangia asilimia 70 ya visa vya kujiua<ref name="pmid1932152">{{cite journal |pmid=1932152 |year=1991 |last1=Miller |first1=NS |last2=Mahler |last3=Gold |title=Suicide risk associated with drug and alcohol dependence. |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=49–61 |issn=1055-0887 |journal=Journal of addictive diseases |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-addictive-diseases_1991_10_3/page/49|format= |doi=10.1300/J069v10n03_06 |author2=Mahler |author3=Gold }}</ref> ==Historia== Pombe ina historia ndefu ya kutumika kwake na matumizi mabaya katika historia ya binadamu iliyorekodiwa. Vyanzo vya Kibiblia, Wamisri na Wababeli vina rekodi za historia ya ulewaji na utegemezi wa pombe. Katika baadhi ya tamaduni za kale pombe ilichiwa na nyinginezo zikishutumu ulevi. Matumizi mabaya ya pombe kupita kiasi na ulevi yalitambuliwa kama visababishi vya matatizo, maelfu ya miaka iliyopita. Hata hivyo, ufafanuzi wa ulevi wa kuzoeleka kama ilivyojulikana nyakati hizo na athari zake mbaya hazikueleweka vyema kwa misingi ya kiafya hadi miaka ya 1700. Katika mwaka 1647 mtawa wa Kigiriki{{Who?|date=Juni 2010}} alikuwa wa kwanza kurekodi kwamba matumizi mabaya sugu ya pombe yalihusiana na sumu ya pombe kwa mfumo wa neva na mwili ambao ulisababisha matatizo mbalimbali ya kimatibabu kama vile,mishtuko ya moyo , kupooza na kutokwa damu kwa ndani. Katika mwaka 1920 madhara ya kutumia pombe vibaya na ulevi sugu yalisababisha kufikirika kwa utekelezwaji wa marufuku ya pombe yaliyoshindikana na hatimaye kuzingatiwa nchini Marekanui kwa muda ufupi. Mwaka 2005 gharama ya utegemezi pombe na matumizi mabaya ilikadiriwa kugharimu uchumi wa Marekani takriban dola bilioni 220 kwa mwaka, kuliko matatizo ya kansa na unenepaji.<ref name="soa2008">{{cite book |last1=Potter |first1= James V. |volume=2 |title=Substances of Abuse |url=http://books.google.com/?id=WU73eJAIDI4C&pg=PA1 |date=14 Januari 2008 |publisher=AFS Publishing Co |isbn=978-1-930327-46-7 |pages=1–13 }}</ref> ==Jamii na utamaduni== [[File:William Hogarth - Gin Lane.jpg|thumb|William Hogarth's Gin Lane, 1751]] Matatizo mbalimbali ya kiafya yanayohusiana na matumizi ya pombe kwa muda mrefu huchukuliwa kijumla kama yenye kudhuru jamii, kwa mfano fedha kutokana kupoteza masaa-ya kazi gharama za kimatibabu, na gharama za upeo wa pili za kimatibabu. Matumizi ya pombe ni sababu kubwa inayochangia majeraha ya kichwa, ajali za magari, mvurugano, na mashambulizi. Mbali na fedha, pia pana gharama kubwa za kijamii kwa mlevi, familia yake na marafiki.<ref name="Jessica Kingsley Publishers">{{cite book |last1=McCully |first1=Chris |title=Goodbye Mr. Wonderful. Alcohol, Addition and Early Recovery. |url=http://www.jkp.com/catalogue/book/9781843102656/contents |year=2004 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |location=London |isbn=978-1-84310-265-6 |page= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |author=Chris McCully. }}</ref> Kwa mfano, matumizi ya pombe yanaweza kusababisha dalili za ulevi kwa mimba ya mwanamke mja mzito,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/documents/FAS_guidelines_accessible.pdf |title=Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for Referral and Diagnosis |author=Julie Louise Gerberding |coauthors=José Cordero, R. Louise Floyd |date=Mei 2005 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |location=USA |format=PDF }}</ref> ambayo ni hali haribifu na isiyotibika.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Streissguth | first1 = Ann Pytkowicz | title = Fetal alcohol syndrome: a guide for families and communities | date = 1 Septemba 1997 | publisher = Paul H Brookes Pub. |url=http://books.google.com/?id=kptHAAAAMAAJ | location = Baltimore, MD, USA | isbn = 978-1-55766-283-5 }}</ref> Makadirio ya gharama za kiuchumi ya matumizi mabaya ya pombe, yaliyokusanywa na Shirika la Afya Duniani; hufikia baina ya asilimia mmoja hadi sita ya Pato la Taifa.<ref>{{cite web | publisher=World Health Organization | url=http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf | format=PDF | title=Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004 | accessdate=3 Januari 2007 }}</ref> Ukadiriaji mmoja wa Australia ulikisia kuwa gharama ya pombe kwa jamii hufikia asilimia 24 ya gharama zote za dawa za kulevya, na utafiti kama huo kule Canada ulihitimisha kuwa gharama ya pombe ilifikia asilimia 41.<ref>{{cite web | publisher=World Health Organization Global Alcohol Database | url=http://www.who.int/globalatlas/dataQuery/objectInterface.asp?objID=359&boCat=&p=null&lvl=0&catID=520700000000&level=2 | accessdate=3 Januari 2007 | title=Economic cost of alcohol consumption }}</ref> Utafiti mmoja uliafikia kuwa gharama ya aina zote za matumizi mabaya ya pombe ''nchini Uingereza '' katika 2001 ulikuwa bilioni £ 18.5-20.<ref name="cosu"></ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3122244.stm | title=Q&A: The costs of alcohol | date=19 Septemba 2003 }}</ref> Taasubi kuhusu walevi mara nyingi hupatikana katika tungo bunilizi na tamaduni maarufu. 'Mnywaji wa jijini' ni mhusika maarufu katika tamaduni maarufu za Kimagharibi. Taasubi za ulevi zinaweza kujikita kwa [[ubaguzi wa rangi]] au chuki dhidi ya wageni, kama vile kuwachukualia Waayalandikuwa walevi wakubwa.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.finfacts.ie/Private/bestprice/alcoholdrinkconsumptionpriceseurope.htm | title=World/Global Alcohol/Drink Consumption |year=2009 |publisher=Finfacts Ireland}}</ref> Tafiti za wanasaikolojia wa kijamii Stivers na Greeley hujaribu kukusanya rekodi ya visa vingi vya matumizi mabaya ya pombe miongoni mwa Waayalandi nchini Marekani.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Stivers | first1 = Richard | title = Hair of the dog: Irish drinking and its American stereotype | date = Mei 2000 | publisher = Continuum | location = New York |url=http://books.google.com/?id=MH3aAAAAMAAJ | isbn = 978-0-8264-1218-8 }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo|2}} ==Usomaji ziada== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Galanter |first=Marc |editor= |title=Alcohol Problems in Adolescents and Young Adults: Epidemiology, Neurobiology, Prevention, Treatment |url=https://archive.org/details/recentdevelopmen17gala |edition= |year=2005 |publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-306-48625-3 |oclc=133155628 56653179 57724687 71290784}} * {{cite book |last=Hedblom |first=Jack H. |editor= |title=Last Call: Alcoholism and Recovery |url=https://archive.org/details/lastcallalcoholi00hedb |edition= |year=2007 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn=978-0-8018-8677-5 |oclc=237901552 77708730}} * Taasisi ya Taifa ya Matumizi Mabaya ya Pombe na Ulevi. " [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Social/Module2Etiology&amp;NaturalHistory/Module2.html Chanzo na Historia Asilia ya Ulevi] {{Wayback|url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Social/Module2Etiology%26NaturalHistory/Module2.html |date=20181211133510 }} ". * {{cite book |last=O'Farrell |first=Timothy J. and William Fals-Stewart |editor= |title=Behavioral Couples Therapy for Alcoholism and Drug Abuse |url=https://archive.org/details/behavioralcouple0000ofar |edition= |year=2006 |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=1-59385-324-6 |oclc=64336035}} * Pence, Gregory, "Kant kuhusu Iwapo Ulevi ni Ugonjwa," Sura ya 2, ''Elementi za Adili za Kibayolojia ,'' McGraw-Hill Books, 2007 ISBN 0-07-313277-2. * {{cite book |last=Plant |first=Martin A. and Moira Plant |title=Binge Britain: Alcohol and the National Response |url=https://archive.org/details/bingebritainalco0000plan |edition= |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK; New York, NY |isbn=0-19-929940-4 |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |oclc=238809013 64554668 }} * {{cite book |last=Smart |first=Lesley |editor= |title=Alcohol and Human Health |url=https://archive.org/details/alcoholhumanheal0000unse |edition= |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-923735-7 |oclc=163616466}} * {{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Philip M. |editor=Michael L. Coulter, Stephen M. Krason, Richard S. Myers, and Joseph A. Varacalli |title=Encyclopedia of Catholic Social Thought, Social Science, and Social Policy |edition= |year=2007 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Lanham, MD; Toronto, Canada; Plymouth, UK |isbn=978-0-8108-5906-7 |pages=22–24 |chapter=Alcoholism and Drug Abuse |chapterurl=}} * Thompson, Warren, MD, FACP. "[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic98.htm Ulevi]. " Emedicine.com, 6 Juni 2007. Ilinakiliwa 2007/09/02. {{Refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{sisterlinks|wikt=alcoholism|b=no|q=Alcoholism|s=no|commons=Category:Alcoholism|n=no|v=no|species=no}} * [http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Addictions/Substance_Abuse/Alcohol/ Viungo vya DMOZ kuhusu matumizi mabaya ya pombe na vikundi vya kusaidia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Addictions/Substance_Abuse/Alcohol/ |date=20100829173343 }} katika Mradi Wazi wa Kuelekeza [[Category:Vinywaji]] [[Category:Madawa ya Kulevya]] hjkl1gq1oveym8vjsnxr7w4d8esfbjk 0 55352 1564498 1555232 2026-06-02T17:28:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 5 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564498 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ugonjwa wa Alzheimer''' (pia hujulikana kama '''Udhaifu wa kiakili utokanao na uzee wa aina ya Alzeima''' au '''Alzeima''' tu) ni aina ya kawaida sana ya [[tatizo la kiakili]]. Huo [[ugonjwa]] usiotibika, wa kusawijika na unaoua, ulielezewa kwa mara ya kwanza na [[mtaalamu]] wa [[magonjwa ya akili]] na ya [[mfumo wa neva]] [[Alois Alzheimer]] katika [[mwaka]] wa [[1906]] ukapewa [[jina]] lake. Kwa jumla, huwa unatambuliwa kwa watu walio na [[umri]] wa zaidi ya miaka 65,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brookmeyer R, Gray S, Kawas C |title=Projections of Alzheimer's disease in the United States and the public health impact of delaying disease onset |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_1998-09_88_9/page/1337 |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=88 |issue=9 |pages=1337–42 |year=1998 |month=Septemba |pmid=9736873 |pmc=1509089 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.88.9.1337 }}</ref> ingawa kuna Alzeima ya nadra inayoanza mapema. Katika mwaka wa 2006, kulikuwa na wagonjwa [[milioni]] 26.6 kote [[duniani]]. Alzeima inakadiriwa itakuwa inaathiri mtu 1 kati ya watu 85 kote duniani kufikia mwaka wa 2050.<ref name="Brookmeyer2007"/> Ingawa [[chanzo]] cha ugonjwa wa Alzeima ni tofauti kwa kila mtu, kuna [[dalili]] kadhaa za kawaida.<ref name="alzheimers.org"> {{cite web | title=What is Alzheimer's disease? | url=http://www.alzheimers.org.uk/site/scripts/documents_info.php?documentID=100 | publisher=Alzheimers.org.uk | year=2007 | month=Agosti | accessdate=2008-02-21 }}</ref> Dalili za mwanzo zinazoonekana mara nyingi hudhaniwa kimakosa kuwa matatizo 'yanayotokana na umri', au kuonyesha kuwa mtu anafadhaika.<ref name="pmid17222085">{{cite journal |author=Waldemar G, Dubois B, Emre M, ''et al.'' |title=Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders associated with dementia: EFNS guideline |journal=Eur J Neurol |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=e1–26 |year=2007 |month=Januari |pmid=17222085 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01605.x }}</ref> Katika hatua za mwanzo, dalili za kawaida zinazotambuliwa ni kukosa uwezo wa kupata kumbukumbu mpya, kama vile wa kukumbuka mambo yaliyofanyika hivi karibuni. Wakati Alzeima inakisiwa, utambuzi kwa kawaida huwa unathibitishwa na tathmini ya tabia na vipimo vya utambuzi wa mambo, mara nyingi zikifuatiwa na skani ya ubongo kama inapatikana.<ref name="alzres">{{cite web | title=Alzheimer's diagnosis of AD | url=http://www.alzheimers-research.org.uk/info/diagnosis/ | publisher=Alzheimer's Research Trust | accessdate=2008-02-29 | archivedate=2007-10-22 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022154220/http://alzheimers-research.org.uk/info/diagnosis/ }}</ref> Ugonjwa unapoendelea, dalili huwa ni pamoja na kuchanganyikiwa, kukerwa na uchokozi, mabadiliko ya hali ya moyo, kutatizika kwa lugha, kupoteza kumbukumbu ya muda mrefu, na mgonjwa kujitenga sana kadiri hisia zake zinavyoendelea kupungua.<ref name="pmid17222085"/><ref name="pmid17823840"> {{cite journal |author=Tabert MH, Liu X, Doty RL, Serby M, Zamora D, Pelton GH, Marder K, Albers MW, Stern Y, Devanand DP |title=A 10-item smell identification scale related to risk for Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-neurology_2005-07_58_1/page/155 |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=155–160 |year=2005 |pmid=15984022 |doi=10.1002/ana.20533 }}</ref> Hatua kwa hatua, kazi za [[mwili]] hupotea, na hatimaye kusababisha [[kifo]].<ref name="nihstages">{{cite web | title=Understanding stages and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease | url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/stages.htm | publisher=National Institute on Aging | date=2007-10-26 | accessdate=2008-02-21 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516213955/http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/stages.htm | archivedate=2008-05-16 }}</ref> Ni vigumu kubashiri hatima ya mgonjwa binafsi kwa vile muda wa ugonjwa unatofautiana. Alzeima hukua kwa kipindi kisichojulikana kabla ya kudhihirika kabisa, na inaweza kukua bila ya kutambuliwa kwa miaka mingi. Muda wa kuishi baada ya utambuzi ni takriban miaka saba.<ref name="pmid3776457">{{cite journal |author=Mölsä PK, Marttila RJ, Rinne UK |title=Survival and cause of death in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia |journal=Acta Neurol Scand |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=103–7 |year=1986 |month=Agosti |pmid=3776457 |accessdate=2008-08-04 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0404.1986.tb04634.x }}</ref> Chini ya asilimia tatu ya wagonjwa huishi kwa zaidi ya miaka kumi na nne baada ya utambuzi.<ref name="pmid7793228">{{cite journal |author=Mölsä PK, Marttila RJ, Rinne UK |title=Long-term survival and predictors of mortality in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia |journal=ActaNeurol Scand |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=159–64 |year=1995 |month=Machi |pmid=7793228 }}</ref> Chanzo na kukua kwa Alzeima huwa havieleweki vizuri. Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa ugonjwa huu unahusiana na tando na mifungamano kwenye ubongo.<ref name="pmid15184601"/> Kwa sasa matibabu yanayotumika hupunguza dalili za ugonjwa lakini hakuna matibabu ya kuchelewesha au kusimamisha kuendelea kwa ugonjwa huu. Hadi mwaka wa 2012, zaidi ya majaribio 1000 ya kliniki yamefanywa kwa ajili ya kutambua tiba ya Alzeima, lakini haijulikani kama mojawapo ya mikakati iliyofanyiwa majaribio ya kusitisha ugonjwa huu itaonyesha matokeo yenye matumaini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=alzheimer |title= Alzheimer's Disease Clinical Trials |accessdate= 2008-08-18 |publisher= US National Institutes of Health }}</ref> Baadhi ya mienendo ya maisha ambayo haihusu upasuaji, imetajwa kwa ajili ya kuzuia ugonjwa wa Alzeima, lakini kuna ukosefu wa ushahidi wa kutosha wa uhusiano kati ya mapendekezo hayo na kupungua kwa kusawijika. Kusisimua akili, mazoezi, na lishe bora yanapendekezwa, kama njia za kujikinga na njia ya busara ya kudhibiti ugonjwa huo. <ref name="prevention1">{{cite web | title=Can Alzheimer's disease be prevented | url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/63B5A29C-F943-4DB7-91B4-0296772973F3/0/CanADbePrevented.pdf | format=pdf | publisher=National Institute on Aging | accessdate=2008-02-29 | date=2006-08-29 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002125551/http://www.nia.nih.gov/NR/rdonlyres/63B5A29C-F943-4DB7-91B4-0296772973F3/0/CanADbePrevented.pdf | archivedate=2006-10-02 }}</ref> Kwa sababu Alzeima haiwezi kutibiwa na husababisha kusawijika, utunzaji wa wagonjwa ni muhimu. Wajibu mkuu wa mlezi mara nyingi kuchukuliwa na mke au jamaa wa karibu.<ref name="metlife.com">{{cite web | title= The MetLife study of Alzheimer's disease: The caregiving experience | month= Agosti | year= 2006 |archivedate=2008-06-25 | archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080625071754/http://www.metlife.com/WPSAssets/14050063731156260663V1FAlzheimerCaregivingExperience.pdf | publisher=MetLife Mature Market Institute | format=PDF | accessdate=2008-02-12 }}</ref> Ugonjwa wa Alzeima unajulikana kwa kuwatwika walezi wa wagonjwa mzigo mkubwa na mashinikizo yanaweza kuwa ya aina nyingi, yakiwemo ya kijamii, ya kisaikolojia, ya kimwili, na ya kiuchumi katika maisha ya mlezi huyo.<ref name="pmid17662119">{{cite journal |author=Thompson CA, Spilsbury K, Hall J, Birks Y, Barnes C, Adamson J |title=Systematic review of information and support interventions for caregivers of people with dementia |journal=BMC Geriatr |volume=7 |page=18 |year=2007 |pmid=17662119 |pmc=1951962 |doi=10.1186/1471-2318-7-18 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10489656">{{cite journal |author=Schneider J, Murray J, Banerjee S, Mann A |title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: I—Factors associated with carer burden |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_1999-08_14_8/page/651 |journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=651–661 |year=1999 |month=Agosti |pmid=10489656 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<651::AID-GPS992>3.0.CO;2-B |accessdate=2008-07-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Murray J, Schneider J, Banerjee S, Mann A |title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: II—A qualitative analysis of the experience of caregiving |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_1999-08_14_8/page/662 |journal=International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=662–667 |year=1999 |month=Agosti |pmid=10489657 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<662::AID-GPS993>3.0.CO;2-4 }}</ref> Katika nchi zilizoendelea, Alzeima ni mojawapo ya magonjwa yenye gharama kubwa sana kwa jamii.<ref name="pmid15685097">{{cite journal |author=Bonin-Guillaume S, Zekry D, Giacobini E, Gold G, Michel JP |title=Impact économique de la démence (English: The economical impact of dementia) |language=French |journal=Presse Med |issn=0755-4982 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=35–41 |year=2005 |month=Januari |pmid=15685097 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9543467">{{cite journal |author=Meek PD, McKeithan K, Schumock GT |title=Economic considerations in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=18 |issue=2 Pt 2 |pages=68–73; discussion 79–82 |year=1998 |pmid=9543467 }}</ref> == Sifa == Mkondo wa ugonjwa umegawanywa katika hatua nne, na mwelekeo wa kuendelea kuharibika kwa utambuzi na utendaji wa mambo. === Kabla ya Dementia === Dalili za kwanza mara nyingi uhusishwa kimakosa kama zinazotokana na kuzeeka au fadhaa.<ref name="pmid17222085"/> Upimwaji wa kina wa kinyurosaikolojia unaweza kufichua matatizo madogo madogo ya utambuzi wa mambo hadi miaka minane kabla ya mtu kutimiza vigezo vya kliniki kwa ajili ya utambuzi wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid15324363">{{cite journal |author=Bäckman L, Jones S, Berger AK, Laukka EJ, Small BJ |title=Multiple cognitive deficits during the transition to Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-internal-medicine_2004-09_256_3/page/195 |journal=J Intern Med |volume=256 |issue=3 |pages=195–204 |year=2004 |month=Sep |pmid=15324363 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01386.x }}</ref> Dalili hizi za mapema zinaweza kuathiri shughuli tata zaidi za maisha ya kila siku.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Nygård L |title=Instrumental activities of daily living: a stepping-stone towards Alzheimer's disease diagnosis in subjects with mild cognitive impairment? |journal=Acta Neurol Scand |volume=Suppl |issue=179 |pages=42–6 |year=2003 |month= |pmid=12603250 |doi= 10.1034/j.1600-0404.107.s179.8.x }}</ref> Upungufu unaoonekana kwa urahisi sana ni kupoteza kwa kumbukumbu ya mambo, ambayo hujitokeza kama ugumu wa kukumbuka mambo msingi yaliyosomwa hivi karibuni na kukosa uwezo wa kupata habari mpya.<ref name="pmid15324363"/><ref name="pmid12603249">{{cite journal |author=Arnáiz E, Almkvist O |title=Neuropsychological features of mild cognitive impairment and preclinical Alzheimer's disease |journal=Acta Neurol. Scand., Suppl. |volume=179 |pages=34–41 |year=2003 |pmid=12603249 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0404.107.s179.7.x |accessdate=2008-06-12 }}</ref> Matatizo ya utambuzi na utendaji rasmi waumakinifu, [[Mipango|kupanga]], uwezo wa kubadilika kwa urahisi kutoka na mageuzi ya mambo, na kuwaza kidhahania, au kuharibika kwa kumbukumbu ya kisemantiki (kumbukumbu ya maana, na uhusiano wa dhana), yanaweza pia kuwa ni dalili ya hatua za kwanza za Alzeima.<ref name="pmid15324363"/> Kutojali kunaweza kuonekana katika hatua hii, na inaenaendelea kuwa dalili sugu yakinyurosaikologia katika mwenendo wa ugonjwa huu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Landes AM, Sperry SD, Strauss ME, Geldmacher DS |title=Apathy in Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_2001-12_49_12/page/1700 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=1700–7 |year=2001 |month=Dec |pmid=11844006 |doi=10.1046/j.1532-5415.2001.49282.x }}</ref> Hatua ya kabla ya kutambuliwa ya ugonjwa pia hujulikana kama uharibifu mdogo wa utambuzi wa mambo,<ref name="pmid12603249"/>lakini kama jina hili linalingana na hatua tofauti ya utambuzi au linatambua hatua ya kwanza ya Alzeima ni suala lenye mgogoro.<ref name="pmid17279076"> {{cite journal |author=Petersen RC |title=The current status of mild cognitive impairment—what do we tell our patients? |journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=60–1 |year=2007 |month=Februari |pmid=17279076 |doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0402 }}</ref> === Kuanza kwa Dementia === Kwa watu walio na Alzeima ongezeko la kuharibika kwa uwezo wa kujifunza na kumbukumbu hatimaye hupelekea kufanywa kwa utambuzi dhihiri. Katika sehemu ndogo ya watu hawa, matatizo ya lugha, utendaji wa mambo, utambuzi (agnosia), au utekelezaji wa majukumu (apraksia) ni dhahiri zaidi kuliko matatizo ya kumbukumbu.<ref name="pmid10653284"> {{cite journal |author=Förstl H, Kurz A |title=Clinical features of Alzheimer's disease |journal=European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience |volume=249 |issue=6 |pages=288–290 |year=1999 |pmid=10653284 |doi=10.1007/s004060050101 }}</ref> Alzeima haiathiri uwezo wote wa kumbukumbu kwa njia usawa. Kumbukumbu za kitambo za maisha ya mtu (kumbukumbu za matukio), mambo ya kujifunza (kumbukumbu za kisemantiki), na kumbukumbu isiyojitokeza wazi (kumbukumbu ya mwili kuhusu jinsi ya kufanya mambo, kama vile kutumia uma kula) huwa zinathirika na kiasi kidogo kuliko mambo mapya au kumbukumbu.<ref name="pmid1300219"> {{cite journal |author=Carlesimo GA, Oscar-Berman M |title=Memory deficits in Alzheimer's patients: a comprehensive review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neuropsychology-review_1992-06_3_2/page/n2 |journal=Neuropsychol Rev |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=119–69 |year=1992 |month=Juni |pmid=1300219 |doi=10.1007/BF01108841 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8821346"> {{cite journal |author=Jelicic M, Bonebakker AE, Bonke B |title=Implicit memory performance of patients with Alzheimer's disease: a brief review |journal=International Psychogeriatrics |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=385–392 |year=1995 |pmid=8821346 | doi = 10.1017/S1041610295002134 }}</ref> Matatizo ya lugha hasa huwa na sifa ya kupungua kwa msamiati na ufasaha wa maneno, husababisha kuharibika kwa jumla kwa lugha simulizi lugha ya kuandikwa.<ref name="pmid10653284"/><ref name="pmid1856925">{{cite journal |author=Taler V, Phillips NA |title=Language performance in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a comparative review |journal= J Clin Exp Neuropsychol |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=501–56 |year=2008 |month=Jul |pmid=1856925 |doi=10.1080/13803390701550128 }}</ref> Katika hatua hii, mtu aliye na Alzeima kwa kawaida huwa na uwezo wa kutosha wa kuwasilisha mawazo ya msingi.<ref name="pmid10653284"/><ref name="pmid1856925"/><ref name="pmid7967534">{{cite journal |author=Frank EM |title=Effect of Alzheimer's disease on communication function |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-south-carolina-medical-association_1994-09_90_9/page/417 |journal=J S C Med Assoc |volume=90 |issue=9 |pages=417–23 |year=1994 |month=Septemba |pmid=7967534 }}</ref> Wakati anapotekeleza majukumu ya misuli kama vile kuandika, kuchora au kuvaa nguo, baadhi ya matatizo ya kudhibiti mwendo na kuratibu (apraksia) zinaweza kuwepo lakini kwa kawaida hazitambuliwi.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Ugonjwa unavyoendelea, watu wenye Alzeima mara nyingi huendelea kufanya kazi nyingi kwa kujitegemea, lakini huhitaji msaada au usimamizi katika shughuli zinazohitaji uamuzi mkubwa.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> === Dementia ya Wastani === Kudhoofika kunavyoendelea hatimaye kunazuia kujitegemea, huku anayehusika akishindwa kufanya shughuli za kawaida za maisha ya kila siku.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Matatizo ya maongezi huwa wazi kutokana na kutokuwa na uwezo wa kukumbuka msamiati, ambayo hupelekea matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya misamiati isiyo sawa (paraphasia). Ujuzi wa kusoma na kuandika pia huendelea kupotea.<ref name="pmid10653284"/><ref name="pmid7967534"/> Taratibu tata za shughuli zinazohusisha misuli huzidi hupoteza uwiano kadri wakati unavyopita na Alzeima inavyoendelea, hivyo hatari ya kuanguka huongezeka.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Wakati wa awamu hii, matatizo ya kumbukumbu huwa mabaya, na mtu anaweza kushindwa kutambua jamaa wa karibu.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Kumbukumbu ya muda mrefu, ambayo ilikuwa hapo awali haijaathiriwa, sasa hudhoofika.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Mabadiliko ya kitabia na kinyurosaikayatri huenea zaidi. Mara nyingi haya hudhihirika katika kutangatanga, kuwashwa na kuathirika kwa maongezi, hali ambazo husababisha kilio, uvamizi usio na sababu au kukataa huduma za mtunzaji.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Kuchanganyikiwa na njozi za usiku zinaweza pia kuonekana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Volicer L, Harper DG, Manning BC, Goldstein R, Satlin A |title=Sundowning and circadian rhythms in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=158 |issue=5 |pages=704–11 |year=2001 |month=Mei |pmid=11329390 |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/158/5/704 |accessdate=2008-08-27 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.704 |archive-date=2011-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611235057/http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/158/5/704 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Takriban 30% ya wagonjwa huwa na kutambua kusiko sahihi kwa mawazo yasiyo ya ukweli na dalili zingine za kudanganyika.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Anayehusika pia hupoteza ufahamu wa mchakato wa ugonjwa wao na upungufu (anosognosia).<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Shida ya kutoweza kuzuia mkojo pia huanza.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Dalili hizi huleta dhiki ya kimawazo kwa jamaa na watunzaji wake, mambo ambayo yaweza kupunguzwa kwa kumhamisha mgonjwa kutoka kwa huduma ya nyumbani hadi vituo vya huduma ya muda mrefu .<ref name="pmid10653284"/><ref name="pmid7806732">{{cite journal |author=Gold DP, Reis MF, Markiewicz D, Andres D |title=When home caregiving ends: a longitudinal study of outcomes for caregivers of relatives with dementia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_1995-01_43_1/page/10 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=10–6 |year=1995 |month=Januari |pmid=7806732 }}</ref> === Dementia Pevu === Katika hatua hii ya mwisho ya Alzeima, mgonjwa hutegemea kabisa watunzaji.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Lugha hupunguka hadi kwa maneno rahisi au hata neno moja, hatimaye kusababisha kupotea kabisa kwa uwezo wa maongezi.<ref name="pmid10653284"/><ref name="pmid7967534"/> Hata baada ya kupoteza uwezo wa maongezi ya lugha, wagonjwa wanaweza mara kwa mara kuelewa na kujibu ishara za kihisia.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Ingawa uchokozi bado upo, hali ya kutojali iliyokithiri na uchovu ni matokeo ya kawaida zaidi.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Wagonjwa hatimaye watashindwa kutenda hata mambo rahisi kabisa bila kusaidiwa.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Mkusanyiko wa misuli na uwezo wa kuenda huzorota hadi pale ambapo wagonjwa hulazwa tu kitandani, na hupoteza uwezo wa kujilisha wenyewe.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Alzeima ni ugonjwa usiotibika lakini sababu ya kifo aghalabu huwa ugonjwa mwingine kama vile vidonda vya shinikizo au nimonia, si Alzeima yenyewe.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> == Chanzo == Nadharia tete kadhaa zipo zinazojaribu kuelezea chanzo cha ugonjwa huu. Ile ya zamani, ambayo ni msingi wa matibabu ya madawa mengi ya kisasa ni nadharia tete ya kikolinajia ''<ref name="pmid10071091">{{cite journal |author=Francis PT, Palmer AM, Snape M, Wilcock GK |title=The cholinergic hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: a review of progress |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=137–47 |year=1999 |month=Februari |pmid=10071091 |pmc=1736202 |doi= 10.1136/jnnp.66.2.137|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurology-neurosurgery-and-psychiatry_1999-02_66_2/page/137}}</ref>ambayo inapendekeza kwamba Alzeima hunasababishwa na kupunguka kwa kutengezwa kwa kipeleki cha nyuro cha asetilikolini.'' Nadharia tete hii haijaungwa mkono sana, hasa kwa sababu madawa yanayonuiwa kutibu upungufu wa asetilikolini huwa si mazuri sana. Athari zingine za kikolinajia pia zimependekezwa, kwa mfano, kuanza kujikusanya kwa ukubwa wa amiloidi,<ref name="pmid15236795">{{cite journal |author=Shen ZX |title=Brain cholinesterases: II. The molecular and cellular basis of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Med Hypotheses |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=308–21 |year=2004 |pmid=15236795 |doi=10.1016/j.mehy.2004.02.031 }}</ref>inayo sababisha uvimbe wa nyuro usio wa kawaida.<ref name="pmid12934968">{{cite journal |author=Wenk GL |title=Neuropathologic changes in Alzheimer's disease |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=64 Suppl 9 |pages=7–10 |year=2003 |pmid=12934968 }}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 1991,''nadharia ya amiloidi'' ilidai kwamba amana za amiloidi beta (Aβ) ndiyo chanzo msingi cha ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid1763432">{{cite journal |author=Hardy J, Allsop D |title=Amyloid deposition as the central event in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Trends Pharmacol. Sci. |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=383–88 |year=1991 |month=Oktoba |pmid=1763432 |doi=10.1016/0165-6147(91)90609-V }}</ref><ref name="pmid11801334">{{cite journal |author=Mudher A, Lovestone S |title=Alzheimer's disease-do tauists and baptists finally shake hands? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-neurosciences_2002-01_25_1/page/22 |journal=Trends Neurosci. |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=22–26 |year=2002 |month=Januari |pmid=11801334 |doi=10.1016/S0166-2236(00)02031-2 }}</ref> Uungaji mkono wa madai haya unatokana na kuwepo kwa jeni ya amiloidi tangulizi ya protini beta (APP) juu ya kromosomu 21, pamoja na ukweli kwamba watu walio natrisomia 21 (Down Syndrome) ambao wana nakala ziada ya jeni karibu ulimwenguni kote hudhihirisha Alzeima wanapofikisha umri wa maika 40.<ref name="pmid16904243">{{cite journal |author=Nistor M, Don M, Parekh M, ''et al.'' |title=Alpha- and beta-secretase activity as a function of age and beta-amyloid in Down syndrome and normal brain |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurobiology-of-aging_2007-10_28_10/page/1493 |journal=Neurobiol Aging |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=1493–1506 |year=2007 |month=Oktoba |pmid=16904243 |doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.06.023 |last12=Head |first12=E }}</ref><ref name="pmid15639317">{{cite journal |author=Lott IT, Head E |title=Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome: factors in pathogenesis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurobiology-of-aging_2005-03_26_3/page/n112 |journal=Neurobiol Aging |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=383–89 |year=2005 |month=Machi |pmid=15639317 |doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.08.005 }}</ref> APOE4 ndiyo hatari kubwa ya kimaumbile ya Alzeima, husababisha kuongezeka kwa mkusanyiko zaidi wa amiloidi katika ubongo kabla ya dalili za Alzeima kujitokeza. Hivyo basi, kujikusanya kwa Aβ hutokea kabla ya Alzeima ya kliniki.<ref name="pmid7566000">{{cite journal |author=Polvikoski T, Sulkava R, Haltia M, ''et al.'' |title=Apolipoprotein E, dementia, and cortical deposition of beta-amyloid protein |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_the-new-england-journal-of-medicine_1995-11-09_333_19/page/1242 |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=333 |issue=19 |pages=1242–47 |year=1995 |month=Novemba |pmid=7566000 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199511093331902 }}</ref> Ushahidi zaidi unatokana na kupatikana kwamba panya wenye jeni geuzi iliyotokana na wanyama weingine ya jeni APP ya binadamu hukua na kusababisha utando wa amiloidi fibrila na ishara za ugonjwa wa akili kama Alzeima ulio na upungufu wa mafunzo ya kimahali. <ref>Panya wenye jeni za wanyama wengine: * {{cite journal |author=Games D, Adams D, Alessandrini R, ''et al.'' |title=Alzheimer-type neuropathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F beta-amyloid precursor protein |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1995-02-09_373_6514/page/522 |journal=Nature |volume=373 |issue=6514 |pages=523–27 |year=1995 |month=Februari |pmid=7845465 |doi=10.1038/373523a0 }} * {{cite journal |author=Masliah E, Sisk A, Mallory M, Mucke L, Schenk D, Games D |title=Comparison of neurodegenerative pathology in transgenic mice overexpressing V717F beta-amyloid precursor protein and Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuroscience_1996-09-15_16_18/page/n244 |journal=J Neurosci |volume=16 |issue=18 |pages=5795–811 |year=1996 |month=Septemba |pmid=8795633 }} * {{cite journal |author=Hsiao K, Chapman P, Nilsen S, ''et al.'' |title=Correlative memory deficits, Abeta elevation, and amyloid plaques in transgenic mice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-10-04_274_5284/page/98 |journal=Science (journal) |volume=274 |issue=5284 |pages=99–102 |year=1996 |month=Oktoba |pmid=8810256 |doi=10.1126/science.274.5284.99 }} * {{cite journal |author=Lalonde R, Dumont M, Staufenbiel M, Sturchler-Pierrat C, Strazielle C. |title=Spatial learning, exploration, anxiety, and motor coordination in female APP23 transgenic mice with the Swedish mutation. |journal=Brain Research (journal) |volume=956 |pages=36–44, year=2002 |pmid=12426044 |doi=10.1016/S0006-8993(02)03476-5 |year=2002 |issue=1 }} </ref> Majaribio ya chanjo yalionekana kuondoa utando wa amiloidi katika majaribio ya awali ya binadamu, lakini hayakuwa na athari yoyote muhimu kwa dementia. <ref name="pmid18640458">{{cite journal |author=Holmes C, Boche D, Wilkinson D, ''et al.'' |title=Long-term effects of Abeta42 immunisation in Alzheimer's disease: follow-up of a randomised, placebo-controlled phase I trial |journal=Lancet |volume=372 |issue=9634 |pages=216–23 |year=2008 |month=Julai |pmid=18640458 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61075-2 |last12=Nicoll |first12=JA }}</ref> Watafiti wamepelekewa kudhania kwamba oligoma zisizo za utando za Aβ (mkusanyiko wa monoma nyingi) ndio muundo wa kimsingi wa Aβ. Hizi oligoma za sumu, pia zinajulikana kama Seli-gandi Tawanyishi zitokanazo na Amiloidi (ADDLs), hujigandisha kwenye kipokezi cha nyuroni na kubadilisha muundo wa sinapsi, na hivyo basi kusitisha mawasiliano ya neva.<ref name="pmid17251419"> {{cite journal |author=Lacor PN,''et al.'' |title=Aß Oligomer-Induced Aberrations in Synapse Composition, Shape, and Density Provide a Molecular Basis for Loss of Connectivity in Alzheimer's Disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuroscience_2007-01-24_27_4/page/796 |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=796–807 |year=2007 |month=Januari |pmid=17251419 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3501-06.2007 |last2=Buniel |first2=MC |last3=Furlow |first3=PW |last4=Clemente |first4=AS |last5=Velasco |first5=PT |last6=Wood |first6=M |last7=Viola |first7=KL |last8=Klein |first8=WL }}</ref> Mojawapo ya kipokezi cha Oligoma ya Aβ inaweza kuwaprotini aina ya Prioni, protini ambayo pia imehusishwa na ugonjwa wa kichaa cha ng'ombe na hali inayofanana kwenye binadamu, ugonjwa wa Creutzfeldt-Jakob, hivyo basi kuunganisha mfumo wa msingi wa matatizo haya ya kuzorota kwa nyuro na yale ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid19242475"> {{cite journal |author=Lauren J, Gimbel D, ''et al.'' |title=Cellular prion protein mediates impairment of synaptic plasticity by amyloid-beta oligomers |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7233 |pages=1128–32 |year=2009 |month=Februari |pmid=19242475 |doi=10.1038/nature07761 |pmc=2748841 }}</ref> Katika 2009, nadharia hii iliboreshwa,huku ikipendekeza kuwa aina ya karibu ya protini ya beta-amiloidi, na siyo lazima iwe beta-amiloidi yenyewe, inaweza kuwa ndiyo chanzo kikubwa cha ugonjwa huu. Nadharia hii inashikilia kwamba utaratibu unaohusiana na amiloidi inayopogoa viunganishi vya nyuro katika ubongo katika awamu ya haraka ya awali ya ukuaji wa maisha inaweza kusababishwa na mifumo inayohusiana na kuzeeka katika maisha ya baadaye na kusababisha kunyauka kwa neva kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="Nikolaev">{{cite journal | first= Anatoly | last= Nikolaev | coauthors= Todd McLaughlin, Dennis O'Leary, Marc Tessier-Lavigne | date= 19 Februari 2009 | title= N-APP binds DR6 to cause axon pruning and neuron death via distinct caspases | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2009-02-19_457_7232/page/981 | journal= Nature | volume= 457 | issue= 7232 | pages= 981–989 | issn= 0028-0836 | pmid= 19225519 | pmc= 2677572 | doi= 10.1038/nature07767 | accessdate= Mei 2009 }} </ref> N-APP, sehemu ya APP kutoka peptidi ya N ya mwisho-, ni karibu na beta-amiloidi na imepasuliwa kutoka kwa APP na mojawapo ya vimeng'enya. N-APP huchochea mkondo wa kujiharibu kwa kujiunganisha kwa kipokezi cha kinyuro kinachoitwa kipokezi cha kifo 6 (DR6, pia inajulikana kama TNFRSF21).<ref name="Nikolaev"/> DR6 huonekana sana katika maeneo ya ubongo wa binadamu walioathirika zaidi na Alzeima, hivyo inawezekana kwamba njia ya N-APP/DR6 yaweza kutekwa nyara katika ubongo unaozeeka ili kusababisha uharibifu. Katika mfumo huu, Beta-amiloidi hutekeleza jukumu la usaidizi, kwa kukomesha kazi kwa kubana utendakazi wa kisinapti. Utafiti uliofanywa katika mwaka wa 2004 ulipata kuwa utando za amiloidi haziwiani vyema na upotevu wa nyuro.<ref name="pmid15039236">{{cite journal |author=Schmitz C, Rutten BP, Pielen A, ''et al.'' |title=Hippocampal neuron loss exceeds amyloid plaque load in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Am J Pathol |volume=164 |issue=4 |pages=1495–1502 |year=2004 |month=Aprili |pmid=15039236 |pmc=1615337 |last12=Steinbusch |first12=HW |last13=Pradier |first13=L |last14=Bayer |first14=TA }}</ref> Uchunguzi huu unaunga mkono nadharia tete ya''tau,'' dhana kwamba matatizo ya protini ya tau huanzisha kuzuka kwa ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid11801334"/> Kulingana na mfumo huu, tau ya haipafosforilia huanza kushikana na nyuzi zingine za tau. Hatimaye, hutengeneza utando wa nyurofibirila ndani ya miili ya seli za neva.<ref name="pmid1669718">{{cite journal |author=Goedert M, Spillantini MG, Crowther RA |title=Tau proteins and neurofibrillary degeneration |journal=Brain Pathol |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=279–86 |year=1991 |month=Julai |pmid=1669718 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3639.1991.tb00671.x }}</ref> Wakati hili linapotokea, mishipa midogo zaidi husambaratika na kusababisha kuharibika kwa mfumo wa usafiri wa nyuro.<ref name="pmid15615638">{{cite journal |author=Iqbal K, Alonso Adel C, Chen S, ''et al.'' |title=Tau pathology in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies |journal=Biochim Biophys Acta |volume=1739 |issue=2–3 |pages=198–210 |year=2005 |month=Januari |pmid=15615638 |doi=10.1016/j.bbadis.2004.09.008 |url= |last12=Grundke-Iqbal |first12=I }}</ref> Hii inaweza kusababisha kwanza kutofanya kazi kwa mawasiliano ya biokemikali kati ya nyuro na baadaye kifo cha seli.<ref name="pmid17127334">{{cite journal |author=Chun W, Johnson GV |title=The role of tau phosphorylation and cleavage in neuronal cell death |journal=Front Biosci |volume=12 |pages=733–56 |year=2007 |pmid=17127334 |doi=10.2741/2097 }}</ref> Malengelenge ya Hepisi simpuleksiya virusi vya aina 1 pia yamependekezwa kutekeleza jukumu sababishi katika kubeba aina shawishi za jeni ya apoE. <ref name="pmid18487848"> {{cite journal |author=Itzhaki RF, Wozniak MA |title=Herpes simplex virus type 1 in Alzheimer's disease: the enemy within |journal=J Alzheimers Dis |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=393–405 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18487848 |doi= |issn=1387-2877 |url=http://iospress.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&issn=1387-2877&volume=13&issue=4&spage=393 }}</ref> Nadharia tete nyingine inasisitiza kwamba ugonjwa huu unaweza kuwa unasababishwa na kuvunjika kwa mayelinindani ya ubongo kunakotokana na umri. Kuvunjika huku kwa mayelini husababisha kusitishwa kwa usafiri wa kimkongo, na hivyo husababisha kupotezwa kwa nyuro ambazo huganda. Madini ya chuma yanayotolewa wakati wa kuvunjwa kwa mayelina hudaiwa kuwa husababisha uharibifu zaidi. Mifumo karabati wa uthabitishaji wa mayelini huchangia katika kukua kwa amana za protini kama vile-beta Amiloidi na tau.<ref>{{Cite pmid| 19775776}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid| 15665415}}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|18596894}}</ref> Fadhaa ya uoksidishaji ni sababu kubwa katika kutokea kwa ugonjwa huu./} Watu walio na Alzeima huonyesha kupoteza kwa 70% ya udhibiti wa seli za [[kurulusi]] ambazo hutoa norepinefrini (pamoja na wajibu wake wa uwasilishi wa nyuro) ambazo kwa kawaida huenea kutoka kwa “varicositi” kama za kusababishwa na mwili wenyewe kupiganan na uvimbe kwenye mazingira madogo yanayozunguka nyuro, seli za gliali, na mishipa ya damu kwenye neokoteksi na hipokampasi.<ref name="Heneka"> Heneka MT, Nadrigny F, Regen T, Martinez-Hernandez A, Dumitrescu-Ozimek L, Terwel D, Jardanhazi-Kurutz D, Walter J, Kirchhoff F, Hanisch UK, Kummer MP. (2010). [http://www.pnas.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/content/107/13/6058.full.pdf Locus ceruleus hudhibiti patholojia ya Alzeima kwa kusimamia utendajikazi wa microglial kupitia norepinephrine.] Proc Natl Acad Sci Marekani A. 107:6058-6063 {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0909586107}} PMID 20,231,476</ref> Imeonyeshwa kuwa norepinefrini huchangamsha kipanya cha microglia na kuzuia Aβ- uzalishaji ulishawishiwa wa saitokini na fagosaitosisi zao za Aβ.<ref name="Heneka"/> Hii inaashiria kwamba kuzorota kwa ceruleusi ya mahali maalum yaweza kuwajibika kwa utuaji uliongezeka wa Aβ kwenye ubongo wa Alzeima.<ref name="Heneka"/> == Pathofiziolojia == [[Picha:Alzheimer dementia (3) presenile onset.jpg|thumb|Mfano wa Histopatholojia wa utando dhoofu unavyoonekana katika oteksi ya serebali ya mtu alye na ugonjwa wa mwanzo Alzeima kabla ya uzee. Kutiliwa fedha.]] === Patholojia ya Nyuro === Ugonjwa wa Alzeima una sifa ya kupotezwa kwa nyuro na sinepsi katika tabaka la juu la ubongo na baadhi ya ya maeneo madogo ya oteksi. Upotevu huu hupelekea kudhoofika kwa jumla kwa maeneo yaliyoathirika, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuzorota kwa ndewe ya wakati na ndewe ya parietali, na sehemu ya mbele ya koteksi na mzunguko wa "singulate".<ref name="pmid12934968"/> Utafiti unaotumia MRI na PET umetia kwenye kumbukumbu kupunguka kwa ukubwa maeneo maalum ya ubongo ya wagonjwa wanavyoendelea kutoka kwa kuharibika kwa umauzi wa kadiri hadi kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima , na kwa kulinganisha na picha zinazofanana kutoka kwa watu wazima walio na uzeee na wenye afya.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Moan R|title=MRI software accurately IDs preclinical Alzheimer's disease|journal=Diagnostic Imaging|date=20 Julai 2009|url=http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/news/display/article/113619/1428344|access-date=2010-10-18|archive-date=2016-05-16|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516192841/http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/news/display/article/113619/1428344|dead-url=yes|=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516192841/http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/news/display/article/113619/1428344}}</ref> Tando zote za amiloidi na utanda neurofibrila huonekana wazi wazi na microscopia katika akili ya wale walio na taabu ya Alzeima.<ref name="pmid15184601">{{cite journal |author=Tiraboschi P, Hansen LA, Thal LJ, Corey-Bloom J |title=The importance of neuritic plaques and tangles to the development and evolution of AD |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2004-06-08_62_11/page/n140 |journal=Neurology |volume=62 |issue=11 |pages=1984–9 |year=2004 |month=Juni |pmid=15184601 }}</ref> Tando ni nene, hakunaamana zaidi za beta peptidi amiloidi na nyenzo [[Seli|za mkononi]] nje na kuzunguka nyuro. Mfungamano (mfungamano wa neurofibrila) ni mkusanyiko wa neli ndogo za protini za tau ambazo zimekuwa haipafosoforia na kujilimbikiza ndani ya seli zenyewe. Ingawa watu wengi zaidi hupata tando na mfungamano kama matokeo ya uzee, wagonjwa wa Alzeima huwa nazo kwa wingi katika sehemu maalum za ubongo kama vile tundu ya wakati.<ref name="pmid8038565">{{cite journal |author=Bouras C, Hof PR, Giannakopoulos P, Michel JP, Morrison JH |title=Regional distribution of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in the cerebral cortex of elderly patients: a quantitative evaluation of a one-year autopsy population from a geriatric hospital |journal=Cereb. Cortex |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=138–50 |year=1994 |pmid=8038565 |doi=10.1093/cercor/4.2.138 }}</ref> Mkusanyiko mkubwa wa protini (Miili ya Lewy) si adimu katika ubongo wa mgonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid11816795">{{cite journal |author=Kotzbauer PT, Trojanowsk JQ, Lee VM |title=Lewy body pathology in Alzheimer's disease |journal=J Mol Neurosci |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=225–32 |year=2001 |month=Oct |pmid=11816795 |doi=10.1385/JMN:17:2:225 }}</ref> === Biokemia === [[Picha:Amyloid-plaque formation-big.jpg|right|thumb|border|Vimeng'enya hufanyia kazi APP (protini tangulizi ya amiloidi) na kuikata katika vipande. Kipande cha amiloidi beta ni muhimu katika uundaji wa utando dhoofu katika Alzeima.]] Ugonjwa wa Alzeima umetambuliwa kama ugonjwa wa u kukunjwa vibaya kwa protini (proteopathia) , unaosababishwa na protini za A/beta na tau zilizojikunja vibaya ubongoni.<ref name="pmid14528050">{{cite journal |author=Hashimoto M, Rockenstein E, Crews L, Masliah E |title=Role of protein aggregation in mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases |journal=Neuromolecular Med. |volume=4 |issue=1–2 |pages=21–36 |year=2003 |pmid=14528050 |doi=10.1385/NMM:4:1-2:21 }}</ref> Utando umeundwa kwa peptidi ndogo, zenye urefu wa asidi ya amino 39-43 uitwao beta amiloidi-(pia huandikwa pia kama A-beta-au Aβ). Beta-amiloidi ni kipande kutoka protini kubwa iitwayo amiloidi tangulizi (APP), protini iliyotanda na hupenya kwa utando wa nyuroni. APP ni muhimu kwa ukuaji nyuroni, kuishi na-kujirekebisha baada ya majeraha.<ref name="pmid16822978">{{cite journal |author=Priller C, Bauer T, Mitteregger G, Krebs B, Kretzschmar HA, Herms J |title=Synapse formation and function is modulated by the amyloid precursor protein |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuroscience_2006-07-05_26_27/page/n108 |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=26 |issue=27 |pages=7212–21 |year=2006 |month=Julai |pmid=16822978 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1450-06.2006 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12927332">{{cite journal |author=Turner PR, O'Connor K, Tate WP, Abraham WC |title=Roles of amyloid precursor protein and its fragments in regulating neural activity, plasticity and memory |journal=Prog. Neurobiol. |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=1–32 |year=2003 |month=Mei |pmid=12927332 |doi=10.1016/S0301-0082(03)00089-3 }}</ref> Katika ugonjwa wa Alzeima, mchakato usiojulikana husababisha APP kugawanyika kwa vipande vidogo kupitia kimengenyakatika proteolisisi.<ref name="pmid15787600">{{cite journal |author=Hooper NM |title=Roles of proteolysis and lipid rafts in the processing of the amyloid precursor protein and prion protein |journal=Biochem. Soc. Trans. |volume=33 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=335–8 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15787600 |doi=10.1042/BST0330335 }}</ref> Moja ya vipande hivi inazaa fibrili za amiloidi-beta, ambazo zinatengeza vibonge ambazo zinakusanyika nje ya nyuroni kwa wingi na kuunda vikundi ambavyo vinajulikana kama utando dhaifu.<ref name="pmid15184601"/><ref name="pmid15004691">{{cite journal |author=Ohnishi S, Takano K |title=Amyloid fibrils from the viewpoint of protein folding |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cellular-and-molecular-life-sciences_2004-03_61_5/page/n3 |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=511–24 |year=2004 |month=Machi |pmid=15004691 |doi=10.1007/s00018-003-3264-8 }}</ref> [[Picha:TANGLES HIGH.jpg|right|thumb|Katika ugonjwa wa Alzeima, mabadiliko katika protini ya tau yanapelekea kuharibika kwa mikrotubuli katika seli za ubongo.]] Alzeima pia hufikiriwa kuwa shida ya protini ya tau kutokana na kusanyikousio wa kawaida wa protini ya tau. Kila nyuroni ina mfupa wa ndani, mfumo wa ndani ambao kwa kiasi umeundwa kwa mifumo iitwayo mikrotubuli. Mikrotubuli hizi huwa kama alama, kuongoza virutubisho na molekuli kutoka katika mwili wa seli hadi mwisho wa mkongo na kurejea. Protini ya ''tau'' uhimarisha mikrotubuli wakati inapopata fosforasi, na kwa hiyo huitwa protini inayohusisha mikrotubuli. Katika Alzeima, tau bado hupitia mabadiliko ya kemikali, kuwa na fosfori nyingi, basi huanza kuunda jozi na nyuzi nyingine, na kuunda misokotano ya neurofibrila na kuharibu mfumo wa usafiri wa nyuroni.<ref name="pmid17604998">{{cite journal |author=Hernández F, Avila J |title=Tauopathies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cellular-and-molecular-life-sciences_2007-09_64_17/page/2219 |journal=Cell. Mol. Life Sci. |volume=64 |issue=17 |pages=2219–33 |year=2007 |month=Septemba |pmid=17604998 |doi=10.1007/s00018-007-7220-x }}</ref> === Utaratibu wa ugonjwa === Jinsi mvurugiko wa uzalishaji na mkusanyiko wa peptidi amiloidi beta husababisha kuongezeka kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima haijulikani hasa.<ref name="pmid17622778">{{cite journal |author=Van Broeck B, Van Broeckhoven C, Kumar-Singh S |title=Current insights into molecular mechanisms of Alzheimer disease and their implications for therapeutic approaches |journal=Neurodegener Dis |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=349–65 |year=2007 |pmid=17622778 |doi=10.1159/000105156 }}</ref> Nadharia tete ya amiloidi kijadi huashiria kuwa mkusanyiko wa peptidi amiloidi beta kama tukio kuu la kuchochea nyuroni kuzorota. Mkusanyiko wa fibrili za amiloidiambazo zinaaminika kuwa aina ya protini yenye sumu inayosababisha kuvuruga homiostasisi ya ayoni [[Kalisi|kalsiamu]] katika seli, husababisha chembe kufa (apoptosisi).<ref name="pmid2218531">{{cite journal |author=Yankner BA, Duffy LK, Kirschner DA |title=Neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of amyloid beta protein: reversal by tachykinin neuropeptides |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1990-10-12_250_4978/page/278 |journal=Science (journal) |volume=250 |issue=4978 |pages=279–82 |year=1990 |month=Oktoba |pmid=2218531 |doi=10.1126/science.2218531 }}</ref> Pia inajulikana kwamba Aβ huchagua kuendelea kukusanyika katika mitokondria katika seli za ubongo ulioathirika na Alzeima, na pia inazuia kazi fulani ya [[Kimeng'enya|kimengenya]] na matumizi ya glukosi na nyuroni.<ref name="pmid17424907">{{cite journal |author=Chen X, Yan SD |title=Mitochondrial Abeta: a potential cause of metabolic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease |journal=IUBMB Life |volume=58 |issue=12 |pages=686–94 |year=2006 |month=Desemba |pmid=17424907 |doi=10.1080/15216540601047767}}</ref> Michakato mbalimbali yenye uvimbe na saitokini pia inaweza kuwa inahusika kwa kutokea kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima. Kuvimba ni ishara ya jumla ya uharibifu wa tishu katika ugonjwa wowote, na huweza kuwa baada ya uharibifu wa tishu katika Alzeima au ishara ya jibu la kinga.<ref name="pmid15681814">{{cite journal |author=Greig NH, Mattson MP, Perry T, ''et al.'' |title=New therapeutic strategies and drug candidates for neurodegenerative diseases: p53 and TNF-alpha inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1035 |pages=290–315 |year=2004 |month=Desemba |pmid=15681814 |doi=10.1196/annals.1332.018 }}</ref> Tofauti katika ugawaji wa neurotrofiki na tofauti katika uelezaji wa vipokezi vyao kama vile vipengele vya neurotrofiki zinazotokana na ubongo(BDNF) zilivyoelezwa katika Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tapia-Arancibia L, Aliaga E, Silhol M, Arancibia S |title=New insights into brain BDNF function in normal aging and Alzheimer disease |journal=[[Brain Research Reviews]] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=201–20 |year=2008 |month=Nov |pmid=18708092 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.07.007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1601-183X.2007.00378.x |author=Schindowski K, Belarbi K, Buée L |title=Neurotrophic factors in Alzheimer's disease: role of axonal transport |journal= [[Genes, Brain and Behavior]] |volume=7 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=43–56 |year=2008 |month=Feb |pmid=18184369 |pmc=2228393 }}</ref> === Jenetiki === Na idadi kubwa ya kesi za ugonjwa wa Alzeima ni za mtawanyiko, ina maana kuwa ugonjwa huu haurithiwi ingawa baadhi ya jeni zinaongeza hatari. Kwa upande mwingine, karibu 0.1% ya kesi ni aina ya ugonjwa unaosababishwa na urithi wa kifamilia kutoka jeni za mzazi mmoja, ambao kwa kawaida huanza kabla ya umri wa 65.<ref name="pmid16876668">{{cite journal |author=Blennow K, de Leon MJ, Zetterberg H |title=Alzheimer's disease |journal=Lancet |volume=368 |issue=9533 |pages=387–403 |year=2006 |month=Julai |pmid=16876668 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69113-7 |url= }}</ref> Mara nyingi ugonjwa wa kifamilia wa Alzeima unaotokana na jeni za mzazi mmoja unaweza kuhusishwa na mabadiliko katika moja ya jeni tatu: protini tangulizi ya amiloidi (APP) na presenilini ya 1 na 2.<ref name="pmid18332245">{{cite journal |author=Waring SC, Rosenberg RN |title=Genome-wide association studies in Alzheimer disease |journal=Arch Neurol |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=329–34 |year=2008 |month=Machi |pmid=18332245 |doi=10.1001/archneur.65.3.329 }}</ref> Mabadiliko mengi katika APP na jeni ya presenilini huchangia uzalishaji wa protini ndogo iitwayoAβ42, ambayo ni sehemu kuu ya utando dhaifu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Selkoe DJ |title=Translating cell biology into therapeutic advances in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Nature |volume=399 |issue=6738 Suppl |pages=A23–31 |year=1999 |month=Juni |pmid=10392577 |doi=10.1038/19866 }}</ref> Baadhi ya mabadiliko hubadilisha tu uwiano wa kawaida kati ya Aβ42 na miundo mingine mikuu, kama vile Aβ40-bila kuongeza viwango vya Aβ42.<ref name="pmid8938131">{{cite journal |author=Borchelt DR, Thinakaran G, Eckman CB, ''et al.'' |title=Familial Alzheimer's disease-linked presenilin 1 variants elevate Aβ1-42/1-40 ratio in vitro and in vivo. |journal=Neuron |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=1005–13 |year=1996 |month=Nov |pmid=8938131 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80230-5 |last12=Wang |first12=R |last13=Seeger |first13=M |last14=Levey |first14=AI |last15=Gandy |first15=SE |last16=Copeland |first16=NG |last17=Jenkins |first17=NA |last18=Price |first18=DL |last19=Younkin |first19=SG |last20=Sisodia |first20=SS }}</ref><ref name="pmid17254019">{{cite journal |author=Shioi J, Georgakopoulos A, Mehta P, ''et al.'' |title=FAD mutants unable to increase neurotoxic Aβ 42 suggest that mutation effects on neurodegeneration may be independent of effects on Abeta. |journal=J Neurochem. |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=674–81 |year=2007 |month=Mei |pmid=17254019 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04391.x }}</ref> Hii inaashiria kwamba mabadiliko ya presenilini yanaweza kusababisha ugonjwa hata kama inapunguza kiwango cha Aβ zinazozalishwa na huweza kuashiria majukumu mengine ya presenilini au jukumu la mabadiliko katika kazi ya APP na / au vipande vyake vingine mbali na Aβ. Kesi zaidi za ugonjwa wa Alzeima hazionyeshi dalili za ugonjwa wa kurithi na hujulikana kama Alzeima ya mtawanyiko. Hata hivyo tofauti za kijenetiki zinaweza kuwa ishara ya hatari. Ishara ijulikanayo vyema zaidi ni urithi wa aleli ya ε4 apolipoprotini E (APOE).<ref name="pmid8446617">{{cite journal |author=Strittmatter WJ, Saunders AM, Schmechel D, ''et al.'' |title=Apolipoprotein E: high-avidity binding to beta-amyloid and increased frequency of type 4 allele in late-onset familial Alzheimer disease |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=1977–81 |year=1993 |month=Machi |pmid=8446617 |pmc=46003 |doi=10.1073/pnas.90.5.1977 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16567625">{{cite journal |author=Mahley RW, Weisgraber KH, Huang Y |title=Apolipoprotein E4: a causative factor and therapeutic target in neuropathology, including Alzheimer's disease |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=103 |issue=15 |pages=5644–51 |year=2006 |month=Aprili |pmid=16567625 |pmc=1414631 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0600549103 |url= }}</ref> Kati ya 40 na 80% ya wagonjwa walio na Alzeima wanayo aleli ya apoE4.<ref name="pmid16567625"/> Aleli ya APOE4 huongeza hatari ya ugonjwa huo kwa mara tatu katika heterozigoti na kwa mara 15 katika homozigoti.<ref name="pmid16876668"/> Wanasayansi wa jenetiki wanakubaliana kwamba jeni nyingine nyingi pia huwa kama sababu za hatari au zina athari za kinga zinayoshawishi kuanza kwa kuchelewa ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid18332245"/> Zaidi ya jeni 400 zimepimwa kuonyesha uhusiano na Alzeima ya mtawanyiko inayoanza kwa kuchelewa,<ref name="pmid18332245"/>nyingi bila matokeo.<ref name="pmid16876668"/> == Utambuzi wa Ugonjwa == [[Picha:PET Alzheimer.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Uchungzi wa PET wa ubongo wa mtu aliye na Alzeima huonyesha upungufu wa utendaji kazi katika tundu ya panja]] Ugonjwa wa Alzeima kwa kawaida hutambulika kama ugonjwa kutoka kwa historia ya mgonjwa, historia ya pamoja kutoka kwa jamaa, na uchunguzi wa kimatibabu, kutegemea na kuwepo kwa sifaza kinyurolojia na kinyurosaikolojia za neva na kukosekana kwa hali mbadala.<ref name="pmid17407994">{{cite journal |author=Mendez MF |title=The accurate diagnosis of early-onset dementia |journal=International Journal of Psychiatry Medicine |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=401–412 |year=2006 |pmid=17407994 |doi=10.2190/Q6J4-R143-P630-KW41 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17018549">{{cite journal |author=Klafki HW, Staufenbiel M, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J |title=Therapeutic approaches to Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_brain_2006-11_129_11/page/2840 |journal=Brain |volume=129 |issue=Pt 11 |pages=2840–55 |year=2006 |month=Novemba |pmid=17018549 |doi=10.1093/brain/awl280 }}</ref> Matibabu ya mionzi ya hali ya juu na tomografia ya utendajikazi au mwangwi wa sumaku wa upigaji picha (MRI), na kwa upigaji picha wa kitomografia wa utendajikazi wa mwili(SPECT) au picha ya kompyuta ya miale ya gama (PET) zinaweza kutumika kusaidia kutenga magonjwa mengine ya ubongo au aina nyingine za magonjwa ya ubongo.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG042quickrefguide.pdf |format = PDF |title = Dementia: Quick reference guide |publisher = (UK) [[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |location = London |month = Novemba |year = 2006 |isbn = 1-84629-312-X |accessdate = 2008-02-22 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227161412/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG042quickrefguide.pdf |archivedate = 2008-02-27 }}</ref> Aidha, inaweza kutabiri kubadilika kutoka hatua za mwanzo (upungufu wa uwezo wa utambuzi) hadi kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schroeter ML, Stein T, Maslowski N, Neumann J |title=Neural correlates of Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment – A meta-analysis including 1351 patients. |journal=NeuroImage |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=1196–1206 |year=2009 |pmid=19463961 |pmc=2730171 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.037 }}</ref> Tathmini ya utendajikazi wa wasomi pamoja na kupima kumbukumbu kunaweza kusaidia zaidi kutathmini hali ya ugonjwa huo.<ref name="pmid17222085"/> Mashirika ya kimatibabu yameunda vigezo vya uchunguzi wa kimatibabu ili kurahisisha na kuwekeza viwango vya michakato ya wauguzi. Utambuzi huweza kuwa imara zaidi wakati wa uchunguzi wa mwili wakati sehemu za ubongo zinaweza kupatikana na kuchunguzwa kihistoria.<ref name="pmid6610841">{{cite journal |author=McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM |title=Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1984-07_34_7/page/939 |journal=Neurology |volume=34 |issue=7 |pages=939–44 |year=1984 |month=Julai |pmid=6610841 }}</ref> === Vigezo vya uchunguzi wa kiutambuzi === Taasisi ya Taifa ya Kinyurojia na matatizo ya kimawasiliano na kiharusi (NINCDS) na Ushirika wa ugonjwa wa Alzeima na magonjwa husika (ADRDA, sasa inajulikana kama [[Chama cha Alzeima)]] [[NINCDS-ADRDA]] iliunda vigezo vinavyotumika kwa kawaida katika utambuzi mnamo 1984,<ref name="pmid6610841"/> vilivyoboreshwa mnamo 2007.<ref name="pmid17616482">{{cite journal |author=Dubois B, Feldman HH, Jacova C, ''et al.'' |title=Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: revising the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=734–46 |year=2007 |month=Agosti |pmid=17616482 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70178-3 |last12=O'brien |first12=J |last13=Pasquier |first13=F |last14=Robert |first14=P |last15=Rossor |first15=M |last16=Salloway |first16=S |last17=Stern |first17=Y |last18=Visser |first18=PJ |last19=Scheltens |first19=P }}</ref> Vigezo hivi vinahitaji kuwa kuwepo kwa uharibifu wa utambuzi, na kukishukiwa kuwepo kwa shida ya akili, na kuthibitishwa na kupima saikolojia ya akili kwa uchunguzi wa kimatibabu wa uwezekano au uwepo wa Alzeima. Uthibitisho kutoka kwa uchunguzi wa kina wa ugonjwa ikiwa ni pamoja na uchunguzi wa kina wa tishu ya ubongo inahitajika kwa ajili ya kuthibitisha uchunguzi. Takwimu za kuaminika na uhalali zimeonyeshwa kati ya vigezo vya uchunguzi na uthibitisho wa uchunguzi wa historia na maendeleo ya ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid7986174">{{cite journal |author=Blacker D, Albert MS, Bassett SS, Go RC, Harrell LE, Folstein MF |title=Reliability and validity of NINCDS-ADRDA criteria for Alzheimer's disease. The National Institute of Mental Health Genetics Initiative |journal=Arch. Neurol. |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=1198–204 |year=1994 |month=Desemba |pmid=7986174 }}</ref> Vitengo vinane vya utendaji kwa kawaida uharibiwa katika Alzeima- kumbukumbu, [[lugha]], ujuzi wa utambuzi, makini, uwezo wa kujenga, maelekezo, kutatua tatizo na uwezo wa utendaji. Vitengo hivi ni sawa na Vigezo vya Alzeima vya NINCDS-ADRDA kama vilivyoorodheshwa katika ''Uchunguzi na Takwimu za Mwongozo wa Magonjwa ya akili'' ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders '' (DSM-IV-TR) iliyochapishwa na Chama cha Marekani cha Kiakili.<ref>{{cite book |last=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR |url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis00amer_2 |edition=4th Edition Text Revision |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |year=2000 |location=Washington, DC |isbn=0890420254 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8752526">{{cite journal |author=Ito N |title=[Clinical aspects of dementia] |language=Japanese |journal=Hokkaido Igaku Zasshi |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=315–20 |year=1996 |month=Mei |pmid=8752526 }}</ref> === Vifaa vya Uchunguzi === [[Picha:InterlockingPentagons.svg|right|thumb|Uchunguzi wa vipimo wa saikolojia ya ubongo unaweza kusaidia katika uchunguzi wa Alzeima. Katika uchunguzi huo wagonjwa wanapaswa kunakili michoro sawa na ile inayoonyeshwa katika picha, kumbuka maneno, kusoma, na kuondoa nambari katika mfululizo.]] Uchunguzi wa kinyrosaikolojia kama vile uchunguzi wa kiasi wa hali ya akili(MMSE), hutumika sana kutathmini upungufu wa utambuzi unaohitajika kwa uchunguzi. Uchunguzi pana zaidi unahitajika kwa matokeo ya kuaminika zaidi, hasa katika hatua za mwanzo za ugonjwa huo.<ref name="pmid1512391">{{cite journal |author=Tombaugh TN, McIntyre NJ |title=The mini-mental state examination: a comprehensive review |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=922–35 |year=1992 |month=Septemba |pmid=1512391 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9987708">{{cite journal |author=Pasquier F |title=Early diagnosis of dementia: neuropsychology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurology_1999-01_246_1/page/n7 |journal=J. Neurol. |volume=246 |issue=1 |pages=6–15 |year=1999 |month=Januari |pmid=9987708 |doi=10.1007/s004150050299 }}</ref> Uchunguzi wa neva mwanzoni mwa Alzeima hutoa matokeo ya kawaida, ila kwa uharibifu dhahiri katika utambuzi, ambayo inaweza kosa kuwa tofauti na ile itokanayo na michakato mingine ya magonjwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na sababu nyingine ya shida ya akili. Uchunguzi zaidi kinyurojia ni muhimu katika kutofautisha utambuzi wa Alzeima na magonjwa mengine.<ref name="pmid17222085"/> Mahojiano na jamaa wa familia pia hutumika katika tathmini ya ugonjwa huo. Walezi wanaweza kusambaza taarifa muhimu kuhusu uwezo wa kuishi wa kila siku, na pia juu ya kupungua, baada ya muda, uwezo wa akili ya mtu kufanya kazi.<ref name="pmid16327345">{{cite journal |author=Harvey PD, Moriarty PJ, Kleinman L, ''et al.'' |title=The validation of a caregiver assessment of dementia: the Dementia Severity Scale |journal=Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=186–94 |year=2005 |pmid=16327345 |doi=10.1097/01.wad.0000189034.43203.60 }}</ref> Mtizamo wa mlezi ni muhimu sana, kwani mtu aliye na Alzeima ni kawaida hajui upungufu wake mwenyewe.<ref name="pmid15738860">{{cite journal |author=Antoine C, Antoine P, Guermonprez P, Frigard B |title=[Awareness of deficits and anosognosia in Alzheimer's disease.] |language=French |journal=Encephale |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=570–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15738860 |doi=10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95472-3 }}</ref> Mara nyingi, pia familia huwa na shida ya kutambua dalili za awali za dementia na wanaweza kukosa kutoa habari sahihi kwa daktari.<ref name="pmid16197855">{{cite journal |author=Cruz VT, Pais J, Teixeira A, Nunes B |title=[The initial symptoms of Alzheimer disease: caregiver perception] |language=Portuguese |journal=Acta Med Port |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=435–44 |year=2004 |pmid=16197855 }}</ref> Dalili nyingine nzuri katika utambuzi wa ugonjwa ni ichunguzi wa maji ya serebali ya uti wa mgongo kwa uwepo wa amiloidi beta au protini ya tau,<ref name="pmid17612711">{{cite journal |author=Marksteiner J, Hinterhuber H, Humpel C |title=Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: beta-amyloid(1-42), tau, phospho-tau-181 and total protein |journal=Drugs Today |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=423–31 |year=2007 |month=Juni |pmid=17612711 |doi=10.1358/dot.2007.43.6.1067341 }}</ref>yaani protini ya tau na protini ya tau iliyo na fosforasi <sub>181P.</sub><ref name="demeyer"/> Kutafuta protini hizo kwa kufyonza uti wa mgongo unaweza kutabiri kuanza kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima na usahihi kwa kati ya 94% na 100%.<ref name="demeyer"/> Inapotumika na mbinu zilizopo za upigaji picha za ubongo, madaktari wanaweza kutambua wagonjwa wa kupoteza kumbukumbu ambao tayari wameanza kuugua ugonjwa huu.<ref name="demeyer">{{cite journal |author=De Meyer G, Shapiro F, Vanderstichele H, Vanmechelen E, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Coart E, Hansson O, Minthon L, Zetterberg H, Blennow K, Shaw L, Trojanowski JQ |title=Diagnosis-Independent Alzheimer Disease Biomarker Signature in Cognitively Normal Elderly People |journal=Arch Neurol. |volume=67 |issue=8 |pages=949–56 |year=2010 |month=Agosti |pmid=20697045 |doi=10.1001/archneurol.2010.179 }}</ref> Uchunguzi wa maji ya uti wa mgongo unapatikana kwa kulipia, tofauti na teknolojia ya kisasa ya kupiga picha za akili.<ref>{{cite news |author=Kolata G |title=Spinal-Fluid Test Is Found to Predict Alzheimer's |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/10/health/research/10spinal.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=9 Agosti 2010 |accessdate=10 Agosti 2010 }}</ref> Ugonjwa wa Alzeima ulitambuliwa katika kila mmoja ya watu watatu ambao hawakuwa na dalili yoyote katika utafiti wa 2010, ina maana kuwa ugonjwa huanza kuota kabla ya dalili kutokea.<ref>{{cite news |author=Roan S |title=Tapping into an accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease |url=http://www.latimes.com/health/boostershots/aging/la-heb-alzheimers-20100809,0,5683387.story |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=9 Agosti 2010 |accessdate=10 Agosti 2010 }}</ref> Uchunguzi wa zaidi hutoa habari ya ziada juu ya sifa za ugonjwa au hutumika kuondhosha utambuzi wa ugonjwa mwingine. Kupima damu kunaweza kubaini sababu nyingine za shida ya akili mbali na Alzeima<ref name="pmid17222085"/> -sababu ambazo, katika kesi nadra, zinaweza kupinduliwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Clarfield AM |title=The decreasing prevalence of reversible dementias: an updated meta-analysis |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=163 |issue=18 |pages=2219–29 |year=2003 |month=Oktoba |pmid=14557220 |doi=10.1001/archinte.163.18.2219 }}</ref> Ni kawaida kufanya vipimo vya utendakazi wa kikoromeo, kutathmini B12, kuondosha kaswende, na matatizo ya metaboli (ikiwa ni pamoja na vipimo utendakazi wa figo, viwango vya elektrolaiti na ugonjwa wa kisukari), tathmini viwango vya metali nzito (mfano risasi, zebaki) na upungufu wa damu. (Angalia njia tofauti za utambuzi wa shida za akili). (Pia ni muhimu kwa kuondosha uwezekano wa mapayo). Vipimo vya kisaikolojia kwa unyogovu hutumiwa, kwani unyogovu unaweza unaweza kuwa sambamba na Alzeima (tz Unyogovu wa ugonjwa wa Alzeima), ni ishara ya mapema ya kuharibika kwa utambuzi,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sun x, Steffens DC, Au R, ''et al.'' |title=Amyloid-Associated Depression: A Prodromal Depression of Alzheimer Disease? |journal=Arch Gen Psychiatry |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=542–550|year=2008 |url=http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/65/5/542 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.542 |pmid=18458206 |last1=Sun |first1=X |last2=Steffens |first2=DC |last3=Au |first3=R |last4=Folstein |first4=M |last5=Summergrad |first5=P |last6=Yee |first6=J |last7=Rosenberg |first7=I |last8=Mwamburi |first8=DM |last9=Qiu |first9=WQ}}</ref> au hata sababu.<ref name="pmid9153154">{{cite journal |author=Geldmacher DS, Whitehouse PJ |title=Differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Neurology |volume=48 |issue=5 Suppl 6 |pages=S2–9 |year=1997 |month=Mei |pmid=9153154 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17495754">{{cite journal |author=Potter GG, Steffens DC |title=Contribution of depression to cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults |journal=Neurologist |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=105–17 |year=2007 |month=Mei |pmid=17495754 |doi=10.1097/01.nrl.0000252947.15389.a9 }}</ref> ==== Kupiga Picha za Utambuzi ==== Wakati inapopatikana kama chombo cha utambuzi, upigaji picha wa kitomografia wa utendakazi wa mwili (SPECT) na picha ya kompyuta ya miale ya gama (PET) upigaji picha za ubongo hutumika kuthibitisha utambuzi wa Alzeima kwa ushirikiano na tathmini ya uchunguzi wa hali ya akili.<ref name="pmid16785801">{{cite journal |author=Bonte FJ, Harris TS, Hynan LS, Bigio EH, White CL |title=Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT in the differential diagnosis of the dementias with histopathologic confirmation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-nuclear-medicine_2006-07_31_7/page/376 |journal=Clin Nucl Med |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=376–8 |year=2006 |month=Julai |pmid=16785801 |doi=10.1097/01.rlu.0000222736.81365.63 }}</ref> Kwa mtu ambaye tayari ana shida ya akili, SPECT inaonekana kuwa bora katika kutofautisha ugonjwa wa Alzeima na sababu zingine, ikilinganishwa na majaribio ya kawaida yanayotumia kupima akili na uchambuzi wa historia ya matibabu.<ref name="pmid15545324">{{cite journal |author=Dougall NJ, Bruggink S, Ebmeier KP |title=Systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of 99mTc-HMPAO-SPECT in dementia |journal=Am J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=554–70 |year=2004 |pmid=15545324 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajgp.12.6.554 }}</ref> Maendeleo yamepelekea kupendekezwa kwa vigezo vipya vya utambuzi.<ref name="pmid17222085"/><ref name="pmid17616482"/> Mbinu mpya inayojulikana kama PiB PET imeundwa kwa ajili kupiga picha moja kwa moja na kwa uwazi amana za amiloidi beta katika vivo kwa kutumia kinakili ambacho kinajishikilia kwa kipendeleo kwa amana ya A-beta. <ref> PiB PET: * {{cite journal |author=Kemppainen NM, Aalto S, Karrasch M, ''et al.'' |title=Cognitive reserve hypothesis: Pittsburgh Compound B and fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in relation to education in mild Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-neurology_2008-01_63_1/page/112 |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=112–8 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18023012 |doi=10.1002/ana.21212 }} * {{cite journal |author=Ikonomovic MD, Klunk WE, Abrahamson EE, ''et al.'' |title=Post-mortem correlates of in vivo PiB-PET amyloid imaging in a typical case of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Brain |volume=131 |issue=Pt 6 |pages=1630–45 |year=2008 |month=Juni |pmid=18339640 |pmc=2408940 |doi=10.1093/brain/awn016 |last12=Hope |first12=CE |last13=Isanski |first13=BA |last14=Hamilton |first14=RL |last15=Dekosky |first15=ST }} * {{cite journal |author=Jack CR, Lowe VJ, Senjem ML, ''et al.'' |title=11C PiB and structural MRI provide complementary information in imaging of Alzheimer's disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment |journal=Brain |volume=131 |issue=Pt 3 |pages=665–80 |year=2008 |month=Machi |pmid=18263627 |doi=10.1093/brain/awm336 |pmc=2730157 }} </ref> Mchanganyiko wa PiB-PET unatumia uchunguzi wa PET kaboni-11. Utafiti wa karibuni unaonyesha kwamba PiB-PET ni sahihi 86% katika utabiri wa watu watakaoshikwa na ugonjwa wa Alzeima kati ya wale walio na viwango vya chini vya kupoteza uwezo wa utambuzi ndani ya miaka miwili, na usahihi wa 92% katika kuondoa uwezekano wa kushikwa na Alzeima. Mchanganyiko sawa wa uchunguzi wa PET wa uchunguzi wa dawa kwa miale ya redio uitwao(E) -4 - (2 - (6 - (2 - (2 - (2 - <sup>([18</sup> F]-fluoroethoxy) ethoxy) ethoxy) pyridin-3-yl) vinyl)-N -methyl benzenamine, au <sup>18</sup> F AV-45, au florbetapir-florini-18, au tu florbetapir, ina radionuclide florini-18 ya kudumu, viliundwa hivi karibuni, na kufanyiwa majaribio kama chombo kinachoweza kutumika katika uchunguzi wa wagonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging |date=2009 Aug |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=387–93 |title=The use of the exploratory IND in the evaluation and development of <sup>18</sup>F-PET radiopharmaceuticals for amyloid imaging in the brain: a review of one company's experience |author=Carpenter AP Jr, Pontecorvo MJ, Hefti FF, Skovronsky DM |pmid=19834448 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Leung K |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=micad&part=AV-45-18F |title=(E)-4-(2-(6-(2-(2-(2-(<sup>18</sup>F-fluoroethoxy)ethoxy)ethoxy)pyridin-3-yl)vinyl)-N-methyl benzenamine <nowiki>[[</nowiki><sup>18</sup>F<nowiki>]AV-45]</nowiki> |work=Molecular Imaging and Contrast Agent Database |date=8 Aprili 2010 |accessdate=2010-06-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Gina Kolata|Kolata G]] |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/24/health/research/24scans.html |title=Promise Seen for Detection of Alzheimer's |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=23 Juni 2010 |accessdate=23 Juni 2010 }}</ref><ref name="pmid20501908">{{cite journal |doi=10.2967/jnumed.109.069088 |journal=J Nucl Med |date=2010 Jun |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=913–20 |title=In vivo imaging of amyloid deposition in Alzheimer disease using the radioligand 18F-AV-45 (flobetapir F 18) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nuclear-medicine_2010-06_51_6/page/913 |author=Wong DF, Rosenberg PB, Zhou Y, Kumar A, Raymont V, Ravert HT, Dannals RF, Nandi A, Brasić JR, Ye W, Hilton J, Lyketsos C, Kung HF, Joshi AD, Skovronsky DM, Pontecorvo MJ |pmid=20501908 |laysummary=http://www.diagnosticimaging.com/news/display/article/113619/1598949 }}</ref> Florbetapir, kama PiB, hufungamana na amiloidi-beta, lakini kutokana na matumizi yake ya florini-18 ina maisha nusu ya dakika 110, kwa kulinganisha na maisha nusu ya kinyuklia ya PiB ya dakika 20. ''Et al Wong'' aligundua kwamba maisha marefu ya kinakili yalikiruhusu kujilimbikiza zaidi katika bongo za wagonjwa wa Alzeima, hasa katika sehemu zinazohusishwa na amana za amiloidi beta.<ref name="pmid20501908"/> Uchambuzi mmoja ulitabiri kwamba kuna uwezekano wa kutumika kwa kushirikiana na dalili nyengine badala ya kuwa mbadala.<ref name="pmid19847050">{{cite journal |author=Rabinovici GD, Jagust WJ |journal=Behav Neurol |year=2009 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=117–28 |title=Amyloid imaging in aging and dementia: testing the amyloid hypothesis in vivo |pmid=19847050 |pmc=2804478 |doi=10.3233/BEN-2009-0232 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> Kupima ukubwa waMRI unaweza kuchunguza mabadiliko katika ukubwa wa sehemu za ubongo. Upimaji wa maeneo hayo ambayo hudhoofika wakati wa ueneaji wa ugonjwa wa Alzeima inaonyesha ahadi nzuri kama kama kiashiria ya diagnostiksamarbetet. Inaweza kuja kuwa njia isiyo ghali ikilinganishwa na njia nyingine zinazofanyiwa uchunguzi kwa sasa.<ref name="pmid18445747">{{cite journal |author=O'Brien JT |title=Role of imaging techniques in the diagnosis of dementia |journal=Br J Radiol |date=2007 Dec |volume=80 |issue=Spec No 2 |pages=S71–7 |pmid=18445747 |doi=10.1259/bjr/33117326 }}</ref> Utafiti wa karibuni unaonyesha kwamba ngazi za metaboli za ubongo zinaweza kutumika kama viashiria vya baolojia vya ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid 19501936">{{cite journal |author=Rupsingh R, Borrie M, Smith M, Wells JL, Bartha R |title=Reduced hippocampal glutamate in Alzheimer disease |journal=[[Neurobiol Aging]] |year=2009 |month=Juni |pmid=19501936 |doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.05.002 }}</ref> == Kuzuia == [[Picha:Honoré Daumier 032.jpg|right|thumb|Shughuli za kitaaluma kama vile kucheza chesi au kushirikiana kijamii kumehusishwa na upungufu wa hatari ya Alzeima katika utafiti wa kiepidemolojia, ingawa hakuna sababu shirikishi iliyopatikana.]] Kwa sasa, hakuna ushahidi dhabiti kuonyesha kuwa kuna njia yoyote yenye ufanisi katika kuzuia Alzeima. <ref>Mapendekezo ya Kuzuia hayajaungwa mkono: * {{cite journal |author=Kawas CH |title=Medications and diet: protective factors for AD? |journal=Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord |volume=20 |issue=3 Suppl 2 |pages=S89–96 |year=2006 |pmid=16917203|doi=}} * {{cite journal |author=Luchsinger JA, Mayeux R |title=Dietary factors and Alzheimer's disease |journal=Lancet Neurol |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=579–87 |year=2004 |pmid=15380154 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00878-6}} * {{cite journal |author=Luchsinger JA, Noble JM, Scarmeas N |title=Diet and Alzheimer's disease |journal=Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=366–72 |year=2007 |pmid=17764625 |doi=10.1007/s11910-007-0057-8}} * {{cite press release |url=http://www.nih.gov/news/health/apr2010/od-28.htm |title=Independent Panel Finds Insufficient Evidence to Support Preventive Measures for Alzheimer's Disease |date=28 Aprili 2010 |publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]] |access-date=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-05-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502034409/http://www.nih.gov/news/health/apr2010/od-28.htm }} * {{cite web |url=http://consensus.nih.gov/2010/alzstatement.htm |title=NIH State-of-the-Science Conference: Preventing Alzheimer's Disease and Cognitive Decline |date=26 Aprili–28, 2010 |author=Daviglus ML ''et al.'' |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archivedate=2010-05-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503054126/http://consensus.nih.gov/2010/alzstatement.htm }}</ref> Uchunguzi wa ulimwengu wa kuzuia au kuchelewesha kuanza kwa Alzeima mara nyingi umetoa matokeo yasiyowiana. Hata hivyo, tafiti za epidemiolojia na mapendekezo katika uhusiano kati ya mambo fulani yanayoweza kubadilishwa, kama vile chakula, hatari ya moyo na mishipa, bidhaa za dawa, au shughuli za kitaaluma kati ya nyingine, na uwezekano wa wakazi wa kuugua Alzeima. Utafiti zaidi tu, ikiwa ni pamoja na majaribio ya kimatibabu, ndio utakaonyesha kama haya yanaweza kusaidia kuzuia Alzeima.<ref> {{cite journal |author=Szekely CA, Breitner JC, Zandi PP |title=Prevention of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Int Rev Psychiatry |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=693–706 |year=2007 |pmid=18092245 |doi=10.1080/09540260701797944 }}</ref> Ingawa sababu za hatari za moyo na mishipa, kama vile haipakolesterolemia , shinikizo la damu ugonjwa wa kisukari, na uvutaji sigara, zinahusishwa na hatari kubwa zaidi na mwanzo na mkondo wa Alzeima,<ref name="pmid18299540">{{cite journal |author=Patterson C, Feightner JW, Garcia A, Hsiung GY, MacKnight C, Sadovnick AD |title=Diagnosis and treatment of dementia: 1. Risk assessment and primary prevention of Alzheimer disease |journal=CMAJ |volume=178 |issue=5 |pages=548–56 |year=2008 |month=Februari |pmid=18299540 |pmc=2244657 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.070796 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17483665">{{cite journal |author=Rosendorff C, Beeri MS, Silverman JM |title=Cardiovascular risk factors for Alzheimer's disease |journal=Am J Geriatr Cardiol |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=143–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17483665 |doi=10.1111/j.1076-7460.2007.06696.x }}</ref>statini, ambayo ni madawa ya kupunguza kolestroli, hayajakuwa na ufanisi katika kuzuia au kuboresha mkondo wa ugonjwa huo.<ref name="pmid17927279">{{cite journal |author=Reiss AB, Wirkowski E |title=Role of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors in neurological disorders: progress to date |journal=Drugs |volume=67 |issue=15 |pages=2111–20 |year=2007 |pmid=17927279|doi=10.2165/00003495-200767150-00001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17877925">{{cite journal |author=Kuller LH |title=Statins and dementia |journal=Curr Atheroscler Rep |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=154–61 |year=2007 |month=Agosti |pmid=17877925 |doi=10.1007/s11883-007-0012-9 }}</ref> Vipengele vya vyakula vya Mediterenia, ambayo ni pamoja na matunda na mboga, [[Mkate|mikate]], [[Nafaka|unga]] wa [[ngano]] na nyinginezo, mafuta, [[Samaki|samaki]], na mvinyo mwekundu, vyote kwa kibinafsi au kwa pamoja vinaweza kupunguza hatari au mkondo wa ugonjwa huo wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid18088206">{{cite journal |author=Solfrizzi V, Capurso C, D'Introno A, ''et al.'' |title=Lifestyle-related factors in predementia and dementia syndromes |journal=Expert Rev Neurother |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=133–58 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18088206 |doi=10.1586/14737175.8.1.133 |url= }}</ref> Athari yake ya manufaa kwa moyo na mishipa imependekezwa kama utaratibu wa utekelezaji.<ref name="pmid18088206"/> Kuna ushahidi mdogo kwamba kutumia pombe kwa wastani , hasa mvinyo mwekundu, kunahusiana na hatari ya chini ya Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Panza F, Capurso C, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, Frisardi V, Lorusso M, Santamato A, Seripa D, Pilotto A, Scafato E, Vendemiale G, Capurso A, Solfrizzi V. |title=Alcohol drinking, cognitive functions in older age, predementia, and dementia syndromes |journal=J Alzheimers Dis |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=7–31 |date=Mei 2009 |pmid=19494429 |doi=10.3233/JAD-2009-1009 |last12=Capurso |first12=A |last13=Solfrizzi |first13=V |doi_brokendate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> Uchambuzi juu ya matumizi ya vitamini haujapata ushahidi wa kutosha wa umuhimu kupendekeza vitamini C,<ref name="pmid16227450">{{cite journal |author=Boothby LA, Doering PL |title=Vitamin C and vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease |journal=Ann Pharmacother |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=2073–80 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=16227450 |doi=10.1345/aph.1E495 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2005-12_39_12/page/2073 }}</ref> E,<ref name="pmid16227450"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Isaac MG, Quinn R, Tabet N |title=Vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD002854 |year=2008 |pmid=18646084 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002854.pub2 |url= }}</ref> au asidi ya foliki na au bila vitamini B <sub>12,</sub><ref>{{cite journal |author=Malouf R, Grimley Evans J |title=Folic acid with or without vitamin B<sub>12</sub> for the prevention and treatment of healthy elderly and demented people |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD004514 |year=2008 |pmid=18843658 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004514.pub2 |url= }}</ref> kama kinga au tiba ya mawakala katika Alzeima. Kuzidisha vitamini E inahusishwa na hatari muhimu za kiafya.<ref name="pmid16227450"/> Majaribio ya kuchunguza asidi ya foliki B9 () na vitamini nyingine za B zilishindwa kuonyesha uhusiano wowote muhimu kwa kupungua kwa utambuzi.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effect of folic acid, with or without other B vitamins, on cognitive decline: meta-analysis of randomized trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2010-06_123_6/page/522 |author=Wald DS, Kasturiratne A, Simmonds M |journal=[[The American Journal of Medicine]] |date=Juni 2010 |volume=123 |issue=6 |pages=522-527.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.01.017 |pii=S0002-9343(10)00131-2 }}</ref> Matumizi ya muda mrefu yamadawa yasiyo steroidi zenye mshawasho (NSAIDs) yamehusishwa na kupunguza uwezekano wa kuugua Alzeima.<ref name="pmid17612054">{{cite journal |author=Szekely CA, Town T, Zandi PP |title=NSAIDs for the chemoprevention of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Subcell Biochem |volume=42 |issue= |pages=229–48 |year=2007 |month= |pmid=17612054 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-5688-5_11 }}</ref> Masomo ya uchunguzi wa miili ya binadamu, katika mifano ya wanyama , au katika uchunguzi wa vitro pia uanongeza nguvu kwa dhana kwamba NSAID huweza kupunguza uvimbe kuhusiana na utando wa amiloidi.<ref name="pmid17612054"/> Hata hivyo uchunguzi wa majaribio ya matumizi yao kama matibabu ya kupunguza yameshindwa kuonyesha matokeo mazuri wakati hakuna majaribio ya kuzuia ambayo yamekamilika.<ref name="pmid17612054"/> Sakamini kutoka bizari manjano imeonyesha ufanisi kiasi katika kuzuia uharibifu wa ubongo kwa mifano ya panya kutokana na uwezo wake wa kuzuia uvimbe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ringman JM, Frautschy SA, Cole GM, Masterman DL, Cummings JL |title=A potential role of the curry spice curcumin in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Curr Alzheimer Res |issn=1567-2050 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=131–6 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15974909 |pmc=1702408 |doi=10.2174/1567205053585882 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Aggarwal BB, Harikumar KB |title=Potential therapeutic effects of curcumin, the anti-inflammatory agent, against neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, autoimmune and neoplastic diseases |journal=Int J Biochem Cell Biol |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=40–59 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=18662800 |doi=10.1016/j.biocel.2008.06.010 |pmc=2637808 }}</ref> Tiba ya kubadilisha homoni, ingawa ilitumika awali, haidhaniwi tena kuzuia shida ya ubongo na kwa wakati mwingine inadhaniwa kuhusishwa nayo.<ref name="pmid19370593">{{cite journal |author=Farquhar C, Marjoribanks J, Lethaby A, Suckling JA, Lamberts Q |title=Long term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD004143 |date=15 Aprili 2009 |pmid=19370593 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004143.pub3 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19401958">{{cite journal |author=Barrett-Connor E, Laughlin GA |title=Endogenous and exogenous estrogen, cognitive function, and dementia in postmenopausal women: evidence from epidemiologic studies and clinical trials |journal=Semin Reprod Med |volume=27 |issue=3 |date=Mei 2009 |pages=275–82 |pmc=2701737 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1216280 |pmid=19401958 |last1=Barrett-Connor |first1=E |last2=Laughlin |first2=GA }}</ref> Kuna ushahidi pinzani usioshawishi kwamba "ginkgo" ina athari yoyote chanya juu ya kuharibika kwa utambuzi na shida ya akili na utafiti wa hivi karibuni unaonyesha kwamba haina athari katika kupunguza kasi ya matukio ya Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL ''et al.'' |title=Ginkgo biloba for Prevention of Dementia |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |year=2008 |volume=300 |issue=19 |pages=2253–2262 |pmid=19017911 |doi=10.1001/jama.2008.683 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300/19/2253 |accessdate=2008-11-18 |last12=Robbins |first12=JA |last13=Tracy |first13=RP |last14=Woolard |first14=NF |last15=Dunn |first15=L |last16=Snitz |first16=BE |last17=Nahin |first17=RL |last18=Furberg |first18=CD |last19=Ginkgo Evaluation Of Memory (Gem) Study |first19=Investigators |pmc=2823569 }}</ref> Utafiti wa miaka 21 uligundua kwamba wanywa kahawa vikombe 3-5 kwa siku katika makamo walikuwa na upungufu wa 65% katika hatari ya shida ya akili katika maisha ya uzeeni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eskelinen MH, Ngandu T, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Kivipelto M |title=Midlife coffee and tea drinking and the risk of late-life dementia: a population-based CAIDE study |journal=J Alzheimers Dis |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=85–91 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=19158424 |doi=10.3233/JAD-2009-0920 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> Watu wanaoshiriki katika shughuli za kitaaluma kama vile kusoma, kucheza michezo ya bodi, kukamilisha jedwali za maneno /, kucheza muziki wa ala, au kuhusiana mara kwa mara kijamii huonyesha kupungua kwa hatari ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid16917199">{{cite pmid|16917199}}</ref> Hii inawiana na nadharia ya hifadhi ya utambuzi, ambayo inasema kwamba baadhi ya uzoefu wa maisha huleta ufanisi wa neva kufanya kazi zaidi kwa kumpa mtu hifadhi ya utambuzi na kuchelewesha kuanza kwa shida ya akili.<ref name="pmid16917199"/> Elimu huchelewesha mwanzo wa dalili za Alzeima, lakini haina uhusiano na kifo cha mapema baada ya utambuzi wa ugonjwa.<ref name="pmid19026089">{{cite journal |author=Paradise M, Cooper C, Livingston G |title=Systematic review of the effect of education on survival in Alzheimer's disease |journal=Int Psychogeriatr |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |year=2009 |month=Februari |pmid=19026089 |doi=10.1017/S1041610208008053 }}</ref> Mazoezi pia uhusishwa na kupunguza hatari ya Alzeima.<ref name="pmid19026089"/> Baadhi ya tafiti zimeonyesha ongezeko la hatari ya kupatwa na Alzeima kwa sababu ya mazingira hasa matumizi ya [[Metali|madini]], hasa[[Alumini|alumini]],<ref name="pmid17522444">{{cite journal |author=Shcherbatykh I, Carpenter DO |title=The role of metals in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease |journal=J Alzheimers Dis |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=191–205 |year=2007 |month=Mei |pmid=17522444 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rondeau V, Commenges D, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Dartigues JF |title=Relation between aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer's disease: an 8-year follow-up study |journal=Am J Epidemiol |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=59–66 |year=2000 |month=Julai |pmid=10901330 |pmc=2215380 |doi=10.1093/aje/152.1.59 }}</ref> au kuingiliana na viyeyuko.<ref name="pmid7771442">{{cite journal |author=Kukull WA, Larson EB, Bowen JD, ''et al.'' |title=Solvent exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study |journal=Am J Epidemiol |volume=141 |issue=11 |pages=1059–71; discussion 1072–9 |year=1995 |month=Juni |pmid=7771442 }}</ref> Ubora wa baadhi ya tafiti hizi umekosolewa,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Santibáñez M, Bolumar F, García AM |title=Occupational risk factors in Alzheimer's disease: a review assessing the quality of published epidemiological studies |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |volume=64 |issue=11 |pages=723–732 |year=2007 |pmid=17525096 |doi=10.1136/oem.2006.028209 }}</ref> na tafiti zingine zimekwisha pata kuwa hakuna uhusiano kati ya mazingira haya na kuugua Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Seidler A, Geller P, Nienhaus A, ''et al.'' |title=Occupational exposure to low frequency magnetic fields and dementia: a case-control study |journal=Occup Environ Med |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=108–14 |year=2007 |month=Februari |pmid=17043077 |doi=10.1136/oem.2005.024190 |pmc=2078432 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12222737">{{cite journal |author=Rondeau V |title=A review of epidemiologic studies on aluminum and silica in relation to Alzheimer's disease and associated disorders |journal=Rev Environ Health |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=107–21 |year=2002 |pmid=12222737 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9115023">{{cite journal |author=Martyn CN, Coggon DN, Inskip H, Lacey RF, Young WF |title=Aluminum concentrations in drinking water and risk of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Epidemiology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=281–6 |year=1997 |month=Mei |pmid=9115023 |doi=10.1097/00001648-199705000-00009 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9861186">{{cite journal |author=Graves AB, Rosner D, Echeverria D, Mortimer JA, Larson EB |title=Occupational exposures to solvents and aluminium and estimated risk of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Occup Environ Med |volume=55 |issue=9 |pages=627–33 |year=1998 |month=Septemba |pmid=9861186 |pmc=1757634 |doi=10.1136/oem.55.9.627 }}</ref> Wakati baadhi ya uchunguzi unaonyesha kwamba marudio madogo sana ya maeneo ya sumakuumeme huweza kuongeza hatari ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima, wachunguzi walipata kwamba uchunguzi zaidi wa kiepidelemojia na uchunguzi wa maabara zaidi ya nadharia tete hili unahitajika.<ref>{{Cite document |title=Health Effects of Exposure to EMF |author=Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks-SCENIHR|date=Januari 2009|publisher=Directorate General for Health&Consumers; European Commission |location=Brussels |pages=4–5 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scenihr/docs/scenihr_o_022.pdf |accessdate=2010-04-27 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Sigara ni kati ya sababu zenye hatari kubwa za Alzeima.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cataldo JK, Prochaska JJ, Glantz SA |title=Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: an analysis controlling for tobacco industry affiliation |journal=J Alzheimers Dis |year=2010 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=465–80 |pmid= 20110594 |doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-1240 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-25 }}</ref> Utaratibu wa dalili za mifumo ya kinga ya ndani ni sababu za hatari za Alzeima inayaonza kuchelewa.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=20160456}}</ref> == Udhibiti == Hakuna tiba ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima, matibabu yanayopatikana hutoa kiasi kidogo cha faida kwa kupunguza dalili lakini kimsingi huwa ya kupunguza athari. Matibabu ya sasa yanaweza kugawanywa katika dawa, kisaikolojia-kijamii na ulezi wa wagonjwa. === Dawa === [[Picha:Donepezil 1EVE.png‎|kulia | thumb | Pande Tatu mfano wa molekuli ya donepezili, ni kizuizi cha asetilkolinesterasi kinachotumika katika kutibu dalili za Alzeima.]] [[Picha:Memantine.svg|right|thumb|upright|Muundo Masi wa memantine, dawa iliyopitishwa kwa kutibu dalili za Alzeima iliyokomaa]] Dawa nne sasa zimeidhinishwa na mashirika ya udhibiti kama vile ya Shirika la Chakula na Matumizi ya Dawa la Marekani(FDA) na Shirika la Dawa la Ulaya (EMA) kutibu dalili za kiutambuzi za Alzeima: tatu kati ya hizi ni vizuizi vya kolinesterasi na nyingine ni memantini, ambacho ni kipokezi pimgamizi cha NMDA. Hakuna dawa iliyoonyesha dalili ya kuchelewesha au kusimamisha kuendelea kwa ugonjwa huu. Kupunguza kazi kwa nyuroni za kolineji ni kipengele maalumu kinachojulikana vizuri cha ugonjwa wa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid8534419">{{cite journal |author=Geula C, Mesulam MM |title=Cholinesterases and the pathology of Alzheimer disease |journal=[[Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord]] |volume=9 Suppl 2 |pages=23–28 |year=1995 |pmid=8534419 }}</ref> Vizuizi vya Asetilkolinesterasi zinatumiwa kupunguza kasi ambayo asetikolini /1} (ACh) inavunjwa, na hivyo kuongeza kukoleza kwa ACh katika ubongo na kupambana na upotevu wa ACh ulionasababishwa na kufa kwa nyuroni za kolineji.<ref name="pmid11105732">{{cite journal |author=Stahl SM |title=The new cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease, Part 2: illustrating their mechanisms of action |journal=[[J Clin Psychiatry]] |volume=61 |issue=11 |pages=813–814 |year=2000 |pmid=11105732 }}</ref> {{as of | 2008}}Vizuizi vya kolinesterasi vilivyoidhinishwa kwa ajili ya udhibiti wa dalili za Alzeima ni [[donepesili]] (jina la kibiashara ni ''Arisepti),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a697032.html |title=Donepezil |accessdate=2010-02-03 |date=2007-01-08 |publisher=[[US National Library of Medicine]] |work=[[Medline Plus]] }}</ref>galanitamini ''(Rasadine),'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a699058.html |title=Galantamine |accessdate=2010-02-03 |date=2007-01-08 |publisher=[[US National Library of Medicine]] |work=[[Medline Plus]] }}</ref> na [[rivasitigimini]] (huitwa ''Ekiloni'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a602009.html |title=Rivastigmine |accessdate=2010-02-03 |date=2007-01-08 |publisher=[[US National Library of Medicine]] |work=[[Medline Plus]] }}</ref> na ''Pachi ya Ekiloni'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a607078.html |title=Rivastigmine Transdermal |accessdate=2010-02-03 |date=2007-01-08 |publisher=[[US National Library of Medicine]] |work=[[Medline Plus]] }}</ref> ).'' Kuna ushahidi wa kufaa wa dawa hizi katika kutibu ugonjwa wa kadiri wa Alzeima,<ref name="pmid16437532">{{cite journal |author=Birks J |title=Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1 |pages=CD005593 |year=2006 |pmid=16437532 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005593 |last2=Birks |first2=Jacqueline }}</ref><ref name="pmid19370562">{{cite journal |journal=[[Cochrane Database Syst Rev]] |date=2009 Apr 15 |issue=2 |at=CD001191 |title=Rivastigmine for Alzheimer's disease |author=Birks J, Grimley Evans J, Iakovidou V, Tsolaki M, Holt FE |pmid=19370562 }}</ref> na baadhi ya ushahidi wa matumizi yao katika hatua zilizoendelea. Donepesili tu ndiyo iliyopitishwa kwa ajili ya kutibu Dementia Alzeima ya kiwango cha juu. <ref name="pmid16437430">{{cite journal |author=Birks J, Harvey RJ |title=Donepezil for dementia due to Alzheimer's disease |journal=[[Cochrane Database Syst Rev]] |issue=1 |pages=CD001190 |date=2006 Jan 25 |pmid=16437430 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001190.pub2 }}</ref> Matumizi ya dawa hizi katika kuharibika kwa uamuzi wa mambo wa kadiri hakijaonyesha athari yoyote katika kuchelewesha kuanza kwa Alzeima.<ref name="pmid18044984">{{cite journal |author=Raschetti R, Albanese E, Vanacore N, Maggini M |title=Cholinesterase inhibitors in mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review of randomised trials |journal=[[PLoS Med]] |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=e338 |year=2007 |pmid=18044984 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040338 |pmc=2082649 }}</ref> Athari za kawaida sana ni kichefuchefu na [[Kutapika|kutapika]], zote ambazo zinahusishwa na koligeni ya kupindukia. Madhara haya hutokea katika takriban 10-20% ya watumiaji na ukali wake ni wa chini hadi wastani. Athari za mkondo wa pili ambazo si za kawaida ni pamoja na kukakamaa misuli, kupungua kwa kiwangocha kupiga moyo (bradikadia), kupungua kwa hamu ya chakula na uzito, na ongezeko la uzalishaji wa asidi ya tumbo. <ref>Maelezo ya kutolewa kwa vizuizi vya astelikolinesterasi: * {{cite web |url=http://www.aricept.com/images/AriceptComboFullPINovember02006.pdf |form=pdf |title=Aricept Prescribing information |accessdate=2008-08-18 |format=PDF |publisher=Eisai and [[Pfizer]] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910154231/http://www.aricept.com/images/AriceptComboFullPINovember02006.pdf |archivedate=2008-09-10 }} (chanzo msingi) * {{cite web |url=http://razadyneer.com/razadyneer/pages/pdf/razadyne_er.pdf |title=Razadyne ER U.S. Full Prescribing Information |accessdate=2008-02-19 |format=PDF |publisher=[[Ortho-McNeil Neurologics]] |archivedate=2008-05-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528195504/http://razadyneer.com/razadyneer/pages/pdf/razadyne_er.pdf }} (chanzo msingi) * {{cite web |url=http://www.pharma.us.novartis.com/product/pi/pdf/exelonpatch.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728014715/http://www.pharma.us.novartis.com/product/pi/pdf/exelonpatch.pdf |archivedate=2007-07-28 |title=Exelon ER U.S. Prescribing Information |accessdate=2008-02-19 |format=PDF |publisher=[[Novartis Pharmaceuticals]] }} (chanzo msingi) * {{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2006/020823s016,021025s008lbl.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710074347/http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2006/020823s016,021025s008lbl.pdf |archivedate=2007-07-10 |title=Exelon U.S. Prescribing Information |date=Juni 2006 |accessdate=2009-07-30 |format=PDF |publisher=[[Novartis Pharmaceuticals]] }} ( chanzo msingi) * {{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/EnforcementActivitiesbyFDA/WarningLettersandNoticeofViolationLetterstoPharmaceuticalCompanies/ucm054180.pdf |format=PDF |title=Exelon Warning Letter |date=Agosti 2007 |accessdate=2009-07-30 |publisher=[[US Food and Drug Administration]] }}</ref> Glutamate ni kisisimuzi muhimu cha nyurotransmita ya mfumo wa neva, ingawa kuwepo kwa kiwango kingi katika ubongo kunaweza kusababisha kifo cha [[seli]] kupitia mchakato uitwao usisimuzi ambao unahusisha kusimuliwa sana kwa vipokezi vya glutamate. Usisimuzi hutokea sio tu kwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima, lakini pia katika magonjwa mengine ya neva kama vile ugonjwa wa Parkinson na uwingi-sklerosi.<ref name="pmid16424917">{{cite journal |author=Lipton SA |title=Paradigm shift in neuroprotection by NMDA receptor blockade: memantine and beyond |journal=[[Nat Rev Drug Discov]] |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=160–170 |year=2006 |pmid=16424917 |doi=10.1038/nrd1958 }}</ref> Memanitine (jina la kibiashara ni ''Akatinoli, Axura, Ebixa'' / ''Abixa, Memox'' na ''Namenda),'' <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a604006.html |title=Memantine |accessdate=2010-02-03 |date=2004-01-04 |publisher= US National Library of Medicine (Medline) }}</ref> ni kizuizi kisicholeta ushindani cha kipokezi cha NMDA iliyoanza kutumika kama dawa ya kupigana nainfluenza. Hufanya kazi katika mfumo wa glutamaterigiki na kuzuia vipokezi vya NMDA na kuzuia kusisimuliwa zaidi kwao na glutamate.<ref name="pmid16424917"/> Memanatine imeonyeshwa kuwa kwa kiasi cha kadiri kuleta matokeo yanayokusudiwa katika matibabu ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima wa wastani hadi wa kiwango cha juu. Athari zake katika hatua za awali za Alzeima hazijulikani.<ref name="pmid15495043">{{cite journal |author=Areosa Sastre A, McShane R, Sherriff F |title=Memantine for dementia |journal=[[Cochrane Database Syst Rev]] |issue=4 |pages=CD003154 |year=2004 |pmid=15495043 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003154.pub2 }}</ref> Taarifa za matukio mabaya na memanitine si za kila mara na ni za kadiri, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuota, kuchanganyikiwa , kizunguzungu, kuumwa na kichwa na uchovu.<ref>[384] ^ {{cite web |url=http://www.frx.com/pi/namenda_pi.pdf |title=Namenda Prescribing Information |accessdate=2008-02-19 |format=PDF |publisher=[[Forest Pharmaceuticals]] }} (Asili ya msingi)</ref> Mchanganyiko wa memantine na donepesili imeonekana kuwa "yenye umuhimu kitwakimu lakini ufanisi mdogo wa kimatibabu".<ref name="pmid18316756">{{cite journal |author=Raina P, Santaguida P, Ismaila A, ''et al.'' |title=Effectiveness of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine for treating dementia: evidence review for a clinical practice guideline |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine]] |volume=148 |issue=5 |pages=379–397 |year=2008 |pmid=18316756 }}</ref> Dawa za kuzuia kichaa ni muhimu katika kupunguza kwa kadiri kwa uchokozi na kichaa katika ya wagonjwa wa Alzeima na matatizo ya kitabia, lakini zinahusishwa na athari mbaya sana, kama vile matukio ya damubongo, matatizo ya kutembea au kupungua kwa uamuzi wa mambo, ambazo haziruhusu matumizi yake ya kawaida. <ref> Matumizi ya dawa za kuzuia kichaa: * {{cite journal |author=Ballard C, Waite J |title=The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer's disease |journal=[[Cochrane Database Syst Rev]] |issue=1 |pages=CD003476 |year=2006 |pmid=16437455 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003476.pub2}} * {{cite journal |author=Ballard C, Lana MM, Theodoulou M, ''et al.'' |title=A randomised, blinded, placebo-controlled trial in dementia patients continuing or stopping neuroleptics (The DART-AD trial) |journal=[[PLoS Med]] |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e76 |year=2008 |pmid=18384230 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050076 |pmc=2276521 }} * {{cite journal |author=Sink KM, Holden KF, Yaffe K |title=Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia: a review of the evidence |journal=[[J Am Med Assoc]] |volume=293 |issue=5 |pages=596–608 |year=2005 |pmid=15687315 |doi=10.1001/jama.293.5.596 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19138567"> {{cite journal |author=Ballard C, Hanney ML, Theodoulou M, Douglas S, McShane R, Kossakowski K, Gill R, Juszczak E, Yu L-M, Jacoby R |title=The dementia antipsychotic withdrawal trial (DART-AD): long-term follow-up of a randomised placebo-controlled trial |journal=[[Lancet Neurology]] |date=9 Januari 2009 |pmid=19138567 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70295-3 |laysummary=http://www.physorg.com/news150695213.html |volume=8 |page=151 |issue=2 }}</ref>Wakati zinapotumika kwa muda mrefu, zionyeshwa kuhusishwa na kuongezeka kwa vifo.<ref name="pmid19138567"/> === Hatua za Kisaikolojia na Kijamii === [[Picha:Snoezelruimte.JPG|thumb|upright|righ|Chumba kilichooundwa haswa kwa minajili ya tiba ya kuimarisha hisia , pia hujulikana kama snoezelen; kuingilia hisia kijamii na kwa kisaikolojia ili kuwasaidia watu wenye shida ya akili]] Hatua zakisaikolojia an kijamii zinatumiwa kama nyongeza ya matibabu ya dawa na kunaweza kuorodheshwa ndani mbinu zinazoegemea tabia, hisia, utambuzi au usisimuzi. Utafiti juu ya ufanifu wake hakupatikani na nadra ule unaozingatia kwa Alzeima, badala yake hulenga dementia kwa ujumla.<ref name="pracGuideAPA">{{cite web | url=http://www.psychiatryonline.com/pracGuide/loadGuidelinePdf.aspx?file=AlzPG101007 | format=PDF | title =Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Alzheimer's disease and Other Dementias | publisher =[[American Psychiatric Association]] | month=Oktoba | year=2007 | accessdate=2007-12-28 | doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890423967.152139 }}</ref> Hatua za kitabia hujaribu kutambua na kupunguza chanzo na matokeo ya tabia zinazotatiza. Njia hii haijaonyesha mafanikio katika kuboresha utendaji kwa ujumla,<ref name="pmid16323385">{{cite journal |author=Bottino CM, Carvalho IA, Alvarez AM, ''et al.'' |title=Cognitive rehabilitation combined with drug treatment in Alzheimer's disease patients: a pilot study |journal=Clin Rehabil |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=861–869 |year=2005 |pmid=16323385 |doi=10.1191/0269215505cr911oa }}</ref> lakini inaweza kusaidia kupunguza baadhi ya matatizo ya tabia fulani, kama vile kushindwa kudhibiti mkojo.<ref name="pmid11342679">{{cite journal |author=Doody RS, Stevens JC, Beck C, ''et al.'' |title=Practice parameter: management of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2001-05-08_56_9/page/1154 |journal=Neurology |volume=56 |issue=9 |pages=1154–1166 |year=2001 |pmid=11342679 }}</ref> Kuna ukosefu wa twakimu bora kuhusu ufanisi wa mbinu hizi katika matatizo ya tabia mengine kama vile kuzurura.<ref name="pmid17253573">{{cite journal |author=Hermans DG, Htay UH, McShane R |title=Non-pharmacological interventions for wandering of people with dementia in the domestic setting |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1 |pages=CD005994 |year=2007 |pmid=17253573 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005994.pub2 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17096455">{{cite journal |author=Robinson L, Hutchings D, Dickinson HO, ''et al.'' |title=Effectiveness and acceptability of non-pharmacological interventions to reduce wandering in dementia: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_2007-01_22_1/page/9 |journal=Int J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=9–22 |year=2007 |pmid=17096455 |doi=10.1002/gps.1643 }}</ref> Hatua zinazoegemea hisia zinahusu matibabu ya kukumbuka mambo ya zamani, matibabu ya uthibitishaji, matibabu ya kisaikolojia yanayounga mkono, kuunganishwa kwa hisi, pia hujulikana kama snoeseleni, na matibabu ya usimulizi wa sasa. Matibabu ya kisaikolojia yanyounga mkono yamepokea rasmi utafiti kidogo au usiokuwepo wa kisayansi, lakini baadhi ya madaktari huona kuwa yana manufaa katika kuwasaidia wagonjwa wenye uharibifu wa kadiri kuzoea maradhi yao.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/> Matibabu ya kukumbuka mambo ya zamani (RT) yanahusu majadiliano ya mambo ya zamani na mtu mmoja au katika kikundi, mara nyingi kwa kutumia picha, vitu vya nyumbani, muziki na rekodi za sauti, au vitu vinavyofahamika vya zamani. Ingawa kuna uchache wa utafiti bora kuhusu ufanisi wa RT, inaweza kuwa ya manufaa kwa utambuzi wa mambo na hali ya hisia.<ref name="pmid15846613">{{cite journal |author=Woods B, Spector A, Jones C, Orrell M, Davies S |title=Reminiscence therapy for dementia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=2 |pages=CD001120 |year=2005 |pmid=15846613 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001120.pub2 }}</ref> Matibabu ya uigaji mambo ya sasa (SPT) yana msingi wake katika nadharia za kushikamana na yanahusisha kucheza na kurekodi kwa sauti za jamaa wa karibu wa mtu huyo aliye na ugonjwa wa Alzeima. Kuna kiasi cha ushahidi unaoonyesha kwamba SPT yaweza kupunguza tabia zenye changamoto.<ref name="pmid19023729">{{cite journal |author=Zetteler J |title=Effectiveness of simulated presence therapy for individuals with dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Aging Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=779–85 |year=2008 |month=Novemba |pmid=19023729 |doi=10.1080/13607860802380631 }}</ref> Hatimaye, matibabu ya uthibitishi ni msingi wake katika kukubali ukweli na ukweli wa kibinafsi wa maisha binafsi, wakati kuunganishwa kwa hisia nyingi kunatokana na mazoezi yenye lengo la kuchochea hisia. Kuna kiasi cha ushahidi kinachounga mkono manufaa ya matibabu haya.<ref name="pmid12917907">{{cite journal |author=Neal M, Briggs M |title=Validation therapy for dementia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=3 |pages=CD001394 |year=2003 |pmid=12917907 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001394 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12519587">{{cite journal |author=Chung JC, Lai CK, Chung PM, French HP |title=Snoezelen for dementia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=4 |pages=CD003152 |year=2002 |pmid=12519587 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003152 }}</ref> Lengo la matibabu yanayoegemea utambuzi, ambayo ni pamoja na mwelekeo wa ukweli na kufunzwa tena kwa utambuzi wa mambo, ni kupunguza nakisi ya utambuzi wa mambo. Mwelekeo wa ukweli unahusisha katika uwasilishaji wa taarifa juu ya muda, mahali au mtu ili kurahisisha kuelewa kwa mtu juu ya mazingira yake na sehemu yake ndani yake. Kwa upande mwingine kufunzwa tena utambuzi wa mambo hujaribu kuboresha uwezo wa utendaji ulioharibika kwa kusisimua uwezo wa akili. Hatua zote zimeonyesha baadhi ya matokeo yaliyotarajiwa ya kuboresha uwezo wa utambuzi,<ref name="pmid17636652">{{cite journal |author=Spector A, Orrell M, Davies S, Woods B |title=Withdrawn: Reality orientation for dementia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=3 |pages=CD001119 |year=2000 |pmid=17636652 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001119.pub2 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12948999">{{cite journal |author=Spector A, Thorgrimsen L, Woods B, ''et al.'' |title=Efficacy of an evidence-based cognitive stimulation therapy programme for people with dementia: randomised controlled trial |journal=Br J Psychiatry |volume=183 |pages=248–254 |year=2003 |pmid=12948999 |doi=10.1192/bjp.183.3.248 }}</ref>ingawa katika baadhi ya utafiti madhara haya yalikuwa ya muda mfupi na ya athari mbaya, kama vile kuudhika, pia yameripotiwa.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/> Matibabu yanayoegemea usisimuzi ni pamoja na sanaa, muziki na matibabu ya chuki, mazoezi, na aina yoyote ya shughuli nyingine za burudani. Kusisimua kunasaidia kidogo katika kuboresha tabia, hisia, na, kwa kiasi cha chini utendakazi. Hata hivyo, muhimu kama athari hizi ni usaidizi mkuu kwa ajili ya matumizi ya matibabu ya kusisimua ni mabadiliko ya maisha ya mtu ya kawaida.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/> === Matunzo === Kwa vile Alzeima haina tiba na hatua kwa hatua huwanya watu kutoweza kuchunga mahitaji yao wenyewe, utunzaji kimsingi ndiyo matibabu na lazima yathibitiwe kwa makini katika kipindi cha ugonjwa huu. Katika awamu za mapema na za wastani, mabadiliko ya mazingira ya kuishi na maisha yanaweza kuongeza usalama wa mgonjwa na kupunguza mzigo wa mlezi<ref name="pmid15860476">{{cite journal |author=Gitlin LN, Hauck WW, Dennis MP, Winter L |title=Maintenance of effects of the home environmental skill-building program for family caregivers and individuals with Alzheimer's disease and related disorders |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journals-of-gerontology_2005-03_60a_3/page/368 |journal=J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=368–74 |year=2005 |month=Machi |pmid=15860476 }}</ref> Mifano wa mabadiliko haya ni kama vile kuzingatia matendo yalirahisishwa ya kila siku, na kuweka kwa wa kufuli za usalama, na kuweka alama kwa vitu vya nyumbani ili kumtambulisha mtu mwenye ugonjwa au matumizi ya vitu vilivyobadilishwa vya maisha ya kila siku.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alz.org/Health/Treating/agitation.asp |title=Treating behavioral and psychiatric symptoms |year=2006 |accessdate=2006-09-25 |publisher=Alzheimer's Association |archivedate=2006-09-25 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925112503/http://www.alz.org/Health/Treating/agitation.asp }}</ref><ref name="pmid15297089"> {{cite journal | author = Dunne TE, Neargarder SA, Cipolloni PB, Cronin-Golomb A | title = Visual contrast enhances food and liquid intake in advanced Alzheimer's disease | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-nutrition_2004-08_23_4/page/533 | journal = Clinical Nutrition | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 533–538 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15297089 | doi = 10.1016/j.clnu.2003.09.015 }}</ref> Mgonjwa anaweza pia kutoweza kujilisha mwenyewe, hivyo huhitaji chakula kikiwa katika vipande vidogo au kilichosagwa.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dudek, Susan G. |title=Nutrition essentials for nursing practice |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstown, Maryland |year=2007 |page=360 |isbn=0-7817-6651-6 |oclc= |doi= |url= http://books.google.com/?id=01zo6yf0IUEC&pg=PA360&dq=alzheimer%27s+chew |accessdate=2008-08-19 }}</ref> Wakati wa kumeza matatizo hutokea, na matumizi ya neli za kulisha zinaweza kuhutajika. Katika hali kama hizo, na ufanifu wa matibabu na maadili ya kuendelea kulisha ni muhimu kuzingatiwa na watunzaji na familia.<ref name="pmid16415742">{{cite journal |author=Dennehy C |title=Analysis of patients' rights: dementia and PEG insertion |journal=Br J Nurs |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18–20 |year=2006 |pmid=16415742 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16556924">{{cite journal |author=Chernoff R |title=Tube feeding patients with dementia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-in-clinical-practice_2006-04_21_2/page/142 |journal=Nutr Clin Pract |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=142–6 |year=2006 |month=Aprili |pmid=16556924 |doi=10.1177/0115426506021002142 }}</ref> Matumizi ya vifaa vya kumfunga mgonjwa nadra huhitajika katika hatua yoyote ya ugonjwa huu, ingawa kuna wakati ambapo huwa muhimu ili kuzuia madhara kwa wagonjwa wa Alzeima au watunzaji wao.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/> Ugonjwa unavyoendelea, masuala mbalimbali ya matibabu yanaweza kuonekana, kama vile maradhi ya mdomo na meno, vidonda vya mbano, utapiamlo, matatizo ya usafi, au matatizo ya upumuaji, ngozi, au [[Jicho|macho]]. Usimamizi wa makini unaweza kuzuia haya yote, na matibabu maalum yanahitajika wakati yanapotokea.<ref name="pmid10369823">{{cite journal |author=Gambassi G, Landi F, Lapane KL, Sgadari A, Mor V, Bernabei R |title=Predictors of mortality in patients with Alzheimer's disease living in nursing homes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neurology-neurosurgery-and-psychiatry_1999-07_67_1/page/59 |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=59–65 |year=1999 |month=Julai |pmid=10369823 |pmc=1736445 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.67.1.59 }}</ref><ref> Masuala ya Matibabu: * {{cite journal |author=Head B |title=Palliative care for persons with dementia |journal=Home Healthc Nurse |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=53–60; quiz 61 |year=2003 |month=Januari |pmid=12544465 |doi=10.1097/00004045-200301000-00012 }} * {{cite journal |author=Friedlander AH, Norman DC, Mahler ME, Norman KM, Yagiela JA |title=Alzheimer's disease: psychopathology, medical management and dental implications |journal=J Am Dent Assoc |volume=137 |issue=9 |pages=1240–51 |year=2006 |month=Septemba |pmid=16946428 }} * {{cite journal |author=Belmin J |title=Practical guidelines for the diagnosis and management of weight loss in Alzheimer's disease: a consensus from appropriateness ratings of a large expert panel |journal=J Nutr Health Aging |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=33–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17315078 |author2=Expert Panel and Organisation Committee }} * {{cite journal |author=McCurry SM, Gibbons LE, Logsdon RG, Vitiello M, Teri L |title=Training caregivers to change the sleep hygiene practices of patients with dementia: the NITE-AD project |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_2003-10_51_10/page/1455 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=1455–60 |year=2003 |month=Oktoba |pmid=14511168 |doi=10.1046/j.1532-5415.2003.51466.x }} * {{cite journal |author=Perls TT, Herget M |title=Higher respiratory infection rates on an Alzheimer's special care unit and successful intervention |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_1995-12_43_12/page/1341 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=1341–4 |year=1995 |month=Desemba |pmid=7490383 }}</ref> Katika hatua ya mwisho ya ugonjwa huu, matibabu uhusisha kupunguza usumbufu hadi kifo.<ref name="pmid12854952">{{cite journal |author=Shega JW, Levin A, Hougham GW, ''et al.'' |title=Palliative Excellence in Alzheimer Care Efforts (PEACE): a program description |journal=J Palliat Med |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=315–20 |year=2003 |month=Aprili |pmid=12854952 |doi=10.1089/109662103764978641 }}</ref> Utafiti mdogo wa hivi karibuni huko Marekani ulihitimisha kuwa wagonjwa ambao watunzaji wao walikuwa na uelewa mzuri wa matatizo na shida za kimatibabu za hatua ya mwisho ya dementia walikuwa na uwezekano wa chini wa kupata matibabu ya kutumia nguvu karibu na mwisho wa maisha. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Mitchell SL, Teno JM, Kiely DK, ''et al.'' |title=The clinical course of advanced dementia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2009-10-15_361_16/page/1528 |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=361 |issue=16 |pages=1529–38 |year=2009 |month=Oct |pmid=19828530 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0902234 |pmc=2778850}}</ref> == Kutabiri Maendeleo yake == [[Picha:Alzheimer and other dementias world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|Maisha yaliobadilishwa na Ulemavu-mwaka kwa Alzeima na shida ya akili nyingine kwa wakazi 100,000 katika 2004.[446][447][448][449][450][451][452][453][454][455][456][ 457][458]]] Hatua za kwanza za ugonjwa wa Alzeima ni ngumu kuzitambua. Utambuzi wa hakika huweza kufanyika mara tu uharibifu wa utambuzi huanza kuathiri shughuli za kila siku, ingawa mtu anaweza kuwa bado anaishi kivyake. Dalili huongezeka kutokana na shida ndogo ndogo za utambuzi, kuzidi kupoteza kumbukumbu katika hatua za kuzidi kuharibika kwa uwezo wa utambuzi, kuondoa uwezekano wowote wa kuishi ukiwa huru.<ref name="pmid10653284"/> Muda wa kuishi wa walio na ugonjwa huo hupungua.<ref name="pmid3776457"/><ref name="pmid8757016">{{cite journal |author=Bowen JD, Malter AD, Sheppard L, ''et al.'' |title=Predictors of mortality in patients diagnosed with probable Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1996-08_47_2/page/433 |journal=Neurology |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=433–9 |year=1996 |month=Agosti |pmid=8757016 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12580712">{{cite journal |author=Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav R, DeKosky ST, Ganguli M |title=Functional transitions and active life expectancy associated with Alzheimer disease |journal=Arch. Neurol. |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=253–9 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12580712 |doi=10.1001/archneur.60.2.253 }}</ref> Kadiri ya muda wa kuishi baada ya kugunduliwa kwa ugonjwa ni takriban miaka saba.<ref name="pmid3776457"/> Chini ya 3% ya wagonjwa huishi zaidi ya miaka kumi na minne.<ref name="pmid7793228"/> Sifa za ugonjwa huu zinazohusishwa sana na kupunguka kwa maisha ni kuzidi kwa upungufu wa utambuzi, kupungua kwa kiwango cha utendaji kazi, historia ya kuanguka, na usumbufu katika uchunguzi wa kinyurolojia. Magonjwa mengine ya kisadfa kama vile matatizo ya moyo, [[Kisukari|ugonjwa wa kisukari]] au historia ya [[Utumiaji mbaya wa Pombe|ulevi]] pia uhusishwa na kupungua kwa maisha.<ref name="pmid8757016"/><ref name="pmid15068977">{{cite journal |author=Larson EB, Shadlen MF, Wang L, ''et al.'' |title=Survival after initial diagnosis of Alzheimer disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2004-04-06_140_7/page/n52 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=140 |issue=7 |pages=501–9 |year=2004 |month=Aprili |pmid=15068977 }}</ref><ref name="pmid7792352">{{cite journal |author=Jagger C, Clarke M, Stone A |title=Predictors of survival with Alzheimer's disease: a community-based study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-medicine_1995-01_25_1/page/171 |journal=Psychol Med |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=171–7 |year=1995 |month=Januari |pmid=7792352 |doi=10.1017/S0033291700028191 }}</ref> Iwapo ugonjwa utaanza mapema basi maisha huwa marefu zaidi, matarajio ya maisha ya walio wadogo kiumri hupungua sana hasa ikilinganishwa na jamii kwa jumla.<ref name="pmid12580712"/> Wagonjwa wanaume wana matarajio madogo zaidi ya kuishi ikilinganishwa na wanawake.<ref name="pmid7793228"/><ref name="pmid15883266">{{cite journal |author=Ganguli M, Dodge HH, Shen C, Pandav RS, DeKosky ST |title=Alzheimer disease and mortality: a 15-year epidemiological study |journal=Arch. Neurol. |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=779–84 |year=2005 |month=Mei |pmid=15883266 |doi=10.1001/archneur.62.5.779 }}</ref> Ugonjwa ni [[Mauti|sababu]] ya kimsingi [[Mauti|ya kifo]] katika 70% ya kesi zote.<ref name="pmid3776457"/> Nimonia na kuishiwa na maji mwilini ni sababu kuu za vifo vya haraka, wakati saratani ni sababu ndogo ya kifo ikilinganishwa na jamii kwa jumla.<ref name="pmid3776457"/><ref name="pmid15883266"/> == Epidemiolojia == Hatua mbili kuu hutumiwa katika masomo ya epidemolojia: matukio na maenezi. Matukio ni idadi ya kesi mpya kwa idadi ya watu -na wakati kuna hatari ya kuambukiza (kwa kawaida idadi ya kesi mpya kwa watu na miaka elfu moja) matukio ya mwezi kwa kila wa elfu-); ilhali maenezi ni jumla ya idadi ya matukio ya ugonjwa kati ya watu wote katika wakati fulani. Kuhusu matukio, masomo ya kilongitudo {{/0} (masomo ambapo kundi la watu wasio na ugonjwa hufuatwa kwa muda) hutoa viwango kati ya miaka 10 na 15 kwa kila watu elfu 5-8 kwa Alzeima,<ref name="pmid17727890">{{cite journal |author=Bermejo-Pareja F, Benito-León J, Vega S, Medrano MJ, Román GC |title=Incidence and subtypes of dementia in three elderly populations of central Spain |journal=J. Neurol. Sci. |volume=264 |issue=1–2 |pages=63–72 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=17727890 |doi=10.1016/j.jns.2007.07.021 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12028245">{{cite journal |author=Di Carlo A, Baldereschi M, Amaducci L, ''et al.'' |title=Incidence of dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and vascular dementia in Italy. The ILSA Study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_2002-01_50_1/page/41 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=41–8 |year=2002 |month=Januari |pmid=12028245 |doi=10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50006.x |last12=Ilsa Working |first12=Group }}</ref> ambayo ina maana kwamba nusu ya kesi za shida ya akili kila mwaka ni za Alzeima. Kuongezeka kwa umri ni sababu ya kimsingi ya kuongezeka kwa hatari ya ugonjwa, na viwango vya matukio si sawa kwa rika zote: kila baada ya miaka mitano baada ya umri wa miaka 65, hatari ya kupata ugonjwa huongezeka takriban maradufu, kuongezeka kutoka 3 hadi 69 kwa kila miaka elfu ya mtu.<ref name="pmid17727890"/><ref name="pmid12028245"/> Pia kuna tofauti za kijinsia katika viwango vya matukio, wanawake huwa na hatari kubwa ya kuugua Alzeima hasa katika idadi ya watu wenye umri zaidi ya 85.<ref name="pmid12028245"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Andersen K, Launer LJ, Dewey ME, ''et al.'' |title=Gender differences in the incidence of AD and vascular dementia: The EURODEM Studies. EURODEM Incidence Research Group |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_1999-12-10_53_9/page/1992 |journal=Neurology |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=1992–7 |year=1999 |month=Desemba |pmid=10599770 |last12=Martinez-Lage |first12=JM |last13=Stijnen |first13=T |last14=Hofman |first14=A }}</ref> Maenezi ya Alzeima katika watu hutegemea mambo mbalimbali ikiwa ni pamoja na matukio na kuendelea kuishi. Kwa kuwa matukio ya Alzeima yanaongezeka na umri, ni muhimu kujumuisha umri wa watu walio na mvuto. Nchini Marekani, maambukizi ya Alzeima yalikadiriwa kuwa 1.6% mwaka 2000 kwa ujumla na katika umri 65-74, na kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha 19% katika kundi 75-84 na 42% katika kundi waliozidi miaka 84. <ref> 2000 Makadirio ya Marekani: * {{cite journal |author=Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Bienias JL, Bennett DA, Evans DA |title=Alzheimer disease in the US population: prevalence estimates using the 2000 census |journal=Arch. Neurol. |volume=60 |issue=8 |pages=1119–22 |year=2003 |month=Agosti |pmid=12925369 |doi=10.1001/archneur.60.8.1119 }} * {{cite web |title=Profiles of general demographic characteristics, 2000 census of population and housing, United States |year=2001 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |url=http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/dp1/2kh00.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-08-27 }} </ref> Uenezi katika sehemu zenye ustawi mdogo ni wa chini. [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Ulimwenguni]] lilikadiria kwamba mnamo mwaka 2005, 0.379% ya watu duniani kote walikuwa na shida ya akili, na kwamba kiwango cha maambukizi kitaongezeka kwa 0.441% katika 2015 na 0.556% katika 2030.<ref name="isbn9789241563369">{{cite book | last = World Health Organization | title = Neurological Disorders: Public Health Challenges | publisher = World Health Organization | year = 2006 | location = Switzerland | pages = 204–207 | url = http://www.who.int/mental_health/neurology/neurodiso/en/index.html | isbn = 978-92-4-156336-9 }}</ref> Tafiti zingine zimepata hitimisho sawa.<ref name="pmid16360788">{{cite journal |author=Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, ''et al.'' |title=Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study |journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9503 |pages=2112–7 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=16360788 |pmc=2850264 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67889-0 |url=http://www.sbgg.org.br/profissional/artigos/pdf/demencia_mundo.pdf |accessdate=2008-06-25 |format=PDF |last12=Mathers |first12=C |last13=Menezes |first13=PR |last14=Rimmer |first14=E |last15=Scazufca |first15=M |last16=Alzheimer's Disease |first16=International |archive-date=2008-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625071754/http://www.sbgg.org.br/profissional/artigos/pdf/demencia_mundo.pdf |dead-url= }}</ref> Utafiti mwingine ulikadiria kwamba mwaka 2006, 0.40% ya idadi ya watu duniani (kati ya % 0.17-0.89; idadi kamili {{Nowrap|26.6 million}}, kati ya {{Nowrap|11.4–59.4 million}} ) walikuwa wameathirika na Alzeima, na kwamba maenezi ya maambukizi yameongezeka mara tatu na idadi kamili ingekuwa mara nne kwa 2050. <ref name="Brookmeyer2007">2006 maambukizi ya makisio: * {{cite journal |author=Brookmeyer R, Johnson E, Ziegler-Graham K, MH Arrighi |title=Forecasting the global burden of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Alzheimer's and Dementia |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=186–91 |year=2007 |month=Julai |doi=10.1016/j.jalz.2007.04.381 |url=http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=rbrookmeyer |accessdate=2008-06-18 |pmid=19595937 |last1=Brookmeyer |first1=R |last2=Johnson |first2=E |last3=Ziegler-Graham |first3=K |last4=Arrighi |first4=HM |archive-date=2008-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207025403/http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=rbrookmeyer |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite paper |url=http://un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-08-27 |year=2007 |title=World population prospects: the 2006 revision, highlights |publisher=Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations |version=Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.202 |journal= |archive-date=2008-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191533/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191533/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf }}</ref> == Historia == [[Picha:Auguste D aus Marktbreit.jpg|thumb|Alois mgonjwa wa Alzeima Auguste Deter katika 1902. Chake ndicho kisa cha kwanza kilichofafanuliwa kwa ugonjwa uliokuja kujulikana kama Alzeima.]] Wanafalsafa na madaktari wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale|Ugiriki]] na [[Roma wa Kale]] walihusisha kuzeeka na kuongezeka kwa dementia.<ref name="pmid9661992">{{cite journal |author=Berchtold NC, Cotman CW |title=Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s |journal=Neurobiol. Aging |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=173–89 |year=1998 |pmid=9661992 |doi=10.1016/S0197-4580(98)00052-9 }}</ref> Haikuwa hadi 1901 ndipo 0}mtaalamu wa saikolojia wa Kijerumani { Alois Alzheimer alipotambua kesi ya kwanza ya kile kilichochokuja kujulikana kama ugonjwa wa Alzeima katika mwanamke mwenye umri wa miaka 50 aliyemwita {1}Auguste D. Alzheimer alimfuata hadi alipokufa mnamo 1906, ambapo aliitangaza kesi hiyo hadharani kwa mara ya kwanza. <ref> Auguste D.: * {{ cite journal | author=Alzheimer Alois | title=Über eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde [About a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex] | journal=Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie und Psychisch-Gerichtlich Medizin | volume=64 | issue=1–2 | pages=146–148 | year=1907 | language={{de icon}} }} * {{cite journal |author=Alzheimer Alois |title=About a peculiar disease of the cerebral cortex. By Alois Alzheimer, 1907 (Translated by L. Jarvik and H. Greenson) |journal=Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–8 |year=1987 |pmid=3331112 }} * {{cite book |author=Maurer Ulrike, Maurer Konrad |title=Alzheimer: the life of a physician and the career of a disease |url=https://archive.org/details/alzheimerlifeofp00maur |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alzheimerlifeofp00maur/page/270 270] |isbn=0-231-11896-1 |oclc= }} </ref> Katika kipindi cha miaka mitano iliyofuata, kesi sawa kumi na mmoja ziliripotiwa katika maandiko ya matibabu, na baadhi yao yakitumia jina la ugonjwa wa Alzeima kuutaja ugonjwa huo.<ref name="pmid9661992"/> Ugonjwa ulielezewa kama ugonjwa bainifu naye Emil Kraepelin baada ya kuzuia baadhi ya sifa za ugonjwa (upotovu na ndoto) na za kipatholojia (mabadiliko mkakamo wa ateri) zilizoko katika ripoti ya awali ya Auguste D.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Berrios G E |title=Alzheimer's disease: a conceptual history |journal=Int. J. Ger. Psychiatry |volume=5 |issue= |pages=355–365 |year=1990 |month= |pmid= |doi=10.1002/gps.930050603 }}</ref> Alijumuisha ''ugonjwa wa Alzeima,'' pia uiutwaodementiaya ''kabla ya udhoofu'' naye Kraepelin, kama aina ya ''shida ya akili ya udhoofu'' katika toleo la nane ya ''kitabu'' chake ''cha Saikayatria,'' kilichochapishwa mwaka 1910.<ref name="isbn1-4325-0833-4">{{cite book |author=Kraepelin Emil, Diefendorf A. Ross (translated by) |title=Clinical Psychiatry: A Textbook For Students And Physicians (Reprint) |url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalpsychiat0000emil |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |date=2007-01-17 |page=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalpsychiat0000emil/page/568 568] |isbn=1-4325-0833-4 |oclc= }}</ref> Kwa sehemu kubwa ya karne ya 20, utambuzi wa ugonjwa wa Alzeima ulikuwa miliki ya watu wenye umri kati ya 45 na 65 ambao walionyesha dalili za dementia. Istilahi hii ilipita baada ya 1977, wakati mkutano juu ya Alzeima ulihitimisha kuwa na dalili za kimatibabu na zakipatholojia za dementia za kudhoofika na kabla ya kudhoofika zilikuwa karibu sawa, ingawa waandishi pia waliongeza hawakuondoa uwezekano wa kuwa yalisababishwa na sababu tofauti.<ref name="isbn0-89004-225-X">{{cite book |author=Katzman Robert, Terry Robert D, Bick Katherine L (editors) |title=Alzheimer's disease: senile dementia and related disorders |url=https://archive.org/details/alzheimersdiseas0000work |publisher=Raven Press |location=New York |year=1978 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alzheimersdiseas0000work/page/594 595] |isbn=0-89004-225-X |oclc= }}</ref> Hii hatimaye ilipelekea utambuzi wa ''ugonjwa wa'' ''Alzeima'' bila kutegemea umri.<ref name="pmid9702682">{{cite journal |author=Boller F, Forbes MM |title=History of dementia and dementia in history: an overview |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-neurological-sciences_1998-06-30_158_2/page/n9 |journal=J. Neurol. Sci. |volume=158 |issue=2 |pages=125–33 |year=1998 |month=Juni |pmid=9702682 |doi=10.1016/S0022-510X(98)00128-2 }}</ref> Jina '' dementia ya kudhoofika ya Alzeima '' (SDAT) lilitumika kwa muda kuelezea hali ya watu wa zaidi ya miaka 65, huku ugonjwa wa Alzeima ukitumika kuwaelezea wale waliokuwa na umri wa chini. Hatimaye, jina Alzeima lilichukuliwa rasmi katika utaratibu wa majina ya matibabu ya kuwaelezea watu wa umri wowote wenye sampuli sawa ya dalili mfano tabia, mkondo wa ugonjwa, na neuropatholojia.<ref name="pmid3531918">{{cite journal |author=Amaducci LA, Rocca WA, Schoenberg BS |title=Origin of the distinction between Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia: how history can clarify nosology |journal=Neurology |volume=36 |issue=11 |pages=1497–9 |year=1986 |month=Novemba |pmid=3531918 }}</ref> == Jamii na utamaduni == === Gharama za kijamii === Shida ya akili, na hasa ya ugonjwa wa Alzeima, inaweza kuwa kati ya magonjwa yenye gharama kubwa kwa jamii katika Ulaya na Marekani,<ref name="pmid15685097"/><ref name="pmid9543467"/> wakati gharama zao katika nchi nyingine kama vile [[Argentina|Ajentina]],<ref name="pmid16870037">{{cite journal |author=Allegri RF, Butman J, Arizaga RL, ''et al.'' |title=Economic impact of dementia in developing countries: an evaluation of costs of Alzheimer-type dementia in Argentina |journal=Int Psychogeriatr |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=705–18 |year=2007 |month=Agosti |pmid=16870037 |doi=10.1017/S1041610206003784 }}</ref> au [[Korea Kusini]],<ref name="pmid16858741">{{cite journal |author=Suh GH, Knapp M, Kang CJ |title=The economic costs of dementia in Korea, 2002 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_2006-08_21_8/page/722 |journal=Int J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=722–8 |year=2006 |month=Agosti |pmid=16858741 |doi=10.1002/gps.1552 }}</ref> pia inazidi kupanda. Gharama hizi pengine zitaongezeka sambamba na kuzeeka kwa jamii, na hivyo kuwa tatizo kuu katika kijamii. Gharama zinazohusiana na Alzeima ni pamoja na gharama za matibabu ya moja kwa moja kama vile huduma ya nyumba za uuguzi, gharama za moja kwa moja zisizo za matibabu kama vile katika huduma ya mchana ya nyumbani, gharama zisizo za moja kwa moja kama vile kupoteza uzalishaji wa mgonjwa na mtunzaji.<ref name="pmid9543467"/> Hesabu inatofautiana kati ya tafiti lakini gharama ya dementia duniani kote imekadiriwa karibu $ bilioni 160,<ref name="pmid16401889">{{cite journal |author=Wimo A, Jonsson L, Winblad B |title=An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and direct costs of dementia in 2003 |journal=Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=175–81 |year=2006 |pmid=16401889 |doi=10.1159/000090733 }}</ref>wakati gharama ya Alzeima nchini Marekani inaweza kuwa $ bilioni 100 kila mwaka.<ref name="pmid9543467"/> Asili kubwa zaidi ya gharama kwa jamii ni huduma ya muda mrefu kutoka kwa wataalamu wa huduma ya afya na hasa kuwekwa kwenye taasisi, ambazo zinahusiana na 2/3 ya jumla ya gharama kwa jamii.<ref name="pmid15685097"/> Gharama za maisha nyumbani pia ni za juu sana,<ref name="pmid15685097"/> hasa wakati gharama rasmi kwa familia zinapojumuishwa, kama vile ulezi, mapato yaliyopotezwa na mtunzaji.<ref name="pmid11445614">{{cite journal |author=Moore MJ, Zhu CW, Clipp EC |title=Informal costs of dementia care: estimates from the National Longitudinal Caregiver Study |journal=J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=S219–28 |year=2001 |month=Julai |pmid=11445614 }}</ref> Gharama huongezeka na kuongezeka kwa dementia na kuwepo kwa shida za kitabia,<ref name="pmid16676288">{{cite journal |author=Jönsson L, Eriksdotter Jönhagen M, Kilander L, ''et al.'' |title=Determinants of costs of care for patients with Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_2006-05_21_5/page/449 |journal=Int J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=449–59 |year=2006 |month=Mei |pmid=16676288 |doi=10.1002/gps.1489 }}</ref> na inahusiana na kuongezeka kwa muda unaohitajika wa utunzaji ya kimwili.<ref name="pmid11445614"/> Kwa hiyo tiba yoyote ambayo kwamba inapunguza kupotea kwa utambuzi, inayochelewesha kuwekwa kwenye taasisi au inayopunguza masaa ya mtunzaji yana faida za kiuchumi. Tathmini kiuchumi za matibabu ya sasa yameonyesha matokeo mazuri.<ref name="pmid9543467"/> === Mzigo wa utunzaji === Wajibu wa mtunzaji mkuu mara nyingi huchukuliwa na mke au jamaa wa karibu.<ref name="metlife.com"/> Ugonjwa wa Alzeima unajulikana kwa kuweka mzigo mkubwa juu ya walezi ambao ni pamoja na wa kisaikolojia, kimwili au hali ya kiuchumi.<ref name="pmid17662119"/><ref name="pmid10489656"/><ref name="pmid10489657">{{cite journal |author=Murray J, Schneider J, Banerjee S, Mann A |title=EUROCARE: a cross-national study of co-resident spouse carers for people with Alzheimer's disease: II—A qualitative analysis of the experience of caregiving |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_1999-08_14_8/page/662 |journal=Int J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=662–7 |year=1999 |month=Agosti |pmid=10489657 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199908)14:8<662::AID-GPS993>3.0.CO;2-4 }}</ref> Hudumaza nyumbani hupendelewa kwa kawaida na wagonjwa na familia.<ref name="pmid18044111">{{cite journal |author=Zhu CW, Sano M |title=Economic considerations in the management of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Clin Interv Aging |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=143–54 |year=2006 |pmid=18044111 |doi=10.2147/ciia.2006.1.2.143 |pmc=2695165 }}</ref> Fursa hii pia huchelewesha au hupunguza haja ya huduma za kitaalamu zaidi na viwango vya gharama kubwa za matibabu.<ref name="pmid18044111"/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Gaugler JE, Kane RL, Kane RA, Newcomer R |title=Early community-based service utilization and its effects on institutionalization in dementia caregiving |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gerontologist_2005-04_45_2/page/177 |journal=Gerontologist |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=177–85 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15799982 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, theluthi mbili ya wakazi wa nyumba ya uuguzi ni wagonjwa wa akili.<ref name="pracGuideAPA"/> Watunzaji wa dementia/0} wanaathiriwa na kiwango cha juu cha matatizo ya [[kiakili]] na kimwili.<ref name="pmid12480441">{{cite journal |author=Ritchie K, Lovestone S |title=The dementias |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2002-11-30_360_9347/page/1758 |journal=Lancet |volume=360 |issue=9347 |pages=1759–66 |year=2002 |month=Novemba |pmid=12480441 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11667-9 }}</ref> Mambo yanayohusiana na matatizo zaidi ya kisaikolojia ya watunzaji wa kimsingi ni pamoja na watunzaji na mtu aliyeathirika nyumbani, na mtunzaji kuwa mumewe au mkewe, tabia za mgonjwa kama vile huzuni, usumbufu wa kitabia, ndoto, matatizo ya kulala au matatizo ya kutembea na kutengwa kijamii.<ref name="pmid2241719">{{cite journal |author=Brodaty H, Hadzi-Pavlovic D |title=Psychosocial effects on carers of living with persons with dementia |journal=Aust N Z J Psychiatry |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=351–61 |year=1990 |month=Septemba |pmid=2241719 |doi=10.3109/00048679009077702 }}</ref><ref name="pmid9646153">{{cite journal |author=Donaldson C, Tarrier N, Burns A |title=Determinants of carer stress in Alzheimer's disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-geriatric-psychiatry_1998-04_13_4/page/248 |journal=Int J Geriatr Psychiatry |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=248–56 |year=1998 |month=Aprili |pmid=9646153 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199804)13:4<248::AID-GPS770>3.0.CO;2-0 }}</ref> Kuhusu matatizo ya kiuchumi, watunzaji wa familia mara nyingi huacha masaa ya kazi na kutumia kwa wastani masaa 47 kwa wiki kumshughulikia mtu aliye na Alzeima, wakati gharama za kuwatunza ziko juu. Gharama moja kwa moja na zisizo za moja kwa moja za kuhudumia wagonjwa wa Alzeima kwa kadri ni kati ya $ 18,000 na $ 77,500 kwa mwaka katika nchi ya Marekani, kulingana na utafiti. Matibabu ya tabia za utambuzi na mafundisho ya mikakati ya kukabiliana aitha mmoja mmoja au katika vikundi imeonyesha ufanisi katika kuboresha afya ya kisaikolojia ya walezi.<ref name="pmid17662119"/><ref name="pmid11511058">{{cite journal |author=Pusey H, Richards D |title=A systematic review of the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for carers of people with dementia |journal=Aging Ment Health |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=107–19 |year=2001 |month=Mei |pmid=11511058 |doi=10.1080/13607860120038302 }}</ref> === Kesi zinazotambulika === [[Picha:President Ronald Reagan with Charlton Heston at a Meeting with The Presidential Task Force on The Arts and Humanities in Cabinet Room - DPLA - 47b9185ffd7680d8f23ce4d9fe269696.jpg|thumb|Charlton Heston na Ronald Reagan katika mkutano katika White House. Wote wawili baadaye walishikwa.]] Kwa kuwa ugonjwa wa Alzeima unapatikana sana, kuna watu wengi maarufu ambao wameathiriwa nao. Mifano maarufu ni pamoja Rais wa zamani wa Marekani [[Ronald Reagan]] na mwandishi wa Ayalandi Iris Murdoch, ambao wote walikuwa katika makala za kisayansi zikichunguza jinsi uwezo wao wa utambuzi ulivyoshushwa na ugonjwa huo.<ref name="pmid15574466">{{cite journal |author=Garrard P, Maloney LM, Hodges JR, Patterson K |title=[http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/128/2/250 The effects of very early Alzheimer's disease on the characteristics of writing by a renowned author] |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_brain_2005-02_128_2/page/250 |journal=Brain |volume=128 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=250–60 |year=2005 |month=Februari |pmid=15574466 |doi=10.1093/brain/awh341 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15461232">{{cite journal |author=Sherman FT |title=[http://www.modernmedicine.com/modernmedicine/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=121676 Did President Reagan have mild cognitive impairment while in office? Living longer with Alzheimer's Disease] |journal=Geriatrics |volume=59 |issue=9 |pages=11, 15 |year=2004 |month=Septemba |pmid=15461232 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15788549">{{cite journal |author=Venneri A, Forbes-Mckay KE, Shanks MF |title=Impoverishment of spontaneous language and the prediction of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Brain |volume=128 |issue=Pt 4 |pages=E27 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15788549 |doi=10.1093/brain/awh419 |url= }}</ref> Kesi nyingine ni pamoja na mwanakandanda mstaafu Ferenc Puskas,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/6155766.stm |title=Hungary legend Puskas dies at 79 |publisher=BBC News |date=2006-11-17 |accessdate=2008-01-25}} </ref> na waliokuwa Maziri Wakuu Harold Wilson (Uingereza) na Adolfo Suárez [[Hispania|(Uhispania)]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/harold-wilson |title=Prime Ministers in History: Harold Wilson |publisher=10 Downing Street |location=London |accessdate=2008-08-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080825211328/http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/harold-wilson |archivedate=2008-08-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/padre/reconocio/Rey/noto/carino/elpepiesp/20080718elpepinac_11/Tes |title=Mi padre no reconoció al Rey pero notó el cariño |publisher=El País |location=Madrid |year=2008 |accessdate=2008-10-01 }}</ref> na mwigizaji Rita Hayworth,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alz.org/galas/Rita/overview.asp |title=Chicago Rita Hayworth Gala |publisher=Alzheimer's Association |year=2007 |accessdate=2010-02-03 }} </ref> mwigizaji Charlton Heston,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/09/heston.illness/ |title=Charlton Heston has Alzheimer's symptoms |publisher=CNN |date=2002-08-09 |accessdate=2008-01-25 |archivedate=2008-02-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080201123928/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/09/heston.illness/ }}</ref> na mwandishi wa riwaya Terry Pratchett,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2007/dec/12/news.michellepauli1 |author=Pauli Michelle |title=Pratchett announces he has Alzheimer's |publisher=Guardian News and Media |date=2007-12-12 |accessdate=2008-08-18 | location=London}}</ref> na mshindi wa 2009 wa [[Tuzo ya Nobeli|Tuzo]] la [[Tuzo ya Nobeli|Nobel]] katika Fizikia Charles K. Kao.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_439665.html |title=Nobel Prize Winner has Alzheimer's |publisher=The Straits Times |date=2009-10-08 |accessdate=2009-10-09 }}</ref> Alzeima pia imeweza kuonyeshwa katika filamu kama vile: ''Iris'' (2001),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280778/ |title=Iris |date=2002-01-18 |publisher=IMDB |accessdate=2008-01-24}}</ref> iliyo na asili yake katika kumbukumbu zake John Bayley za mke wake Iris Murdoch,<ref>{{cite book |title=Iris: a memoir of Iris Murdoch |author=Bayley John |publisher=Abacus |location=London |year=2000 |isbn=9780349112152 |oclc=41960006 }}</ref> ''Daftari'' ya (2004),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0332280/ |title=The notebook |publisher=IMDB |accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref> iliyo na msingi wake katika riwaya ya jina kama hilo ya Nicholas Sparks ya 1996<ref>{{cite book |title=The notebook |url=https://archive.org/details/notebook00spar_1 |author=Sparks Nicholas |year=1996 |publisher=Thorndike Press |location=Thorndike, Maine |page=[https://archive.org/details/notebook00spar_1/page/268 268] |isbn=078620821X }} </ref> ''Muda wa kumbuka'' (2004); ''Thanmathra'' (2005),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webindia123.com/movie/regional/thanmatra/index.htm |title=Thanmathra |publisher=Webindia123.com |accessdate=2008-01-24}} </ref> ''Kumbukumbu ya Kesho (Ashita no Kioku)'' (2006 ), <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0494640/ |title=Ashita no kioku |originallanguage={{jp icon}} |publisher=IMDB |accessdate=2008-01-24}}</ref> msingi wake ukiwa riwaya ya Ogiwara Hiroshi ya jina kama hilo, <ref>{{cite book |author=Ogiwara Hiroshi |year=2004 |title=Ashita no Kioku |url=https://archive.org/details/ashitanokioku0000ogiw |location=Tōkyō |publisher=Kōbunsha |isbn=9784334924461 |oclc=57352130 |language={{jp icon}} |isbn-status=Mei be invalid – please double check }}</ref> ''Mbali kutoka kwake'' (2006), msingi wake ukiwa ni hadithi fupi ya Alice Munro "Dubu alikuja juu ya mlima"."The Bear Came over the Mountain".<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage|Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage: Stories]] |author=Munro Alice |location=New York |publisher=A.A. Knopf |year=2001 |isbn=9780375413001 |oclc=46929223 |chapter-url=The bear came over the mountain}}</ref> Kumbukumbu juu ya ugonjwa Alzeima ni pamoja na ''Malcolm na Barbara: Hadithi ya Mapenzi'' (1999) na ''Malcolm na Barbara: Upendo wa Wasalaam'' (2007), zote zikiwashirikisha Malcolm Pointon. <ref>Malcolm na Barbara: * {{cite web |url=http://www.dfgdocs.com/Directory/Titles/700.aspx |title=Malcolm and Barbara: A love story |publisher=Dfgdocs |accessdate=2008-01-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524213821/http://www.dfgdocs.com/Directory/Titles/700.aspx |archivedate=2008-05-24 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524213821/http://www.dfgdocs.com/Directory/Titles/700.aspx }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/cambridgeshire/content/articles/2007/08/06/pointon_audio_feature.shtml |title=Malcolm and Barbara: A love story |publisher=BBC Cambridgeshire |accessdate=2008-03-02 }} * {{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2007/aug/07/broadcasting.itv |title=Alzheimer's film-maker to face ITV lawyers |publisher=Guardian Media |date=2007-08-07 |accessdate=2008-01-24 |location=London |first=John |last=Plunkett }}</ref> == Mkondo wa Utafiti == Mnamo 2008, usalama na ufanifu wa zaidi ya dawa za matibabu 400 ulifanyiwa uchunguzi katika utafiti wa kimatibabu ulimwenguni kote, na karibu nusu ya michanganyiko hiyo iko katika awamu ya ya III; majaribio ya hatua ya mwisho kabla ya kupitia kwa vyombo vya udhibiti viwango.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=alzheimer |title= Clinical Trials. Found 459 studies with search of: alzheimer |accessdate= 2008-03-23 |publisher= US National Institutes of Health }}</ref> Eneo moja la utafiti wa kliniki limetilia makini katika kutibu sababu za kimsingi za ugonjwa. Kupunguza viwango vya Amiloidi beta ni lengo la kawaida la michanganyiko<ref> {{cite journal |author=Lashuel HA, Hartley DM, Balakhaneh D, Aggarwal A, Teichberg S, [[David J E Callaway|Callaway DJE]] |title=New class of inhibitors of [[Beta amyloid|amyloid-beta]] fibril formation. Implications for the mechanism of pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/45/42881 |journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry|J Biol Chem]] |year=2002 |volume=277 |pages=42881–42890 |pmid=12167652 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M206593200 |issue=45 }}</ref> (kama vile apomofini) inayofanyiwa uchunguzi. Tiba ya kuzuia au chanjo dhidi ya protini ya amiloidi ni moja matibabu yaliyo chini ya masomo ya kielelezo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dodel r, Neff F, Noelker C, Pul R, Du Y, Bacher M Oertel W. |title=Intravenous Immunoglobulins as a Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease: Rationale and Current Evidence |url=http://adisonline.com/drugs/Abstract/2010/70050/Intravenous_Immunoglobulins_as_a_Treatment_for.1.aspx |journal=Drugs |year=2010 |volume=70 |pages=513–528 |pmid=20329802 |doi=10.2165/11533070-000000000-00000 |issue=5 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2011-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917191608/http://adisonline.com/drugs/Abstract/2010/70050/Intravenous_Immunoglobulins_as_a_Treatment_for.1.aspx |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917191608/http://adisonline.com/drugs/Abstract/2010/70050/Intravenous_Immunoglobulins_as_a_Treatment_for.1.aspx }}</ref> Tofauti na chanjo ya kuzuia, tiba iliyodhaniwa itakuwa ikitumika kutibu watu ambao tayari wametambuliwa. Msingi wake ni dhana ya mafunzo kwa mfumo wa kinga ya kutambua, mashambulizi, na kurejesha nyuma utuaji wa amiloidi, hivyo Kubadili mwenendo wa ugonjwa huo.<ref>Kutoa Chanjo: * {{cite journal |author=Hawkes CA, McLaurin J |title=Immunotherapy as treatment for Alzheimer's disease |journal=Expert Rev Neurother |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=1535–48 |year=2007 |month=Novemba |pmid=17997702 |doi=10.1586/14737175.7.11.1535 }} * {{cite journal |author=Solomon B |title=Clinical immunologic approaches for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Expert Opin Investig Drugs |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=819–28 |year=2007 |month=Juni |pmid=17501694 |doi=10.1517/13543784.16.6.819 }} * {{cite journal |author=Woodhouse A, Dickson TC, Vickers JC |title=Vaccination strategies for Alzheimer's disease: A new hope? |journal=Drugs Aging |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=107–19 |year=2007 |pmid=17313199 |doi=10.2165/00002512-200724020-00003 }}</ref> Mfano wa chanjo hiyo iliyokuwa ikifanyiwa uchunguzi ni ACC-001,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00498602 |title = Study Evaluating ACC-001 in Mild to Moderate Alzheimers Disease Subjects |work = Clinical Trial |publisher =US National Institutes of Health |accessdate=2008-06-05 |date = 2008-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00479557 |title=Study Evaluating Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of ACC-001 in Subjects With Alzheimer's Disease |publisher=US National Institutes of Health |accessdate=2008-06-05 }}</ref> ingawa majaribio yalisitishwa katika 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medpagetoday.com/MeetingCoverage/AAN/tb/9165 |title = Alzheimer's Disease Vaccine Trial Suspended on Safety Concern |publisher =Medpage Today |accessdate=2008-06-14 |date = 2008-04-18}}</ref> Kiungo kmwingine sawa na hiyo ni bapineuzumab, zindiko iliyoundwa ili kufanana na zindiko iliyo dhidi ya amiloidi inayopatikana kiasili mwilini.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00574132 |title= Bapineuzumab in Patients With Mild to Moderate Alzheimer's Disease/ Apo_e4 non-carriers |work = Clinical Trial |accessdate=2008-03-23 |publisher= US National Institutes of Health |date= 2008-02-29 }}</ref> Njia nyingine ni wakala wa kukinga akili kama ,vile AL-108,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00422981 |title = Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy Study to Evaluate Subjects With Mild Cognitive Impairment |work = Clinical Trial |accessdate=2008-03-23 |publisher= US National Institutes of Health |date = 2008-03-11 }}</ref> na viungo vya kuzuia mwingiliano wa protini na chuma, kama vile PBT2.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00471211 |title = Study Evaluating the Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of PBT2 in Patients With Early Alzheimer's Disease |work = Clinical Trial |accessdate=2008-03-23 |publisher= US National Institutes of Health |date = 2008-01-13 }}</ref> Kipokezi cha TNFα protini ya uyeunganishaji , etanercept imeonyesha matokeo ya kutia moyo.<ref name="pmid16926764">[629] ^utafiti wa Etanercept : ** {{cite journal |author=Tobinick E, Gross H, Weinberger A, Cohen H |title=TNF-alpha modulation for treatment of Alzheimer's disease: a 6-month pilot study |journal=MedGenMed |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=25 |year=2006 |pmid=16926764 |pmc=1785182 }} ** {{cite journal |author=Griffin WS |title=Perispinal etanercept: potential as an Alzheimer therapeutic |journal=J Neuroinflammation |volume=5 |page=3 |year=2008 |pmid=18186919 |pmc=2241592 |doi=10.1186/1742-2094-5-3 }} ** {{cite journal |author=Tobinick E |title=Perispinal etanercept for treatment of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Curr Alzheimer Res |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=550–2 |year=2007 |month=Desemba |pmid=18220520 |doi=10.2174/156720507783018217 }}</ref> Katika 2008, majaribio mawili tofauti ya kimatibabu yalionyesha matokeo mazuri katika kubadilisha mwenendo wa ugonjwa wa Alzeima ya kiwango kidogo au cha kadri kwa kutumia methilithioniniamu kloridi (ijulikanayo kibiashara kama ''rember'' ), dawa izuiayo mrundiko wa tau, <ref>{{cite journal |title=Tau aggregation inhibitor (TAI) therapy with remberTM arrests disease progression in mild and moderate Alzheimer's disease over 50 weeks |author=Wischik Claude M, Bentham Peter, Wischik Damon J, Seng Kwang Meng |journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia |publisher=Alzheimer's Association |year=2008 |month=Julai |volume=4 |issue=4 |page=T167 |url=http://www.abstractsonline.com/viewer/viewAbstractPrintFriendly.asp?CKey={E7C717CF-8D73-41E0-8DB0-FA92205978CD}&SKey={68E04DB5-AB1C-4F7B-9511-DA3173F4F755}&MKey={CFC5F7C6-CB6A-40C4-BC87-B30C9E64B1CC}&AKey={50E1744A-0C52-45B2-BF85-2A798BF24E02} |accessdate=2008-07-30 |doi=10.1016/j.jalz.2008.05.438 }}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal |author=Harrington Charles, Rickard Janet E, Horsley David, ''et al.'' |title=Methylthioninium chloride (MTC) acts as a Tau aggregation inhibitor (TAI) in a cellular model and reverses Tau pathology in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease |journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia |publisher=Alzheimer's Association |year=2008 |month=Julai |pages=T120–T121 |doi=10.1016/j.jalz.2008.05.259 |volume=4 }}</ref> na dimebon, ni kimaliza kemikali za mzio.<ref name="pmid18640457">{{cite journal |author=Doody RS, Gavrilova SI, Sano M, ''et al.'' |title=Effect of dimebon on cognition, activities of daily living, behaviour, and global function in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study |journal=Lancet |volume=372 |issue=9634 |pages=207–15 |year=2008 |month=Julai |pmid=18640457 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61074-0 }}</ref> Awamu ya III ya mfululizo ya majaribio ya Dimebon ilishindwa kuonyesha athari chanya katika sehemu za mwisho za msingi na za upili.<ref> [http://www.alzforum.org/new/detail.asp?id=2387 Dimebon yavunja moyo katika majaribio ya Awamu ya 3]</ref> Uwezekano wa kwamba Alzeima inaweza kutibiwa na dawa kinzavirusi unatolewa na utafiti kuonyesha kuwa pamoja kwa malengelenge ya virusi vya vidonda mwilini na utando wa amiloidi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wozniak M, Mee A, Itzhaki R |title=Herpes simplex virus type 1 DNA is located within Alzheimer's disease amyloid plaques |journal=J Pathol |volume=217 |issue=1 |pages=131–138 |year=2008 |pmid=18973185 |doi=10.1002/path.2449}}</ref> Utafiti wa awali wa athari za tiba katika kurejesha kumbukumbu na uwezo wa kutambua umekuwa wa kutia moyo. Upungufu wa utafiti huu unaweza kushughulikiwa katika utafiti wa baadaye kwa uchambuzi wa kina zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=517–26 |last1=Newberg |first1=AB |issue=2 |last2=Wintering |first2=N |last3=Khalsa |first3=DS |last4=Roggenkamp |first4=H |last5=Waldman |first5=MR |author8=Newberg AB, Wintering N, Khalsa DS, Roggenkamp H, Waldman MR |volume=20 |title=Meditation effects on cognitive function and cerebral blood flow in subjects with memory loss: a preliminary study |year=2010 |journal=[[Journal of Alzheimer's Disease]] |url=http://www.j-alz.com/issues/20/vol20-2.html |pmid=20164557 |doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-1391 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-25 |archive-date=2010-10-07 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007041817/http://j-alz.com/issues/20/vol20-2.html |url-status=dead }} (Asili ya msingi)</ref> == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} == Marejeo == * {{cite book | title=Alzheimer's Disease: Unraveling the Mystery | url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/UnravelingTheMystery | publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH | year=2008 }} * {{cite book |url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/ADPrevented/ |title=Can Alzheimer's Disease Be Prevented? |publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH |year=2009 }} * {{cite book | title=Caring for a Person with Alzheimer's Disease: Your Easy-to-Use Guide from the National Institute on Aging | url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/Publications/CaringAD/ | publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute on Aging, NIH | year=2009 }} * {{cite journal |author=Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B |title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part&nbsp;I. Assessment |journal=American Family Physician |volume=65 |issue=11 |pages=2263–2272 |year=2002 |pmid=12074525 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020601/2263.html }} * {{cite journal |author= Cummings JL, Frank JC, Cherry D, Kohatsu ND, Kemp B, Hewett L, Mittman B |title=Guidelines for managing Alzheimer's disease: Part&nbsp;II. Treatment |journal=American Family Physician |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=2525–2534 |year=2002 |pmid=12086242 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20020615/2525.html }} * {{cite web | title=Alzheimer's Behavior Management: Learn to manage common behavior problems | url=http://www.helpguide.org/elder/alzheimers_behavior_problems.htm | author=Russell D, Barston S, White M | publisher=helpguide.org | date=2007-12-19 | accessdate=2008-02-29 }} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Alzheimer's disease}} * '''''(en)''''' [http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/ResearchInformation/ResearchCenters/ Vituo vya Ugonjwa wa Alzeima (AlzeimaCs)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/ResearchInformation/ResearchCenters/ |date=20100604070324 }} * '''''(en)''''' [http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers Kituo cha Elimu na Malazi cha Ugojwa wa Alzeima (AlzeimaEAR) ] * '''''(en)''''' [http://www.alz.org/index.asp Chama cha Alzeima] {{Wayback|url=http://www.alz.org/index.asp |date=20120730181212 }} * '''''(en)''''' [http://memory.ucsf.edu/ Kituo cha Kuzeeka na Kumbukumbu UCSF] {{DEFAULTSORT:Alzeima}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya ubongo]] [[Jamii:Maradhi ya uzee]] 92h7sioc3i4ux6i33q9brczke0u79dv 0 55354 1564484 1509832 2026-06-02T16:56:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564484 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Upungufu wa steroidi za ubongo katika mgonjwa mahututi''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency; [[kifupi]]: CIRCI) ni aina ya ukosefu wa [[adrenali]] katika wagonjwa walio taabani wenye viwango visivyotosha vya [[steroidi]] za [[ubongo]] kwa ambayo ni duni kwa mwitikio wa dhiki kuu wanayoipitia. Ikiungana na kupungua kwa kiwango cha hisi cha kipokezi cha glukokotikoidi na majibu ya [[tishu]] kwa steroidi za ubongo, upungufu huo wa Adrenali unasababisha ubashiri hasi kwa wagonjwa walio chini ya uangalizi makini. <ref name="pmid18496365">{{cite journal |author=Marik PE, Pastores SM, Annane D, ''et al.'' |title=Recommendations for the diagnosis and management of corticosteroid insufficiency in critically ill adult patients: consensus statements from an international task force by the American College of Critical Care Medicine |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=36 |issue=6 |pages=1937–49 |year=2008 |month=Juni |pmid=18496365 |doi=10.1097/CCM.0b013e31817603ba |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/CCM.0b013e31817603ba |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2012-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226151520/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/CCM.0b013e31817603ba |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Jira ya hypothalamic-pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA axis), ambapo haipothalamasi na tezi ya pituitari hudhibiti utoaji wa ugiligili wa Adrenali, hupitia mabadiliko makubwa wakati wa ugonjwa taabani. Viwango vya juu sana na vya chini sana vya kotisoli zote zimehusishwa na matokeo mabaya katika huduma ya wagonjwa walio chini ya uangalizi makini.<ref name="pmid8001391">{{cite journal |author=Rothwell PM, Lawler PG |title=Prediction of outcome in intensive care patients using endocrine parameters |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=78–83 |year=1995 |month=Januari |pmid=8001391 |doi= 10.1097/00003246-199501000-00015|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=23&issue=1&spage=78}}</ref> Imependekezwa kuwa viwango vya juu vinaweza kuwakilisha dhiki kali, ili hali viwango vya chini hutokana na kupunguzwa kwa uzalishaji wa kotisoli na mwitikio. <ref name="pmid10697064">{{cite journal |author=Annane D, Sébille V, Troché G, Raphaël JC, Gajdos P, Bellissant E |title=A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin |journal=JAMA |volume=283 |issue=8 |pages=1038–45 |year=2000 |month=Februari |pmid=10697064 |doi= 10.1001/jama.283.8.1038|url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10697064}}</ref> CIRCI inaweza kushukiwa katika wagonjwa wenye kiwango cha chini cha mskumo wa damulicha ya ufufuaji kwa ugiligili za ndani ya [[vena]] na madawa ya kushinikiza [[mishipa ya damu]]. <ref name="pmid18158437">{{cite journal |author=Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, ''et al.'' |title=Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008 |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=296–327 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18158437 |doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000298158.12101.41 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000298158.12101.41 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2012-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226151530/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000298158.12101.41 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Miongozo ya Kampeni ya Surviving Sepsis inatetea haidrokotisoni ya ndani ya vena kwa watu wazima pekee wenye mshtuko wa maambukizo hasa baada ya upasuaji na kiwango cha chini cha mskumo wa damu kisichotibika. <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Maana halisi ya hali hii, njia nzuri zaidi za kupima upungufu wa kotikoidi kwa wagonjwa mahututi, na matumizi ya kimatibabu ya (vipimo vya chini kwa kawaida ) vya steroidi za bongo bado swala la kujadiliwa. <ref name="pmid18695699">{{cite journal |author=Mesotten D, Vanhorebeek I, Van den Berghe G |title=The altered adrenal axis and treatment with glucocorticoids during critical illness |journal=Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=496–505 |year=2008 |month=Septemba |pmid=18695699 |doi=10.1038/ncpendmet0921}}</ref> ==Dalili== Sifa inayojulikana vyema zaidi inayoonyesha uwezekano wa msingi wa upungufu wa Adrenali ni kiwango cha chini cha mskumo wa damu licha ya ufufuaji na ugiligili wa ndani ya vena, unaohitaji madawa ya kushinikiza mishipa ya damu. <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Wagonjwa hawa kwa kawaida huonyesha takikadia na ishara zingine za mshtuko wa nguvu kupita kiasi. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Dalili zingine ni pamoja na [[Homa|homa]], papura falminansi, na usumbufu wa utumbo au wa neva. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Sifa hizi zote sio maalum kati ya wagonjwa walio chini ya uangalizi makini. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Kati ya baadhi ya wagonjwa, sababu moja maalum ya upungufu wa Adrenali inaweza kutuhumiwa, kama vile utumiaji wa awali wa steroidi za bongo ambazo zilikandamiza jira la HPA, au matumizi ya madawa yanayoanzisha kimeng'enya kama vile fenintoini. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Matibabu kwa madawa ya imidazoli kama vile etomidate, ketoconazole na miconazoleyanaweza pia kuzuia jira ya HPA, pamoja na madawa yanayotumika hasa kwa kusudi hili, kama vile metyrapone. <ref name="pmid3027305">{{cite journal |author=Lamberts SW, Bons EG, Bruining HA, de Jong FH |title=Differential effects of the imidazole derivatives etomidate, ketoconazole and miconazole and of metyrapone on the secretion of cortisol and its precursors by human adrenocortical cells |journal=J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. |volume=240 |issue=1 |pages=259–64 |year=1987 |month=Januari |pmid=3027305 |doi= |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3027305}}</ref> Hali kadhaa zisizo za kawaida katika upimaji damu inaweza kuonyesha uwezekano kuwa kuna upungufu wa steroidi za bongo, kama vile kiwango cha chini cha sukari kwenye damu, ukolezi wa kiwango cha chini cha ioni za sodiamu kwenye damu, kiwango cha juu cha potasiamu katika damu, kiwango cha juu cha kalisi kwenye damu, nutropenia, ongezeko ozini, haipaprolaktinemia na kiwango cha juu cha uzalishaji wa homoni za thairoidi mwilini. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> ==Utambuzi wa Ugonjwa== Hakuna makubaliano kuhusu njia halisi za upimaji na vipimo vya chini zaidi vya kutambua upungufu wa steroidi za bongo unaohusiana na ugonjwa mahututi. <ref name="pmid18496365"></ref> Hii pia inatumika kutofautisha kati ya upungufu kamili na linganifu wa adrenali, na sababu hii inafanya upungufu wa dharura wa steroidi za bongo unaohusiana na ugonjwa ipendelewe zaidi ya upungufu linganifu wa adrenali. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Tofauti katika viwango vya ngazi kotisoli kulingana na aina na ukali wa ugonjwa, pamoja na tofauti zinazojitokeza ndani ya mgonjwa yayo hayo, inazuia uimarishaji wa kiwango wazi cha juu ambapo CIRCI hutokea chini yake. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Aidha, kati ya wagonjwa ambao tayari adrenali imechangamshwa kufikia upeo, jaribio la kusisimua halingeweza kutoa habari. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Aidha, majaribio mafupi huenda yasitatathmini vya kutosha mwitikio kwa kukabiliana na msongo wa muda mrefu wa ugonjwa mahututi. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Jumla ya viwango vyote viwili vya kotisoli vilivyochukuliwa bila mpangilio wowote, jumla ya viwango vya kotisoli au kuongezwa baada ya majaribio ya uchangamshaji wa ACTH, viwango vya kotisoli huru, au mchanganyiko wa hizi zimependekezwa kama majaribio ya kutambua ugonjwa. Majaribio mengine ya upungufu wa adrenali ambayo yanatumika katika wagonjwa wasio mahututi, kama vile jaribio la kutumia metairaponi au jaribio linalotumia insulini kwa kusababisha kiwango cha chini cha glukosi kwenye damu, havipendelewi kwa CIRCI. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Upungufu wa kotisoli uliosababishwa na metairaponi na kiwango cha chini cha glukosi kwenye damu zote huenda zikaleta madhara kwa wagonjwa walio chini ya uangalizi makini. Kiwango halisi cha ACTH bado ni suala linalojadiliwa. Katika utafiti wa CORTICUS, jaribio kuhusu uchangamshaji wa ACTH ulitabiri kutokea kwa vifo huku viwango vya awali vya kotisoli havikufanya hivyo. <ref name="pmid17334243">{{cite journal |author=Lipiner-Friedman D, Sprung CL, Laterre PF, ''et al.'' |title=Adrenal function in sepsis: the retrospective Corticus cohort study |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=1012–8 |year=2007 |month=Aprili |pmid=17334243 |doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000259465.92018.6E |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000259465.92018.6E |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2012-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226151626/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000259465.92018.6E |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Hata hivyo, uwezekano wa faida za matibabu ya steroidi za bongo hayaonekani kama kwamba yalitabiriwa kabisa na jaribio la usisimuaji la ACTH. <ref name="pmid18184957">{{cite journal |author=Sprung CL, Annane D, Keh D, ''et al.'' |title=Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=2 |pages=111–24 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18184957 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa071366 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=18184957&promo=ONFLNS19}}</ref> <ref name="pmid12186604">{{cite journal |author=Annane D, Sébille V, Charpentier C, ''et al.'' |title=Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock |journal=JAMA |volume=288 |issue=7 |pages=862–71 |year=2002 |month=Agosti |pmid=12186604 |doi= 10.1001/jama.288.7.862|url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12186604}}</ref> Kutokana na sababu hizi, miongozo ya sasa haipendekezi kuwa majaribio ya usisimuaji wa ACTH yanafaa kuongoza uamuzi kuhusu ikiwa steroidi za bongo zinafaa kutumika au la. <ref name="pmid18496365"></ref> <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Vitambulisho vya kinga vya kotisoli kwa upande mwingine vimeonyeshwa kuelekea kukadiriwa pungufu na kukadiriwa kupita kiasi. <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> ==Tiba== Kwa watu wazima wenye mshtuko wa maambukizo hasa baada ya upasuaji na kiwango cha chini cha mskumo wa damu licha ya ufufuaji kwa kutumia maji maji ya ndani ya mshipa na dawa zinazoshinikiza mishipa ya damu, haidrokotioni ndiyo steroidi ya bongo inayopendelewa zaidi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika vipimo kadhaa au kutolewa kama unasimamiwa kama mchanganyiko unaoendelea kunyweshwa. <ref name="pmid18496365"></ref> Fludrokotisoni si lazima katika CIRCI, na deksamethasoni haipendekezwi. <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Ushahidi mdogo sana unapatikana ili kutoa hukumu kuhusu wakati na jinsi matibabu ya steroidi za bongo yanafaa kusimamishwa; miongozo inapendekeza kupunguzwa polepole kwa steroidi za bongo wakati ambapo dawa zinazoshinikiza mishipa ya damu havihitajiki tena. <ref name="pmid18496365"></ref> <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Matibabu ya steroidi za bongo pia yamependekeza kama chaguo la tiba ya mapema kwa wagonjwa wenye matatizo sugu ya upumuaji. Steroidi havijaonyeshwa kuwa na manufaa kwa sepsisi pekee. <ref name="pmid7600840">{{cite journal |author=Lefering R, Neugebauer EA |title=Steroid controversy in sepsis and septic shock: a meta-analysis |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=1294–303 |year=1995 |month=Julai |pmid=7600840 |doi= 10.1097/00003246-199507000-00021|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=23&issue=7&spage=1294}}</ref> Kihistoria, vipimo vikubwa zaidi vya steroidi vilitolewa, lakini vipimo hivi vimependekezwa kuwa na madhara vikilinganishwa na vipimo vya chini vinavyopendekezwa sasa. <ref name="pmid15238370">{{cite journal |author=Minneci PC, Deans KJ, Banks SM, Eichacker PQ, Natanson C |title=Meta-analysis: the effect of steroids on survival and shock during sepsis depends on the dose |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=47–56 |year=2004 |month=Julai |pmid=15238370 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2004-07-06_141_1/page/n88}}</ref> Katika utafiti wa CORTICUS, haidrokotisoni iliharakisha upunguzaji wa mshtuko wa maambukizo, lakini hauku athiri vifo, na ukaleta ongezeko la kuugua tena kutokana na mshtuko wa maambukizo na haipanatremia. <ref name="pmid18184957"></ref> Matokeo ya mwisho yalizima shauku kwa matumizi mapana ya steroidi za ubongo katika mshtuko wa maambukizo. <ref name="pmid18158437"></ref> Kabla ya utafiti huu, tafiti kadhaa ndogo zaidi zilionyesha manufaa ya kutumia vipimo vya chini vya kotikoidi kwa muda mrefu. <ref name="pmid12186604"></ref> <ref name="pmid15289273">{{cite journal |author=Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert PE, Briegel J, Keh D, Kupfer Y |title=Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMJ |volume=329 |issue=7464 |pages=480 |year=2004 |month=Agosti |pmid=15289273 |pmc=515196 |doi=10.1136/bmj.38181.482222.55 |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15289273}}</ref> <ref name="pmid10321661">{{cite journal |author=Briegel J, Forst H, Haller M, ''et al.'' |title=Stress doses of hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-center study |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=723–32 |year=1999 |month=Aprili |pmid=10321661 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=27&issue=4&spage=723}}</ref> <ref name="pmid9559600">{{cite journal |author=Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Levy B, Debouverie M, Audibert G, Larcan A |title=Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiologic doses of hydrocortisone |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=645–50 |year=1998 |month=Aprili |pmid=9559600 |doi= 10.1097/00003246-199804000-00010|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=26&issue=4&spage=645}}</ref> <ref name="pmid16276166">{{cite journal |author=Oppert M, Schindler R, Husung C, ''et al.'' |title=Low-dose hydrocortisone improves shock reversal and reduces cytokine levels in early hyperdynamic septic shock |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2457–64 |year=2005 |month=Novemba |pmid=16276166 |doi= 10.1097/01.CCM.0000186370.78639.23|url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=33&issue=11&spage=2457}}</ref> <ref name="pmid12133187">{{cite journal |author=Yildiz O, Doganay M, Aygen B, Güven M, Keleştimur F, Tutuû A |title=Physiological-dose steroid therapy in sepsis [ISRCTN36253388] |journal=Crit Care |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=251–9 |year=2002 |month=Juni |pmid=12133187 |pmc=125315 |doi=10.1186/cc1498 |url=http://ccforum.com/content/6/3/251 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2002-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020618151805/http://ccforum.com/content/6/3/251 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Sababu kadhaa (kama vile ukosefu wa nguvu za takwimu kutokana na uajiri wa mwendo wa pole) huenda ulileta matokeo hasi na ya uongo kuhusu vifo katika utafiti wa CORTICUS; hivyo, utafiti zaidi unahitajika. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> ==Fiziolojia== Katika hali sugu za dhiki kali, utoaji wa kotisoli kupitia tezi ya adrena huongezeka hadi mara sita, kulingana na ukali wa hali hiyo. <ref name="pmid15084695"></ref> Jambo hili linatokana kwa kiasi fulani na kuongezeka kwa utoaji wa homoni inayotoa tropinigamba (CRH) na homoni ya adrenokotikotropiki (ACTH). Saitokini kadhaa pia zimeonyeshwa kuwa zinavuruga jira ya HPA katika viwango mbalimbali. <ref name="pmid12426284">{{cite journal |author=Marik PE, Zaloga GP |title=Adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill: a new look at an old problem |journal=Chest |volume=122 |issue=5 |pages=1784–96 |year=2002 |month=Novemba |pmid=12426284 |doi=10.1378/chest.122.5.1784 |url=http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12426284 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2013-04-14 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130414114740/http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12426284 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Pia kuna ongezeko katika idadi na mvuto wa vipokezi vya glukokotikoidi. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Viwango vya steroidi gamba ya kushikanisha globulini (CBG) na albumini, ambayo kwa kawaida huunganisha kotisoli, hupungua, na hivyo kusababisha viwango vilivyoongezeka vya kotisoli huru. <ref name="pmid15084695">{{cite journal |author=Hamrahian AH, Oseni TS, Arafah BM |title=Measurements of serum free cortisol in critically ill patients |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=350 |issue=16 |pages=1629–38 |year=2004 |month=Aprili |pmid=15084695 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa020266 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=15084695&promo=ONFLNS19}}</ref> Aidha, madawa ya nusukaputi kama vile etomidate yanaweza kuvurugana na jira ya HPA. <ref name="pmid2982387">{{cite journal |author=Duthie DJ, Fraser R, Nimmo WS |title=Effect of induction of anaesthesia with etomidate on corticosteroid synthesis in man |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=156–9 |year=1985 |month=Februari |pmid=2982387 |doi= 10.1093/bja/57.2.156|url=http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2982387}}</ref> Utoaji pia hupoteza mkondo wake wa kawaida wa [[Siku|kila siku]] wa viwango vya upeo vya asubuhi na kiwango cha chini zaidi nyakati za jioni na usiku. <ref name="pmid12594318">{{cite journal |author=Cooper MS, Stewart PM |title=Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=348 |issue=8 |pages=727–34 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12594318 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra020529 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=12594318&promo=ONFLNS19}}</ref> Hata hivyo, utoaji huendelea kurindima na kuna mabadiliko makuu katika sampuli za damu kutoka kwa mtu yule yule. <ref name="pmid15960402">{{cite journal |author=Venkatesh B, Mortimer RH, Couchman B, Hall J |title=Evaluation of random plasma cortisol and the low dose corticotropin test as indicators of adrenal secretory capacity in critically ill patients: a prospective study |journal=Anaesth Intensive Care |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=201–9 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15960402 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Viwango vya juu vya damu vya kotisoli wakati wa ugonjwa mahututi vinaweza kuwa kinga kinadharia kutokana na sababu kadhaa. Viwango hivi hudhibiti umetaboli (kwa mfano, kwa kuleta viwango vya juu vya sukari ya damu, na hivyo kutoa nguvu kwa mwili). Pia viwango hivi huzuia uchangamshaji wa kupita kiasi wa mfumo wa kinga na huleta athari nzuri kwenye mfumo wa usambazaji. <ref name="pmid12426284"></ref> Kuongezeka kwa wepesi wa kupata maambukizi, kiwango cha juu cha sukari katika damu (kati ya wagonjwa ambao tayari wana mwelekeo wa kupata kiwango cha juu cha sukari katika damu kinachotokana na dhiki), kutoka damu kwenye utumbo, mivurugiko ya elektrolaiti na mayopathia yaliyosababishwa na steroidi (kwa wagonjwa ambao tayari wana mwelekeo wa kupata kukabiliwa na ugonjwa mahututi wa neva za pembeni) ni madhara yanayoweza kujitokeza. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> Viwango vya damu vya chakulabadala, huongezeka, na viwango vya salfeti ya chakulabadala hupungua ili kukabiliana na ugonjwa mahututi. <ref name="pmid12771606">{{cite journal |author=Marx C, Petros S, Bornstein SR, ''et al.'' |title=Adrenocortical hormones in survivors and nonsurvivors of severe sepsis: diverse time course of dehydroepiandrosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate, and cortisol |journal=Crit. Care Med. |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=1382–8 |year=2003 |month=Mei |pmid=12771606 |doi=10.1097/01.CCM.0000063282.83188.3D |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0090-3493&volume=31&issue=5&spage=1382}}</ref> <ref name="pmid11800520">{{cite journal |author=Vermes I, Beishuizen A |title=The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response to critical illness |journal=Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=495–511 |year=2001 |month=Desemba |pmid=11800520 |doi=10.1053/beem.2001.0166 |url=}}</ref> Katika awamu sugu ya ugonjwa mkali, viwango vya kotisoli hupungua polepole na kurejea ya kiwango cha kawaida wakati mgonjwa anapopona. Hata hivyo, viwango vya ACTH ni vya chini, na viwango vya CBG huongezeka. <ref name="pmid18695699"></ref> ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo|2}} [[Category:Magonjwa]] [[Category:Endokrinolojia]] ql7lxxs4uv3cdshwdfbcjz9zm9py8gk 0 55550 1564495 1510846 2026-06-02T17:19:02Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564495 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Medroxyprogesterone_acetate.svg|thumb|Depo-Provera]] [[Picha:Medroxyprogesterone_acetate_molecule_ball.png|thumb|Depo-Provera]] {{Infobox Birth control |name = Depo-Provera |image = |width = |caption = |bc_type = Hormonal |date_first_use = 1967 |rate_type = Failure |perfect_failure% = 0.3 |typical_failure% = 3 |duration_effect = 3 months<br>(12–14 weeks) |reversibility = 3–18 months |user_reminders = Maximum interval is just under 3 months |clinic_interval = 12 weeks |STD_protection_YesNo = no |periods_advantage = Usually no periods from 2nd injection |benefits = Especially good if poor pill compliance.<br>Reduced endometrial cancer risk. |periods_disadvantage = Especially in 1st injection may be frequent spotting |weight_gain_loss = +5-10 lbs average |risks = Reduced bone density, which may reverse after discontinuation |medical_notes = For those intending to start family, suggest switch 6 months prior to alternative method (eg [[Progestogen only pill|POP]]) allowing more reliable return fertility. }} '''Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA)''' ni njia ya [[homoni]] ya kuzuia [[mimba]] iliyo na [[projesteroni]] pekee inayodumu kwa muda mrefu na huweza kuondolewa mwilini, ambayo hudungwa kila baada ya miezi 3. Ni mchanganyiko mzito wa sindano ya depoti ya pregnane 17α-hydroxyprogesteroni- iliyotolewa kwa progestini ya ''medroksiprogesteroni acetate.'' ==Bidhaa za biashara== ''Depo-subQ Provera 104,'' ambayo pia hutengenezwa na PFIZER, ni jina la kibiashara la mg 104 ya mchanganyiko mzito wa medroxyprogesterone acetate. Inajumuisha asilimia 69 ya homoni inayopatikana katika sindano ya Depo Provera asili. Inatumiwa kwa kudunga sindano chini ya ngozi, ambayo huweza kusababisha maumivu kidogo. Dawa hiyo lazima idungwe ndani ya paja au kwenye tumbo mara nne kwa mwaka na hutoa kinga ya haraka dhidi ya kupata mimba kuanzia wakati inapodungwa mara ya kwanza. Iliidhinishwa nchini Marekani na FDA kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kuzuia mimba mnamo 17 Desemba mwaka wa 2004, na kwa ajili ya kudhibiti maumivu yanayohusiana na endometriosisi4} tarehe 25 Machi mwaka wa 2005. ==Utaratibu wa utendakazi== Utaratibu wa utekelezaji wa dawa za kupanga uzazi zilizo na progosteroni pekee hutegemea shughuli za progestogeni na kipimo. Dozi ya juu ya dawa kukinga mimba mimba zilizo na progesteroni pekee kama vile sindano ya DMPA, huzuia kukua kwa unyweleo na kuzuia kukua kwa yai /1} kama mfumo wao msingi wa utendajikazi.<ref name="glasier">{{cite book |last=Glasier |first=Anna |editor=DeGroot, Leslie J.; Jameson, J. Larry (eds.) |title=Endocrinology |edition=5th |year=2006 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-0376-9 |pages=2993–3003 |chapter=Contraception}}</ref><ref name="loose">{{cite book |author=Loose, Davis S.; Stancel, George M. |editor=Brunton, Laurence L.; Lazo, John S.; Parker, Keith L. (eds.) |year=2006 |chapter=Estrogens and Progestins |title=Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics |url=https://archive.org/details/goodmangilmansph2006good |edition=11th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/goodmangilmansph2006good/page/1541 1541]–1571 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-142280-3}}</ref> Progestogeni hupunguza kupigapiga moyo mara kwa mara ya homoni inayotoa gonadotropini -(GnRH) inayotolewa na hipothalamasi, ambayo hupunguza kutolewa kwa [[homoni ya kusisimua kinyweleo (FSH) na [[homoni ya kulutenaizi]]]] (LH)inayotolewa na pituitari ya nje. Viwango vilivyoshuka vya FSH huzuia maendeleo ya kinyweleo, kuzuia kuongezeka kwa viwango vya estradioli. Majibu hasi ya progesteroni na ukosefu wa matokeo chanya ya estrogeni juu ya kutolewa kwa LH huzuia kuongezeka kwa LH. Udhibiti dhidi ya ukuaji wa kinyweleo na ukosefu wa kuongezeka kwa LH huzuia utoaji na ukuaji wa mbegu ya mwanamke.<ref name="hatcher">{{cite book |author=Hatcher, Robert A. |year=2004 |chapter=Depo-Provera Injections, Implants, and Progestin-Only Pills (Minipills) |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Stewart, Felicia H.; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Guest, Felicia; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790966490229 |edition=18th rev. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790966490229/page/460 461]–494 |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=0-9664902-5-8}}</ref><ref name="speroff">{{cite book |author=Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. |year=2005 |chapter=Injectable Contraception |title=A Clinical Guide for Contraception |edition=4th |pages=201–220 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=0-7817-6488-2}}</ref> Kitendo cha sekondari cha utendakazi wa dawa za kukinga mimba zilizo na progestogeni ni kuzuia manii kupita kutokana na mabadiliko kwenye makamasi ya seviksi. Uzuiaji wa utendakazi wa yai la kike wakati wa matumizi ya DMPA husababisha endometriamu kuwa nyembamba na atropiki. Mabadiliko haya katika endometriamu yanaweza kinadharia, kuzuia uwezo wa kupata mimba. Hata hivyo, kwa vile DMPA ina ufanisi mkubwa katika kuzuia utoaji wa yai la kike na kupenya kwa manii, uwezekano wa kupata mimba ni mdogo zaidi. Hakuna data inayopatikana inayochangia kutopata kwa mimba kama mfumo wa utekelezaji wa DMPA. ==Ufanisi== Matokeo ya mwaka wa kwanza ya viwango vya kutofaulu kwa matumizi ya Depo- Provera kwa wanawake 8,183 katika majaribio saba mtawalia ya kliniki saba yalikuwa: 0%, 0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.2%, 0.3%, na 0.7%, na kiwango cha wastani cha 0.3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a">{{cite book |author=Trussell, James |year=2004 |chapter=Contraceptive Efficacy |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Stewart, Felicia H.; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Guest, Felicia; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |edition=18th rev. |pages=773–845 |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=0-9664902-5-8}}</ref> Matokeo ya viwango vya kutofaulu kwa mwaka wa kwanza ya kipimo cha Pearl ya wanawake 2,042 waliotumia depo- subQ 104 katika majaribioa matatu ya kiliniki yalikuwa ni: 0%,0%, na 0%, na kipimo cha wastani cha 0%. Kiwango cha kutofaulu cha mwaka wa kwanza kwa wanawake 209 waliotumia Depo-Provera katika uchunguzi mmoja uliofuata kilikuwa ni: 2.6%.<ref name="fu 1999">{{cite journal |author=Fu H, Darroch JE, Haas T, Ranjit N |year=1999 |title=Contraceptive failure rates: new estimates from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=56–63 |pmid=10224543 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3105699.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.2307/2991640 |jstor=2991640}}</ref><ref name="trussell 1999">{{cite journal |author=Trussell J, Vaughan B |year=1999 |title=Contraceptive failure, method-related discontinuation and resumption of use: results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=64–72,93 |pmid=10224544 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3106499.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.2307/2991641 |jstor=2991641}}</ref> * Uchunguzi wa kitaifa wa ukuaji wa familia wa (NSFG) wa mwaka wa 1995 - utafiti uliofuta ulijikita katika uwezo wa mwanamke kukumbuka katika mahojiano ya 90, kuhusu matumizi yake ya dawa za kukinga mimba mwezi baada ya mwezi katika kipindi cha miaka 4 hadi 5 iliyotangulia. ===Matumizi sahihi=== Kiwango cha matokeo cha matumizi sahihi cha Trussell cha kutofaulu kwa mwaka wa kwanza kwa Depo-Provera ni kipimo cha wastani cha kutofaulu katika majaribio saba ya kliniki: 0.3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b">{{cite journal |author=Trussell J |year=2004 |title=Contraceptive failure in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2004-08_70_2/page/89 |journal=Contraception |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=89–96 |pmid=15288211 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2004.03.009}}</ref> * imezingatiwa kama matumizi sahihi kwa sababu majaribio hayo yalipima usahihi wakati wa matumizi halisi ya Depo-Provera ** kufafanuliwa kama isiyo zaidi ya wiki 14 ama 15 baada ya sindano kudungwa (yaani, isipungue zaidi ya wiki 1 au 2 kabla haujadungwa sindano inayofuata) ===Matumizi ya kawaida=== Kabla ya mwaka wa 2004, kiwango cha Trusell cha kutofaulu cha matumizi ya kawaida cha Depo- Provera kilikuwa sawa na kile chake cha kutofaulu cha matumizi sahihi 0.3%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trussell J, Hatcher RA, Cates W Jr, Stewart FH, Kost K |year=1990 |title=A guide to interpreting contraceptive efficacy studies |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=76 |issue=3 Pt 2 |pages=558–67 |pmid=2199875}}</ref> * makadirio ya matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo- Provera kutofaulu mwaka wa kwanza ni 0.3% katika: ** '''' Teknolojia ya dawa kukinga mimba (Contraceptive Technology, 1994),toleo jipya la 16 (1994) ** '''' Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Contracepive Technology 1998)toleeo jipya la 17 (1998) *** yaliyozingatiwa na FDA mwaka wa 1998 kwa mathumuni ya usawazishaji wa sasa wa mwongozo wa kutaja dawa za kukinga mimba. Katika mwaka wa 2004, akitumia kiwango cha kutofaulu cha mwaka wa 1995 cha NSFG, Trussell aliongeza (kwa mara 10) kiwango chake cha kutofaulu cha matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo- Provera kutoka 0.3% hadi 3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b"></ref> * makadirio ya matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo-Provera kutofaulu mwaka wa kwanza ni 3% katika: ** ''Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Cotraceptive Technology),toleo jipya la 18 (2004)<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref>'' ** ''Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Contraceptive Technology),toleo jipya la 19 (2007)<ref name="trussell 2007">{{cite book |author=Trussell, James |year=2007 |chapter=Contraceptive Efficacy |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Stewart, Felicia H.; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |edition=19th rev. |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |url=http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html |accessdate=2007-06-21 |archive-date=2008-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531095926/http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>'' Trussell hakutumia viwango vya kutofaulu vya NSFG vya mwaka wa 1995 kwa dawa zingine mbili mpya zilizopatikana za muda mrefu za kukinga mimba zilizokuwa zimevumbiliwa, kibandiko cha Norplant (2.3%) na shaba ya T ya ParaGard 380A IUD (3.7%), ambazo zilikuwa (kama Depo -Provera) zenye amri ya kiwango cha juu kuliko katika majaribio ya kliniki. kwa vile Norplant na ParaGard haikubali wigo kwa makosa ya mtumizi, viwango vyao vya juu zaidi vya kutofaulu vya mwaka wa 1995 vya NSFG vilichangiwa na Trussell kwa kutoa habari zaidi wakati wa kupata mimba hivyo kuelekea kuzaa.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 1999"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b"></ref> ==Faida== Depo-Provera ina faida kadhaa:<ref name="hatcher"></ref><ref name="speroff"></ref><ref name="westhoff">{{cite journal |author=Westhoff C |year=2003 |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate injection (Depo-Provera): a highly effective contraceptive option with proven long-term safety |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2003-08_68_2/page/n10 |journal=Contraception |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=75–87 |pmid=12954518 |doi=10.1016/S0010-7824(03)00136-7}}</ref><ref name="mishell">{{cite book |author= Mishell Jr., Daniel R. |year=2004 |editor= Strauss, Jerome F. III; Barbieri, Robert L. (eds.) |title=Yen and Jaffe's Reproductive Endocrinology |url= https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse |edition=5th |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-9546-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse/page/899 899]–938 |chapter=Contraception}}</ref> * Ina ufanisi mkubwa katika kuzuia mimba. * Hudungwa kila baada ya wiki 12. kitendo cha pekee ni kuendeleza kupanga kufuatilia sindano zingine kila baada ya wiki kumi na mbili, na kuchunguza madhara yake kuhakikisha kwamba hauhitaji ushauri wa daktari. * Hakuna estrogeni Hakuna kuongezeka kwa hatari ya ugonjwa wa thrombosisi ya veni za ndani (DVT), na embolizimu ya mapafu (PE), ugonjw wa pigo ya mwoyo au maambukizi ya miyokadiali. * Mwingiliano mdogo na madawa (ikilinganishwa na dawa nyingine za kikinga mimba zenye homoni). * Inapunguza hatari ya saratani ya endometriali. Depo-Provera hupunguza hatari ya kansa ya endometriali kwa 80%.<ref name="Kaunitz">{{cite journal |author=Kaunitz AM |title=Current options for injectable contraception in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_seminars-in-reproductive-medicine_2001-12_19_4/page/331 |journal=Semin Reprod Med |year=2001 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=331–7 |pmid=11727175 |doi=10.1055/s-2001-18641}}</ref><ref name="BrJFP_Bigrigg1999">{{cite journal |author=Bigrigg A, Evans M, Gbolade B, Newton J, Pollard L, Szarewski A, Thomas C, Walling M |title=Depo Provera. Position paper on clinical use, effectiveness and side effects | journal = Br J Fam Plann | volume = 25 | issue = 2 |pages=69–76 |year=1999 | pmid = 10454658}}</ref><ref name="WHO DMPA EC">{{cite journal |author=WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of endometrial cancer |journal=Int J Cancer |year=1991 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=186–90 |pmid=1831802}}</ref> kupunguzwa kwa hatari ya kansa ya endometriali katika watumiaji wa Depo-Provera imedhaniwa kuwa ni kutokana na sababu mbili ambazo ni athari ya uhusiano wa moja kwa moja usiokuwa mzuri wa progestogeni kwa endometriumu na uhusiano usio wa moja kwa moja wa kupunguza viwango vya estrogeni kwa kupunguza ukuaji wa kinyweleo katika ovari.<ref name="Santen">{{cite book |author= Santen, Richard J. |editor=Strauss, Jerome F. III; Barbieri, Robert L. (eds.) |title=Yen and Jaffe's Reproductive Endocrinology |url= https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse |edition=5th |year=2004 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-9546-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse/page/787 787]–809 |chapter=Endocrinology of Breast and Endometrial Cancer}}</ref> * Hupunguza hatari ya ugonjwa wa pungufu wa damu mwilini unaosababishwa na ukosefu wa madini ya chuma,ugonjwa wa kuwasha kwa mfupa wa nyonga (PID), mimba wa kubandikwa kwa kuta za uterasi , na uvimbe wa uterasi. * Hupunguza dalili za ugonjwa wa endometriosisi. * Hupunguza matukio ya kutukwa na damu mingi maumivu wakati wa kutoa yai, na vifuko vyenye maji vinavyofanya kazi katika ovari. * Hupunguza matukio ya mishtuko ya moyo katika wanawake walio na ugonjwa wa kifaduro. Zaidi ya hayo, tofauti na dawa nyingine za kukinga mimba zilizo na homoni, ufanisi wa utendakazi wa Depo-Provera hauathiriki na madawa ya yasiyo ya kifaduro yanayoshurutisha matukio cha kienizime. * Hupunguza matukio ya mabaya ya kiini mundu katika 0} wanawake wenye chembechembe za ugonjwa wa kiini mundu.<ref name="westhoff"></ref> Idara ya Afya Uingereza imechangia kikamilifu kukuzwa kwa matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba zenye kugeuzwa za kudumu kwa muda mrefu tangu mwaka wa 2008,hasa kwa vijana, kutokana na mwongoza bora wa Oktoba mwaka wa taasisi ya National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines.<ref>{{cite web |title=CG30 Long-acting reversible contraception: quick reference guide |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence |accessdate=2009-06-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920091647/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf |archivedate=2009-09-20 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920091647/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf }}</ref> Kutoa ushauri juu ya njia hizi za kuzuia mimba imewekwa kuwa katika {0 mfumo wa ubora na matokeo mwaka wa 2009 "matendo mema" kwa ajili ya afya ya kimsingi.{1/} ==Ujauzito na kunyonyesha== Depo Provera-inaweza kutumiwa na mama wanaonyonyesha. Kutokwa na damu nyingi inawezekana kama amepewa kipindi kinachofuata tu baada ya kuzaa na ni bora kuchelewa hadi wiki ya sita baada ya kuzaa. Inaweza kutumika katika siku tano kama hakuna kunyonyesha. utafiti ulionyesha "hakuna tofauti kubwa katika uzito wa kuzaliwa au matukio ya kasoro za kuzaliwa" na "hakuna ubadilishaji muhimu wa kinga mwili kwa magonjwa ya kuambukiza yanayosabibishwa na maziwa ya matiti yaliyo na DMPA", kikundi kidogo cha watoto ambao mama wao walianza kutumia Depo-Provera siku mbili baada ya kuzaa walikuwa na kiwango cha 75% juu cha kwenda kwa daktari kwa ajili ya magonjwa ya kuambukiza wakati wa mwaka wa kwanza wa maisha yao.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dahlberg K |title=Some effects of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA): observations in the nursing infant and in the long-term user | journal = Int J Gynaecol Obstet | volume = 20 | issue = 1 |pages=43–8 |year=1982 | pmid = 6126406 | doi = 10.1016/0020-7292(82)90044-3}}</ref> Utafiti mkubwa wa muda mrefu na kufuatilia ulihitimisha kuwa "matumizi ya DMPA wakati wa ujauzito au kunyonyesha hayana athari kubwa kwa ukuaji wa muda mrefu na maendeleo ya watoto." Utafiti huu pia ulibainisha kuwa "watoto wenye mfiduo wa DMPA wakati wa ujauzito na kunyonyeshwa walikuwa na hatari ya uwezekano wa kupata urefu mdogo usio wa kawaida," lakini hiyo "baada ya marekebisho kwa sababu za kijamii na kiuchumi zinazosababishwa na kupunguka kwa mitindo mbalimbali, hakukuwa na kuongeza kwa hatari ya ukuaji wa utendaji miongoni mwa watoto ambao wamepapishwa kwa DMPA-. " Utafiti huo pia ulibainisha kuwa madhara ya mfiduo kwa DMPA wakati wa kubalehe yanahitaji utafiti zaidi, kwa hivyo watoto wachache wa umri wa miaka zaidi ya 10 walichunguzwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pardthaisong T, Yenchit C, Gray R |title=The long-term growth and development of children exposed to Depo-Provera during pregnancy or lactation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1992-04_45_4/page/313 | journal = Contraception | volume = 45 | issue = 4 |pages=313–24 |year=1992 | pmid = 1387602 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(92)90053-V}}</ref> == Sababu za kutotumia == [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) ''Vigezo vya matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba'' na RCOG Kitivo cha kupanga Uzazi na Afya ya Uzazi (FFPRHC) '' Uingereza udaktari kriteria na vigezo vya matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba inaorodhesha zifauatazo kama hali pale ambapo matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayapendekezwi au hayapaswi kutumiwa kwa sababu ya hatari za kiafya zisizokublika au kwa sababu hatari haijaonyeshwa.<ref name="who mec">{{cite book |author=[[World Health Organization|WHO]] |year=2004 |chapter=Progestogen-only contraceptives |title=Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use |edition=3rd |location=Geneva |publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, WHO |isbn=92-4-156266-8 |chapterurl=http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/mec/pocs.html}}</ref><ref name="ffprhc mec">{{cite web |author=[[Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|FFPRHC]] |year=2006 |title=The UK Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (2005/2006) |url=http://www.ffprhc.org.uk/admin/uploads/UKMEC200506.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-01-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325034855/http://www.ffprhc.org.uk/admin/uploads/UKMEC200506.pdf |archivedate=2009-03-25 }}</ref> Hali ambazo hatari za kinadharia au zilizoshuhudiwa kwa kawaida huwa na manufaa zaidi kuliko matumizi ya Depo-Provera: * Hatari nyingi za ugonjwa wa mishipa ya ateri za moyo. * Hali ya sasa ya thrombosisi ya vena za ndani(DVT) au embolosi ya mapafu (PE) * Kuumwa kwa kichwa kwa uchungu sana na [[aura]] wakati wa matumizi ya Depo-Provera * Kabla ya tathmini isiyoeleweka ya uke kuvuja damu ambayo hushukiwa kuwa hali yenye hatari. * Historia ya Zamani ya kansa ya matiti na hakuna ushahidi wa sasa wa ugonjwa kwa muda wa miaka * Ugonjwa wa ini (hepatitisi ya virusi, sirosisisi kali ya kuoza, [[benigni]] au {4uvimbe wa ini wa kudhuru. * Hali ya wasiwasi ya athari za estrogeni ya kiwango cha juu na kupunguzwa kwa viwango vya HDL kinadharia kuongeza hatari ya majonjwa ya mishipa ya moyo: ** Presha na ugonjwa wa vaskula ** historia ya sasa na ya zamani ya }ugonjwa wa moyo iwa iskemiki ** Historia ya [[Kiharusi|ugonjwa wa pigo]] ** Ugonjwa wa kisukari kwa miaka 20 au mwenye neforopathi / retinopathi / neuropathi au ugonjwa wa mishipa} Hali ambazo zinawasilisha madhara ya kiafya yasiyokubalika kama depo provera ina tumika: * Hali ya sasa au ya hivi karibuni ya saratani ya matiti (uvimbe nyeti unaosisimuliwa na homoni) Hali ambazo matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayajaonyeshwa na ni lazima yasianzishwe: * Ujauzito == Hasara na madhara == ===Maonyo na tahadhari=== * Inachukua wiki mbili kuleta athari kama itachukuliwa baada ya siku za kwanza tano za mzunguko wa kipindi. Ufanisi mara moja kama inachukuliwa wakati wa siku tano za kwanza za mzunguko wa kipindi. * Haitoi kinga dhidi ya magonjwa ya [[Maradhi ya zinaa]] (STD). * Depo-Provera unaweza kuathiri uhedhi wa damu. Baada ya mwaka wa matumizi, 55% ya wanawake hupata amenorrhoea, baada ya miaka 2, kiwango huongezeka kwa 68%. Katika miezi ya kwanza ya matumizi "kutoka damu au madoadoa ya ya damu ambayo si ya kawaida na yasiyotabirika, au mara chache, au kutokwa na damu nyingi huendelea" iliripotiwa.<ref name="depo us patient info">{{cite web |author=[[Pfizer]] |month=Oktoba |year=2004 |title=Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection, US patient labeling |url=http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-02-21 |archivedate=2007-02-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206044043/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206044043/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf }}</ref> * Kuchelewa kurudi kwa uzazi. kiwango wastani cha kurudi kwa uzazi ni miezi 9-10 baada ya kudungwa sindano mara ya mwisho. Kwa muda wa miezi 18 baada ya kudungwa sindano ya mwisho, uzazi ni sawa na ile ya watumiaji wa zamani wa njia nyingine za kukinga mimba.<ref name="hatcher"></ref><ref name="speroff"></ref> * Masomo ya muda mrefu ya watumiaji wa Depo-Provera yamegundua athari ndogo au hakuna hakuna kuongeza hatari ya saratani ya matiti kwa ujumla. Hata hivyo, idadi ya watu walioshiriki katika utafiti ilionyesha kuongezeka kwa hatari ya saratani ya matiti kidogo kwa watumiaji wa hivi karibuni (matumizi ya Depo katika miaka minne iliyopita) chini ya miaka 35, sawa na ile iliyoonekana kwa matumizi ya pamoja ya kunywa vidonge kama njia ya kukinga mimba.<ref name="depo us patient info"></ref> * Utafiti wa mimba isiyotarajiwa miongoni mwa wanawake ,askini wa Thailand ulipata kwamba watoto ambao walikuwa namfiduo ya Depo-Provera wakati wa ujauzito walikuwa na hatari kubwa ya uzito wa chini wa kuzaliwa na 80% nafasi ya zaidi-kuliko-kawaida kufa katika mwaka wa kwanza wa maisha.<ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Exposure to DMPA in pregnancy may cause low birth weight | journal = Prog Hum Reprod Res | volume = | issue =23 |pages=2–3 | year=1992 | pmid = 12286194}}</ref> ==== Onyo muhimu ==== Ingawa kwa muda mrefu imekujulikana kuwa Depo-Provera husababisha upoteaji mifupa, hivi karibuni imegunduliwa kwamba athari za osteoporotiki ya sindano hukua zaidi kwa muda mrefu wakati Depo Provera inatumiwa kwa muda mrefu, inaweza kukaa kwa muda mrefu baada ya sindano kusimamishwa, au inaweza pia kutorudi katika hali ya awali. Kwa sababu hizi, tarehe 17 Novemba 2004 shirika la utawala la Marekani la Chakula na Dawa na PFIZER walikubaliana kuweka onyo muhimu juu ya label ya Provera.<ref name="FDA2004-Warning">{{cite web | author=FDA | authorlink = Food and Drug Administration |year=2004 | month =17 Novemba | url =http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2004/ANS01325.html | title =Black Box Warning Added Concerning Long-Term Use of Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection | accessdate =2006-05-12}}</ref> Hata hivyo, [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Duniani]] (WHO)linashauri kwamba matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayapaswi kukatazwa.<ref name="WHO2005">{{cite web | author=World Health Organization | authorlink =World Health Organization |year=2005 | month =Septemba | url =http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/family_planning/bone_health.html | title =Hormonal contraception and bone health | work =Family Planning | accessdate =2006-05-12}}</ref><ref name="Contraception2006-Curtis">{{cite journal | author=Curtis KM, Martins SL | title=Progestogen-only contraception and bone mineral density: a systematic review | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2006-05_73_5/page/470 | journal=Contraception | year=2006 | pages=470–87 | volume=73 | issue=5 | pmid=16627031 | doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2005.12.010}}</ref> Haijulikani wazi iwapo kupoteza kwa uzitolinganifu wa mfupa unahusishwa na matumizi ya Depo-Provera unaweza kurudishwa katika hali ya kawaida, na kama ndivyo, kiasi gani hasa. Uchunguzi tatu umependekeza kuwa hasara ya mfupa yaweza kurekebishwa baada ya kukomesha matumizi ya Depo-Provera.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cundy T, Cornish J, Evans M, Roberts H, Reid I |title=Recovery of bone density in women who stop using medroxyprogesterone acetate | journal = BMJ | volume = 308 | issue = 6923 |pages=247–8 |year=1994 | pmid = 8111260 |pmc=2539337}}</ref><ref name="Scholes2002">{{cite journal | author=Scholes D, LaCroix AZ, Ichikawa LE, Barlow WE, Ott SM | title=Injectable hormone contraception and bone density: results from a prospective study | journal=Epidemiology | year=2002 | pages=581–7 | volume=13 | issue=5 | pmid=12192229 | doi=10.1097/00001648-200209000-00015}}</ref><ref name="Scholes2005">{{cite journal | author=Scholes D, LaCroix AZ, Ichikawa LE, Barlow WE, Ott SM | title=Change in bone mineral density among adolescent women using and discontinuing depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception | journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | year=2005 | pages=139–44 | volume=159 | issue=2 | pmid=15699307 | doi=10.1001/archpedi.159.2.139}}</ref> Uchunguzi mwingine umependekeza kuwa athari za matumizi ya miaka ya mwakamke aliyeacha kuzaa hasa upoteaji wa uzitolinganifu wa mfupa ni ndogo,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Orr-Walker B, Evans M, Ames R, Clearwater J, Cundy T, Reid I |title=The effect of past use of the injectable contraceptive depot medroxyprogesterone acetate on bone mineral density in normal post-menopausal women |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-endocrinology_1998-11_49_5/page/615 | journal = Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) | volume = 49 | issue = 5 |pages=615–8 |year=1998 | pmid = 10197077 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1998.00582.x}}</ref> labda kwa sababu watumiaji wa Depo hudhihirisha hasara ya chini ya mfupa katika miaka yao ikiwa wamemaliza kuzaa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cundy T, Cornish J, Roberts H, Reid I |title=Menopausal bone loss in long-term users of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2002-05_186_5/page/978 | journal = Am J Obstet Gynecol | volume = 186 | issue = 5 |pages=978–83 |year=2002 | pmid = 12015524 | doi = 10.1067/mob.2002.122420}}</ref> Matumizi baada ya kilele cha molekuli wa mifupa huhusishwa na kuongeza kwa matokeo ya mifupa lakini hakuna upungufu katika wiani wa madini ya mifupa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Walsh JS, Eastell R, Peel NF |title=Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate use after peak bone mass is associated with increased bone turnover but no decrease in bone mineral density |journal=Fertil. Steril. |volume= 93|issue= 3|pages= 697–701|year=2008 |month=Novemba |pmid=19013564 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.004 |url=}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kufikia mwaka wa 2006, hakuna utafiti ambao umechunguza hatari ya mifupa ya ndani moja kwa moja kwa wanawake ambao wamemaliza umri wa kuzaa ambao wametumia Depo-Provera, kwa hiyo, hatari haijulikani. PFIZER na FDA wamependekeza kwamba Depo-Provera isitumiwe kwa zaidi ya miaka miwili, isipokuwa kama hakuna njia mbadala ya kupanga uzazi, kutokana na wasiwasi juu ya kupoteza mifupa.<ref name="FDA2004-Warning"></ref> Hata hivyo, Kamati ya mwaka wa 2008 kuhusu pendekezo kutoka kwa Kamati ya Madaktari wa Ukunga na Magonjwa ya Wanawake ya Marekani (ACOG) walishauri watoa huduma ya afya kuhusu kupoteza kwa wiani wa madini madini wiani lazima au komesha kupewa au muendelezo wa depo Provera-zaidi ya miaka 2 ya kutumia.<ref name="pmid18757687">{{Cite pmid|18757687}}</ref> ===Madhara=== Katika majaribio makubwa ya kimatibabu ya Depo-Provera, madhara yenye athari sana yaliyoripotiwa mara nyingi (ambayo yanaweza au ikutoweza kuhusishwa na matumizi ya Depo-Provera) yalikuwa: kutokuwa na mpangilio mwafaka kuhusu hedhi (damu au kukosa hedhi kabisa- amenorrhea), maumivu au usumbufu wa tumbo , mabadiliko ya uzito, kuumwa na kichwa, asthenia (udhaifu au uchovu), na woga. Mengine, madahara yenye athari ndogo ambayo hayakuripotiwa mara kwa mara yameanishwa katika karatasi ya maelezo ya mtumizi na daktari habari kwa ajili ya Depo-Provera.<ref name="depo us patient info"></ref><ref name="depo us physician info">{{cite web |author=[[Pfizer]] |month=Novemba |year=2004 |title=Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection, US physician information |url=http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-02-21 |archivedate=2007-02-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208112513/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf }}</ref> ===Tafiti zinazohusiana=== * Utafiti wa wanawake 819 katika mji mmoja uligundua uhusiano baina ya matumizi ya Depo-Provera na matukio ya juu ya [[Klamidia]] na [[Kisonono|ugonjwa wa kisonono.]]<ref name="SexTransmDis2004-Morrison">{{cite journal | author=Morrison CS, Bright P, Wong EL, Kwok C, Yacobson I, Gaydos CA, Tucker HT, Blumenthal PD | title=Hormonal contraceptive use, cervical ectopy, and the acquisition of cervical infections | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sexually-transmitted-diseases_2004-09_31_9/page/561 | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year=2004 | pages=561–7 | volume=31 | issue=9 | pmid=15480119 | doi=10.1097/01.olq.0000137904.56037.70}}</ref> Uchunguzi wa pili ulotazamiwa katika wanawake 948 nchini Kenya ulitambua matumizi ya Depo-Provera yalihusishwa na viwango vikubwa vya maambukizi klamadia, lakini viwango vya chini vya ugonjwa wa kuwasha wa mfupa wa kifandugu, ikilinganishwa na wanawake ambao hawatumii njia za kupanga wa uzazi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Baeten J, Nyange P, Richardson B, Lavreys L, Chohan B, Martin H, Mandaliya K, Ndinya-Achola J, Bwayo J, Kreiss J |title=Hormonal contraception and risk of sexually transmitted disease acquisition: results from a prospective study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2001-08_185_2/page/380 | journal = Am J Obstet Gynecol | volume = 185 | issue = 2 |pages=380–5 |year=2001 | pmid = 11518896 | doi = 10.1067/mob.2001.115862}}</ref> * Masomo ya wanyama wenye familia ya wanyama ya medroxyprogesterone yamapendekeza inaweza kuongeza hatari ya maambukizi ya virusi vya simian (SIV), mfano wa HIV YA wanyama<ref>{{cite journal |author=Preston A. Marx, ''et al.'' |title=Progesterone implants enhance SIV vaginal transmission and early virus load | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 2| issue =10 |pages=1084–9 | year=1996 | pmid = 8837605 | doi = 10.1038/nm1096-1084}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Trunova N et al.|title=Progestin-based contraceptive suppresses cellular immune responses in SHIV-infected rhesus macaques|journal=Virology|year=2006|volume=352|issue=1|page=169–77|pmid=16730772|pages=169|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2006.04.004}}</ref> Angalau uchunguzi mmoja katika binadamu umependekeza kiwango cha juu cha ongezeko la virusi vya ukimwi katika watumiaji wa Depo-Provera,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martin H, Nyange P, Richardson B, Lavreys L, Mandaliya K, Jackson D, Ndinya-Achola J, Kreiss J |title=Hormonal contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, and risk of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_1998-10_178_4/page/1053 | journal = J Infect Dis | volume = 178 | issue = 4 |pages=1053–9 |year=1998 | pmid = 9806034 | doi = 10.1086/515654}}</ref> huku idadi nyingine ya masomo imetambua kwamba hakuna uhusiano kama huu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bulterys M, Chao A, Habimana P, Dushimimana A, Nawrocki P, Saah A |title=Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda | journal = AIDS | volume = 8 | issue = 11 |pages=1585–91 |year=1994 | pmid = 7848595 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-199411000-00010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kiddugavu M, Makumbi F, Wawer M, Serwadda D, Sewankambo N, Wabwire-Mangen F, Lutalo T, Meehan M, Gray R |title=Hormonal contraceptive use and HIV-1 infection in a population-based cohort in Rakai, Uganda | journal = AIDS | volume = 17 | issue = 2 |pages=233–40 |year=2003 | pmid = 12545084 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-200301240-00014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Prospective study of hormonal contraception and women's risk of HIV infection in South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2007-02_36_1/page/166| journal = Int J Epidemiol | volume = 36| issue = 1|pages=166–74|year=2007| pmid = 17175547 |last1=Myer |first1=L |last2=Denny |first2=L |last3=Wright |first3=TC |last4=Kuhn |first4=L |doi=10.1093/ije/dyl251}}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya majaribio ya klinki yaliyotarajiwa kushughulikia swala hili la Depo-Provera na uwezekana wa kupata HIV yanaendelea sasa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morrison C, Richardson B, Celentano D, Chipato T, Mmiro F, Mugerwa R, [[Nancy Padian|Padian N]], Rugpao S, Salata R |title=Prospective clinical trials designed to assess the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV acquisition | journal = J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr | volume = 38 Suppl 1 | issue = |pages=S17–8 |year=2005| pmid = 15867602}}</ref> == Matumizi mengine == Depo Provera- pia hutumiwa na wahalifu wa kingono wa kiume kama aina ya kutoa mapumbu ya kemikali kwani ina athari ya kubwa kabisa kupunguza ari ya miongoni mwa wanaume.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ | title = The chemical knife | accessdate = 2009-01-22 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090107134347/http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ | archivedate = 2009-01-07 | = https://web.archive.org/web/20090107134347/http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ }}</ref> ==Utata juu ya idhini ya Depo-Provera nchini Marekani== Kulikuwa kwa muda mrefu, historia ya utata kuhusu idhini ya Depo-Provera na shirika tawala la Chakula na Dawa Marekani. Mtengenezaji asilia, Upjohn, aliandika mara kadhaa ili kupata idhini. Kamati ya ushauri ya FDA kwa umoja ilipendekeza kupitishwa katika 1973, 1975 na 1992, kama walivyofanya wafanyikazi wenye taaluma ya udaktari wa FDA, lakini FDA iliendelea kukataa kutoa kibali. Hatimaye, tarehe 29 Oktoba 1992,FDA ilipitisha Depo-Provera, ambayo ilikuwa kwisha tumiwa na wanawake zaidi ya milioni 30 tangu mwaka wa 1969 iliidhinishawa na ilikuwa natumiwa na karibu ya milioni 9 karibu katika nchi zaidi ya 90, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Ufalme wa Muungano]], [[Ufaransa]], [[Ujerumani]], [[Uswisi]], [[Uthai]], [[New Zealand]] na [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leary, Warren E. |month=30 Oktoba, |year=1992 |title=U.S. Approves Injectable Drug As Birth Control |journal=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9E0CE1DD123BF933A05753C1A964958260 |pmid=11646958 | pages=A.1}}</ref> Sehemu za utata zilijumuisha: * wanyama waliopimwa kwa kasinogeni Depo-Provera ilisababisha uvimbe wa saratani ya matiti katika mbwa. Wakosoaji wa utafiti huo walidai kuwa mbwa huhisi zaidi kwa progestoroni ya kuumbwa au bandia, na kwamba vipimo vilikuwa juu sana kwa kupewa kwa binadamu. FDA ilisema kuwa kila dutu zenye kasinogeni kwa binadamu ni zenye kasinogeni kwa wanyama pia, na kama kitu si chenye kasinogeni haijiandikisha kama kasinojeni kwa viwango vya juu. Viwango vya Depo-Provera ambayo vilisababishwa uvimbe vya mbaya kwenye sehemu za kunyonyesha katika mbwa vilikuwa sawa kufikia mara 25kiwango cha kawaida cha awamu ya luteali kiwango cha progesteroni kwa ajili ya mbwa. (Ambayo ni kiwango cha chini zaidi kuliko kiwango cha chunu cha mimba cha projesteroni kwa ajili ya mbwa, na ni aina maalum.)[http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/suppl7/progestins.html ]<br>Depo-Provera inasababishwa saratani ya endometriali katika nyani -2 ya tumbili 12 walifanyiwa majaribio,kisa cha kwanza cha kanza ya endometriali kilikuwa katika aina ya nyani inayojulkana kama nyani aina ya Rhesus<ref name="MM_Goodman1985">{{Rejea jarida | author=Amy Goodman | title=The Case Against Depo-Provera - Problems in the U.S | journal=Multinational Monitor | year=1985 | month=Februari/Machi | volume=Volume 6 | issue=Numbers 2 & 3 | url=http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1985/02/problems-us.html | archive-date=2006-10-03 | access-date=2010-11-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003000448/http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1985/02/problems-us.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Hata hivyo, utafiti uliofuata umeonyesha kwamba katika binadamu, Depo-Provera kweli ''hupunguza'' hatari ya kansa ya endometriali kwa karibu 80%.<ref name="Kaunitz"></ref><ref name="BrJFP_Bigrigg1999"></ref><ref name="WHO DMPA EC"></ref><br>Akizungumza katika kulinganisha suala kuhusu masomo ya wanyama ya kasinogeni kwa madawa, mwanachama wa Ofisi ya FDA idara ya alitoa ushahidi katika shirika la Depo, "...data ya wanyama kuhusu dawa hii inatia wasiwasi mno kuliko dawa nyingine yoyote tunajua kupewa kwa watu wenye afya nzuri. " * Saratani ya seviksi katika uchunguzi wa Upjohn /na NCI. Saratani ya seviksi ikana kuongezeka zaidi juu kama 9- katika utafiti wa binadamu wa kwanza ilirekodiwa na mtengenezaji na Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Saratani <ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Controversy over Depo-Provera | journal = Wash Drug Device Lett | volume = 9 | issue = 1 |pages=2 |year=1977 | pmid = 12335988}}</ref> Hata hivyo, tafiti mbalimbali kubwa iliyofuata umeonyesha kuwa matumizi ya Depo-Provera haingezi hatari ya kansa ya kizazi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Thomas D, Ye Z, Ray R |title=Cervical carcinoma in situ and use of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1995-01_51_1/page/25 | journal = Contraception | volume = 51 | issue = 1 |pages=25–31 |year=1995 | pmid = 7750280 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(94)00007-J}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=The Who Collaborative Study Of Neop,|title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of invasive squamous cell cervical cancer. The WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1992-04_45_4/page/299| journal = Contraception | volume = 45 | issue = 4 |pages=299–312 |year=1992 | pmid = 1387601 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(92)90052-U}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Thomas D, Ray R |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of invasive adenocarcinomas and adenosquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1995-11_52_5/page/307 | journal = Contraception | volume = 52 | issue = 5 |pages=307–12 |year=1995 | pmid = 8585888 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(95)00215-V}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shapiro S, Rosenberg L, Hoffman M, Kelly J, Cooper D, Carrara H, Denny L, du Toit G, Allan B, Stander I, Williamson A |title=Risk of invasive cancer of the cervix in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen oral contraceptives (South Africa) | journal = Cancer Causes Control | volume = 14 | issue = 5 |pages=485–95 |year=2003 | pmid = 12946044 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024910808307}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kaunitz A |title=Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception and the risk of breast and gynecologic cancer | journal = J Reprod Med | volume = 41 | issue = 5 Suppl |pages=419–27 |year=1996 | pmid = 8725705}}</ref> * Kutumia nguvu na ukosefu wa kibali cha kutoa habari. Kupima matumizi / ya Depo yalishughulikiwa kwa wanawake pekee katika nchi zinazoendelea na wanawake maskini nchini Marekani,<ref name="albion">{{cite web|author=Karen Hawkins, Jeff Elliott|title=Seeking Approval|publisher=Albion Monitor|date=1996-05-05|accessdate=2006-11-20|url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180041/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html|archivedate=2015-11-21|=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180041/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html}}</ref> iliibua maswali makubwa juu ya kutumia nguvu na ukosefu wa kukubali habari, hasa kwa kwa wale ambao hawajui hawajui kusoma na kuandika<ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Sterilization of minors leads to controversy | journal = JOICFP Rev | volume = 2 | issue = 4 |pages=77–8 |year=1973 | pmid = 12257656}}</ref> na kwa wale wenye changamoto za kiakili, ambao waliripoti kuwa walipewa Depo kwa muda mrefu kwa sababu ya "usafi wa hedhi"", licha ya ukweli kwamba hawakuwa washiriki tendi katika ngono.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Egan T, Siegert R, Fairley N |title=Use of hormonal contraceptives in an institutional setting: reasons for use, consent and safety in women with psychiatric and intellectual disabilities | journal = N Z Med J | volume = 106 | issue = 961 |pages=338–41 |year=1993 | pmid = 8341476}}</ref> * Uchunguzi wa Atlanta / Grady. Upjohn alichunguza athari ya Depo kwa miaka kumi na moja huko Atlanta, hasa kwa wanawake wenye asili ya Kiafrika waliokuwa wakipata msaada wa umma, lakini hakuweka rekodi zozote za ufuatilizi zilizohitajika na FDA. hatimaye Wachunguzi ambao walitembelea eneo hilo walibainisha kuwa tafiti zikosa mpangilio. "Waligundua kwamba ukusanyaji wa data ulikuwa na dosari, fomu za kukubali na itifaki hazikuwepo vilevile isitoshe kwa vale wanawake ambao walikubali kuchunguzwa hawakuelezwa athari zinazoweza kutokea. Wanawake ambao hali zao aya zilionyesha kwamba matumizi ya Depo yangehatarisha afya zao walidungwa sindano hii. wanawake kadhaa katika uchunguzi huo walifariki, wengine kutokana na saratani lakini wengine kutokana na sababu zingine kama vile kujinyonga kutoka na unyogovu. Zaidi ya nusu ya wanawake elfu 13 katika uchunguzi hawkuweza kufuatiliwa kutokana na uwekaji rekodi dhaifu." Hivyo, hakuna data katika uchunguzi huu iliyoweza kutumika. * Tahakiki ya Shirika la Afya Duniani WHO. Katika mwaka wa 1992, shirika la WHO liliwasilisha tahakiki za Depo katika nchi nne zinazoendelea kwa FDA. Shirika la Kitaifa la Afya ya Wanawake pamoja na mashirika mengine ya wanwake yalitoa ushahidi katika mkutano huo kwamba Shirika la WHO halikuwa na uyakini, Kwani tayari lilikuwa limesambaza Depo-Provera katika nchi zinazoendelea. Depo ilipitishwa kwa matumizi Marekani sababu ikiwa ni kutokana na tahakiki ya Shirika la WHO ambalo liliwasilisha ushahidi wa awali kutoka nchi kama vile Thailandi, ushahidi ambayo FDA ilidhamiria kwamba haukutosheleza na haukuwa umepangangwa kwa ajili ya tathmini ya hatari kansa ya saa katika mkutano huo wa awali.Taasisi ya Alan Guttmacher inadhania kwamba kuidhinisha kwa Marekani kwa Depo kunaweza kuongeza kupatikana na kukubalika kwake katika nchini zinazoendelea.[http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html |date=20151121180041 }}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh S |title=Adolescent knowledge and use of injectable contraceptives in developing countries |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_1995-05_16_5/page/396 | journal = J Adolesc Health | volume = 16 | issue = 5 |pages=396–404 |year=1995 | pmid = 7662691 | doi = 10.1016/S1054-139X(94)00060-R}}</ref> ===Matokeo ya baadaye=== * Mnamo Mwaka wa 1995, makundi kadhaa ya afya ya wanawake yaliomba FDA kusimamisha kwa muda matumizi ya Depo-Provera, na kuanzisha fomu zilizosawazishwa za kuomba idhini ya uchunguzi. * Mmoja kwa vijana watano wenye asili ya Kiafrika wanaotumia njia za kupanga uzazi Marekani wanatumia Depo-Provera, kiwango cha juu cha matumizi kuliko vijana wenye asili ya kizungu. Mwanaharakati mmoja, Dorothy Roberts, anadai kuwa sababu ni kwamba vijana wenye asili ya Kiafrika wanalengwa kwa namna isiyo sawa kwa njia zisizo salama za kupanga uzazi. ==Mgogoro nje ya Marekani== * Katika mwaka wa 1994, wakati Depo iliidhinishwa huko India, Gazeti la India la Economic and Political Weekly liliripoti kwamba "FDA hatimaye iliidhinisha Depo Provera kutokana na wasiwasi wa idadi ya juu ya watu katika mataifa yanayoendelea na kutotaka kwa serikali za nchi zinazoendelea kutoa leseni kwa dawa ambayo haijakubalika katika nchi ilipotengenezewa." <ref>{{cite journal|title=Contraceptives. Case for public enquiry|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|year=1994|volume=29|issue=15|id=Popline database document number 096527|pages=825–6}}</ref> Baadhi ya wanasayansi na wa makundi ya wanawake huko India yanaendelea kupinga matumizi ya Depo-Provera. Mnamo mwaka wa 2002, Depo iliondolewa katika itifaki ya dawa za kupanga uzazi kule India. * Muungano wa Kanada kuhusu Depo-Provera, yaani muungano wa wataalamu wa afya ya wanawake na makundi ya utetezi, yalipinga kuidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya Depo-Provera nchini humo. Tangu kuidhinishwa kwa Depo nchini Kanada mwaka wa 1997, kesi ya dola milioni$700 ilipelekwa kortini dhidi PFIZER na watumiaji wa Depo ambao walanza kuwa na ugonjwa wa mifupa kuwa nyepesi na kuvunjika kwa urahisi osteoporosisi. PFIZER ilijibu kwamba alikuwa imetimiza matakwa yake kwa kufichua na kueleza athari za matumizi ya Depo-Provera na Jamii ya Wauguzi wa Canada. ==Marejeo == * {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.depoprovera.com Tovuti rasmi ya PFIZER ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.depoprovera.com/ |date=20120307131939 }} * [http://www.fhi.org/en/topics/injectables Utafiti juu ya njia za kupanga uzazi za kudungwa sindano] - Shirika la kimataifa la Afya ya Familia Family Health International kweli maelezo kuhusu kudungwa sindano ikiwemo Depo-Provera. [[Category:uzazi]] [[Category:Madawa]] 199zgyuo7endil9s4l3u8ulfeiy173i 0 55553 1564471 1528079 2026-06-02T16:37:42Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564471 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya''' unafafanuliwa kama ifuatavyo: : :: ''"Wakati mtu anaposhiriki katika matumizi ya [[pombe]] au [[dawa]] nyinginezo, licha ya matatizo yanayohusiana na matumizi ya [[kileo]] hicho, utegemezi wa kileo unaweza kuaguliwa.'' ''Matumizi ya kimazoea na ya kila mara huweza kusababisha [[uraibu]] athari za dawa na [[dalili]] za kuacha wakati matumizi yanapopunguzwa au kukomeshwa.'' ''Haya, pamoja na matumizi mabaya ya vileo hujumuishwa kama matatizo ya utumiaji bidhaa za kulevya..."'' <ref name="DSM4">{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/subdep.htm |title=DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR: Utegemezi wa Vilewevu |accessdate=2010-11-06 |archivedate=2011-09-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927024534/http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/subdep.htm }}</ref> Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya unaweza kutambuliwa kwa utegemezi wa kimwili, ushahidi wa kuzoea au kuacha, au bila utegemezi wa kimwili. Dhana ya utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya ina fafanuzi nyingi tofauti. Baadhi ya waandishi hutoa maana sawa kwa dawa za kulevya na utegemeaji wa vileo, wengine kwa mfano hutoa ufafanuzi finyu kwa dawa za kulevya ambao hutenga dawa zisizo na ushahidi wa kuzoeleka au dalili za kuacha. ==Ufafanuzi== Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya ni hali ya kuugua au isiyo ya kawaida ambayo hutokana na matumizi ya dawa ya mara kwa mara. Tatizo la dawa za kulevya linahusisha uendelezaji matumizi sugu ya dawa hadi kufikia tabia ya kutafuta dawa za kulevya, kuwa katika hatari ya kurejelea matumizi na upungufu wa uwezo wa kukabiliana na visisimuaji vya kuridhisha kwa kawaida. Mwongozo wa Utambuzi na Takwimu ya Matatizo ya Akili (DSM-IV) imebainisha hatua tatu za utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya: kujihusisha/kutarajia, unywaji/ulevi, na kuacha/athari mbaya. Sifa za hatua hizi hudhihirika mtawalia, kila mahali, kwa utashi wa mara kwa mara na ujihusishaji na kutafuta vileo; matumizi zaidi ya vileo kuliko inavyohitajika kufikia madhara ya kulevya, na kufikia uraibu, dalili za kujiondoa na upungufu wa motisha kwa shughuli za kawaida za kimaisha.<ref name="Koob and Kreek">{{cite journal |author=Boob G, Kreek MJ |title=Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2007-08_164_8/page/1149 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=8 |pages=1149–59 |year=2007 |pmid=17671276 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.05030503 |pmc=2837343}}</ref> Kulingana na ufafanuzi wa Shirika la Marekani la Tiba za Ulevi, utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya hutofautianana utegemeaji wa dawana uzoevu wa dawa za kulevya.<ref name="painmed">[http://www.painmed.org/pdf/definition.pdf 2001 "Fafanuzi kuhusiana na Matumizi ya Opioidi kwa Kutibu ya Maumivu,"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.painmed.org/pdf/definition.pdf |date=20100601093354 }} , Chuo cha Marekani cha Tiba ya Maumivu, Chama cha Maumivu cha Marekani, na Chama cha Marekani cha Dawa za Kulevya</ref> Ni jambo la kawaida kabisa kati ya [[wanasayansi]] na [[waandishi]] wengine, kuruhusu dhana ya matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kujumuisha watu ambao si watumiaji dawa za kulevya, kulingana na ufafanuzi wa Shirika la Marekani la Tiba za Ulevi. Neno utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya hatimaye hutumika kama kategoria ambayo inaweza kujumuisha wale watu ambao, chini ya DSM-IV, wanaweza kutambuliwa kama wategemezi wa vileo au watumiaji wa vileo hivi vibaya. (Tazama pia DSM-IV codes) ''Istilahi matumizi mabaya'' na ''uraibu wa dawa za kulevya'' zimeweza kufafanuliwa tena na tena kwa miaka mingi. Kamati ya Wataalamu wa Shirika la Afya Duniani ya 1957 [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) kuhusu dawa zinazosababisha utegemeaji wa kulevya walifafanua-utegemezi kwa vileo na uzoevu kama sehemu ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya: <blockquote>''Matumizi ya dawa za kulevya'' ''ni hali ya ulevi wa muda au wa kila mara unaotokana na matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya dawa (asili au sanisi).'' ''Sifa zake ni pamoja na: (i) utashi mkubwa au uhitaji (wa kimazoea) wa kuendelea kutumia dawa ya kulevya na kuitafuta kwa njia yoyote ile; (ii) tabia ya kuongeza kiwango, (iii) utegemeaji wa kiakili (kisaikolojia) na wa kimwili kwa jumla kwa athari za dawa za kulevya, na (iv) athiri mbaya kwa mtu binafsi na kwa jamii.'' </blockquote> <blockquote>''Uraibu wa dawa (tabia) ni hali inayosababishwa na matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya dawa za kulevya.'' ''Sifa zake ni pamoja na (i) utashi (lakini siyo ya kimazoea) wa kuendelea kutumia dawa za kulevya kwa minajili ya kuhisi ustawi wa kihali ambayo huibushwa; (ii) tabia ya kuongeza kiwango kidogo au kutoongeza , (iii) kiasi fulani cha utegemeaji wa kiakili kwa athari za dawa za kulevya, lakini bila ya utegemezi wa kimwili na hivyo ni wa dalili za kuacha [kujiondoa], na (iv) madhara mabaya, iwapo yapo, hasa kwa mtu binafsi.'' </blockquote> Mwaka wa 1964, kamati mpya ya WHO iligundua kuwa fafanuzi hizi ni duni, na kupendekeza matumizi ya istilahi ya jumla ya "utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya": <blockquote>''Ufafanuzi wa neno kulevya ulipata ukubalifu, lakini utata katika matumizi ya istilahi matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na uzoevu na matumizi mabaya uliendelea.'' ''Aidha, orodha ya dawa za zilizotumika vibaya iliongezeka kiidadi na kwa wingi.'' ''Utata huu umezidi kubainika wazi na jitihada mbalimbali zimefanywa kutafuta istilahi inayoweza kutumika kwa ujumla kuelezea matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya.'' ''Dhana ya msingi katika yote mawili inaonekana kuwa utegemezi, ama wa kiakili au wa kimwili.'' ''Kwa hivyo, matumizi ya neno 'utegemezi wa dawa , yanayojumuisha awamu ya kimpito huihusisha na aina mahususi ya dawa ili kutofautisha aina moja ya dawa ya kulevya na nyingine, yalipewa uzingativu wa makini sana.'' ''Kamati ya wataalamu inapendekeza matumizi ya neno 'utegemeaji wa dawa' badala ya 'matumizi ya dawa za kulevya' na 'uzoevu wa dawa za kulevya'.'' </blockquote> Kamati hiyo haikufafanua kikamilifu utegemezi, bali aliendelea kwa kubainisha tofauti kati ya utegemezi wa kimwili na wa kisaikolojia ("kiakili"). Ilieleza kuwa matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya ilikuwa ''"hali ya utegemezi wa kiakili au utegemezi wa kimwili, au yote mawili, kwa dawa za kulevya, ambayo hudhihirika kwa mtu kufuatana na matumizi ya dawa hiyo kwa vipindi vifupi au vinavyodumu kwa muda."'' Utegemezi wa kiakili ulifafanuliwa kama hali ambapo ''"pana hisia za kuridhika na msisimko wa kiakili ambao huhitaji matumizi ya dawa ili kuibusha raha au kuepusha usumbufu" kwa muda mfupi au muda mrefu"'' na dawa zote za kulevya zilisemekana kuwa na uwezo wa kuibusha hali hii: <blockquote>''Ni nadra sana kupata hali ambapo kitu chochote kinachoingizwa mwilini kitashindwa kuwasababisha baadhi ya watu kuathirika kwa msisimko wa kuridhika au kufurahia, kwa namna inayowashawishi kuendeleza matumizi yake hadi kufikia kiwango cha matumizi mabaya - yaani, kutumia kupita kiasi au kutumia zaidi ya invyohitajika kimatibabu.'' </blockquote> Fafanuzi za miaka ya 1957 na 1964 za matumizi ya dawa za kulevya, utegemezi na utumiaji mbaya zimeendelea kudumu hadi sasa katika vitabu vya kitabibu. Inafaa kukumbukwa kuwa Mwongozo Utambuzi wa Takwimu (DSM-IV-TR) kwa sasa (2006) unatoa vigezo maalum vya kufafanulia matumizi mabaya na utegemezi. (DSM-IV-TR) hutumia istilahi utegemezi wa vileo badala ya ''matumizi ya vileo,'' ambao ni uigaji mbaya wa mkondo wa matumizi mabaya ya vileo, unaosababisha kuathirika vibaya kiafya au dhiki, kama ionekanavyo kwa vigezo vitatu (au zaidi) vilivyopendekezwa , kuanzia wakati wowote katika kipindi kimoja cha miezi 12. Ufafanuzi huu pia huweza kutumika kwa dawa za kulevya zenye ishara ndogo au zisizoonekana za kimwili baada ya kuacha, kwa mfano, bangi. Mwaka 2001, Chuo cha Marekani cha Dawa za Maumivu, Shirika la Maumivu Marekani na Shirika la Marekani la Dawa za kulevya, kwa pamoja zilitoa "Fafanuzi Zilizohusiana na Matumizi ya Opioidi kwa kutibu maumivu", ambayo ilibainisha zifuatazo masharti yafuatayo: <ref name="painmed"></ref> <blockquote>''Matumizi ya vileo'' ''kimsingi, ni ugonjwa sugu, wa kinyurobiolojia, kutokana na sababu za jeni, kisaikolojia na hali za kimazingira zinazochangia ukuaji na kudhihirika kwake.'' ''Ina sifa za tabia ambazo ni pamoja na mojawapo au zaidi ya hizi: kuvurugika kwa udhibiti wa matumizi ya dawa, matumizi ya kuzoea, kuendelea kutumia licha ya madhara ya kutumia, na utashi mkubwa.'' </blockquote> <blockquote>''Utegemezi wa kimwili ni hali ya kujizoesha ambayo hudhihirishwa na dalili maalum za kuacha ambazo zinaweza kusababishwa na kuacha kighafla, kupunguza kiwango kwa kasi, upungufu wa kiwango cha dawa ya kulevya katika damu na/au utumiaji wa dawa kinzani.'' </blockquote> <blockquote>''Uzoevu ni hali ya mwili kujizoesha na dawa ya kulevya: kiasi kikubwa zaidi cha dawa ya kulevya zinahitajika jinsi muda unavyozidi ili kufikia matokeo kama ya awali jinsi mwili "anavyozoea kutumia" na kujizoesha matumizi hayo.'' </blockquote> <blockquote>''Utegemezi bandia wa dawa za kulevya'' ''ni istilahi ambayo imetumika kuelezea tabia za wagonjwa ambazo zinaweza kutokea wakati maumivu hayatibiwi vya kutosha.'' ''Wagonjwa walio na maumivu yasiyopunguzika wanaweza kulenga kupata dawa, "kwa muda fulani," ama wanaweza kuonekana vinginevyo kama 'wanaotafuta dawa' kwa njia isiyofaa." '' ''Hata tabia kama vile matumizi haramu ya dawa za kulevya na udanganyifu zinaweza kutokea katika juhudi za mgonjwa kupata nafuu.'' ''Utegemezi bandia wa dawa za kulevya unaweza kutofautishwa kutoka kwa utegemezi wa kweli kwa kuwa tabia hutoweka wakati maumivu yametibiwa kikamilifu.'' </blockquote> Mwongozo wa Utambuzi na Takwimu za Matatizo ya Akili, '''DSM-IV-TR''' haitumii kamwe neno ''utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya''. Badala yake ina sehemu kuhusu utegemeaji wa vileo <blockquote>''"Wakati mtu hushikilia matumizi ya pombe au dawa nyingine licha ya matatizo yanayohusiana na matumizi yake, utegemezi wa kileo inaweza kubainika.'' ''Matumizi ya kimazoea na matumizi ya mara kwa mara yanaweza kusababisha uzoelevu kwa athari za dawa ya kulevya na dalili za kuathithirika wakati matumizi yake yanapopunguzwa au kukomeshwa.'' ''Hii, pamoja na mabaya ya kileo huchukuliwa kama Matatizo ya Matumizi mabaya..."'' <ref name="DSM4"></ref></blockquote> Ufafanzi wa ''Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya'' uliopendekezwa na Profesa Nils Bejerot: <blockquote>''"Hisia kwamivu (mtazamo) inayopatikana kwa kujifunza, ambayo hudhihirika wakati mwingine au daima kupitia tabia za kimaksudi, za kudhanika kwa mienendo na misukumo ya nguvu za asili, zinzzolenga uridhikaji maalum au kujiepusha na usumbufu fulani maalum".'' <ref name="NIDA">[8] ^ [http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/monographs/30.pdf Nils Bejerot katika Nadharia za Matumizi mabaya ya Dawa za kulevya, Baaadhi ya mitazamo ya kisasa] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/monographs/30.pdf |date=20090509100018 }} , ukurasa wa 246-255, NIDA, 1980</ref>'''' </blockquote> ==Visababishi== Dawa zinazojulikana kusababisha utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya ni pamoja na dawa haramu na zinazotokana na cheti cha daktari au dawa zinazonunuliwa rejareja, kulingana na ufafanuzi wa Shirika la Dawa za Tiba za Ulevi la Marekani. * Vichochezi (vya utegemezi wa kiakili, wa wastani hadi ulio sugu, kuacha ni hali ya kisaikolojia na matatizo ya akili/kisaikosomati): ** Amfeetamini na methamfetamini ** [[Kokain|Kokeni]] ** [[Nikotini]] * Vitulizi na hiponoti (utegemezi wa kiakili wa dawa za kulevya, zenye uhafifu hadi zilizo kali, na utegemezi wa kimwili kwa dawa za kulevya, athari kali za kujiondoa kighafla zinaweza kudhuru): ** Pombe ** Dawa za usingizi ** Benzodiazepini, hasa flunitrazepamu, triazolami, temazepamu, na nimetazepamu ** Methakualoni na kuhusiana kuinazolinoni vitulizi- hiponoti * Opiati na analjesi ya opioidi (utegemezi wa kiakili kwa dawa za kulevya, hafifu hadi zenye ukali wastani; kujiondoa kwa ghafla hakuongezi uwezekano wa kupata madhara mabaya): ** Mofini na kodini, analjesi mbili zinazotoke kwa asli kikawaida ** Opiates za sandarusi-kiasi, kama vile [[heroini]] (diasetilmofini), oksikodoni, buprenofini, na hidromofoni ** Opioidi za sandarusi kamili kama vile fentanili, meperidini / pethidini na methadoni Dawa za kulevya pia hujumuisha idadi kubwa ya vileo ambavyo kwa sasa vinaonekana kutokuwa na thamani ya kimatibabu na hazipatikani rejareja ama kwa cheti cha daktari. Nadharia nyingi za dawa za kulevya zipo, baadhi ya zile kuu ni ya hali za kimaumbile, nadharia ya utabibu wa kibinafsi, na ya sababu za zinazohusisha maendeleo ya kijamii/kiuchumi.Kwa muda mrefu imethibitishwa kuwa sababu za jeni pamoja na sababu za kijamii na kisaikolojia huchangia utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya. Nadharia ya kawaida inayofungamana na hizi ni ya tiba-ya-kibinafsi. Tafiti za pidemioloji zinaisi kuwa sababu za jeni huchangia asilimia 40-60% ya hali zinazozidisha hatari ya kuingilia ulevi. viwango kama hiyo vya urithi kwa aina nyingine za dawa za kulevya zimethibitishwa katika tafiti nyinginezo (Kendler, 1994). Katika mwaka 1964 Knestler aliibua haipothesia kuwa jeni au kikundi cha jeni zinaweza kuchangia uwezekano wa kuingilia utegemeaji wa vileo kwa njia kadhaa. Kwa mfano, viwango vya protini vya kawaida vinapobadilishwa kutokana na sababu za kimazingira kunaweza basi kugeuza muundo au utendaji wa sakiti maalum za ubongo wakati wa kukua. Sakiti hizi za ubongo zilizogeuzwa zinaweza kubadilisha uwezekano wa mtu binafsi kuanzisha uzoefu wa matumizi ya dawa ya kulevya. Kwa kuchangia nadharia tete hii, tafiti za wanyama zimeonyesha kwamba sababu za kimazingira kama vile msongo znaweza kuathiri aina ya jeni ya mnyama.<ref> Kendler, KS, et al., (1994). A twin family Study of alcoholism in women. Katika: Am J. Psychiatry 151, (pp707-715)</ref> ===Uwezekano wa utegemezi dawa za kulevya === Uwezekano wa kutegemea dawa za kulevya hutofautiana kutoka kileo hadi kingine na kutoka mtu hadi mwingine. Kipimo, awamu, nishati-dawa ya aina fulani ya kileo, njia ya matumizi na ya kati ni mambo muhimu katika kuendeleza matumizi ya dawa za kulevya. Makala katika jarida la ''The Lancet'' ililinganisha madhara na utegemezi wa dawa 20 za kulevya, kwa kutumia vipimo vya 0-3 kupimia ulevi wa kimwili, uraibu wa kisaikolojia na uridhishaji ili kupata kipimo wastani cha ulewaji. Kafeni haikujumuishwa katika utafiti huu. Baadhi ya matokeo yanaweza kuonekana katika chati iliyopo chini.<ref> Nutt, King, Saulsbury, &amp; Blakemore (2007). Development of arational scale to asses the harm of drugs of potential misuse. ''Lancet, 369,'' 1047-1053.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Dawa ! Wastani ! Raha ! Utegemezi wa kisaikolojia ! Utegemezi wa kimwili |- | Heroini | 3.00 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 |- | Kokeni | 2.39 | 3.0 | 2.8 | 1.3 |- | Tumbaku | 2.21 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 1.8 |- | Vitulizi | 2.01 | 2.0 | 2.2 | 1.8 |- | Pombe | 1.93 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 1.8 |- | Benzodiazepini | 1.83 | 1.7 | 2.1 | 1.8 |- | Amfetamini | 1.67 | 2.0 | 1.9 | 1.1 |- | Bangi | 1.51 | 1.9 | 1.7 | 0.8 |- | LSD | 1.23 | 2.2 | 1.1 | 0.3 |- | Kisisimuo (Ecstasy) | 1.13 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 0.7 |} ===Nadharia tete ya tiba-ya-mtu binafsi=== Inavyoelezwa na watathmini wa kisaikoloji na watafiti wa kibayolojia,wote wanakisia kwamba baadhi ya watu hutumia vibaya dawa za kulevya katika jaribio la kufidia hali zao za pekee na zisizoeleweka za akili.<ref> Khantzian, E.J. (1985). The Self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and coccaine. In: Am. L. Psychiatry 142: (pp 1259-1264). </ref>Nadharia wa tiba-ya-kibinafsi ina historia ya muda mrefu. Freud kwa mara ya kwanza aliibua dhana hii katika mwaka wa 1884, alipobainisha uwezo wa kokeni wa kukinzana na hisia za huzuni. Msongo umetambulika kwa muda mrefu kama sababu kubwa inayochangia utashi wa kutumia dawa za kulevya na kurejelea matumizi na hivyo basi huchangia nadharia ya tiba-ya-kibinafsi. Kulingana na nadharia hii, jinsi mtu atumiavyo dawa fulani huwa si kiajali, bali ni kwa uteuzi kulingana na athari zake za kimatibabu katika kupunguza dalili za mfaidhaiko au hisia zisizohitajika. Utafiti umeonyesha kwamba watu ambao huponea majanga hukabiliwa na matatizo yanayohusiana na msongo kama vile kiwewe cha baada ya tukio (PTSD) na hali ya unyongovu. Watu ambao hupatwa na kiwewe kikubwa katika maisha wanaweza kingilia hali ya kujitibu kibinafsi kwa dawa na madawa ya kulevya au pombe ya kukabiliana na dalili za kiwewe baada ya tukio (PTSD) na unyogovu.<ref> Vlahov, D., et al. (2002). Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana among Manhattan, New York, residents after the September 11 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemologia 155 (11): 988-996, (2002).</ref> ===Maendeleo ya kijamii=== Maendeleo ya kijamii na sababu za kurekebisha mambo pia ina jukumu katika matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya na utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya. Wazo la mtazamo wa maendeleo, kama ilivyotajwa na Thornberry 1987, ni kuwa mkondo wa maisha ya mtu ni hatua ambapo hali katika maisha hubadilika, mambo muhimu hutimizwa na kukosa kutimizwa na majukumu mapya ya kijamii hubuniwa na ya awali kuachwa. Pia pana kanuni zinazojulikana na kukubalika sana kuhusu wakati ambapo matukio ya maendeleo yanastahili kutokea katika maisha ya mtu. Tafiti kuhusu sababu za kijamii zinazosiana na matumizi ya dawa za kulevya zimelenga zaidi aidha vijana waliobaleghe au vijana wanaoingia utu uzima, lakini la kushangaza ni kuwa kiasi kikubwa cha watumiaji kokeni huenda wasianze kuitumia hadi katikati ya miaka ya utu uzima. Wengi wa watu huingilia majukumu ya kijamii ya kiutu uzima kwa wakati unaotazamiwa. Hata hivyo, baadhi ya watu huingilia majukumu haya mapema au baadaye kuliko wenzao wa umri sawa. Mtazamo wa maendeleo hukisia kwamba hayai yatasababisha marekebisho yasiyoridhisha kikamilifu na huenda matokeo mabaya kama vile matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na utegemezi wa pombe<ref>[13] ^ Neugarten &amp; Datan, (1973), Elder, (1975). Katika: Journal of health and Social Behaviours 37 (uk.75-91) The efects of role socialization on the initiation of cocaine use: An event history analysis from adolescence into adulthood. Burton, R., (1996).</ref> ==Pathofisiolojia== Watafiti wamefanya chunguzi mbalimbali kwa kutumia wanyama kama mfano wa kazi amilifu za ubongo wa binadamu ili kufafanua michakato ya kimsingi ya dawa za kulevya katika ubongo. Mada hii ya kushangaza inashirikisha maeneo kadhaa za ubongo na mabadiliko ya sinapsi au mageuko ya neva, ambayo hutokea katika maeneo hayo. ===Athari kali=== Matumizi sugu (au burudishi) ya dawa nyingi zenye kusisimua kisaikolojia husababisha utolewaji na athari za muda mrefu za dopamini na serotonini ndani ya mfumo mzima wa sakiti ya uridhikaji. Aina mbalimbali za dawa huzua athari hizi kwa njia tofauti. Dopamini (DA) inaonekana kuwa na athari kubwa na utendakazi wake umebainika. Dopamini (DA) huunganika kwa vipokezi vya D1 na kuchochea dalili ya msisimuo ndani ya seli) protini kinase (PKA) fosforilati ya cAMP-tegemezi ya kujibia protini (CREB) inayounganisha elementi, kiunukuzi, ambayo huzua unukuzi wa jeni kadhaa ikiwemo C-Fos.<ref name="Kalivas and Volkow">{{cite journal |author=Kalivas PW, Volkow ND |title=The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2005-08_162_8/page/n41 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=162 |issue=8 |pages=1403–13 |year=2005 |pmid=16055761 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403}}</ref> ===Sakiti za kuzawadia=== Baada ya kuchunguza misingi ya kibayolojia ya utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya, sharti mtu kwanza aelewe njia ambazo dawa huathiri na jinsi dawa za kulevya zinavyoweza kubadilisha njia hizi. Uridhikaji wa sakiti,ambayo pia hujulikana kama mfumo mesolimbi, hubainisha mwingiliano wa maeneo kadhaa ya ubongo. * Eneo la ventrali tegmentali (VTA) hujumuisha neuroni za dopamineji ambayo hujibia glutamati. Seli hizi kujibu wakati stimuli dalili ya tuzo ni sasa. VTA husaidia kujifunza na mwendelezo wa uhamasishaji na hutoa dopamini (DA) katika sehemu ya mbele ya ubongo.<ref name="Jones and Bonci">{{cite journal |author=Jones S, Bonci A |title=Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction |journal=Curr Opin Pharmacol |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=20–5 |year=2005 |pmid=15661621 |doi=10.1016/j.coph.2004.08.011}}</ref> Neuroni hizi pia huelekeza na kutoa DA kuelekea akubeni za kiini<ref name="Eisch and Harburg">{{cite journal |author=Eisch AJ, Harburg GC |title=Opiates, psychostimulants, and adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Insights for addiction and stem cell biology |journal=Hippocampus |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=271–86 |year=2006 |pmid=16411230 |doi=10.1002/hipo.20161}}</ref> kwa njia ya mesolimbi. Karibu dawa zote zinazosababisha ulewevu wa dawa za kulevya huongeza utolewaji wa dopamine katika njia ya mesolimbi,<ref name="Rang">{{cite book |author=Rang, H. P. |title=Pharmacology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788181479174 |publisher=Churchill Livingstone |location=Edinburgh |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788181479174/page/596 596] |isbn=0-443-07145-4}}</ref> kwa kuongeza madhara yao maalum. * Akumbeni za kiini(NAc) hushirikisha hasa neuroni zinazochomoza-kwenye uti (MSNs), ambazo ni neuroni za GABA .<ref name="Kourrich">{{cite journal |author=Kourrich S, Rothwell PE, Klug JR, Thomas MJ |title=Cocaine experience controls bidirectional synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuroscience_2007-07-25_27_30/page/n49 |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=27 |issue=30 |pages=7921–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17652583 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007}}</ref> NAcc huhusishwa na uibushaji na kusababisha tabia zoelevu na kujihusisha na ongezeko la uhusivu wa dawa za kulevya jinsi utegemezi unavyoendelea.<ref name="Jones and Bonci"></ref> * Sehemu tangulizi mbeleya gamba la nje mwa ubongo, hasa singulati ya mbele na kotisi ya mbele mwa jicho ,<ref name="Kalivas and Volkow"></ref> ni muhimu kwa muungano wa habari ambazo huchangia kuamua iwapo tabia itaibushwa. Inaonekana kuwa ndiyo eneo ambapo motisha huanzia na sifa za vichochezi huamuliwa.<ref name="Floresco">{{cite journal |author=Floresco SB, Ghods-Sharifi S |title=Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making |journal=Cereb. Cortex |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=251–60 |year=2007 |pmid=16495432 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhj143}}</ref> * Amigdala za kimsingi zinazotangulia huchomoza ndani ya NAcc na hudhaniwa kuwa muhimu kwa motisha pia.<ref name="Floresco"></ref> * Ushahidi zaidi hulenga jukumu la hipokampu katika utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya kwa sababu ya umuhimu wake katika kujifunza na kumbukumbu. Mengi ya ushahidi huu hutokana na uchunguzi unaochezesha seli katika hipokampu kwa kubadili viwango vya dopamini katika NAcc na viwango vya kurusha vya seli skumivu-dopamini VTA.<ref name="Eisch and Harburg"></ref> ===Wajibu wa dopamini=== Karibu dawa zote za kulevya hulenga mfumo wa uridhikaji wa ubongo moja kwa moja au kinyumenyume, kwa kufurika sakiti za dopamini.<ref name="addict">{{cite web|url=http://www.drugabuse.gov/infofacts/understand.html|title=Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction|accessdate=2010-11-06|archivedate=2011-08-23|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/619xCtWsE?url=http://www.drugabuse.gov/infofacts/understand.html}}</ref> Jinsi mtu anavyondelea kusisimua "sakiti za uridhikaji", ubongo hujizoesha kwa viwango vinavyoongezeka vya dopamini kwa kuzalisha homoni chache au kwa kupunguza idadi ya vipokezi katika sakiti za uridhifu. Matokeo yake, ni kuwa athari za kemikali kwa sakiti za uridhifu hupunguzwa, na hivyo kupunguza uwezo wa mtumiaji dawa kufurahia mambo ambayo awali yalimletea uridhifu.<ref name="addict"></ref> Upungufu huu huwalazimisha waliozoea dopamini kuongeza matumizi ya dawa za kulevya ili kujaribu kurejesha viwango vyao vya homoni za "kuhisi vyema" katika hali za kawaida-an athari inayojulikana kama uzoeaji. Ukuaji wa uzoeaji dopamini unaweza hatimaye kusababisha mabadiliko makubwa katika neuroni na sakiti za ubongo na uwezo kuibua uwezekano wa kudhuru afya ya muda mrefu ya afya ya ubongo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abovetheinfluence.com/facts/science-behind-addiction.aspx#|title=The Science Behind Drug Use and Addiction|accessdate=2010-11-06|archivedate=2011-08-22|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/618O5GxBH?url=http://www.abovetheinfluence.com/facts/sciencebehindaddiction}}</ref> Dawa za kisasa za kukabili matatizo ya akili hutengenezwa ili kuzuia kazi ya dopamine. Kwa bahati mbaya, uzuiaji huu unaweza pia kusababisha kudidimia hadi kufikia hali ya huzuni na kuzidisha tabia kutegemea zaidi dawa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iscid.org/encyclopedia/Dopamine|title=Dopamine|accessdate=2010-11-06|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/619xDUYIy?url=http://www.iscid.org/encyclopedia/Dopamine|archivedate=2011-08-23}}</ref> ===Mwitikio wa mfadhaiko=== Kwa kuongezea sakiti za uridhifu, nadharia-tete zinakisia kuwa msongo ni sababu inayochangia utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya. Koob na Kreek wametoa nadhari-tete kwamba wakati wa matumizi ya dawa, sababu zinazoibusha kotikotropini (CRF) huamsha uhusiano wa hipothalami-pituitari-Adrena (HPA) na mifumo mingine ya msongo katika amigdala iliyoongezeka ya. Uibushwaji huu huathiri wa hali ya mhemko usioelekezwa inayohusiana na dawa za kulevya. Wamegundua kwamba jinsi matumizi ya dawa huongezeka, ndivyo vile vile CRF vile katika kiowevu katika uti wa binadamu (CSF). Katika mifano ya panya, na matumizi tofauti ya vikinzani vya CRF na vipokezi vya CRF vyote vilipunguza matumizi ya kibinafsi ya dawa za utafiti. Tafiti nyinginezo katika tathmini hii zilionyesha kutodhbitika katika homoni nyingine zinazohusika na mshikamano wa HPA, ikiwa ni pamoja enkefalini ambayo ni opioidi peptidiya nje mwa ngozi ambayo huzuia maumivu. Pia inaonekana kwamba mfumo wa opioidi μ-pokevu, ambayo enkephalini hushikamana nayo, ina athari katika mfumo wa mridhiko na inaweza kudhibiti mdhihiriko wa homoni za msongo.<ref name="Koob and Kreek"></ref> ===Tabia=== Kuelewa jinsi [[Tabia|kujifunza na tabia]] kufanya kazi katika sakiti ya mridhiko wa inaweza kusaidia kuelewa mwenendo wa dawa za kulevya. Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya hudhihirika kwa utafutaji dawa kwa nguvu ambapo mtumiaji mara nyingi hutaka na hutafuta dawa ya kulevya, licha ya kuelewa madhara yake hatari.<ref name="Koob and Kreek"></ref><ref name="Kalivas and Volkow"></ref> Dawa za kulevya huzalisha uridhifu, ambayo ni hisia ya kusisimua inayosababishwa na viwango kolezi vya DA katika neuroni ya ufa wa sinapti katika ubongo. Tabia za kuzoeleka huonekana katika watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya sawa na katrika panya wa maabara, panya, na tumbili, zinaweza kuhusisha vitendo na tabia, katika hii wakitafuta dawa, kwa ajili ya mridhiko, ambayo ni athari ya dawa hii.<ref name="Jones and Bonci"></ref> Ushahidi unaonyesha kwamba tabia hii ina uwezekano mkubwa sana kuwa matokeo ya mabadiliko ya sinapti ambayo yametokea kutokana na matumizi ya dawa za kulevya ya mara kwa mara.<ref name="Koob and Kreek"></ref><ref name="Kalivas and Volkow"></ref><ref name="Jones and Bonci"></ref> Tabia ya kutafuta dawa za kulevya husababishwa na glutamateji zinazochomoza kutoka koteksi ya mbele hadi NAc. Wazo hili linaungwa mkono na data kutoka kwa majaribio yanayoonyesha kuwa tabia ya kutafuta dawa inaweza kuzuiwa kufuatana na uzuiaji wa vipokezi glutamati ya AMPA na kutolewa kwa glutamati katika NAc.<ref name="Kalivas and Volkow"></ref> ===Alostasisi=== Alostasisi ni mchakato wa kufikia udhabiti kwa mabadiliko katika tabia na pia umbo la mwili. Jinsi mtu anavyoendelea na matumizi ya dawa za kulevya, yeye huonekana kuingia katika hali ya alostati ambayo hufafanuliwa kama kubadilika kutoka kiwango cha kawaida cha mabadiliko ambayo hudumu katika kwa muda mrefu. Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya unaweza kusababisha uharibifu kwa ubongo na mwili jinsi viumbe wanavyoingia katika hali ya kuugua, madhara yanayotokana na uharibifu unajulikana kama ujazo wa alostati. Udhibiti wa alostasisi hatimaye hutoweka hatua kwa hatua jinsi uridhikaji kutokakana na dawa za kulevya na uwezo wa kuondosha hali ya kukata tamaa kwa matumizi ya dawa za kulevya huanza pia kupungua. Mzigo unaosababishwa na alostati huibua hali ya unyongovu wa mara kwa mara ikilinganishwa na mabadiliko ya kawaida ya alostati. Kinachosukuma upungufu huu ni msukumo wa watumiaji wa kutumia dawa kabla ya ubongo na mwili kurudia viwango vya awali vya alostati, na hivyo kuzua hali ya dhiki ya kila mara. Kwa hivyo, uwepo wa hali za kufadhaisha za kimazingira unaweza kusukumiza tabia ya kutafuta dawa za kulevya.<ref name="Koob and Kreek"></ref> ===Neuroplastisi=== Neuroplastisi ndio mfumo wa udhanifu unaochangia kujifunza na kumbukumbu. Inahusu mabadiliko ya kimwili katika sinapsi baina ya neuroni mbili za kuwasiliana, ongezeko la sifa za jeni kujitokeza , mageuzo ya ishara za seli na kuzalishwa kwa sinapsi mpya kati ya neuroni za kuwasiliana. Wakati dawa za kulevya zipo katika mfumo, huonekana kuteka nyara mifanyiko hiyo katika mfumo wa uridhikaji hiyo motisha hulengwa kwa utoaji wa dawa za kulevya kuliko uridhikaji wa asili.<ref name="Jones and Bonci"></ref> Kufuatana na historia ya matumizi ya dawa ya kulevya, sinapsi zinazosisimuliwa katika akumbeni za kiini (NAc) hukumbwa na aina mbili za ubadilikaji wa neva: potensheni ya muda mrefu (LTP) na unyongovu wa muda mrefu (LTD). Wakitumia panya kama mfano, Kourrich na wenzake walionyesha kwamba matumizi sugu ya kokeni huongeza nguvu za synapsi katika NAc baada ya kipindi cha kujiondoa cha siku 10-14, ilhali sinapsi zenye nguvu hazijitokezi kwa kipindi cha saa 24 baada ya matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya kokeni. Kipimo kimoja cha kokeni hakikusababisha sifa zozote za sinapsi zenye nguvu. Wakati panya walio na uzoevu wa dawa ya walipopewa changamoto kwa kipimo kimoja cha kokeni, unyogovu wa sinapti ulitokea. Kwa hiyo, inaonekana historia ya matumizi ya kokeni pamoja na athari za uondoaji huathiri mwelekeo wa kugeuza umbo la glutamati katika NAc. <ref name="Kourrich"></ref> Mara mtu ageukapo kutoka matumizi hadi utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya, tabia yake hulenga kikamilifu katika utafutaji wa dawa, hata ingawa watumiaji huripoti kuwa wao huhisi msisimuo usio mkali kama ilivyokuwa wakati mmoja. Licha ya athari mbalimbali za dawa za kulevya wakati zinapotumika sana, njia inayopelekea utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya ni sawa. Swala lingine la dawa za kulevya linahusu upungufu wa kujibia msisimuo kwa mambo ya kawaida ya kibiolojia, kama vile chakula ngono na mahusiano ya kijamii. Kwa njia ya picha za bongo za wagonjwa wanaojitegemeza kwa kokeni, wanasayansi wameweza kupata taswira ya ongezeko la shughuli za usagaji katika singuleti ya mbele na koteksi ya mbele mwa jicho (maeneo ya yanayotngulia koteksi ya mbele ) katika bongo za watu hawa. Michakato ya maeneo hayo ya bongo za watu hawa wanaotegemea dawa za kulevya hushirikishwa katika motisha kali zaidi za kupata dawa badala ya kutafuta uridhifu wa kiasili mbali na upungufu wa uwezo wa kushinda utashi huu. Picha za bongo pia zimeonyesha kuwa wategemeaji kokeni-huwa na ulegevu kiutendaji katika koteksi zao za mbele wakilinganishwa na wasiotumia dawa za kulevya, wanapokumbana na misisimuo inayohusiana na mridhiko wa asili. Mpito kutoka matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kwa matumizi ya kuburudika hadi utegemezi hutokea kwa hatua za taratibu na hutokana na athari za dawa, kulingana na uteuzi wake, wa mabadiliko ya neva zinazopatikana katika sakiti za mridhiko. Wakati wa matukio kabla ya kutegemea ulevi, utashi huzalishwa na kutolewa kwa dopamini (DA) katika koteksi ya mbele. Jinsi mtu anavyobadilika kutoka matumizi ha utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya, kutolewa kwa DA katika NAc huwa haihitaji kuzalisha utashi bali utolewaji wa DA hupunguka wakati ongezeko la shughuli za usagaji katika koteksi za mbele mwa jicho huchangia utashi. Wakati huu mtu anaweza kuhisi dalili za unyogovu iwapo kokeni haitumiki.<ref> AJ Giannini. Drug abuse and depression: Catecholamine depletion suggested as biological tie between cocaine withdrawal and depression. National Instiyute of Drug Abuse Notes. 2 (2) 5, 1987.</ref> Kabla ya mtu kuanza kutegemea dawa za kulevya na kuonyesha tabia za kutafuta dawa za kulevya, pana kipindi cha muda ambapo mkondo wa neuroplastisi unaweza kugeuzwa. Utegemezi dawa za kulevya hufanyika wakati tabia ya kutafuta dawa inapobainika na uwezekano wa kurejelea matumizi kuendelea, licha kujiondoa kwa muda mrefu, hizi sifa hizi za kitabia ni matokeo ya mabadiliko ya neuroplasti ambayo ni huletwa na matumizi ya mara kwa mara na hudumu kwa kiasi .<ref name="Kalivas and Volkow"></ref> Utaratibu unaosababisha athari za molekuli ya dawa ya juu ubadilishaji umbo wa sinapti bado haieleweki vilivyo. Hata hivyo, neuroplastisi katika glutamati zinazochomoza inaonekana kuwa muhimu ya matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya dawa za kulevya. Aina hii ya ubadilishaji umbo wa sinapti huwa na matokeo yanayosababisha LTP, ambayo huzipa nguvu mahusiano kati ya neva mbili, mwanzo wa haya hutokea haraka na matokeo yake ni ya mara kwa mara. Mbali na neva za glutamati, neva za dopamini zilizo katika VTA hukabiliana na glutamati na huweza kushirikishwa mapema zaidi wakati wa kujizoesha kwa neva kufuatia matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya dawa za kulevya. Kama ilivyoonyeshwa na Kourrich na wenzake, historia ya matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na wakati wa kujiondoa kutoka matumizi ya mwisho inaonekana kuwa na umuhimu katika kuelekeza mabadiliko ya umbo la neva za mfumo wa kuzawadia.<ref name="Jones and Bonci"></ref> Suala la ukuaji wa neva ambalo pia linaweza kuwa na jukumu muhimu katika mabadiliko ya umbo la neva kutokana na dawa za kulevya-ni kuwepo kwa molekuli-elekezi za aksoni kama vile semaforini na efrin. Baada ya matibabu ya kokeni ya mara nyingi ,mabadiliko yaliyodhihirika(ongezeko au upungufu hutegemea aina ya molekuli) ya msimbo wa mRNA kwa molekuli-elekezi ya aksoni yalitokea katika panya. Haya yanaweza kuchangia mabadiliko katika tabia za sakiti za mridhiko wa utegemevu kwa dawa za kulevya.<ref name="Bahi and Dreyer">{{cite journal |author=Bahi A, Dreyer JL |title=Cocaine-induced expression changes of axon guidance molecules in the adult rat brain |journal=Mol. Cell. Neurosci. |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=275–91 |year=2005 |pmid=15691709 |doi=10.1016/j.mcn.2004.09.011}}</ref> ===Nyurojenesi=== Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya pia huzua suala la athari zinazodhuru ukuaji wa neuroni mpya kwa watu wazima. Eisch na Harburg walizua dhana tatu mpya walizoiga kutoka tafiti mbalimbali za hivi karibuni kuhusiana na dawa za kulevya. Kwanza, chimbuko la neva hupungua kutokana na matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya dawa za kulevya. Orodha ya tafitia inaonyesha kuwa matumizi ya muda mrefu ya opiati, visisimuzi vya kisaikolojia, nikotini, na pombe hupunguza chimbuko la neva katika panya. Pili, upungufu huu katika chimbuko la neva huonekana kutotegemea mshikamano unaoelekezwa na HPA. Sababu nyingine za kimazingira mbali na matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kama vile umri, msongo na mazoezi, pia zinaweza kuwa na athari kwa chimbuko la neva kwa kudhibiti mshikamano wa Adrenal-hipothalami-pituitari(HPA). Ushahidi unaozidi kujitokeza unaonyesha hili kwa sababu 3: kipimo kidogo cha opiati na visisimuzi vya kisakolojia hukoleza korikosteroni katika seramu lakini bila ya athari kwa chimbuko la neva, ingawa chimbuko la neva iliyopunguka ni sawa kati ya watumiaji dawa za kulevya kibinafsi ama waliolazimishwa kumeza. Msisimuo wa mshikamano wa HPA, ni mkubwa katika watumiaji dawa wa kibinafsi na hata baada ya kuzuiliwa kwa ongezeko la kotikosteroni zitokanazo na opiati, upungufu wa chimbuko la neva ulitokea. Haya, bila shaka, yanahitaji kuchunguzwa zaidi. Mwisho, dawa zinazolevya huonekana kuathiri tu mpenyezo katika ukanda wa sabgranula (SGZ),badala ya maeneo mengine yanayohusiana na chimbuko la neva. Tafiti za matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na chimbuko la neva huenda zikawa na athari kwa bayolojia ya seli .<ref name="Eisch and Harburg"></ref> ===Uzoevu wa kisaikolojia wa dawa === Mfumo wa mridhiko kwa kiasi huchangia sehemu ya saikolojia ya uzoevu wa dawa za kulevya. Protini ya CREB, sababu yaunukuzi unaosisimuliwa na adeosini monophosfaeti kwa vipindi (cAMP) mara baada ya kufikia upeo wa juu, huchochea jeni zinazozalisha protini kama vile dinofini, ambayo hukatiza utoaji dopamini na kukatiza pia sakiti ya mridhiko kwa muda. Kwa watumiaji sugu wa dawa za kulevya, msisimuo endelevu wa CREB hivyo basi husababisha vipimo vikubwa kutumika ili kuibua athari sawa. Zaidi ya hayo humwacha mtumiaji na hisia za kukata tamaa kwa ujumla na kutoridhika na huwezi kupata mridhiko kutokana na shughuli ambazo alizifurahia awali, mara nyingi ikipelekea kurudia matumizi ya dawa ya kulevya kwa "raha" ya ziada.<ref> AJ Giannini, RQ Quinones , DM Martin. Role of beta-endorphin and cAMP in addiction and mania. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts. 15:149, 1998.</ref> Mfumo sawa, unaoathiri pia na dopamini, lakini unaotegemea kigezo tofauti cha unukuzi, CEBPB, pia imependekezwa. Katika hali hii kutolewa kwa dopamini kwenye neva za akumbeni za kiini kunaweza kuchochea kuongezeka kwa usanisi wa kileo P ambacho, kwa upande wake, kitaongeza usanisi wa dopamini katika VTA. Athari ya matokeo haya chanya huonekanaa kulemewa na matumizi ya mara kwa mara ya vileo.<ref name="pmid16771829">{{cite journal | author = Kovács KA, Steinmann M, Magistretti PJ, Halfon O, Cardinaux JR| title = C/EBPbeta couples dopamine signalling to substance P precursor gene expression in striatal neurones | journal = Journal of Neurochemistry | volume = 98 | issue = 5 | pages = 1390–9 | year = 2006 | month = Septemba | pmid = 16771829 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03957.x | url = }}</ref> ===Uhisivu=== Uhamasishaji ni kuongezeka kwa usikivu wa athari za dawa ya kulevya baada ya kuitumia kwa muda mrefu. Protini za delta FosB na kidhibiti cha protini-G inayoashiria 9-2 (RGS9 -2) hudhaniwa kuhusika: Kigezo cha unukuzi kinachojulikana kama delta FosB, hudhianiwa kuchochea jeni ambazo hukabiliana na athari za CREB, kwa kweli hungeza uhisivu wa mtumiaji wa athari za vileo. Delta FosB huongezeka polepole jinsi utumiaji dawa za kulevya unavyoongezeka na husalia katika hali ya utendakazi kwa wiki kadhaa baada ya matumizi ya mwisho-muda mrefu baada ya athari za CREB kufifia. Hisia za hali ya juu ambazo husababika hudhaniwa kuchangia utashi mkubwa wa dawa za kulevya, na mara nyingi huchochewa hata na vitu vya pembeni vinavyoashiria dawa za kulevya, kama vile tabia zinazohusiana na dawa au kuona vifaa vya dawa. Pana ushahidi kwamba FosB delta hata husababisha mabadiliko ya miundo ndani ya akumbeni za kiini , ambazo huaminika kusaidia kuendeleza utashi wa dawa, na pia inaweza kuchangia matukio mengi ya kurejelea matumizi ya dawa za kulevya miongoni mwa watumiaji waliotibiwa.<ref name="pmid11572966">{{cite journal |author=Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW |title=DeltaFosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=98 |issue=20 |pages=11042–6 |year=2001 |month=Septemba |pmid=11572966 |pmc=58680 |doi=10.1073/pnas.191352698}}</ref><ref name="pmid14746512">{{cite journal |author=Chao J, Nestler EJ |title=Molecular neurobiology of drug addiction |journal=Annual Review of Medicine |volume=55 |pages=113–32 |year=2004 |pmid=14746512 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103730}}</ref><ref name="pmid18552739">{{cite journal |author=Nestler EJ |title=The neurobiology of cocaine addiction |journal=Science & Practice Perspectives / a Publication of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=4–10 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=18552739}}</ref><ref name="pmid18184321">{{cite journal |author=Conversi D, Bonito-Oliva A, Orsini C, Colelli V, Cabib S |title=DeltaFosB accumulation in ventro-medial caudate underlies the induction but not the expression of behavioral sensitization by both repeated amphetamine and stress |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=191–201 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18184321 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.06003.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid18293355">{{cite journal |author=Perrotti LI, Weaver RR, Robison B, Renthal W, Maze I, Yazdani S, Elmore RG, Knapp DJ, Selley DE, Martin BR, Sim-Selley L, Bachtell RK, Self DW, Nestler EJ |title=Distinct patterns of DeltaFosB induction in brain by drugs of abuse |journal= Synapse (New York, N.Y.) |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=358–69 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18293355 |pmc=2667282 |doi=10.1002/syn.20500}}</ref><ref name="pmid18445218">{{cite journal |author=Nikulina EM, Arrillaga-Romany I, Miczek KA, Hammer RP |title=Long-lasting alteration in mesocorticolimbic structures after repeated social defeat stress in rats: time course of mu-opioid receptor mRNA and FosB/DeltaFosB immunoreactivity |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=2272–84 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18445218 |pmc=2442756 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06176.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid18842886">{{cite journal |author=Wallace DL, Vialou V, Rios L, Carle-Florence TL, Chakravarty S, Kumar A, Graham DL, Green TA, Kirk A, Iñiguez SD, Perrotti LI, Barrot M, DiLeone RJ, Nestler EJ, Bolaños-Guzmán CA |title=The influence of DeltaFosB in the nucleus accumbens on natural reward-related behavior |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience |volume=28 |issue=41 |pages=10272–7 |year=2008 |month=Oktoba |pmid= 18842886 |pmc=2653197 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1531-08.2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid18640924">{{cite journal |author=Nestler EJ |title=Review. Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: role of DeltaFosB |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=363 |issue=1507 |pages=3245–55 |year=2008 |month=Oktoba |pmid=18640924 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0067 |pmc=2607320}}</ref><ref name="pmid19041372">{{cite journal |author=Ulery-Reynolds PG, Castillo MA, Vialou V, Russo SJ, Nestler EJ |title= Phosphorylation of DeltaFosB mediates its stability in vivo |journal=Neuroscience |volume=158 |issue=2 |pages=369–72 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=19041372 |doi= 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.10.059 |pmc=2734485}}</ref><ref name="pmid19202072">{{cite journal |author=Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P |title= Methylphenidate-induced dendritic spine formation and DeltaFosB expression in nucleus accumbens |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=106 |issue=8 |pages=2915–20 |year=2009 |month=Februari |pmid=19202072 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0813179106 |pmc=2650365}}</ref><ref name="pmid19403004">{{cite journal |author=Chen JC, Chen PC, Chiang YC |title=Molecular mechanisms of psychostimulant addiction |journal=Chang Gung Medical Journal |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=148–54 |year=2009 |pmid=19403004}}</ref><ref name="pmid19465087">{{cite journal |author=Teegarden SL, Scott AN, Bale TL |title=Early life exposure to a high fat diet promotes long-term changes in dietary preferences and central reward signaling |journal=Neuroscience |volume=162|issue=4|pages=924–32|year=2009 |month=Mei |pmid=19465087 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.029 |pmc=2723193}}</ref><ref name="pmid19523044">{{cite journal |author=Watanabe H, Henriksson R, Ohnishi YN, Ohnishi YH, Harper C, Sheedy D, Garrick T, Nyberg F, Nestler EJ, Bakalkin G, Yakovleva T |title=FOSB proteins in the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices of human alcoholics |journal=Addiction Biology |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=294–7 |year=2009 |month=Julai |pmid=19523044 |doi=10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00155.x |pmc=2828493}}</ref> Kidhibiti cha protini-G ashiria 9-2 (RGS9-2) kimeangaziwa zaidi katika tafiti za wanyama katika miaka ya hivi majuzi. Wanyama wasio na RGS9-2 huonekana kuwa na hisia iliyoongezeka za uhisivu wa vipokezi vya agonisti za dopamini kama vile kokeni na amfetamini, kudhihirika zaidi kwa RGS9-2husababisha ukosefu wa mwitikio kwa agonisti hizi. RGS9 2- huaminika kwa kuzidisha kasi ya kutotenda kwa vipokezi D2 vya protini G- kwa kuongeza kasi ya hidrolisisi ya GTP ya kisehemu cha G alpha ambacho hufikisha ishara ndani ya seli.<ref name="pmid15632124">{{cite journal |author=Garzón J, Rodríguez-Muñoz M, López-Fando A, Sánchez-Blázquez P |title=Activation of mu-opioid receptors transfers control of Galpha subunits to the regulator of G-protein signaling RGS9-2: role in receptor desensitization |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biological-chemistry_2005-03-11_280_10/page/n338 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=280 |issue=10 |pages=8951–60 |year=2005 |month= Machi |pmid=15632124 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M407005200}}</ref><ref name="pmid15728856">{{cite journal |author=Kovoor A, Seyffarth P, Ebert J, Barghshoon S, Chen CK, Schwarz S, Axelrod JD, Cheyette BN, Simon MI, Lester HA, Schwarz J |title=D2 dopamine receptors colocalize regulator of G-protein signaling 9-2 (RGS9-2) via the RGS9 DEP domain, and RGS9 knock-out mice develop dyskinesias associated with dopamine pathways |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-neuroscience_2005-02-23_25_8/page/n292 |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=25 |issue=8 |pages=2157–65 |year=2005 |month=Februari |pmid=15728856 |doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2840-04.2005}}</ref><ref name="pmid15829256">{{cite journal |author=Garzón J, Rodríguez-Muñoz M, Sánchez-Blázquez P |title=Morphine alters the selective association between mu-opioid receptors and specific RGS proteins in mouse periaqueductal gray matter |journal=Neuropharmacology |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=853–68 |year=2005 |month=Mei |pmid= 15829256 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.01.004}}</ref><ref name="pmid16510730">{{cite journal |author=Bouhamdan M, Yan HD, Yan XH, Bannon MJ, Andrade R |title=Brain-specific regulator of G-protein signaling 9-2 selectively interacts with alpha-actinin-2 to regulate calcium-dependent inactivation of NMDA receptors |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=2522–30 |year=2006 |month=Machi |pmid=16510730 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4083-05.2006}}</ref><ref name="pmid17493623">{{cite journal |author=Silverman JL, Koenig JI |title=Evidence for the involvement of ERbeta and RGS9-2 in 17-beta estradiol enhancement of amphetamine-induced place preference behavior |journal=Hormones and Behavior |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=146–55 |year=2007 |month=Agosti |pmid=17493623 |pmc=2096711 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.03.017}}</ref><ref name="pmid17880927">{{cite journal |author=Hooks SB, Martemyanov K, Zachariou V |title=A role of RGS proteins in drug addiction |journal=Biochemical Pharmacology |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=76–84 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=17880927 |doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2007.07.045}}</ref><ref name="pmid19098104">{{cite journal |author=Martemyanov KA, Krispel CM, Lishko PV, Burns ME, Arshavsky VY |title=Functional comparison of RGS9 splice isoforms in a living cell |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=52 |pages=20988–93 |year=2008 |month=Desemba |pmid=19098104 |pmc=2634932 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0808941106}}</ref><ref name="pmid19211160">{{cite journal |author= Traynor JR, Terzi D, Caldarone BJ, Zachariou V |title=RGS9-2: probing an intracellular modulator of behavior as a drug target |journal=Trends in Pharmacological Sciences |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=105–11 |year=2009 |month=Machi |pmid=19211160 |doi=10.1016/j.tips.2008.11.006}}</ref> ===Utaratibu wa athari kwa mtu binafsi === Taratibu za kimsingi ambayo vileo tofauti huibusha mfumo wa uridhifu ni kama ilivyoelezwa hapo juu, lakini hutofautiana kidogo baina ya makundi ya dawa za kulevya.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Miller NS, Giannini AJ |title=The disease model of addiction: a biopsychiatrist's view |journal=J Psychoactive Drugs |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=83–5 |year=1990 |pmid=2324867}}</ref> ;Vifadhaishi Vichochezi-vya-mfadhaiko kama vile pombe, vitulizi, na benzodiazepini hutenda kazi kwa kuongeza mshikamano wa vipokezi vya GABA kwa ligandi yake; GABA. Mihadarati kama vile Mofini na [[heroini]] hufanya kazi kwa kuiga endofin - kemikali zinazozalishwa na mwili kwa kawaida ambazo huwa na athari sawa na ya dopamini-au kwa kulemaza neva ambazo kwa kawaida huzuia kutolewa kwa dopamini katika mfumo wa uridhifu. Hivi vileo (wakati mwingine huitwa "vitelekezi") kwa kawaida huwezesha utulivu na upungufu wa maumivu. ;Vichocheo Vichocheokama vile amfetamini [[Nikotini|nikotini]], na [[Kokain|kokeni]] huongeza ishara zinazoibusha dopamini katika mfumo wa uridhifu ama kwa kuchoche kutolewa kwake moja moja kwa au kwa kuzuia kufyonzwa kwake (tazama "Reuptake"). Vileo hivi (wakati mwingine huitwa "viinua-hisia") kwa kawaida husababisha ongezeko la umakinifu na nguvu. Nazo husababisha hisia nzuri mwilini na furaha tele, inayojulikana kama mwinuko-hisia. Punde mwinuko-hisia unapoyoyomea, mtumiaji dawa anaweza kuhisi huzuni. Hii huwafanya kutaka kipimo kingine cha dawa ya kulevya, na inaweza kuzidisha utegemezi kwa dawa ya kulevya. ==Utaratibu wa Kimatibabu== Utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya ni ugonjwa sugu lakini unaotibika. Hubainika kwa utashi wa kimazoea wa dawa za kulevya, utafutaji dawa, na matumizi ambayo huendelezwa hata licha ya madhara yake makubwa. Kwa watu wengi, matumizi ya dawa za kulevya hugeuka sugu, na kurejelea matumizi huwezekana hata baada ya muda mrefu wa kuacha. Kama ugonjwa sugu, unaorejearejea, kulevya kunaweza kuhitaji matibabu endelevu ili kuongeza vipindi baina ya urejeleaji na upunguzaji athari yake. Kupitia kwa matibabu yanayoambatana na mahitaji ya mtu binafsi, watu wanaotegemea dawa za kulevya wanaweza kupona na kuishi maisha bora. Lengo kuu la matibabu ya kulevya ni kumwezesha mtu binafsi kufikia kuacha ambako kutadumu, lakini malengo ya muda mfupi ni kupunguza matumizi mabaya ya kileo, kuboresha uwezo wa kutenda kazi wa mgonjwa na kupunguza matatizo ya kimatibabu na kijamii ya utumiaji mbaya na utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya. Sawa na watu wenye ugonjwa wa kisukari au ugonjwa wa moyo, watu wanaotibiwa kwa utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya huhitaji mabadiliko ya tabia ili kuzingatia maisha yanayolenga afya bora zaidi.<ref>[http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/treatmeth.html Mikabala ya Matibabu kwa Utegemezi wa Dawa za kulevya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/treatmeth.html |date=20101017085347 }}, Taasisi ya Taifa ya Dawa za Kulevya</ref> Matibabu ya utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya hutofautiana sana kulingana na aina ya dawa husika, kiasi cha dawa kilichotumika,muda wa utegemeaji wa dawa ya kulevya, matatizo ya kiafya na mahitaji ya kijamii ya mtu binafsi. Uamuzi wa aina bora zaidi ya mpango wa matibabu kwa mtu anayetegemea dawa za kulevya hutegemea vigezo kadhaa kama vile: tabia, dawa za kulevya anazopendelea mtumiaji, dhana za kiimani au kidini, ugonjwa wa akili au kimwili, na upatikanaji na gharama ya mpango. Mawazo mengi tofauti huenea kuhusu kinachochukuliwa kama matokeo ya "kufanikiwa" kupona kutoka kwa utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya. Inakubalika sana kuwa kuacha matumizi ya kileo ni matokeo ya mafanikio. Hata hivyo, kufikia hali ya kuacha sio rahisi kufikia kwa kawaida. Mipango ambayo husisitiza unywaji uliodhibitiwa huwepo kwa wategemezi wa pombe. Tiba ya kubadili opiati imekuwa njia inayokubalika ya matibabu ya utegemeaji wa opioidi kwa miaka mingi. Matibabu na mitazamo kuhusu utegemeaji kwa vileo hutofautiana sana kati ya nchi mbalimbali. Huko Marekani na nchi zinazoendelea, lengo la matibabu kwa utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya kwa ujumla ni kusidia kuacha dawa zote za kulevya. Licha ya kuwa halisi, mpango huu kwa hakika sio rahisi kutimiza. Nchi nyinginezo, hasa za Ulaya, zinaonelea kuwa malengo ya matibabu ya utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya ni mpana zaidi, kwani malengo ya matibabu hujumuisha upunguzaji matumizi kwa kiasi kwamba matumizi ya dawa za kulevya yasiweze tena kuhitilafiana na shughuli za kawaida kama vile kazi na majukumu ya familia, kumgeuza mtumiaji kutoka njia hatari zaidi za kutumia dawa za kulevya kama vile kudunga kwa sindano hadi kwa njia salama kama vile kumeza kwa mdomo, kupunguza uhalifu unaotekelezwa na watumiaji wa dawa za kulevya na matibabu ya hali nyinginezo za komobidi kama vile [[Ukimwi|UKIMWI]], hepatiti na matatizo ya afya ya akili Matokeo ya aina hii yanaweza kupatikana bila kuondoa kabisa matumizi ya dawa. Mipango ya matibabu ya dawa za kulevya kule Ulaya mara nyingi huripoti matokeo mazuri zaidi kuliko ile ya Marekani kwa sababu vigezo vya kupima mafanikio imejikita katika utendaji kuliko misingi ya kuacha.<ref name="Ball and van de Wijngaart">{{cite journal |author=Ball JC, van de Wijngaart GF |title=A Dutch addict's view of methadone maintenance—an American and a Dutch appraisal |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_1994-07_89_7/page/799 |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=89 |issue=7 |pages=799–802; discussion 803–14 |year=1994 |pmid=8081178 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb00974.x}}</ref><ref name="Reynolds">{{cite journal |author=Reynolds M, Mezey G, Chapman M, Wheeler M, Drummond C, Baldacchino A |title=Co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder in a substance misusing clinical population |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_drug-and-alcohol-dependence_2005-03-07_77_3/page/n48 |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=251–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15734225 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.08.017}}</ref><ref name="Moggi">{{cite journal |author=Moggi F, Giovanoli A, Strik W, Moos BS, Moos RH |title=Substance use disorder treatment programs in Switzerland and the USA: Program characteristics and 1-year outcomes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_drug-and-alcohol-dependence_2007-01-05_86_1/page/n78 |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=75–83 |year=2007 |pmid=16782286 |doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.05.017}}</ref> Waungaji mkono mipango inayolenga kuacha kabisa matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kwa jumla hushikilia kwamba kuwezesha matumizi zaidi ya dawa humaanisha tu muda mrefu wa matumizi ya dawa na ongezeko la hatari na matatizo ya kulevya.<ref name="Nils Bejerot"> Nils Bejerot: Swedish epidemic in an internationa perspective, 1988</ref> ===Makazi=== Matibabu kwa matumizi ya dawa za kulevya katika makazi yanaweza kugawanywa katika aina mbili pana: mipango ya hatua 12 au Jumuiya za Kimatibabu. Mipango ya hatua 12 huwa na faida ya kuja na mtandao usaidizi wa kijamii, ingawa baadhi hawaridhishwi na uzingatiaji maswala ya kiimani. Nchini Uingereza matibabu ya dawa za kulevya kwa ujumla inaelekea mkondo wa mkabala jumuishi zaidi huku vituo vya marekebisho vikipendekeza aina tofauti za mikabala. Mipango hii mingine inaweza kutumia Tiba za mikabala ya Mawazo-Tabia kama vile kupona SMART, ambayo hutazama uhusiano kati ya mawazo hisia na tabia, huku wakitambua kwamba mabadiliko yoyote katika mojawapo ya haya yanaweza kuathiri mengine yote. CBT huchukulia utegemezi dawa za kulevya zaidi kama tabia kuliko ugonjwa na hatimaye pia hutibika, au tuseme, husahaulika. Mipango ya CBT kutambua kuwa kwa baadhi ya watu matumizi yaliyodhibitiwa yanaweza kutekelezeka kihalisi zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Giannini AJ |title=Alexithymia, affective disorders and substance abuse: possible cross-relationships |journal=Psychol Rep |volume=78 |issue=3 Pt 2 |pages=1389–90 |year=1996 |month=Juni |pmid=8816054}}</ref> Njia mojawapo kati ya nyinginezo za kutibiwa ni ile ya mpango wa tiba ya hatua 12, ambapo mifano yake maarufu ni kama vile Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Drug Addicts Anonymous <ref> [http://www.drugaddictsanonymous.org.uk/ DAA / Uingereza]</ref> na Pills Anonymous. Zinajulikana na kutumiwa kwa aina tofauti za utegemezi ulevi na mtu anayetegemea ulevi na familia ya mtu kama huyo. Urekebishwaji kutokana na matumizi mabaya ya vileo (au vituo vya "marekebisho") mara nyingi huwa ni wa mpango wa tiba ya makazi kwa walioathirika mno ili kumtenga mgonjwa na dawa za kulevya na mwingiliano na watumiaji wengine na walanguzi. Kliniki za kutolazwa kwa kawaida hutoa ushauri wa mtu binafsi na ushauri wa vikundi. Mara kwa mara na daktari au mtaalamu wa akili anaweza kusaidia katika kubainisha dawa na madhara ya dawa za kulevya. Dawa zinaweza kusaidia pakubwa dhidi ya wasiwasi, ukosefu wa usingizi na pia kutibu matatizo ya akili yasiyo wazi (taz. Nadharia tete ya tiba-ya-kibinafsi, Khantzian 1997) kama vile (kiwewe cha manic-), na inaweza kusaidia kupunguza au kuondosha dalili za kuacha matumizi wakati mtu anapojiondoa kutoka dawa zinazoweza kutegemeza kimwili. Baadhi ya mifano hutumia benzodiazepini kwa kusafisha athari za pombe, ambayo huzuia deliriamu tremensi na matatizo, kwa kutumia taper ya polepole ya benzodiazepini au taper ya {2fenobabitali,{/2} wakati mwingine ikijumuisha vidonge vinavyokabiliana na kifafa kama vile gabapentini, pregabalini, au valproati, kwa ajili ya kujiondoa kutoka vitulizi/babitureti au benzodiazepini, kwa kutumia dawa za kulevya kama vile baklofeni kupunguza utashi na msukumo wa kurejelea miongoni mwa watumiaji wa dawa ya kulevya yoyote ile, huwa hasa na ufanisi katika watumiaji vichochezi, na wanywaji pombe (ambapo ina ufanisi unaokaribiana na wa benzodiazepini katika kuzuia matatizo); kwa kutumia klonidini, a benzodiazepini, na loperamidi kwa kusafisha opioidi kwa watumiaji wa mara ya kwanza au wale ambao wanajaribu kupata afueni ya kutotumia kabisa dawa za kulevya (90% ya watumiaji wa opioid hurejelea matumizi sugu ya dawa za kulevya katika miezi 8 na / au ni "wagonjwa wanaorejelea matumizi mara nyingi"), au kubadilisha opioidi ambayo inahitilafiana na au kudhuru maisha ya mtumiaji kama vile[[heroini]] inayopatikana kwa haramu, Dilaudidi, au oksikodoni pamoja na opioidi ambayo inaweza kutumika kihalali, hupunguza au kumaliza utashi wa dawa za kulevya, na isiyozua mwinukio-hisia, kama vile methadoni au buprenofini - tiba ya kubadili opioidi - ambayo ni kiwango cha dhahabu cha matibabu ya utegemezi wa opioidi katika nchi zilizoendelea, inayopunguza hatari na gharama kwa mtumiaji na jamii kwa ufanisi zaidi kuliko njia za matibabu (kwa utegemezi wa opioidi), na huonyesha mafanikio bora ya muda mfupi na ya muda mrefu kwa mtumiaji, iliyo na urefu mkubwa, hatari ndogo wa kudhurika, ubora wa juu zaidi wa maisha na hatari ya chini zaidi ya kurejelea matumizi na / au masuala ya kisheria ikiwa ni pamoja na kukamatwa na kufungiwa. Katika utafiti wa [http://www.drugrehabs.ca/Sitemap.html watoa huduma za matibabu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.drugrehabs.ca/Sitemap.html |date=20101118223153 }} kutoka taasisi tatu tofauti (Chama cha Taifa cha Washauri wa maswala ya Ulevi na Dawa za Kulevya, Mifumo Razini ya Kimatibabu na Chama cha Wanasaikolojia wa Tabia za Utegemezi) iliyopima majibu ya watoa huduma kuhusu Upimifu wa Imani za Kiroho (kipimo cha imani kwa vigezo vinne vya AA vya kiroho vinavyotambuliwa na Ernest Kurtz),matokeo yalionekana kueleza 41% ya utofautiano katika majibu ya watoa huduma kuhusu Kipimo cha Imani Utegemeaji wa Vilewevu (kipimaji kinachokadiria uzingativu wa kielelezo cha ugonjwa au kielelezo cha hiari-huru wa dawa za kulevya).<ref name="SCHALER1997">{{cite journal |last=Schaler |first=Jeffrey Alfred |title=Addiction Beliefs of Treatment Providers: Factors Explaining Variance |journal=Addiction Research & Theory |volume=4 |issue=4 |year=1997 |pages=367–384 |doi=10.3109/16066359709002970 |issn=1476-7392}}</ref> ===Dawa zinazokabiliana na kulevya=== Aina nyingine za matibabu ni pamoja na dawa badalia kama vile methadoni, suboksoni / subuteksi ambazo kwa pamoja za kuigwa zinajulikana kama buprenofini, zote hutumika kama dawa mbadala kwa zile haramu za opiati .<ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnson RE, Chutuape MA, Strain EC, Walsh SL, Stitzer ML, Bigelow GE |title=A comparison of levomethadyl acetate, buprenorphine, and methadone for opioid dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2000-11-02_343_18/page/1290 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=343 |issue=18 |pages=1290–7 |year=2000 |pmid=11058673|doi=10.1056/NEJM200011023431802}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Connock M, Juarez-Garcia A, Jowett S, et al. |title=Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence: a systematic review and economic evaluation |journal= Health Technol Assess |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=1–171, iii–iv |year=2007 |pmid=17313907}}</ref> Ingawa dawa zenyewe pia zinaweza kuwa tegemezi, lengo la kudumisha opiati ni kutoa vipimo vilivyosimamiwa kimatibabu, kiwango thabiti cha matumizi ya opioidi fulani ili kutoa kiasi cha udhibiti dhiti ya maumivu na utashi. Hii hutoa nafasi kwa mtegemezi dawa za kulevya kufanya kazi kikawaida na kupunguza madhara hasi yanayohusiana na kupata vipimo toshelezi vya vileo vilivyodhibitiwa kiharamu kwa kupunguza utashi wa opioidi na dalili za kujionda. Mradi kipimo kinachokubalika kimeshatimizwa, matibabu huingia katika awamu ya kutunzwa au kupunguka. Nchini Marekani, tiba badalia ya opiati husimamiwa kikamilifu katika kliniki za methadoni na chini ya sheria ya DATA 2000. Katika baadhi ya nchi, dawa nyingine zinazotokana na opioidi kama vile asetati levomethadili,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marsch LA, Stephens MA, Mudric T, Strain EC, Bigelow GE, Johnson RE |title=Predictors of outcome in LAAM, buprenorphine, and methadone treatment for opioid dependence |journal=Exp Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=293–302 |year=2005 |pmid=16366759 |doi=10.1037/1064-1297.13.4.293}}</ref> dihaidrokodeini,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Robertson JR, Raab GM, Bruce M, McKenzie JS, Storkey HR, Salter A |title=Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: A randomized controlled trial |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2006-12_101_12/page/1752 |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=101 |issue=12 |pages=1752–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17156174 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01603.x}}</ref> dihaidroetofini<ref>{{cite journal |author=Qin Bo-Yi |title=Advances in dihydroetorphine: From analgesia to detoxification |journal=Drug Development Research|volume=39|issue=2 |pages=131–134 |year=1998 |doi= 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2299(199610)39:2<131::AID-DDR3>3.0.CO;2-Q}} [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/67067/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&amp;SRETRY=0 Link] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121210055522/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/67067/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 |date=2012-12-10 }}</ref> na hata [[heroini]]<ref name="Metrebian1">{{cite journal |author=Metrebian N, Shanahan W, Wells B, Stimson GV |title=Feasibility of prescribing injectable heroin and methadone to opiate-dependent drug users: associated health gains and harm reductions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_1998-06-15_168_12/page/596 |journal=Med. J. Aust. |volume=168 |issue=12 |pages=596–600 |year=1998 |pmid=9673620}}</ref><ref name="Metrebian2">{{cite journal |author=Metrebian N, Mott J, Carnwath Z, Carnwath T, Stimson GV, Sell L |title=Pathways into receiving a prescription for diamorphine (heroin) for the treatment of opiate dependence in the United kingdom |journal=Eur Addict Res |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=144–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17570910 |doi=10.1159/000101550}}</ref> hutumika kama dawa mbadala badala ya dawa zinazolanguliwa za opiati , huku dawa tofauti zikitumika kulingana na mahitaji ya mgonjwa binafsi. Baklofeni imeonekana kufanikiwa katika kupunguza utashi wa dawa nyingi za kulevya - vichochezi, ethanoli, na opioidi - na pia hupunguza dalili halisi za kujiondoa katika matumizi ya ethanoli. wagonjwa wengi wamesema kwamba wao "huhisi badiliko dhidi ya pombe" au "huhisi badiliko dhidi ya kokeni" mara moja baada ya kuanza tiba ya baklofeni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kenna GA, Nielsen DM, Mello P, Schiesl A, Swift RM |title=Pharmacotherapy of dual substance abuse and dependence |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=213–37 |year=2007 |pmid=17338593 |doi= 10.2165/00023210-200721030-00003}}</ref> Inawezekana kwamba mojawapo ya tiba bora zaidi, ambayo ingali kueleweka kikamilifu, mbinu ya matibabu ya utegemeaji wa opioidi - ambao ndio utegemeaji mgumu zaidi kutibu (na kupata nafuu kutoka nayo), ikiwa na uwezekano wa kurejelea wa kiwango kinachokaribia 60% kwa wiki nne na 97% katika kipindi cha miezi kumi na miwili ikiwa hawapo katika tiba ya utunzaji na mu-opioidi agonisti<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kenna GA, Nielsen DM, Mello P, Schiesl A, Swift RM |title=Pharmacotherapy of dual substance abuse and dependence |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=213–37 |year=2007 |pmid=17338593 |doi= 10.2165/00023210-200721030-00003}}</ref> - itakuwa kuchanganya kidonge kinachodumisha opioidi, kama vile methadoni au buprenorphini, ya kuzuia dalili za kujiondoa katika matumizi, na baklofeni ya kupunguza utashi na hamu ya kutumia, kwa watu ambao hujipata wangali wanatumia au wangali na utashi huku wakiwa katika tiba ya methadoni au tunzo ya buprenofini. Dawa mbadala kwa aina nyingine za utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya, kihistoria hazijakuwa na mafanikio kama ule wa tiba mbadala ya opioidi, ingawa kiasi fulani cha mafanikio kimeonekana katika matumizi ya dawa kama vile dektroamfetaminiya kutibu utegemezi wa visisimuo vya kulevya,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mattick RP, Darke S |title=Drug replacement treatments: is amphetamine substitution a horse of a different colour? |journal=Drug Alcohol Rev |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=389–94 |year=1995 |pmid=16203339 |doi=10.1080/09595239500185531}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=White R |title=Dexamphetamine substitution in the treatment of amphetamine abuse: an initial investigation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2000-02_95_2/page/229 |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=229–38 |year=2000 |pmid=10723851 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.9522299.x}}</ref> na klomethiazoli inayotibu utegemezi wa pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Majumdar SK |title= Chlormethiazole: current status in the treatment of the acute ethanol withdrawal syndrome |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_drug-and-alcohol-dependence_1991-05_27_3/page/201 |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=201–7 |year=1991 |pmid=1884662 |doi=10.1016/0376-8716(91)90001-F}}</ref> Bromokriptini na desipramini zimeripotiwa kuwa na ufanisi katika matibabu ya kokeni na sio kwa matibabu ya utegemeaji wa amfetamini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Giannini AJ, Billett W |title=Bromocriptine-desipramine protocol in treatment of cocaine addiction |journal=J Clin Pharmacol |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=549–54 |year=1987 |month=Agosti |pmid=3308977}}</ref> Matibabu mengine ya dawa za utegemeaji wa pombe ni pamoja na dawa ya kama vile naltreksoni, disulfiramu, akamprosati na topiramati,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Soyka M, Roesner S |title=New pharmacological approaches for the treatment of alcoholism |journal=Expert Opin Pharmacother |volume=7 |issue=17 |pages=2341–53 |year=2006 |pmid=17109610 |doi= 10.1517/14656566.7.17.2341}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Pettinati HM, Rabinowitz AR |title=Choosing the right medication for the treatment of alcoholism |journal=Curr Psychiatry Rep |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=383–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16968619|doi=10.1007/s11920-006-0040-0}}</ref> badala ya kubadili kwa pombe, dawa hizi hulenga kupunguza hamu ya kunywa, angalau kwa kupunguza utashi moja kwa moja kama katika akamprosati na topiramati, au kwa kuzalisha athari zisizopendeza wakati pombe inapotumiwa, sawa na ilivyo kwa disulfiramu. Dawa hizi zinaweza kuwa na ufanisi iwapo matibabu yataduishwa, lakini kufuata ratiba kunaweza kuwa suala la kutatiza kwani wagonjwa wa ulevi mara nyingi husahau kumeza dawa zao, ama huacha kutumia kwa sababu ya madhara mengi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bouza C, Angeles M, Magro A, Muñoz A, Amate JM |title=Efficacy and safety of naltrexone and acamprosate in the treatment of alcohol dependence: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2004-07_99_7/page/811 |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=99 |issue=7 |pages=811–28 |year=2004 |pmid=15200577 |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00763.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Williams SH |title=Medications for treating alcohol dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2005-11-01_72_9/page/n150 |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=1775–80 |year=2005 |pmid=16300039}}</ref> Dawa za ziada zinazotumika kwa glutamati ya mawasiliano katika neva kama vile modafinili, lamotrijini, gabapentini na memantini pia zimependekezwa kutumika kutibu utegemeaji wa pombe na dawa nyinginezo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gass JT, Olive MF |title=Glutamatergic substrates of drug addiction and alcoholism |journal=Biochem. Pharmacol. |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=218–65 |year=2008 |pmid=17706608 |doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2007.06.039 |pmc=2239014}}</ref> Vipingiti vya opioidi kama vile naltreksoni na nalmefeni pia vinatumiwa kwa mafanikio katika matibabu ya utegemezi wa pombe,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Srisurapanont M, Jarusuraisin N |title=Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD001867 |year=2005 |pmid=15674887 |doi= 10.1002/14651858.CD001867.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Karhuvaara S, Simojoki K, Virta A, et al. |title=Targeted nalmefene with simple medical management in the treatment of heavy drinkers: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter study |journal=Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=1179–87 |year=2007 |pmid=17451401 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00401.x}}</ref> ambayo mara nyingi huwa changamoto kutibu. Wengine pia wamejaribu kutumia dawa hizi kwa tiba ya kuwatunza watumiaji wa awali wa opiati na kupata mafanikio madogo. Haziwezi kuanzishwa hadi mgonjwa aweze kuacha matumizi kwa kipindi kipana cha muda - haina uwezekano kwa watumiaji ambao hawapo katika tunzo kamili au tunzo kiasi ya agonisti ya mu-opioidi - au zitazua dalili kali za kujiondoa katika matumizi ya opioidi. Hakuna utafiti ambao umezionyesha kuwa na ufanisi katika matibabu ya kuzuia kurejelea matumizi ya dawa za kulevya. Hazizuii tamaa na huzuia endofini na enkefalini, viwasilishi-neva viwili vya asili ambavyo hudhibiti hisia za mtu za hali bora kiafya. Mtegemezi anastahili kusitisha matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kwa masaa kumi tu ili kuendelea kuitumia tena.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Comer SD, Sullivan MA, Hulse GK |title=Sustained-release naltrexone: novel treatment for opioid dependence |journal=Expert Opin Investig Drugs |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=1285–94 |year=2007 |pmid=17685876 |doi=10.1517/13543784.16.8.1285}}</ref> Matibabu ya utegemezi wavichochezi inaweza kuwa ngumu, na mara kwa mara dawa badala mara nyingi huwa hazifanyi kazi, ingawa dawa mpya kama vile nokaini, vanokserini na modafinili zinaweza kuwa bora zaidi katika hali hili, pamoja na GABA <sub>B</sub> agonisti baklofeni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ling W, Rawson R, Shoptaw S, Ling W |title=Management of methamphetamine abuse and dependence |journal=Curr Psychiatry Rep |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=345–54 |year=2006 |pmid=16968614 |doi=10.1007/s11920-006-0035-x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Preti A |title=New developments in the pharmacotherapy of cocaine abuse |journal=Addict Biol |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=133–51 |year=2007 |pmid=17508985 |doi= 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2007.00061.x}}</ref> Mkakati mwingine ambao ulionyesha mafanikio ya kimajaribio hivi karibuni ni uliotumia mchanganyiko wa flumazenili pingiti vya benzodiazepini pamoja na haidrosizini na gabapentini kwa matibabu ya utegemeaji wa methamfetamini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Urschel HC, Hanselka LL, Gromov I, White L, Baron M |title= Open-label study of a proprietary treatment program targeting type A gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor dysregulation in methamphetamine dependence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mayo-clinic-proceedings_2007-10_82_10/page/1170 |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=82 |issue=10 |pages=1170–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17908523 |doi=10.4065/82.10.1170}}</ref> Sehemu nyingine ambapo matibabu ya dawa za kulevya imetumika sana ni katika kutibu utegemeaji wa [[nikotini]]. Dawa mbalimbali zimetumika kwa kusudi hili kama vile bupropioni, mekamilamini na vareniklini iliyovumbuliwa hivi karibuni zaidi. Vipingiti vya kanaboinoidi rimonabanti pia vimejaribiwa kwa matibabu ya utegemezi wa nikotini lakini bado haijakubalika sana kwa kusudi hili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Garwood CL, Potts LA |title=Emerging pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-health-system-pharmacy_2007-08-15_64_16/page/n34 |journal=Am J Health Syst Pharm |volume= 64 |issue=16 |pages=1693–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17687057 |doi=10.2146/ajhp060427}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Frishman WH |title=Smoking cessation pharmacotherapy—nicotine and non-nicotine preparations |journal=Prev Cardiol |volume=10 |issue=2 Suppl 1 |pages=10–22 |year=2007 |pmid=17396063|doi=10.1111/j.1520-037X.2007.05963.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Siu EC, Tyndale RF |title=Non-nicotinic therapies for smoking cessation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-pharmacology-and-toxicology_2007_47/page/541 |journal=Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. |volume=47 |pages=541–64 |year=2007 |pmid=17209799 |doi= 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105354}}</ref> Ibogeni ni halusinojeni (saikotomimetri) - dawa isiyo halali ambayo baadhi ya huzua fikra-njozi kwamba ambayo makundi fulani hudai kuwa hupinga utegemeaji wa dawa za kulevya na kupunguza au kuondoa dalili za kujiondoa katika matumizi, hasa zinazohusiana na opioidi.<ref name="ibogaine">{{cite journal |author=K.R. Alper, H.S. Lotsof, G.M. Frenken, D.J. Luciano, J. Bastiaans |year=1999 |title=Treatment of Acute Opioid Withdrawal with Ibogaine |journal=The American Journal on Addictions |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=234–242 |url=http://www.ibogaine.desk.nl/p234_s.pdf |accessdate=2009-06-16 |pmid=10506904 |doi=10.1080/105504999305848 |archive-date=2006-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060912201401/http://www.ibogaine.desk.nl/p234_s.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Utaratibu wake wa utekelezaji haujulikani, lakini pana uwezekano kuwa unahusishwa na mpingano wa nAchR α3ß4. Katika jaribio moja lililofanywa kwa kutumia wanyama, ilibainika kupunguza matumizi ya kokeni kwa mtu binafsi.<ref>{{cite journal| author=S.L.T. Cappendijk, M.R. Dzoljic| title=Inhibitory effects of ibogaine on cocaine self-administration in rats| journal=European Journal of Pharmacology| volume=241| issue=2-3| pages=261–265| year=1993 |doi=10.1016/0014-2999(93)90212-Z| pmid=8243561}}</ref> Jaribio lingine ambalo halikudhibitiwa lilionyesha ilipunguza mtetemo usiozuilika kwa kiasi kidogo hadi wastani wakati wa kujitoa katika matumizi ya mofini katika panya.<ref>{{cite journal| author=S.D. Glick, K. Rossman, N.C. Rao, I.M. Maisonneuve and J.N. Carlson |title=Effects of ibogaine on acute signs of morphine withdrawal in rats: Independence from tremor | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neuropharmacology_1992-05_31_5/page/497 |journal=Neuropharmacology |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=497–500 |year=1992 |doi=10.1016/0028-3908(92)90089-8| pmid=1528400}}</ref> Matokeo haya hayawezi kutumika kwa binadamu kwa uhakika wowote. Utafiti hutatizwa na sababu kwamba ibogaini si halali katika nchi zote zilizoendelea na ni kileo cha Kiwango I nchini Marekani. Hakuna majaribio yaliyodhibitiwa ya binadamu yamewahi kufanywa. Sintheti analojia isokamilifu ya ibojeni, 18-methoksikoronaridini ilitengenezwa, katika jaribio la kupunguza sumu (ibogeni ina sumu zinazodhuru sana moyo, na vifo vingi vimeripotiwa kutokana na matumizi yake; kwa sababu ya matumizi haramu na ya siri, ni vigumu kujua kiwango cha sumu kilivyo) na madhara saikotomimetri ya dawa ya kulevya . ===Utaratibu wa tabia=== Utaratibu wa tabia huchuliwa kuwa muhimu katika kuwasaidia wale wanaotegemea ulevi kufikia kiwango cha kuacha. Kutokana na maandishi ya uchangnuzi tekelezi wa tabia na yale ya saikolojia ya tabia, taratibu nyingi zilizojikita kwa misingi inayothibitika zimejitokeza (1) tiba kwa tabia kindoa; (2) mkabala wa kuimarisha jamii kuimarisha mfumo; (3) tiba ya kutambua dalili , na (4) mikakati ya usimamizi dharura.<ref>{{cite journal | last = O'Donohue| first = W| authorlink = | coauthors = K.E. Ferguson| title = Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology and Behavior Analysis| journal = The Behavior Analyst Today| volume = 7| issue = 3| pages = 335–350| publisher = Joseph D. Cautilli| location = | year = 2006| url = http://www.baojournal.com| format = accessdate = 2008-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Chambless et al.| first = D.L.| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = An update on empirically validated therapies| journal = Clinical Psychology| volume = 49| issue = | pages = 5–14| publisher = American Psychological Association| location = | year = 1998| url = www.apa.org/divisions/div12/est/newrpt.pdf|format=PDF| doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-03-24}}</ref> Aidha, mwandishi huyo alipendekeza kwamba mafunzo ya ujuzi wa maswala ya kijamii yanayohusiana na matibabu ya wagonjwa wa utegemezi pombe waliolazwa pengine ina ufanisi zaidi. Kuimarisha jamii ina data kuhusu ubora na utekelezaji.<ref>Dutcher, LW, Anderson, R., Moore, M., Luna-Anderson, C., Meyers, RJ, Delaney, Harold D., na Smith, Je (2009). Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT): An Efectiveness Study. ''Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports , Health Fitness and Behavioral Medicine, 2 (1),'' [http://baojournal.com/Health%20Journal/JBAHSFM-2-1.pdf ] {{Wayback|url=http://baojournal.com/Health%20Journal/JBAHSFM-2-1.pdf |date=20101229132307 }}</ref> Aidha, matibabu ya tabia kama vile kuimarisha jamii na mafunzo ya familia (CRAFT) yamesaidia familia kuwaingiza wapendwa katika matibabu.<ref> Meyers, RJ, Smith, Je &amp; Lash, DN (2005): A Program fro Engaging Treatment-refusing Substance Abusers into treatment: CRAFT ''IJBCT., 1 (2),'' Page 90 -100 [http://www.baojournal.com Bao]</ref><ref> Smith, Je, Milford, JL na Meyers, RJ (2004). CRA na CRAFT: Behavioral Approaches to Treating Sustance-Abusing Individuals ''The Behavior Analyst Today , 5). (4,'' 391-403 [http://www.baojournal.com link Bao] </ref> ===Matibabu mbadala === Matibabu mbadala kama vile [[akiupancha]], hutumiwa na matibabu mengine kupunguza dalili za utegemezi wa dawa kulevya. Katika mwaka wa 1997, Chama cha Watabibu cha Marekani(AMA) kilikubali taarifa ifuatayo kama sera, baada ya ripoti kuhusu ya baadhi ya tiba mbadala ikiwemo akiupancha: <blockquote>Pana ushahidi mdogo unaoweza kuthibitisha usalama au ubora wa tiba nyingi mbadala. Nyingi ya habari zinazojulikana sasa kuhusu tiba hizi zinabainisha kuwa nyingi ya tiba hizi hazijaonekana kuwa na ufanisi bora. Zinaweka wazi kwamba nyingi si dhahiri kuwa na ufanisi. Tafiti zilizopangwa vyema na kusimamiwa kikamilifu zinastahili kutekelezwa ili kutathmini ubora wa tiba mbadala.</blockquote> Akiupancha imeonekana kutokuwa na ubora kuliko matibabu yaliyodhibitiwa katika kutibu utegemezi wa opiati.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jordan JB |title=Acupuncture treatment for opiate addiction: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-substance-abuse-treatment_2006-06_30_4/page/309 |journal=J Subst Abuse Treat |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=309–14 |year=2006 |pmid=16716845 |doi=10.1016/j.jsat.2006.02.005}}</ref> Akiupancha, akiupresha, tiba ya leza na msisimuo wa stima hazina ufanisi unaoonekana kwa kuacha sigara.<ref>{{cite journal |author=White AR, Rampes H, Campbell JL |title=Acupuncture and related interventions for smoking cessation |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1 |pages=CD000009 |year=2006 |pmid=16437420 |doi= 10.1002/14651858.CD000009.pub2}}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[File:Drug use disorders world map - DALY - WHO2002.svg|thumb|Ulemavu-kubadilishwa maisha mwaka kwa matatizo ya matumizi ya madawa ya kulevya kwa wakazi 100,000 katika 2002 [187] [188] [189] [190] [191] [192] [193] [. 194] [195] [196] [197] [198 ] [199] ]] Aina za kawaida mno za utegemezi kwa dawa za kulevya ni kwa vileo halali /zinazokubalika kisheria kama vile: * [[Nikotini]] katika hali ya [[tumbaku]], hasa sigara * Pombe * Kafeni ==Historia== Tukio la utegemezi kwa dawa za kulevya imekuwepo kwa kiwango fulani katika kumbukumbu zilizonakiliwa za [[historia]] (angalia [[Afyuni|"Afyuni").]] Mazoea ya kisasa ya [[kilimo]], kuboresha upatikanaji wa dawa, uimarikaji wa [[Biokemia]] na mapendekezo ya matumizi ya dawa unaofanywa na wataalamu wa kimatabibu zimezidisha tatizo hili kwa kiasi kikubwa katika karne ya 20. Kuboresha njia bora za kibiolojia za utengenezaji wa vidonge na kuanzishwa misombo sintheti, kama vile methamphetamini pia ni sababu zinazochangia utegemezi wa dawa za kulevya.<ref> DCA Hillman. The Chemical Muse. New York City. St Martin's Press. 2008</ref><ref> MA Rinella. Pharmakon: Plato,Drug Culture and Identity in Ancient Athens. Lanham, Maryland. Lexington Books. 2010</ref> ==Jamii na utamaduni== ===Utungaji Sheria=== Kwa kutegemea mamlaka, dawa za kulevya zinaweza tu kuwa halali kama ni sehemu ya utafiti uliodhaminiwa na serikali na sio halali kwa madhumuni mengine yoyote, sio halali kuuza na sio halali hata kumiliki tu. Nchi nyingi zina sheria ambazo huleta dawa mbalimbali na-vidonge vifananavyo na dawa za kulevya chini ya udhibiti wa mifumo ya leseni. Kwa kawaida sheria hii hushughulikia aina fulani au zote za opiati, amfetamini, canabinoidi, kokeni, vitulizi, halusinojeni na aina nyingi za dawa sintheti za kisasa zaidi. uzalishaji usio halali, usambazaji au umuliki ni kosa la jinai. Hata hivyo,kwa kawaida, uainishaji wa dawa za kulevya chini ya sheria hiyo haihusiani tu na utegemeaji wa dawa. Vilewevu vinavyogusiwa mara nyingi huwa na uwezo tofauti wa utegemeaji. Baadhi huwa na uwezo kusababisha utegemeaji wa kimwili ilhali nyingine ni nadra kusababisha aina yoyote ya utegemezi wa kimazoea. Aidha, chini ya sheria hasa kuhusu dawa za kulevya, pombe, kafeni na [[nikotini]] kwa kawaida hazijumuishwi. Ingawa sheria hii inaweza kukubalika kwa misingi ya kimaadili au ya afya ya umma, inaweza kufanya kulevya au utegemezi suala kubwa zaidi kwa mtu binafsi: upatikanaji wa kutegemeka wa dawa huwa vigumu kupata na kila mtu huwa katika hatari ya kuitumia kiharamu na pia kukabiliwa na adhabu za kisheria . Haijabainika wazi iwapo sheria dhidi ya dawa za kulevya hufanya chochote kupunguza matumizi na utegemezi. Katika maeneo ambapo dawa tegemezi ni haramu, kwa ujumla zinapatikana kupitia walanguzi wa dawa za kulevya, wasio na vibali ambao mara nyingi huhusika na uhalifu wa kupangwa. Hata ingawa gharama ya kuzalisha vidonge vingi haramu vya kutegemeza ni mdogo sana, uharamisho wao pamoja na haja ya mtumiaji humpa muuzaji fursa ya kuweka bei ya juu, mara nyingi mamia maradufu ya gharama za uzalishaji. Matokeo yake, ni kuwa mtegemezi dawa ya kulevya wakati mwingine hugeukia uhalifu ili kuendeleza tabia zao. ==Tazama pia== * [[Sera ya dawa za kulevya]] * [[Uraibu]] * [[Utegemezi wa kimwili]] * [[Vitu vya hatari katika ujauzito]] * [[Tiba ya binafsi]] * [[Utumizi mbaya Wa vileo]] ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} [[Category:Afya]] [[Category:Madawa ya Kulevya]] if0rksev2k308zgurny9ln34pt7n7ta 0 55732 1564466 1465887 2026-06-02T16:27:30Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564466 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Deep vein thrombosis | Image =Deep vein thrombosis of the right leg.jpg| Caption = A deep vein thrombosis of the right leg. Note the swelling and redness.| DiseasesDB = 3498 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|80|2|i|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|453.40}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000156| eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2785 | MeshID = D020246 | }} '''Thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa''' (ambayo pia inajulikana kama '''mviliondani wa vena''' na kwa kawaida hufupishwa kama '''DVT''' kwa lugha ya Kiingereza) ni uundaji wa donge la damu ("mvilio wa damu") katika mshipa wa ndani. Hii ni aina ya uvimbe unaotokana na mvilio (kuvimba kwa mshipa na uundaji wa damu iliyoganda). Thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa kwa kawaida huathiri mishipa ya mguu (kama vile mshipa wa fupa la paja au vena ya poplitili) au mishipa ya kina cha fupanyonga. Mara kwa mara mishipa ya mkono huathiriwa (ikitokea ghafla, hali hii hujulikana kama ugonjwa wa Paget-Schrötter). DVT inaweza kutokea bila dalili, lakini katika matukio mengi, viungo vilivyoathiriwa huwa ni uchungu, huvimba, huwa nyekundu, zenye joto na mishipa ya juu juu na wakati mwingine hujaa damu. Matatizo makubwa zaidi ya DVT ni kuwa damu iliyoganda inaweza kutoka mahali pake na kusafiri hadi kwenye mapafu, hali inayojulikana kama uzibaji wa ateri ya mapafu (PE). DVT uhitaji matibabu ya dharura. Wakati inapotokea katika viungo vya upande wa chini wa mwili, kuna uwezekano wa 3% wa PE kumuua mgonjwa.<ref>{{cite web | author = by Alexander G.G. Turpie, MD | date = last modified Machi 2008 | title = Deep Venous Thrombosis - The Merck's Manuals Online Medical Library | url = http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec07/ch081/ch081b.html?qt=dvt&alt=sh#sec07-ch081-ch081b-1775 | accessdate = 2010-11-30 | archivedate = 2012-09-15 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6Agg4YPFO?url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/sec07/ch081/ch081b.html?qt=dvt#sec07-ch081-ch081b-1775 }}</ref> Tatizo la DVT likiendelea kwa muda huleta hali ya baada ya thrombosi, ambayo inaweza kujitokeza kama [[Tambazi|uvimbegiligili]], maumivu au usumbufu na matatizo ya ngozi. Kulingana na triadi ya Virchow, thrombosi ya vena hutokea kwa njia tatu: kupunguka kwa kiwango cha mtiririko wa damu, uharibifu wa ukuta wa mshipa wa damu na kuongezeka kwa mwelekeo wa kuganda kwa damu (ugandajiwa kupita kiasi wa damu). Hali kadhaa za kiafya zinaweza kusababisha DVT, kama vile mgadamizo wa vena, kiwewe cha mwili, kansa, maambukizi, baadhi ya magonjwa ya kuvimba na hali maalum kama vile [[Kiharusi|kiharusi]], kusita kwa moyo au ugonjwa wa nefrosi. Kuna mambo kadhaa yanayoweza kuongeza uwezekano wa mtu kupata DVT, ikiwa ni pamoja na upasuaji, kulazwa hospitalini, kusimamishwa (kwa mfano wakati maganda ya mfupa yanapotumika, au kusafiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi, kunakosababisha dalili za ugonjwa wa daraja la gharama ya chini), kuvuta sigara, [[Kunona|unene wa kupindukia]], umri, madawa fulani (kama vile estrojini au erythropoietini) na mielekeo ya asili ya kuganda kwa damu inayojulikana kama ugonjwa wa kuvilia (kwa mfano, kwa waenezaji wa kipengele V Leiden). Wanawake wana hatari zaidi wakati wa ujauzito na katika kipindi cha baada ya kuzaa. Uchunguzi maarufu zaidi katika utambuzi wa DVT ni upimaji damu unaoitwa D-dimers na picha za tiba za dopla za vena zilizoathiriwa. Wakati mwingine, upimaji zaidi unahitajika ili kupata chanzo cha DVT. Katika hali fulani, jitihada zinaweza kufanywa ili kuvunja damu iliyoganda (kwa kutumia vikolezo vya kuvunja madonge ya damu). Ili kuzuia kuongezeka zaidi na uundaji wa vidonge vya damu vinavyoleta hatari ya kupata mgando damuni unaoelekezwa mapafuni, matumizi ya madawa dhidi ya kuganda (vikolezo vya damu) yanashauriwa (na kama haiwezekani, chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo linaweza kutumika). Uzuiaji wa DVT unashauriwa kwa wagonjwa wengi wanaotibiwa na kulazwa kwa kutumia kinza-mgando damu, soksi za mgadamizo zilizotiwa alama za vipimo (ambazo pia zinajulikana kama soksi za kuzuia mvilio) au vifaa vya kugandamiza uundaji wa mara kwa mara wa madonge ya damu (IPC). ==Ishara na dalili== Kunaweza kuwa hakuna dalili inayoweza kuhusishwa na mahali pa DVT, lakini dalili rasmi za DVT ni pamoja na maumivu, kuvimba na uwekundu wa mguu na kupanuka kwa mishipa iliyo katika sehemu ya juu. Hadi 25% ya wagonjwa wote waliolazwa, kuna uwezekano kuwa wana aina ''fulani'' ya DVT, ambayo mara nyingi huwa haitambuliki kimatibabu (isipokuwa pale ambapo kuzibwa kwa ateri ya mapafu hutokea). Kuna mbinu nyingi zinazoweza kutumika wakati wa kuangaliwa mwili ili kuongeza uwezekano wa kutambua DVT, kama vile kupima mzingo wa kiungo kilicho upembeni kilichooathiriwa katika sehemu maalum (ili kuionyesha [[Tambazi|uvimbegiligili)]], kwa kugusa njia ya vena, ambayo mara nyingi ni laini. Uchunguzi wa mwili hauwezi kutegemewa kwa kuwa hauhusishi utambuzi wa ugonjwa wa thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa. Katika legi ya maziwa, mguu hukwajuka na huwa na baridi kidogo na kuwa wenye kipigo cha ateri kilichopunguka kutokana na mkazoghafla. Jambo hili kwa kawaida hutokana na uzuiaji mkali wa vena za uchengelele na za vena za fupa la paja kutokana na DVT. Katika kuvimba mishipa ya damu, kuna uzuiaji mkali na karibu wa kiujumla wa utiririkaji nje wa ncha nzima, ikiwa ni pamoja na vena za uchengelele na za fupa la paja. Mguu kwa kawaida huwa na uchungu, wenye sainosi (buluu kutoka na ukosefu wa oksijeni) na [[Tambazi|yenye odema]] (iliyojaa maji maji). Gangrini ya vena pia ianweza kujitokeza baadaye. Ni muhimu kuhusisha uwezekano wa kuzibwa kwa ateri ya mapafu ihusishwe katika historia, na hii inaweza kutoa kibali cha kufanya uchunguzi zaidi ''(tazama'' kuzibwa kwa ateri ya mapafu). Historia inapaswa kufanywa kwa makini kwa kuzingatia ''sababu za hatari'' (tazama hapo chini), ikiwa ni pamoja na matumizi ya vidonge vya upangaji uzazi vyenye estrojini, tukio la karibuni la kusafiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi, matumizi ya madawa ya ndani ya mshipa na historia ya uavyaji ghafla (ambao ni kipengele cha matatizo kadhaa ambayo pia yanaweza kusababisha thrombosi). Katika kisa cha kusafiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi, uchunguzi wa hivi karibuni umeonyesha kuwa hatari ya kupata DVT ni mkubwa zaidi kwa wasafiri wanaovuta sigara, walio wanene kupindukia, au ambao wanatumia tembe za kupanga uzazi<ref> Firkin, F na Nandurkar, H (2009). "Flying and thromboembolism". ''Australian Prescriber,'' 32:148-50. Inapatikana http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/32/6/148/50/</ref>. Historia ya familia inaweza kutambua vipengele vya kurithiwa katika ukuaji wa DVT. Takriban asilimia 35 ya wagonjwa wa DVT wana angalau ugonjwa mmoja uliorithiwa wa kuvilia, ikiwa ni pamoja na upungufu katika vipengele vya kuzuia ugandaji protini C protini S, antithrombini, au ubadilikaji wa kipengele V na jeni za prothrombini.<ref name="pmid16304352">{{cite journal |author=Rosendall FR.|title=Venous Thrombosis: the role of genes, environment, and behavior.|journal=Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program |year=2005 |pages=1–12|pmid=16304352 |doi=10.1182/asheducation-2005.1.1 |volume=2005}}</ref> ==Chanzo== {{Main|Thrombosis}} Triadi ya Virchow ni kikundi chenye vipengele vitatu vinavyojulikana kuwa vinaathiri ugandaji wa damu: kiwango cha utiririkaji, uzito wa damu hiyo, na sifa za ukuta wa mshipa. Virchow alibainisha kuwa thrombosi ya kina zaidi ya mshipa ilitokea zaidi katika mguu wa kushoto kuliko kwenye mguu wa kulia na akapendekeza mgadamizo wa mshipa wa kawaida wa uchengelele wa kushoto na ateri kuu ya kawaida ya chango ya kulia kama sababu ya msingi (tazama ugonjwa wa Mei-Thurner).<ref>[8] ^ Ueber Virchow R. die Erweiterung kleinerer Gefäfse. Arch Pathol Anat Physiol Klin Med 1851;3:427-62.</ref> Vipengele vya kawaida ya hatari ni upasuaji wa karibuni au kulazwa hospitalini.<ref name="pmid17646600">{{cite journal |author=Spencer FA, Lessard D, Emery C, Reed G, Goldberg RJ |title=Venous thromboembolism in the outpatient setting |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=167 |issue=14 |pages=1471–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17646600 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.14.1471 |pmc=2762787}}</ref> 40% ya wagonjwa hawa hawakupokea tiba ya heparini ya kuzuia maradhi. Vipengele vingine vya hatari ni pamoja na umri wa makamo, unene wa kupindukia, maambukizi, kutosonga, matumizi ya aina unganishi ya vidonge vya upangaji uzazi vitumiavyo homoni vyenye estrojini, matumizi ya tumbaku na usafiri kwa ndege ("dalili za ugonjwa wa daraja la gharama ya chini", mchanganyiko wa kutoweza kusonga na kuishiwa kiasi kwa maji mwilini) ni baadhi ya vyanzo vinavyojulikana zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Tsai A, Cushman M, Rosamond W, Heckbert S, Polak J, Folsom A | title = Cardiovascular risk factors and venous thromboembolism incidence: the longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology | journal = Arch Intern Med | volume = 162 | issue = 10 | pages = 1182–9 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12020191 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.162.10.1182}}</ref>Thrombofilia (mwelekeo wa kujitokeza kwa thrombosi) mara nyingi hujionyesha kupitia thrombosi zinazojirudiarudia. Inatambulika kwamba kwa kawaida, thrombi hujitokeza kwanza katika mishipa ya nyuma ya mguu, na "kukua" kufuatia mwelekeo wa mtiririko wa mshipa. DVT zinatambulika kama kuwa juu au chini ya mshipa wa poplitili. DVT iliyoenea sana zinaweza kuenea hadi kwenye vena za chango au mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo. Hatari ya kuzibwa kwa ateri ya mapafu ni kubwa zaidi pale ambapo pana donge nyingi zaidi za damu. ==Uaguzi== [[File:Iliac vein deep vein thrombosis.JPEG|thumb|Skani ya tomografia ya tumbo kupitia kompyuta inayoonyesha thrombosi ya mshipa wa kawaida wa iliaki. Mshale unaonyesha kasoro ya kujazwa kwenye mshipa defect kujaza mshipa unaoonekana kupitia wa visualized kutumia kifaa cha kuboresha picha za eksirei.]] Kiwango bora zaidi ni ''venografia ya ndani ya vena,'' ambayo inahusisha kuudunga sindano mshipa wa pembeni wa kiungo kilichoathiriwa kwa kutumia kikolezo cha kutofautisa na kuchukua eksirei, ili kudhihirisha kama ugavi kwenye vena umezibwa. Kutokana na ushambulizi wake, uchunguzi huu hufanywa kwa nadra sana. ===Uchunguzi wa mwili=== # Uchunguzi wa Homan: Usongezaji wa vidole vya mguu husababisha maumivu katika sehemu ya nyuma ya mguu. # Ishara ya Pratt: Kufinya msuli wa nyuma ya mguu kunaibua maumivu. Hata hivyo, ishara hizi za matibabu hazifanyi vizuri na hazihusishwi katika sheria za utabiri wa kimatibabu zinazoweka pamoja matokeo bora zaidi ili kutambua DVT.<ref name="pmid16403932">{{cite journal |author=Wells PS, Owen C, Doucette S, Fergusson D, Tran H |title=Does this patient have deep vein thrombosis? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2006-01-11_295_2/page/198 |journal=JAMA |volume=295 |issue=2 |pages=199–207 |year=2006 |pmid=16403932 |doi=10.1001/jama.295.2.199}}</ref> ===Kuhesabu uwezekano=== Katika mwaka wa 2006, Scarvelis na Wells walikagua seti ya kanuni za utabiri wa kimatibabu kwa DVT,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Scarvelis D, Wells P | title = Diagnosis and treatment of deep-vein thrombosis | journal = CMAJ | volume = 175 | issue = 9 | pages = 1087–92 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17060659. [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/175/9/1087 Free Full Text] | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.060366 | pmc = 1609160 }}</ref> punde tu baada ya seti ya kanuni za matibabu zilizokubaliwa na wengi kuhusu kuzibwa kwa ateri ya mapafu.<ref>[17] ^ Neff MJ. ACEP alitolesha sera za matibabu kuhusu uchunguzi na udhibiti wa simamizi wa kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu. ''American Family Physician.'' 2003, '''68''' (4): 759 -?. Inapatikana: [http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030815/practice.html] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030815/practice.html |date=20070926230609 }} http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030815/practice.html {{Wayback|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030815/practice.html |date=20070926230609 }}. Ilifikiwa tarehe: 8 Desemba 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Wells P, Anderson D, Rodger M, Ginsberg J, Kearon C, Gent M, Turpie A, Bormanis J, Weitz J, Chamberlain M, Bowie D, Barnes D, Hirsh J | title = Derivation of a simple clinical model to categorize patients probability of pulmonary embolism: increasing the models utility with the SimpliRED D-dimer | journal = Thromb Haemost | volume = 83 | issue = 3 | pages = 416–20 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10744147}}</ref> '''Hesabu au vigezo vya Wells:''' (Welekeo -2 hadi 8) # Matibabu ya saratni yanayoendelea (matibabu katika muda wa miezi 6 iliyopita au ya kupunguza) - pointi 1 # Kuvimba kwa msuli wa nyuma ya mguu > sentimita 3 ikilinganishwa na msuli mwingine wa nyuma ya mguu (kipimo kilkuwa sentimita 10 chini ya muundi wenye vinundu) - pointi 1 # Mishipa ya juu juu iliyo sambamba (isiyo ya kuvimba) - pointi 1 # Mashimo yenye ugiligili (yenye uhusiano na mguu wenye dalili pekee) - pointi 1 # Kuvimba kwa mguu mzima - pointi 1 # Maumivu katika eneo maalum katika usambazaji wa mfumo wa kina wa vena- pointi 1 # Kupooza, paresi, au kuwekewa plasta inayozuia kusongeza viungo vya upande wa chini wa mwili hivi karibuni- pointi 1 # Kulazwa kitandani hivi karibuni> siku 3, au upasuaji mkuu unaohitaji ganzi au anestezia katika muda wa wiki 4 zilizopita- pointi 1 # Rekodi za awali za DVT- pointi 1. # Utambuzi mbadala angalau wenye uwezekano sawa-Ondoa pointi 2 '''Ufafanuzi:''' : Matokeo ya pointi 2 au zaidi-kuna uwezekano mkuu wa kuwa na thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa. Fikiria kupiga picha ya mishipa ya mguu huo. :: Matokeo ya chini ya pointi 2 - hakuna uwezekano wa kuugua ugonjwa wa thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa. Fikiria upimaji damu kama vile uchunguzi wa d-dimer ili kutupilia mbali zaidi uwezekano wa kukuwa kwa thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa. ===Vipimo vya damu=== ====D-dimer==== {{Main|d-dimer}} Katika hali ya uwezekano wa chini, zoezi la sasa ni kuanza uchunguzi kwa kupima viwango vya D-dimer. Bidhaa hii yenye fibrini za uvunjaji zilizounganishwa ni dalili kuwa thrombosi inajitokeza, na kwamba donge la damu linayeyushwa na plazmini. Kiwango cha chini cha D-dimer kinafaa kuibua utambuaji wa magonjwa mengine (kama vile kivimbemaji cha Baker kilichopasuka, ikiwa mgonjwa ana uwezekano wa chini sana wa kliniki wa DVT).<ref name="pmid14507948">{{cite journal |author=Wells PS, Anderson DR, Rodger M, ''et al.'' |title=Evaluation of D-dimer in the diagnosis of suspected deep-vein thrombosis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2003-09-25_349_13/page/1226 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=349 |issue=13 |pages=1227–35 |year=2003 |pmid=14507948 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa023153}}</ref><ref name="pmid12755550">{{cite journal |author=Bates SM, Kearon C, Crowther M, ''et al.'' |title=A diagnostic strategy involving a quantitative latex D-dimer assay reliably excludes deep venous thrombosis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2003-05-20_138_10/page/n54 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=10 |pages=787–94 |year=2003 |pmid=12755550 |doi=}}</ref> ====Vipimo vingine vya damu==== Vipimo vingine vinavyofanywa kwa kawaida katika hatua hii ni{{Citation needed|date=Septemba 2007}} : * hesabu kamili ya damu * Uchunguzi wa kimsingi wa Ugandaji: PT (ukaguzi wa uwezo wa kuganda kwa damu), APTT (sekunde ambazo damu inachukua ili kuganda), Fibrinojeni * vimeng'enya vya ini * utendakazi wa mafigo na elektrolaiti ===Upigaji picha wa mishipa ya miguu=== Plethismografia ya impedansi, uchunguzivijisauti wa Doppler, upigaji picha wa mishipa ya miguu kupitia picha za tiba za mgandamizo, pamoja na vipimo mara mbili (ili kutambua mtiririko wa damu), unaweza kuonyesha donge la damu na kiwango chake cha kuenea (yaani ikiwa ni chini au juu ya goti). Kutokana na unyeti, kuwa maalum na ufuatishaji wa uchunguzivijisauti mara mbili, unatumiwa badala ya venografia kama uchunguzi unaotumiwa zaidi kuutathmini ugonjwa huo. Uchunguzi huu unahusisha picha ya modi ya B pamoja na uchambuzi wa utiririkaji wa Doppler. Ni nyeti na maalum zaidi kwa ajili ya kuchunguza thrombi za kupakana(katika mishipa ya poplitili na ya fupa la paja), lakini ni ya chini zaidi kwa thrombi ya distali (katika mishipa ya msuli wa nyuma ya mguu).<ref name="agabegi2nd">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. |title=Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series) |url=https://archive.org/details/stepuptomedicine0000agab |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-7817-7153-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> ==Kuzuia== Miongozo ya kawaida ya uuguzi katika Chuo cha Madaktari wa kifua cha Marekani (ACCP) hutoa mapendekezo kuhusu tiba ya kuzuia maradhi 7ya DVT kati ya wagonjwa waliolazwa<ref name="pmid15383478">{{cite journal |author=Geerts WH, Pineo GF, Heit JA, ''et al.'' |title=Prevention of venous thromboembolism: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy |journal=Chest |volume=126 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=338S–400S |year=2004 |month=Septemba |pmid=15383478 |doi=10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.338S |url=}}</ref>. ===Wagonjwa wa kawaida waliolaza=== Kuhusu matibabu ya wagonjwa wa kawaida, miongozo inasema, "Kwa wagonjwa wenye magonjwa makali ambao wamelazwa hospitalini na shinikizo la moyo la msongamano au ugonjwa hatari unaoathiri kupumua, au wasiokubaliwa kutoka kitandani na wana hatari moja au zaidi, ikiwa ni pamoja na kansa hai,VTE (Tromboemboli ya vena) ya awali, sepsisi, ugonjwa wa mfumo wa vena, au ugonjwa wa kuvimba kwa bowel uchengelele, tunapendekeza tiba ya kuzuia maradhi ya kipimo cha chini ya heparini-LDUH (Daraja la 1A) au LMWH (Daraja la 1A)<ref name="pmid15383478"></ref>." Enoksaparini au heparini ambayo haijagawanywa inaweza kutumika.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Twice vs three times daily heparin dosing for thromboembolism prophylaxis in the general medical population: A metaanalysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2007-02_131_2/page/507|author=King CS, Holley AB, Jackson JL, Shorr AF, Moores LK|journal=Chest|year=2007|volume=131|issue=2|pages=507&ndash;16|pmid=17296655|doi=10.1378/chest.06-1861}}</ref> LMWH (Heparini yenye uzito wa chini wa molekuli) inaweza kuwa bora zaidi kuliko heparini ambayo haijagawanywa (UFH). UFH ikitumiwa, U 5, 000 mara 3 kila siku inaweza kuwa na ufanisi zaidi.<ref name="pmid17646601">{{cite journal |author=Wein L, Wein S, Haas SJ, Shaw J, Krum H |title=Pharmacological Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Hospitalized Medical Patients: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials |journal= Archives of Internal Medicine|volume=167 |issue=14 |pages=1476–1486 |year=2007 |pmid=17646601 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.14.1476}}</ref> Tangu miongozo ya ACCP ichapishwe, nyongeza ya uchunguzi uliodhibitiwa na uliochaguliwa bila mpangilio wowote<ref name="pmid16431185">{{cite journal |author=Lederle FA, Sacks JM, Fiore L, ''et al.'' |title=The prophylaxis of medical patients for thromboembolism pilot study |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=119 |issue=1 |pages=54–9 |year=2006 |month=Januari |pmid=16431185 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.049 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2006-01_119_1/page/54}}</ref> na uchambuzi wa matokeo<ref name="pmid17310052">{{cite journal |author=Dentali F, Douketis JD, Gianni M, Lim W, Crowther MA |title=Meta-analysis: anticoagulant prophylaxis to prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism in hospitalized medical patients |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=146 |issue=4 |pages=278–88 |year=2007 |month=Februari |pmid=17310052 |doi= |url=http://annals.org/cgi/content/full/146/4/278}}</ref> unaojumuisha majaribio hayo yamechapishwa. Uchambuzi huo wa matokeo ulihitimisha kuwa "tiba ya kuzuia ugandaji ina ufanisi katika kuzuia dalili za kufungika kwa mshipa kwa sababu ya mvilio wakati wa mchakato wa kuzuia ugandaji kwa wagonjwa mahututi waliolazwa hospitalini. Utafiti zaidi unahitajika ili kujua hatari za kufungika kwa mshipa kwa sababu ya mvilio kati ya wagonjwa hawa baada ya kusimamishwa kwa profilaksi." Kuhusu ni wagonjwa wapi walio hatarini, tafiti nyongi za uchambuzi wa matokeo zilikuwa za wagonjwa waliowekwa katika kategoria ya III hadi IV ya kusita kwa moyo na shirika la New York Heart Association Functional Classification (NYHA). Kuhusu wagonjwa wenye kiwango cha chini cha hatari ya DVT, jaribio hili hapa juu<ref name="pmid16431185"></ref> na jaribio lingine la awali<ref name="pmid8637340">{{cite journal |author=Gärdlund B |title=Randomised, controlled trial of low-dose heparin for prevention of fatal pulmonary embolism in patients with infectious diseases. The Heparin Prophylaxis Study Group |journal=Lancet |volume=347 |issue=9012 |pages=1357–61 |year=1996 |month=Mei |pmid=8637340 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91009-0|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1996-05-18_347_9012/page/n17}}</ref> ni muhimu lakini hazidhibitishi lolote. Wagonjwa wanaofanyiwa dialisisi sugu ya mafigo wanaweza kuwa na hatari zaidi ya kufungika kwa mshipa kwa sababu ya mvilio<ref name="pmid11979344">{{cite journal |author=Tveit DP, Hypolite IO, Hshieh P, ''et al.'' |title=Chronic dialysis patients have high risk for pulmonary embolism |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-kidney-diseases_2002-05_39_5/page/1011 |journal=Am. J. Kidney Dis. |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=1011–7 |year=2002 |pmid=11979344|doi=10.1053/ajkd.2002.32774}}</ref>, lakini majaribio yaliyodhibitiwa na kuchaguliwa bila mpango maalumu hayajazungumzia faida hatari ya profilaksisi. ===Wagonjwa wa upasuaji=== Kwa wagonjwa waliopitia upasuaji, Heparini zenye uzito wa chini wa molekiuli (LMWH) hutolewa kwao mara kwa mara ili kuzuia thrombosi. LMWH kwa sasa inaweza tu kutolewa chini ya ngozi kwa kudungwa sindano. Profilaksi kwa wanawake wajawazito wenye historia ya thrombosi inaweza kutolewa tu kwa njia ya sindano za LMWH au huenda zisihitajike ikiwa sababu za hatari ni za muda mfupi. Matembezi ya mapema na ya mara kwa mara (kutembea) ni matibabu yanayotangulia kinza-mgando damu na bado yanatambulika na kutumika leo. Kutembea husisimua pampu ya misuli ya mwili, na kuongeza kasi ya mishipa hivyo kuzuia stasis kuzuia stasisi. Vifaa vya IPC vimethibitishwa kutoa kinga kwa wagonjwa wa kulazwa au wanokaa wenye hatari kuu au wenye maagizo dhidi ya heparini. Mashine za IPC hutumia vibofu vya hewa vinavyofungwa kwenye paja na/ au kung'ata mguu na / au msuli wa nyuma ya mguu. Vibofu hivo hujaza na kutoa hewa, na hivyo kufinya misuli na kuongeza kasi ya damu kwa kiwango cha hadi 500%. Mashine za IPC zimedhibitishwa kuwa madhubuti kwa wagonjwa wa upasuaji wa magoti na mapaja (watu wenye hatari ya juu ya hadi 80% bila matibabu ya kumkinga mgonjwa) dhidi ya DVT na PE (kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu). Vinginevyo, kati ya miligramu 150 na 300 ya aspirini zinaweza kuchukuliwa. ===Ujauzito=== {{Main|Hypercoagulability in pregnancy}} Hatari ya kupata thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa huongezeka wkati wa ujauzito kutokana na utaratibu wa uzoefu wa kimwili wa kuongezeka kwa ugandaji wa kupindukia kwa kuzuia kutoka damu baada ya kujifungua.<ref name="gresele"></ref> Hata hivyo, ikichanganywa na hali za msingi za kuganda kupindukia, hatari ya kupata thrombosi au mgando damuni inaweza kuwa kubwa.<ref name="gresele">[47] ^ Ukurasa wa 264 kwa: {{cite book |author=Gresele, Paolo |title=Platelets in hematologic and cardiovascular disorders: a clinical handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/plateletsinhemat0000unse |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-521-88115-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Ingawa makubaliano ya kijumla kati ya madaktari ni kuwa usalama wa mama ni muhimu kuliko ule wa kijusi kiachokua, mabadiliko katika utaratibu wa ukingaji mgando wakati wa ujauzito unaweza kuwa kufanywa ili kupunguza hatari kwa kijusi kinachokua huku viwango vya matibabu dhidi ya mgando vikiendelezwa kwa mama. Shida kuu na kuzuia mgando katika ujauzito ni kuwa wafarini, kinza mgando inayotumiwa zaidi kwa visa sugu, inajulikana kuwa na athari za kusababisha ulemavu katika kijusi ikitumiwa katika kipindi cha awali cha ujauzito.<ref name="Sathienkijkanchai-2005">{{cite journal | author=Sathienkijkanchai A, Wasant P. | title=Fetal warfarin syndrome. | journal=J Med Assoc Thai | year=2005 | volume=88 | issue=Suppl 8 | pages=S246–50 | pmid=16856447}}</ref><ref name="Schaefer-2006">{{cite journal | author=Schaefer C, Hannemann D, Meister R, Eléfant E, Paulus W, Vial T, Reuvers M, Robert-Gnansia E, Arnon J, De Santis M, Clementi M, Rodriguez-Pinilla E, Dolivo A, Merlob P. | title=Vitamin K antagonists and pregnancy outcome. A multi-centre prospective study. | journal=Thromb Haemost | year=2006 | volume=95 | issue=6 | pages=949–57 | pmid=16732373 | doi=10.1160/TH06-02-0108}}</ref> ===Wasafiri=== {{Main|Traveller's thrombosis}} Kuna ushahidi wa kimatibabu unaoonyesha kwamba kuvaa soksi au soksi ndefu za mgandamizo wakati wa kusafiri pia hupunguza matukio ya thrombosi kwa watu wanaosafiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi. Utafiti bila kufuata mpangilio maalum katika mwaka wa 2001 ulilinganisha makundi mawili ya abiria waliokuwa wanasfiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi, kundi moja lilivaa soksi za mgandamizo na kundi lingine halikuvaa soksi hizo. Abiria wote walikaguliwa na kupimwa damu ili kuangalia uwepo wa DVT. Matokeo yalionyesha kwamba DVT isiyo na dalili ilitokea katika 10% ya abiria ambao hawakuvaa soksi za mgando. Kundi lililovaa soksi za mgando halikuwa na DVT. Waandishi walihitimisha kuwa kuvaa soksi nyumbufu za mgando kunapunguza matukio ya DVT kati ya abiria wanaosafiri kwa ndege kwa masaa mengi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Scurr JH, Machin SJ, Bailey-King S, Mackie IJ, McDonald S, Smith PD |title=Frequency and prevention of symptomless deep-vein thrombosis in long-haul flights: a randomised trial |journal=Lancet |volume=357 |issue=9267 |pages=1485–9 |year=2001 |month=Mei |pmid=11377600 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04645-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2001-05-12_357_9267/page/n31}}</ref>. ==Udhibiti== ===Kulazwa hospitalini=== Matibabu nyumbani ni chaguo kulingana na uchambuzi mmoja wa matokeo uliofanywa na Ushirikiano wa Cochrane.<ref name="pmid17636714">{{cite journal |author=Othieno R, Abu Affan M, Okpo E |title=Home versus in-patient treatment for deep vein thrombosis |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD003076 |year=2007 |pmid=17636714 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003076.pub2}}</ref> Kulaza mgonjwa hospitalini kunafaa kufikiriwa kwa wagonjwa wenye zaidi ya sababu mbili kati ya sababu zifuatazo za hatari kwa kuwa wagonjwa hawa wanaweza kuwa na hatari zaidi ya kupata matatizo wakati wa matibabu<ref name="pmid16926081">{{cite journal |author=Trujillo-Santos J, Herrera S, Page MA, ''et al.'' |title=Predicting adverse outcome in outpatients with acute deep vein thrombosis. findings from the RIETE Registry |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-vascular-surgery_2006-10_44_4/page/789 |journal=J. Vasc. Surg. |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=789–93 |year=2006 |pmid=16926081 |doi=10.1016/j.jvs.2006.06.032}}</ref>: * DVT ya pande mbili * ugonjwa wa figo * uzito wa chini wa mwili (<70 kg/154 lbs) * kupoteza uwezo wa kusonga hivi karibuni * kusita kwa moyo cha kiwango sugu * saratani ===Kinza mgando=== {{Main|Anticoagulation}} Kinza mgando ndiyo tiba ya kawaida ya DVT. Kwa ujumla, wagonjwa huanza matibabu ya heparini kwa muda mfupi (yaani, chini ya wiki moja) huku wakianza matibabu ya kati ya miezi 3 hadi 6 ya warfarin (au vizuizi husika vya vitamini K). Heparini yenye uzito wa chini wa molekiuli (LMWH) unapendelewa zaidi,<ref name="pmid17261857">{{cite journal |author=Snow V, Qaseem A, Barry P, ''et al.'' |title=Management of venous thromboembolism: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Academy of Family Physicians |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=146 |issue=3 |pages=204–10 |year=2007 |pmid=17261857 |doi=|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/146/3/204}}</ref> ingawa heparini ambayo haijagawanywa hupewa kwa wagonjwa walio na ukataaji kwa LMWH (kwa mfano, mafigo kushindwa kufanya kazi au uhitaji wa haraka wa upasuaji). Katika wagonjwa wneye ''DVT inayorudi mara kwa mara'' (mbili au zaidi), kinza mgando kwa ujumla hutumika "kwa maisha." Cochrane Collaboration umechambua matokeo ya hatari na faida za matumizi ya muda mrefu ya kinza mgando.<ref name="pmid16437432">{{cite journal |author=Hutten BA, Prins MH |title=Duration of treatment with vitamin K antagonists in symptomatic venous thromboembolism |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD001367 |year=2006 |pmid=16437432 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001367.pub2}}</ref> Mara tu thrombosisi inapotibiwa na vikolezo vya kukondesha RBC (seli nyekundu za damu), eneo lilioathirika lina nafasi nzuri ya kurudi kwa idadi yake ya kawaida. Hata hivyo, vikolezo vya kukondesha havipunguzi uwezekano wa uzibaji wa ateri ya mapafu wala ile ya koronari. Kwa hivyo, ingawa eneo lilioathiriwa na thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa (yaani miguu) linaweza kusita kuganda, uzibaji wa ateri ya mapafu bado unawezekana. Kiwango kisicho cha kawaida cha D-dimer mwishoni mwa matibabu kinaweza kuashiria haja ya kiendelea na matibabu kati ya wagonjwa wenye thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa ya kwanza ambayo haijachochewa.<ref name="pmid17065639">{{cite journal |author=Palareti G, Cosmi B, Legnani C, ''et al.'' |title=D-dimer testing to determine the duration of anticoagulation therapy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-10-26_355_17/page/1780 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=355 |issue=17 |pages=1780–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17065639 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa054444}}</ref> Licha ya ukweli kwamba hakuna anayepingana na jambo hili, kwa kuzingatia uchambuzi wa matokeo uliofanywa na Ushirikiano wa Cochrane ambapo walipata jaribio mmoja tu lisilo na utaratibu maalum la kinza mgando dhidi ya kipozaungo katika matibabu ya VTE (Tromboemboli ya vena) ambapo hapakuwa na tofauti kubwa kati ya yote mawili.<ref name="pmid16437461">{{cite journal| author=Cundiff DK, Manyemba J, Pezzullo JC| title=Anticoagulants versus non-steroidal anti-inflammatories or placebo for treatment of venous thromboembolism. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2006 | volume= | issue= 1 | pages= CD003746 | pmid=16437461 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003746.pub2 }}</ref> Mapendekezo ya sasa kwa matibabu ya awali ya DVT sugu ni pamoja na kuongezwa kwa kipinga vitamini K (VKA) pamoja na LMWH au UFH katika siku ya kwanza ya matibabu.<ref name="Büller2004">{{cite journal |author=Harry R. Büller, Giancarlo Agnelli, Russel D. Hull, Thomas M. Hyers, Martin H. Prins, and Gary E. Raskob |title=Antithrombotic Therapy for Venous Thromboembolic Disease: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy |journal=Chest |volume=126 |issue=3 |pages=401S–428S |date=Septemba 2004 |doi=10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.401S |pmid=15383479 |url=http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/126/3_suppl/401S.full |accessdate=12 Agosti 2010 |archive-date=2020-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200914200755/http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/126/3_suppl/401S.full |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Heparini inaweza kukomeshwa wakati ambapo uwiano wa kimataifa wa kawaida (INR) ni imara na kubwa zaidi ya 2.0. Katika muda na nguvu ya matibabu dhidi ya DVT sugu ya mguu, mapendekezo ni pamoja na yafuatayo: * kwa wagonjwa wenye sehemu ya kwanza ya DVT, inayofuata sababu za hatari ya mpito (inayoweza kutibiwa), matibabu ya muda mrefu kwa kutumia VKA kwa miezi 3. * kwa wagonjwa wenye sehemu ya kwanza ya DVT yenye asili isiyojulikana, matibabu kwa kutumia VKA kwa angalau miezi 6 adi 12. Kipimo cha dawa cha VKA kinabadilishwa ili kudumisha INR katika safu ya 2.0 hadi 3.0. * kwa uzuiaji wa dalili za baada ya thrombosi, matumizi ya soksi nyumbufu yanapendekezwa. ===Thrombolaisi (uyeyushaji wa madonge ya damu)=== {{Main|Thrombolysis}} Thrombolaisi kwa ujumla umehifadhiwa kwa madonge mengi ya damu, kwa mfano thrombosi ya utumbo na paja. Ingawa uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio yasiyofuata utaratibu maalum yaliyodhibitiwa ya Ushirikiano wa Cochrane yanaonyesha matokeo bora zaidi ya thrombolaisi,<ref name="pmid15495034">{{cite journal |author=Watson L, Armon M |title=Thrombolysis for acute deep vein thrombosis |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue= 4|pages=CD002783 |year= 2004|pmid=15495034 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002783.pub2}}</ref> huenda kukawa na ongezeko la matatizo makuu ya kutokwa damu. Mnamo Julai 2008, Chuo cha Madaktari wa Kifua cha Marekani (ACCP) kilichapisha miongozo mipya ya matibabu yeye misingi ya ushahidi kwa kutibu ugonjwa wa ugandaji wa damu katika vena (VTE) ambao kwa mara ya kwanza walipendekeza matumizi ya thrombolaisi isiyohusisha upasuaji kwa kutibu baadhi ya matukio sugu ya DVT. Mwongozo kamili wa ACCP VTE wa mwaka wa 2008 unaweza kupakuliwa bila malipo kutoka: [http://www.TheNewGuidelines.org TheNewGuidelines.org] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thenewguidelines.org/ |date=20180323232520 }} ===Thrombektomia=== Thrombasi zinaweza kuondolewa kwa kutumia chombo cha kimakanika cha thrombectomia. Matumizi ya zaidi ya tiba moja kwa kutumia chombo cha kimakanika cha thrombektomia kwa kutoa madawa ya kuyeyusha damu katika sehemu maalumu yamepewa kipaumbele hivi karibuni kama dawa ya kutibu DVT. ===Soksi za kubana=== Soksi nyumbufu za kubana zinafaa kutumiwa mara kwa mara "katika muda wa mwezi 1 wa utambuzi wa DVT inayopakana na kuendelea kwa angalau mwaka 1 baada ya utambuzi."<ref name="pmid17261857"></ref> Kuanzia kuzitumia kabla ya wiki moja kupita kunaweza kuleta matokeo bora zaidi.<ref name="pmid15313740">{{cite journal |author=Prandoni P, Lensing AW, Prins MH, ''et al.'' |title=Below-knee elastic compression stockings to prevent the post-thrombotic syndrome: a randomized, controlled trial |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2004-08-17_141_4/page/n48 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=141 |issue=4 |pages=249–56 |year=2004 |pmid=15313740 |doi=}}</ref> Katika majaribio yote, soksi hizo zilikuwa na ''nguvu zaidi kuliko soksi za kawaida za mgando'' na ziliunda ama milimita 20 hadi 30 kwa Hg au 30 hadi 40 mm kwa Hg. Majaribio mengi yalitumia soksi zinazofika kwenye goti. Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio yaliyodhibitiwa na kuteuliwa bila mpangilio wowote na Cochrane Collaboration ulionyesha kupunguka kwa matukio ya dalili za baada ya thrombosi.<ref name="pmid14974060">{{cite journal |author=Kolbach D, Sandbrink M, Hamulyak K, Neumann H, Prins M |title=Non-pharmaceutical measures for prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue= 1|pages=CD004174 |year= 2003|pmid=14974060 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004174.pub2}}</ref> Idadi inayohitajika kutibu ni ya juu kiasi, kati ya wagonjwa 4 hadi 5 wanaohitaji kuwa wametibiwa ili kuzuiz tukio moja la dalili za baada ya thrombosi.<ref name="pmid17003920">{{cite journal |author=Kakkos S, Daskalopoulou S, Daskalopoulos M, Nicolaides A, Geroulakos G |title=Review on the value of graduated elastic compression stockings after deep vein thrombosis |journal=Thromb Haemost |volume=96 |issue=4 |pages=441–5 |year=2006 |pmid=17003920}}</ref> ===Chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo=== {{Main|Inferior vena cava filter}} Chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo hupunguza kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu<ref name="pmid9459643">{{cite journal |author=Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F, Page Y, Tardy B, Girard P, Laporte S, Faivre R, Charbonnier B, Barral F, Huet Y, Simonneau G |title=A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Prévention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_1998-02-12_338_7/page/n48 |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=338 |issue=7 |pages=409–15 |year=1998 |pmid=9459643 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199802123380701}}</ref> na ni chaguo kwa wagonjwa wenye ukataaji wa matibabu dhidi ya ugandaji (kwa mfano, vujabongo) au wagonjwa nadra ambao wana kumbukumbu kadhaa za PE (kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu) wakati wanapopata matibabu dhidi ya ugandaji. Chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo (ambao pia unajulikana kama ''chujio la Greenfield)'' linaweza kuzuia kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu katika mguu wenye damu iliyoganda. Hata hivyo, chujio hizi zenyewe zina uwezo wa kusababisha thrombosi,<ref name="pmid16009794">{{cite journal |author= |title=Eight-year follow-up of patients with permanent vena cava filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism: the PREPIC (Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave) randomized study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_circulation_2005-07-19_112_3/page/n141|journal=Circulation |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=416–22 |year=2005 |pmid=16009794|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.512834 |last1= Prepic Study |first1= Group}}</ref> chujio za IVC zinachukuliwa kama hatua ya muda ya kuzuia uzibaji kwa ateri ya mapafu unaoweza kusababisha kifo.<ref name="pmid17636834">{{cite journal |author=Young T, Aukes J, Hughes R, Tang H |title=Vena caval filters for the prevention of pulmonary embolism |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD006212 |year=2007 |pmid=17636834 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006212.pub2}}</ref> ==Ubashiri== Dalili za baadaye za thrombosi hutokea katika 15% ya wagonjwa wenye thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa (DVT). Hujitokeza kwa oedema ya mguu, maumivu, mbano wa usiku, uchechemeaji wa vena, rangi ya ngozi, uvimbe-ngozi na vidonda (kwa kawaida kwenye sehemu ya kati ya upande wa chini wa mguu). ==Epidemiolojia== DVT hutokea kwa takribani mtu mmoja kwa kila watu 1,000 kwa mwaka. Inakadiriwa kuwa takribani Wamarekani 350,000 hadi 600,000 kila mwaka huugua kutokana na DVT na kuziba kwa ateri ya mapafu na angalau vifo 100,000 huenda zina uhusiano wa moja kwa moja au usio wa moja kwa moja na magonjwa hayo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/deepvein/calltoaction/call-to-action-on-dvt-2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism 2008 |accessdate=2008-10-13 |archivedate=2012-02-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226224405/http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/deepvein/calltoaction/call-to-action-on-dvt-2008.pdf }}</ref> DVT ni nadra kati ya watoto. Takribani mtu 1 kati ya watu 100,000 wenye umri chini ya miaka 18 hupata thrombosi ya kina cha mshipa, pengine kutokana na kiwango cha juu cha mipigo ya moyo kwa dakika, hali ya maisha yenye mazoezi mengi ikilinganishwa na watu wazima, na uambatani chache zaidi (kwa mfano donda ndugu). Kwa wanawake wajawazito, ina matukio ya 0.5 hadi 7 kwa kila mimba 1,000, na sababu ya pili kuu zaidi ya vifo vya wajawazito katika nchi zilizoendelea baada ya kutokwa na damu.<ref name="uppsala">[89] ^ Ugonjwa wa ugandaji wa damu katika vena (VTE) - Mwongozo wa matibabu katika majimbo ya C. Bengt Wahlström, idara ya matibabu ya Dharura, Hospitali ya kielimu ya Uppsala. Januari 2008</ref> ==Tazama pia== * Venogramu (matibabu) ==Marejeo (Kwa lugha ya Kingereza)== {{Marejeo|2}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.NATFonline.org Baraza la Thrombosi la Marekani Kaskazini: Wagonjwa na Wataalamu wa Kiafya wanaofanya kazi pamoja ili kuboresha uzuiaji, utambuzi na matibabu ya thrombosi na magonjwa ya moyo na mishipa.] * [http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/133/6_suppl Chuo cha Marekani cha Madaktari wa kifua 2008 Miongozo yenye misingi ya ushahidi Hospitali ushahidi wa kiafya kwa Magonjwa ya ugandaji wa damu katika vena (VTE)] * [http://www.isth.org/ Jumuiya ya Kimataifa kuhusu Thrombosi na Hemostasi] {{Wayback|url=http://www.isth.org/ |date=20150512092608 }} * [http://www.dvt-awareness.co.uk/ Kampeni zinazoendelea za kubadilisha madaktari na taratibu za hospitali za kiskoti kuhusu DVT] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dvt-awareness.co.uk/ |date=20081222124350 }} * [http://www.debakeydepartmentofsurgery.org/home/content.cfm?proc_name=Deep+Vein+Thrombosis&amp;content_id=272 Habari kwa wagonjwa kuhusu DVT] * [http://www.alightervein.com A Lighter Vein.com - Uzuiaji wa DVT na sokisi za mgandamizo] {{Wayback|url=http://www.alightervein.com/ |date=20130523052243 }} [[Category:damu]] [[Category:Magonjwa ya mishipa]] i20d8nh1lnf0k4o7hpjeuwp4z8rmq26 0 55734 1564503 1511877 2026-06-02T17:37:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Italic title}} {{Taxobox | color = lightgrey | status = | image = E. coli Bacteria (7316101966).jpg | image_width = 250px | domain = [[Bacteria]] | phylum = [[Proteobacteria]] | classis = [[Gammaproteobacteria]] | ordo = [[Enterobacteriaceae|Enterobacteriales]] | familia = [[Enterobacteriaceae]] | genus = ''[[Escherichia]]'' | species = '''''E. coli''''' | binomial = ''Escherichia coli'' | binomial_authority = ([[Walter Migula|Migula]] 1895)<br>[[Castellani]] and [[Chalmers]] 1919 | synonyms = ''Bacillus coli communis'' <small>[[Theodor Escherich|Escherich]] 1885</small> }} '''''Escherichia coli''''' (ilipewa jina la Theodor Escherich; kwa kawaida hufupisha kama '''''E. coli''''', tamka: ɛʃɘˈrɪɣiɑ ˈkoʊli) ni bakteria ya Gramu hasi yenye umbo la fimbo ambayo kwa kawaida hupatikana katika utumbo wa chini wa viumbe wenye damu moto (endothamu). Aina nyingi za''E.'' ''koli'' si hatari, lakini nyingine, kama vile serotaipu [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|O157: H7]], zinaweza kusababisha madhara makubwa ya sumu ya chakula katika [[Binadamu|binadamu]], na mara kwa mara husababisha bidhaa kurejeshwa kwa watengenezaji.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web | title=''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7| work=CDC Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases | url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/escherichiacoli_g.htm | accessdate=2007-01-25}}</ref><ref name="Vogt">{{cite journal |author=Vogt RL, Dippold L |title=''Escherichia coli O157:H7'' outbreak associated with consumption of ground beef, June-July 2002 |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=174–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15842119 |pmc=1497708 }}</ref> Zile zisizo hatari ni sehemu ya kawaida ya viumbe vya utumbo, na zinaweza kufaidi wenyeji kwa kuzalisha vitamini K<sub>2,</sub><ref name="Bentley">{{cite journal |author=Bentley R, Meganathan R |title=Biosynthesis of vitamin K (menaquinone) in bacteria |journal=Microbiol. Rev. |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=241–80 |date=1 Septemba 1982|pmid=6127606 |pmc=281544 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6127606 }}</ref> na kwa kuzuia kuanzishwa kwa bakteria ya kusababisha magonjwa ndani ya utumbo.<ref name="Hudault">{{cite journal |author=Hudault S, Guignot J, Servin AL |title=''Escherichia coli'' strains colonising the gastrointestinal tract protect germfree mice against ''Salmonella typhimurium'' infection |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gut_2001-07_49_1/page/47 |journal=Gut |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=47–55 |year=2001 |month=Julai |pmid=11413110 |pmc=1728375 |doi=10.1136/gut.49.1.47 }}</ref><ref name="Reid">{{cite journal |author=Reid G, Howard J, Gan BS |title=Can bacterial interference prevent infection? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_2001-09_9_9/page/424 |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=424–8 |year=2001 |month=Septemba |pmid=11553454 |doi=10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02132-1 }}</ref> ''E. koli'' hazikai tu kwenye utumbo, na uwezo wao wa kuishi kwa muda mfupi nje ya mwili inazifanya viumbe viashiria halisi kupima sampuli za mazingira kwa ukolezi wa kinyesi.<ref name="Feng_2002"></ref><ref name="Thompson">{{cite news |first=Andrea |last=Thompson |title=E. coli Thrives in Beach Sands |url=http://www.livescience.com/health/070604_beach_ecoli.html |work= |publisher=Live Science |date=2007-06-04 |accessdate=2007-12-03 }}</ref> Bakteria hii inaweza kukuzwa kwa urahisi na jeni yake ni rahisi na inaweza kufanywa kwa urahisi au kurudiwa kwa kupitia mchakato wa metajeni, na kuifanya moja ya viumbe vya prokarioti ambavyo mifano yao imetafitiwa sana, na aina muhimu katika teknolojia ya mimea na mikrobiolojia. ''E. koli'' iligunduliwa na daktari wa watoto na mtafiti wa bakteria Mjerumani Theodor Escherich katika 1885,<ref name="Feng_2002">{{cite web | author=Feng P, Weagant S, Grant, M | title=Enumeration of ''Escherichia coli'' and the Coliform Bacteria | work=Bacteriological Analytical Manual (8th ed.) | publisher=FDA/Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition | date=2002-09-01 | url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ebam/bam-4.html | accessdate=2007-01-25 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519200935/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ebam/bam-4.html | archivedate=2009-05-19 }}</ref> na kwa sasa imeainishwa kama sehemu ya familia ya Enterobacteriaceae ya gamma proteobacteria[[.]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=561&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock |title=''Escherichia'' |accessdate=2007-11-30 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=Taxonomy Browser |publisher=NCBI}}</ref> == Aina == [[File:Life cycle of Escherichia coli.png|thumb|right|Mfano wa mfululizo wa mpasuko jozi katika E. koli]] Aina ya ''E. koli'' ni kikundi kidogo ndani ya jamii hiyo ambacho kina sifa za kipekee ambazo zinaitofautisha kutokana aina nyingine za ''E.'' ''koli.'' Tofauti hizi mara nyingi huweza kuonekana tu katika ngazi ya Masi, hata hivyo, zinaweza kuleta mabadiliko katika fiziolojia au maisha ya bakteria hii. Kwa mfano, aina inaweza kupata uwezo kusababisha magonjwa, uwezo wa matumizi ya chanzo cha kipekee cha kaboni , uwezo wa kupambana na shubaka fulani ya kimazingira au uwezo wa kupinga mawakala wa kumaliza mikrobu. Aina mbalimbali za ''E. koli'' mara nyingi hutegemea kimelea, na kuifanya rahisi kujua chanzo cha Ukolezi wa kinyesi katika sampuli ya mazingira.<ref name="Feng_2002"></ref><ref name="Thompson"></ref> Kwa mfano, kujua aina ya ''E.'' ''koli'' iliopo katika sampuli ya maji inaruhusu kufanya uamuzi kuhusu asili ya ukolezi kama umetoka kutoka kwa binadamu, [[mamalia]] mwingine au [[Ndege (mnyama)|ndege.]] Aina mpya za ''E. koli'' hufuka kwa njia ya mchakato wa asili wa kibiolojia na kupitia mabadiliko ya jeni na kupitia uhamisho wa upande<ref> Lawrence, JG na Ochman, H. (1998) Akiolojia ya Masi ya ''jenomu'' ya ''Esicherichia koli'' Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:9413-9417 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC21352/?tool=pubmed PMC21352]</ref>. Baadhi ya aina huendeleza sifa ambazo zinaweza kudhuru mnyama kimelea. Aina hizi zenye madhara kawaida husababisha wimbi la kuhara ambayo ni kero katika watu wazima na mara nyingi ni hatari kwa afya ya watoto katika nchi zinazoendelea duniani. <ref name="Nataro">{{cite journal |author=Nataro JP, Kaper JB |title=Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-microbiology-reviews_1998-01_11_1/page/142 |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Rev. |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=142–201 |year=1998 |month=Januari |pmid=9457432 |pmc=121379}}</ref> Aina hatari zaidi, kama vile [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|O157: H7]] husababisha ugonjwa mkubwa ugonjwa au kifo kwa wazee, wachanga sana au wenye kinga dhoofu.<ref name="Hudault"/><ref name="Nataro"></ref> == Biolojia na biokemia == ''E. koli'' ni Gramu-hasi, enerobu zinazozalisha ATP na zisizozalisha vijimbegu. Seli kwa kawaida huwa na umbo la fimbo na zina ukubwa wa karibu 2 [[Mikromita]]2 (μm) na kipenyo cha 0.5 μm , kwa kiasi cha kiini cha 0.6-0.7 μm <sup>3.</sup><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kubitschek HE |title=Cell volume increase in Escherichia coli after shifts to richer media |journal=J. Bacteriol. |volume=172 |issue=1 |pages=94–101 |date=1 Januari 1990|pmid=2403552 |pmc=208405 |url=http://jb.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2403552 }}</ref> Inaweza kuishi kwa aina mbalimbali ya nyenzo. ''E. koli'' inatumia kugandisha mchanganyiko-asidi katika hali anaerobiki, inayozalisha lakteti, susineti, ethanoli, asetati na [[Dioksidi kabonia|kaboni dioksidi.]] Kwa vile njia nyingi katika kugandisha asidi-mchanganyiko huzalisha gesi ya [[Hidrojeni|hidrojeni]], hizi njia uhitaji viwango vya hidrojeni kuwa chini, kama ilivyo wakati ''E. koli'' inapoishi pamoja naviumbe vinavyotumnia hidrojeni kama vile methanojeni au bakteria zinazopunguza salfeti.<ref>{{cite book | title=Brock Biology of microorganisms| author=Madigan MT, Martinko JM| year=2006| publisher=Pearson| isbn=0-13-196893-9| edition=11th}}</ref> Ukuaji wa juu wa ''E. koli'' hutokea katika kiwango cha joto cha 37 ° C (98.6 ° F) lakini aina nyingine za maabara zinaweza kuongezeka kwa joto la juu ya 49 ° C (120.2 ° F).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fotadar U, Zaveloff P, Terracio L |title=Growth of Escherichia coli at elevated temperatures |journal=J. Basic Microbiol. |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=403–4 |year=2005 |pmid=16187264 | doi = 10.1002/jobm.200410542 }}</ref> Ukuaji inaweza kuendeshwa na kupumua anaerobiki au aerobiki, kwa kutumia aina kubwa ya jozi redoksi, ikiwa ni pamoja na uoksidisha wa asidi piruvati, asidi fomi, [[hidrojeni]] na asidi amino, na kupunguza nyenzo kama vile [[Oksijeni|oksijeni]], nitrati, dimethili salfoksidi na trimethilamini oksidi-N.<ref name="Ingledew">{{cite journal |author=Ingledew WJ, Poole RK |title=The respiratory chains of Escherichia coli |journal=Microbiol. Rev. |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=222&ndash;71 |year=1984 |pmid=6387427 |pmc=373010}}</ref> Aina ambazo zina flajela zinaweza kuogelea na ni sogezi. flajela zina utaratibu wa viungo vya pembeni.<ref>[36] ^ Darnton NC, Turner L, Rojevsky S, Berg HC, Kuhusu msongonyo katika Esicherichia koli ya kuogelea. J Bacteriol. 2007 Machi, 189 (5) :1756-64. Epub 2006 22 Desemba.</ref> ''E. koli'' na bacteria zinazohusiana humiliki uwezo wa kuhamisha [[DNA]] kupitia bakteria za muungano, uhamisho wa DNA kutoka kwa seli ya bakteria hadi nyingine au mabadiliko, ambayo inaruhusu nyenzo za kijenetiki kueneza kiupande kwa jamii iliyopo. Utaratibu huu ulisababisha kuenea kwa mwandiko wa jeni wa sumu shiga kutoka ''Shigella'' hadi [[E. coli O157:H7]] , inayoenezwa kwa kilabakteria.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brüssow H, Canchaya C, Hardt WD |title=Phages and the evolution of bacterial pathogens: from genomic rearrangements to lysogenic conversion |journal=Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. |volume=68 |issue=3 |pagesteuhqw89-ty389q=560–602 |year=2004 |month=Septemba |pmid=15353570 |pmc=515249 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.68.3.560-602.2004 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15353570 |pages=560–602}}</ref> == Wajibu kama mikrobiota ya kawaida == ''E. koli'' kwa kawaida humiliki njia ya utumbo wa mtoto mchanga ndani ya masaa 40 baada ya kuzaliwa, huwasili kwa chakula au maji au kupitia kwa watu wanaombeba mtoto. Katika utumbo, hushikamana na kamasi ya utumbo mkubwa. Ni enerobu ya msingi ya kutengeneza ATP katika njia ya utumbo <ref name="Todar"></ref>wa binadamu. (Enerobu za kuzalisha ATP ni viumbe ambavyo vinaweza kukua katika uwepo au bila uwepo wa oksijeni.) Bora tu bakteria zisipate vipengele vya kijenetiki vya kusababisha madhara, hizo hazisababishi madhara.<ref name="Evans"></ref> === Matumizi ya kimatibabu ya ''E. ''koli'' '' isiyosababisha magonjwa === Aina ya ''Esicherichia koli'' ya Nissle 1917 pia ijulikanayo kama Mutaflor hutumika kama hamira katika dawa, hasa kwa ajili ya kutibu magonjwa mbalimbali ya njia ya utumbo, <ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Grozdanov | first1 = L | last2 = Raasch | first2 = C | last3 = Schulze | first3 = J | last4 = Sonnenborn | first4 = U | last5 = Gottschalk | first5 = G | last6 = Hacker | first6 = J | last7 = Dobrindt | first7 = U | title = Analysis of the genome structure of the nonpathogenic probiotic Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917. | journal = J Bacteriol | volume = 186 | issue = 16 | pages = 5432–41 | month= Agosti| year = 2004 | doi = 10.1128/JB.186.16.5432-5441.2004 | pmid = 15292145 | author2 = Raasch | author3 = Schulze | author4 = Sonnenborn | author5 = Gottschalk | author6 = Hacker | author7 = Dobrindt | pmc = 490877 }}</ref> ikiwa ni pamoja na ugonjwa wa uvimbe wa tumbo.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Kamada | first1 = N | last2 = Inoue | first2 = N | last3 = Hisamatsu | first3 = T | last4 = Okamoto | first4 = S | last5 = Matsuoka | first5 = K | last6 = Sato | first6 = T | last7 = Chinen | first7 = H | last8 = Hong | first8 = KS | last9 = Yamada | first9 = T | title = Nonpathogenic Escherichia coli strain Nissle1917 prevents murine acute and chronic colitis. | journal = Inflamm Bowel Dis | volume = 11 | issue = 5 | pages = 455–63 | month = Mei | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1097/01.MIB.0000158158.55955.de| pmid = 15867585 | author2 = Inoue | author3 = Hisamatsu | author4 = Okamoto | author5 = Matsuoka | author6 = Sato | author7 = Chinen | author8 = Hong | author9 = Yamada }}</ref> == Wajibu katika ugonjwa == Aina zenye madhara za ''E. koli'' zinaweza kusababisha gastroenteritisi, maambukizi ya njia ya mkojo, na [[Meningitis|ugonjwa wa uvimbe wa tando za uti wa mgongo na ubongo]] katika mwezi wa kwanza wa utotoni. Katika kesi adimu, aina zenye madhara husababisha ugonjwa wa haemoliti uremiki (HUS), peritonitisi, mastitisi, septikemia na kichomi cha Gramu-hasi.<ref name="Todar"></ref> === Maambukizi ya Utumbo === [[File:E coli at 10000x, original.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mikrografu ya kielektroni ya joto la chini ya nguzo za bakteria za E. koli, akasifiwa mara 10,000. Bakteria moja ni silinda ya mviringo.]] Baadhi ya aina za ''E. koli,'' kama vile [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|O157: H7]], O121 na [[Escherichia coli O104:H21|O104: H21]], huzalisha sumu zinazoweza kuwa hatari. Sumu ya chakula inayotokana na ''E. koli'' husababishwa na kula mboga amabzo hazikuoshwa au nyama ambayo haikupikwa vizuri. O157: H7 pia ina sifa mbaya ya kusababisha athari kubwa na hata kusababisha matatizo yenye kutishia maisha kama vile ugonjwa wa hemoliti-uremiki (HUS). Aina hii inahusishwa na mkurupuko wa 2006 wa ''E. coli'' huko [[Marekani]] kutokana na mchicha mbichi. Ukali wa ugonjwa unatofautiana mno, hivyo unaweza kuwa mbaya, hasa kwa watoto wadogo, wazee au walio na upungufu wa kinga, lakini ni mara nyingi si kali. Awali, njia zisizozingatia usafi katika kuandaa nyama nchini Uskoti kuliwaua watu saba mwaka 1996 kutokana na sumu ya ''E. koli'' , na kuacha mamia zaidi wakiwa wameambukizwa. ''E. koli'' inaweza kuhifadhi enterotoksini zisizoathiriwa na joto na zinazoathiriwa na joto. Hiyo ya mwisho, huitwa LT, ina sehemu moja A na tano za B zilizopangwa katika holotoksini moja, na ni sawa sana katika umbo na utendajikazi na sumu ya [[Kipindupindu|kipindupindu.]] Sehemu za B husaidia katika kushikilia na kuingia kwa sumu ndani ya seli za matumbo ya kimelea, wakati sehemu ya A hupasuliwa na kuzuia seli kufonyonza maji, na kusababisha kuhara. LT ni huzalishwa na njia ya uzalisha ya Aina ya 2.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tauschek M, Gorrell R, Robins-Browne RM, |title=Identification of a protein secretory pathway for the secretion of heat-labile enterotoxin by an enterotoxigenic strain of Escherichia coli | journal=PNAS | volume=99 |pages=7066–71 | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/10/7066 | pmid = 12011463 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.092152899 }}</ref> Iwapo bakteria za ''E. koli'' zitatoka kwenye njia ya utumbo kupitia utoboaji (kwa mfano kutoka kwa kidonda, na kiambatanisho kilichopasuka, au kutokana na makosa ya upasuaji a) na kuingia katika tumbo, kawaida husababisha peritonitisi ambayo inaweza kuwa hatari isipotibiwa haraka. Hata hivyo, ''E. koli'' ni nyeti sana kwa Antibiotiki kama vile streptomisini au gentamisini. Hii inaweza kubadilika kwani, kama ilivyobainishwa awali, ''E. koli'' hupata upinzani kwa dawa haraka.<ref name="SciDaily_2001">{{cite web | title=Gene Sequence Of Deadly E. Coli Reveals Surprisingly Dynamic Genome | publisher=Science Daily | url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/01/010125082330.htm | date=2001-01-25 | accessdate=2007-02-08}}</ref> Utafiti wa karibuni unaonyesha kwamba matibabu ya antibiotiki hayaboreshi matokeo ya ugonjwa huo, na yanaweza kuongeza pakubwa uwezekano wa kuugua ugonjwa wa haemolitiki uraemiki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wong CS, Jelacic S, Habeeb RL, et al. |title= The risk of the hemolytic-uremic syndrome after antibiotic treatment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections.| journal=N Engl J Med | volume=342 | issue=26 |pages=1930–6| pmid =10874060| date=29 Juni 2000}}</ref> Mukosa ya matumbo inayohusishwa na ''E. koli'' huonekana kwa idadi iliongezeka katika uvimbe wa tumbo ugonjwa, na ugonjwa wa Crohn na colitis ya vidonda.<ref name="Rolhion">{{cite journal |author=Rolhion N, Darfeuille-Michaud A |title=Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli in inflammatory bowel disease |journal=Inflamm. Bowel Dis. |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=1277–83 |year=2007 |pmid=17476674 |doi=10.1002/ibd.20176}}</ref> Aina za kuingilia za ''E. koli'' huwepo kwa idadi kubwa katika tishu zilizovimba, na idadi ya bakteria katika sehemu zilizofura zinawiana na ukali wa kuvimba tumbo.<ref name="Baumgart">{{cite journal |author=Baumgart M, Dogan B, Rishniw M, ''et al.'' |title=Culture independent analysis of ileal mucosa reveals a selective increase in invasive Escherichia coli of novel phylogeny relative to depletion of Clostridiales in Crohn's disease involving the ileum |journal=ISME J |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=403–18 |year=2007 |pmid=18043660 |doi=10.1038/ismej.2007.52}}</ref> ====Sifa hatari==== ''E. koli'' za matumbo (EC) huanishwa kwa misingi ya sifa za majimaji ya damu na tabia za uhatari.<ref name="Todar">{{cite web |url=http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/e.coli.html |title=Pathogenic ''E. coli'' |accessdate=2007-11-30 |last=Todar |first=K. |coauthors= |date= |work=Online Textbook of Bacteriology |publisher=University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Bacteriology |archive-date=2018-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729144111/http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/e.coli.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Virotaipu ni pamoja na: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Jina ! Vimelea ! Maelezo |- | ''E. koli'' '''Enterotoksijeniki ''' (ETEC) | chanzo cha kuhara (bila homa) kwa binadamu, nguruwe, kondoo, mbuzi, ng'ombe, mbwa, farasi | ETEC hutumia vinato vya fimbriali (vichomozi kutoka eneo la kiini cha bakteria ) kufunga seli za enterosaiti katika utumbo mdogo. ETEC unaweza kuzalisha enterotoksini mbili zenye [[Protini|protini:]]aina za ETEC haziingilii, na hazitoki kwenye lumeni ya matumbo. ETEC ni sababu ya bakteria inayoongoza ya kuhara kwa watoto katika nchi zinazoendelea duniani, na pia ni chanzo kikuu cha kuharisha kwa msafiri. Kila mwaka, ETEC husababisha milioni 200 kesi zaidi ya kuhara na vifo 380,000, wengi wao wakiwa watoto katika nchi zinazoendelea. <ref>[http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index4.html Shirika la Afya Duniani.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index4.html |date=20120515142857 }}[http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index4.html Enterotoksijeniki ''Esicherichia koli'' (ETEC).] {{Wayback|url=http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/diarrhoeal/en/index4.html |date=20120515142857 }}</ref> * protini kubwa kwa hizi mbili, ''' enterotoksini ya LT,''' ni sawa na sumu ya kipindupindu kimuundo na utendajikazi. |- | ''E. koli'' '''Enteropathojeniki ''' (EPEC) | Sababu ya kuhara kwa binadamu, sungura, mbwa, paka na farasi | Kama ETEC, EPEC pia husababisha kuhara, lakini utaratibu wa Masi wa ukoloni na etiolojia ni tofauti. EPEC hukosa fimbriae, na sumu ya ST na LT, lakini hutumia kinatisha kinachojulikana kama intimini kufunga seli za matumbo. Virotaipu hii ina mpangilio wa vipengele hatari ambazo ni sawa na zile zinazopatikana katika ''Shigela,'' na zinazweza kuwa na sumu shiga. Kunata kwa mukosa ya matumbo husababisha ya kupangwa tena kwa aktini katika seli kimelea, inayosababisha kulemaa sana. Seli za EPEC huvamia kwa kiasi (yaani hizo huingia katika seli kimelea) na kusababisha athari ya uvimbe Mabadiliko katika muundo wa msingi wa seli za matumbo kutokana na "kunatisha na kufutilia mbali" kunaweza kuwa sababu kuu ya kuhara kwa wale walioathiriwa na EPEC. |- | ''E. koli'' '''Vamizi ''' (EIEC) | hupatikana tu kwa binadamu | maambukizi ya EIEC husababisha ugonjwa unaofanana na Shigelosisi, na kuhara sana na homa kali. |- | ''E. koli'' ya '''Kuharisha damu ''' (EHEC) | hupatikana kwa binadamu, mifugo, na mbuzi | Mwanachama maarufu sana kwa virotaipu hii ni aina ya [[O157:H7]] , ambayo husababisha kuhara damu na haina homa. EHEC inaweza kusababisha ugonjwa hemolaiti-uremiki na kufeli ghafla kwa figo. Inatumia fimbriae ya kibakteria kwa kunata (pilusi ya kawaida ya E. koli , ECP), <ref>{{cite journal |last=Rendón |first=M. A. |authorlink= |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2007 |title=Commensal and pathogenic ''Escherichia coli'' use a common pilus adherence factor for epithelial cell colonization |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=104 |issue=25 |pages=10637–42 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0704104104 |url= |accessdate= |quote= |pmid=17563352 |pmc=1890562 }}</ref> huvamia kwa kiasi na ina sumu ya shiga ambayo inaweza kusababisha uvimbe wenye uchungu mwingi. |- | '''''E. koli'' Ya kukusanya ''' (EAEC) | hupatikana tu kwa binadamu | Imeitwa hivyo kwa sababu ina fimbriae ambazo hukusanya seli za tishu, EAEC hunata kwenye mukosa ya matumbo na kusababisha kuhara majimaji bila homa. EAEC si vamizi. Hizo huzalisha hemolaisini na enterotoksini ya ST sawa na ile ya ETEC. |} ==== Epidemolojia ya maambukizi ya utumbo ==== Kusambaa kwa ''E.'' ''koli'' inayosababisha magonjwa mara nyingi hutokea kwa kinyesi kuingia mdomoni.<ref name="Evans">{{cite web |url=http://www.gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch025.htm |title=Escherichia Coli |accessdate=2007-12-02 |last=Evans Jr. |first=Doyle J. |coauthors=Dolores G. Evans |date= |work=Medical Microbiology, 4th edition |publisher=The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston |archive-date=2007-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102062813/http://www.gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch025.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="haccp">{{cite web |url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/hret2-a3.html |title=Retail Establishments; Annex 3 - Hazard Analysis |accessdate=2007-12-02 |last= |first= |coauthors= |month=Aprili |year=2006 |work=Managing Food Safety: A Manual for the Voluntary Use of HACCP Principles for Operators of Food Service and Retail Establishments |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607221204/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/hret2-a3.html |archivedate=2007-06-07 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gehlbach |first=S.H. |coauthors=J.N. MacCormack, B.M. Drake, W.V. Thompson |year=1973 |month=Aprili |title=Spread of disease by fecal-oral route in day nurseries |journal=Health Service Reports |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=320–322 |pmid=4574421 |url= |quote= |pmc=1616047 }}</ref> Njia za kawaida za kusambaa ni pamoja na: maandalizi ya chakula yasiyozingatia usafi,<ref name="haccp"></ref>Ukolezi wa shamba kutokana na kuwekwa mbolea,<ref name="spinach">{{cite news |author=Sabin Russell |coauthors= |title=Spinach E. coli linked to cattle; Manure on pasture had same strain as bacteria in outbreak |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/10/13/MNG71LOT711.DTL |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |id= |date= 13 Oktoba 2006 |accessdate=2007-12-02 }}</ref> umwagiliaji maji wa mazao kwa maji taka kutoka bafu au jikoni yaliyosibikwa au maji taka yenye kinyesi, nguruwe mwitu katika nchi za kilimo,<ref name="DeGregori">{{cite web |author=Thomas R. DeGregori |date=2007-08-17 |url=http://www.cgfi.org/cgficommentary/maddening-media-misinformation-on-biotech-and-industrial-agriculture-part-5-of-5 |title=CGFI: Maddening Media Misinformation on Biotech and Industrial Agriculture |accessdate=2007-12-08 |format= |work= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013030645/http://www.cgfi.org/cgficommentary/maddening-media-misinformation-on-biotech-and-industrial-agriculture-part-5-of-5 |archivedate=2007-10-13 }}</ref> au matumizi ya moja kwa moja ya maji-taka yaliyosibikwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chalmers |first=R.M. |coauthors=H. Aird, F.J. Bolton |year=2000 |title=Waterborne ''Escherichia coli'' O157 |journal=Society for Applied Microbiology Symposium Series |volume= |issue=29 |pages=124S–132S |pmid=10880187}}</ref> Ng'ombe wa maziwa na nyama ni hifadhi ya msingi ya ''E. koli'' O157: H7,<ref name="bach"></ref> na wanaweza kuibeba bila dalili na kuimwaga katika vinyesi vyao. Bidhaa za chakula zinazohusiana na kuzuka kwa ''E. koli'' ni pamoja na nyama mbichi,<ref>{{cite book |last=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7 in Ground Beef: Review of a Draft Risk Assessment |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10528 |edition= |series= |year=2002 |publisher=The National Academies Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0-309-08627-2 |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |author=Committee on the Review of the USDA E. coli O157:H7 Farm-to-Table Process Risk Assessment, Board on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. }}</ref> mbegu ghafi zinazootesha au mchicha,<ref name="spinach"></ref> maziwa ghafi, juisi ambayo haijaondolewa vijidudu, siagi ambayo haijaondolewa vijidudu na vyakula vilivyosibikwa na wafanyakazi wa chakula kupitia njia ya kinyesi na mdomo.<ref name="haccp"></ref> Kwa mujibu wa Tawala za Marekani za Chakula na Dawa ,mzunguko wa njia ya kinyesi na mdomo wa usambazaji unaweza kukatizwa kwa kupika vyakula vizuri, kuzuia kusabikiwa, kuanzisha vikwazo kama vile glavu za mipira kwa wafanyakazi wa vyakula, kuanzisha sera za huduma ya afya ili wafanyakazi wa sekta ya chakula kutafuta matibabu wakati wao ni wagonjwa, kuondoa vijidudu kwa maziwa au juisi na mahitaji halisi ya kuosha mkono.<ref name="haccp"></ref> ''E. koli zinazozalisha sumu ya '' Shiga (STEC), hasa serotaipu O157: H7, pia husambazwa na nzi,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Szalanski A, Owens C, McKay T, Steelman C |title=Detection of ''Campylobacter'' and ''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7 from filth flies by polymerase chain reaction |journal=Med Vet Entomol |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=241–6 |year=2004 |url=http://doi.org/10.1111/j.0269-283X.2004.00502.x | pmid = 15347391 | doi = 10.1111/j.0269-283X.2004.00502.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Sela S, Nestel D, Pinto R, Nemny-Lavy E, Bar-Joseph M |title=Mediterranean fruit fly as a potential vector of bacterial pathogens |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_applied-and-environmental-microbiology_2005-07_71_7/page/4052 |journal=Appl Environ Microbiol |volume=71 |issue=7 |pages=4052–6 |year=2005 |pmid = 16000820 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.71.7.4052-4056.2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Alam M, Zurek L |title=Association of ''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7 with houseflies on a cattle farm |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_applied-and-environmental-microbiology_2004-12_70_12/page/7578 |journal=Appl Environ Microbiol |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=7578–80 |year=2004 |pmid=15574966 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.70.12.7578-7580.2004 }}</ref> na pia kugusana moja kwa moja na wanyama wa shambani,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rahn |first=K. |coauthors=S.A. Renwick, R.P. Johnson, J.B. Wilson, R.C. Clarke, D. Alves, S.A. McEwen, H. Lior, J. Spika |title=Follow-up study of verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli infection in dairy farm families |journal=Journal of Infectious Disease |volume=177 |issue=4 |pages=1139–1140 |year=1998 |month=Aprili |pmid=9535003 |doi=10.1086/517394}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Trevena |first=W.B. |coauthors=G.A Willshaw, T. Cheasty, G. Domingue, C. Wray |title=Transmission of Vero cytotoxin producing ''Escherichia coli'' O157 infection from farm animals to humans in Cornwall and west Devon |journal=Community Disease and Public Health |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=263–268 |year=1999 |month=Desemba |pmid=10598383}}</ref> kuwagusa wanyama wa pori waliofugwa,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Heuvelink |first=A.E. |coauthors=C. van Heerwaarden, J.T. Zwartkruis-Nahuis, R. van Oosterom, K. Edink, Y.T. van Duynhoven and E. de Boer |title=''Escherichia coli'' O157 infection associated with a petting zoo |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_epidemiology-and-infection_2002-10_129_2/page/n62 |journal=Epidemiology and Infection |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=295–302 |year=2002 |month=Oktoba |pmid=12403105 | doi = 10.1017/S095026880200732X }}</ref> na chembechembe zinazopeperuka hewani zinazopatikana katika mazingira ya ufugaji wanyama.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Varma |first=J.K. |coauthors=K.D. Greene, M.E. Reller, S.M. DeLong, J. Trottier, S.F. Nowicki, M. DiOrio, E.M. Koch, T.L. Bannerman, S.T. York, M.A. Lambert-Fair, J.G. Wells, P.S. Mead |title=An outbreak of ''Escherichia coli'' O157 infection following exposure to a contaminated building |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2003-11-26_290_20/page/n82 |journal=JAMA |volume=290 |issue=20 |pages=2709–2712 |year=2003 |month=26 Novemba |pmid=14645313 | doi = 10.1001/jama.290.20.2709 }}</ref> === Maambukizi ya njia ya mkojo === [[File:E choli Gram.JPG|thumb|200px|Bakteria ya E. koli, viumbe wenye gramu-hasi wanaopatikana kwa wingi sana katika utumbo <ref> [100] </ref>.]] ''E. koli'' ya Uropathojeniki (UPEC) huwa chanzo cha takriban 90% ya maambukizi ya njia ya mkojo (UTI) kuonekanako katika watu wenye maumbile ya kawaida.<ref name="Todar"></ref> Katika ''maambukizi yanayoongezeka,'' bakteria ya kinyesi hutawala yurethra na kuenea kwenda juu kwa njia ya mkojo na kibofu cha mkojo na vilevile mafigo (kusababisha athari ya kuvimba kwa mafigo na fupanyonga lake),<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicolle LE |title=Uncomplicated urinary tract infection in adults including uncomplicated pyelonephritis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urologic-clinics-of-north-america_2008-02_35_1/page/n14 |journal=Urol. Clin. North Am. |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–12, v |year=2008 |month=Februari |pmid=18061019 |doi=10.1016/j.ucl.2007.09.004}}</ref> au tezi kibofu katika wanaume. Kwa sababu wanawake wana yurethra fupi kuliko wanaume, wao wana uwezekano mara 14 zaidi kuugua kutokana na kupanda kwa UTI.<ref name="Todar"></ref> Uropathojeniki za ''E. koli'' hutumia fimbriae P (kuvimba kwa mafigo na fupanyonga lake inayohusiana na pili) ili [[wikt:bind|kufunga]] seli za endotheli za njia ya mkojo na kutawala kibofu cha mkojo. [[wikt:adhesin|Vinata]] hivi hufunga D-galaktosi-D-galaktosi [[wiktionary:moiety|ya kundi tendakazi la molekuli]] kwenye kundi P la antijeni ya damu ya erythrosaiti na seli uroepitheli.<ref name="Todar"></ref> Takriban 1% ya binadamu hawana hukosa vipokezi hivi, na uwepo au ukosefu wake huamua uwezekano wa mtu kuathiriwa na ''E.'' ''koli'' ya njia ya mkojo. Uropathojeniki za ''E. koli'' huzalisha hemolaisini za alpha na beta, hiyo husababisha lisisi ya seli za njia ya mkojo. UPEC inaweza kuepuka kinga ya ndani ya mwili (kwa mfano mfumo wa kusaidia) kwa kuvamia mwavuli wa juu juu wa seli na kuunda jamii ya bakteria ndani ya seli(IBC s).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Justice S, Hunstad D, Seed P, Hultgren S |title=Filamentation by Escherichia coli subverts innate defenses during urinary tract infection |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=103 |issue=52 |pages=19884–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17172451 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0606329104 }}</ref> Hizo pia zina uwezo wa kuunda antijeni K, polisakaraidi zenye umbo la kapsuli ambazo huchangia ukuaji wa viumbe vinavyokuwa vimeshikamana. ''E. koli'' zinazozalisha viumbe vinavyokuwa vimeshikamana ni kinzani kwa vipengele vya kinga na tiba ya [[Antibaotiki|antibiotiki]] na mara nyingi huwa chanzo cha maambukizi sugu ya njia ya mkojo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ehrlich G, Hu F, Shen K, Stoodley P, Post J |title=Bacterial plurality as a general mechanism driving persistence in chronic infections |journal=Clin Orthop Relat Res |volume= |issue=437 |pages=20–4 |year=2005 |month=Agosti |pmid=16056021 |pmc=1351326 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0606329104 }}</ref> Maambukizi ya ''E.'' ''koli'' yanayozalisha antijeni-K kwa kawaida hupatikana katika sehemu ya juu ya njia ya mkojo.<ref name="Todar"></ref> ''Maambukizi yanayoshuka,'' ingawa kwa kiasi ni nadra, hutokea wakati seli za ''E. koli'' huingia katika viungo vya juu vya njia ya mkojo ([[Figo|figo]], kibofu cha mkojo au ureta) kutoka mkondo wa damu. ===Ugonjwa wa uvimbe wa tando za uti wa mgongo na ubongo wa utotoni=== Huzalishwa na serotaipu ya ''Esicherichia koli'' ambayo ina antijeni ya kikapsuli iitwayo K1. Ukoloni wa matumbo ya mtoto mchanga kwa mashina haya, ambayo yako katika uke wa mama, husababisha bakteriemia, ambayo inapelekea kwa [[Meningitis|ugonjwa uvimbe wa tando za uti wa mgongo na ubongo.]] Na kwa sababu ya kukosekana kwa kingamwili ya IgM kutoka kwa mama (hizi hazivuki kondo kwa sababu FcRn husimamia uhamisho wa IgG), pamoja na kuwa mwili hutambua antijeni K1 kama yake, kwa kuwa inafanana na serebali ya glikopeptidi, hii husababisha ugonjwa mkali wa uvimbe wa tando za uti wa mgongo na ubongo katika watoto wachanga. == Uaguzi wa kimaabara == Katika sampuli za kinyesi masomo ya hadumini huonyesha fimbo za Gramu hasi, bila mpango maalum wa seli. Kisha, aidha agari MacConkey au agari EMB (au zote) inachanjwa kwa kinyesi. Katika agari MacConkey, makoloni nyekundu ya kina huzalishwa kwa kiumbe kina laktosi, na kuchachishwa kwa sukari hii husababisha [[Thamani pH|pH]] ya chombo kushuka, na hivyo kusababisha chombo kuwa giza. Ukuaji katika agari Levini EMB hutoa koloni nyeusi na mngaro wa kimetali wa rangi ya nyeusi-kijani. Huu niutambuzi wa ''E. koli.'' Kiumbe pia kina laisini, na hukua kwa TSI iliyopinda kwa mtazamo wa (A / A / g + / H <sub>2 </sub>S-). Pia, IMViC ni + + - kwa ''E. koli,'' kama ni 2}indoli yake chanya (pete nyekundu) na methili nyekundu chanya (nyekundu angavu), lakini VP hasi (hakuna mabadiliko-haina rangi) na sitreti hasi (rangi ya kijani-hakuna mabadiliko). Vipimo vya uzalishaji wa sumu viaweza kutumia seli za mamalia katika tishu, ambazo huuawa haraka kwa sumu shiga. Ingawa inaathirika kwa urahisi sana na ni maalum sana, utaratibu huu ni wa polepole na wa gharama kubwa. Utambuzi wa kawaida umefanyika kwa kukuza viini kwa chombo cha sobitoli cha MacConkey kisha kutumia antiserumu ya kuandika. Hata hivyo, mipira ya kuchanganua kiasi cha dutu na baadhi antiserumu za kuandika umeonyesha athari za kuvuka na koloni zisizo za E koli O157. Aidha, si aina zote za E. coli O157 zinazohusiana na HUS ni vichachishaji vya sobitoli. Baraza la Jimbo na Wanaepidemiolojia wa Wamaeneo walipendekeza kwamba maabara ya kliniki angalau yapime vinyesi vyote vyenye damu kwa uwepo wa pathojeni hii. Chama cha Marekani cha Msingi wa Magonjwa ya Njia ya Tumbo(AGAF) kilipendekeza katika Julai 1994 kuwa sampuli zote za kinyesi zipimwe mara kwa mara kwa uwepo wa E. koli O157: H7.{{Citation needed|date=Novemba 2008}} Inapendekezwa kwamba Tabibu awasiliane na idara ya hali ya afya zao au na Kituo cha Kudhibiti Ugonjwa na Kuzuia kuamua sampuli ambazo ni lazima zipimwe na kama matokeo yanafaa kuripotiwa. Njia nyingine za kuchunguza ''E.'' ''koli'' O157 kwenye kinyesi ni pamoja na vipimo vya ELISA, koloni ya vipimo vya kupima protini, masomo ya moja kwa moja ya hadumini ya imunofloresensi ya vichungi, pamoja na mbinu za kutenga viumbe maalum kwa kutumia shanga za kisumaku.<ref>{{cite journal |author=De Boer E, Heuvelink AE |title=Methods for the detection and isolation of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli |journal=Symp Ser Soc Appl Microbiol |volume= |issue=29 |pages=133S–143S |year=2000 |pmid=10880188}}</ref> Changanuzi hizi zimekusudiwa kama chombo kuruhusu uchunguzi wa haraka kwa ajili ya kupima uwepo wa ''E. koli'' O157 bila ya kukuza viini kwanza kwa sampuli hiyo ya kinyesi. == Tiba ya Antibiotiki na upinzani == {{Main|Antibiotic resistance}} Maambukizi ya bakteria kwa kawaida hutibiwa kwa [[Antibaotiki|antibiotiki]] Hata hivyo kiwango cha kuathiriwa na antibiotiki cha aina mbalimbali za ''E. koli'' kinatofautiana sana. Kama viumbe vya Gramu-hasi, ''E. koli'' ni stahimilivu kwa antibiotiki nyingi ambazo hufanyakazi dhidi ya Gramu-chanya. Antibiotiki ambazo zinaweza kutumika kutibu maambukizi ya ''E.'' ''koli'' ni pamoja na amoksilini pamoja na penisilini nyingine zilizosanisiwa nusu, sefalosporini nyingi, kabapenemi, aztreonami, trimethoprim-sulfamethoksazoli, ciprofloksasini, nitrofurantoini na aminoglaikosidi. Kustahimili Antibiotiki ni tatizo linalokua. Baadhi ya hii inatokana na kutumika sana kwa antibiotiki na binadamu, lakini baadhi yake pengine ni kutokana na matumizi ya antibiotiki kama viendelezi ukuaji wa chakula cha wanyama.<ref name="Johnson_2006">{{cite journal |author=Johnson J, Kuskowski M, Menard M, Gajewski A, Xercavins M, Garau J |title=Similarity between human and chicken Escherichia coli isolates in relation to ciprofloxacin resistance status |journal=J Infect Dis |volume=194 |issue=1 |pages=71–8 |year=2006 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/JID/journal/issues/v194n1/35787/35787.html | pmid=16741884 | doi = 10.1086/504921 }}</ref> Utafiti uliochapishwa katika jarida la ''Sayansi'' katika Agosti 2007 ulipata kuwa kiwango cha mabadiliko katika ''E. koli'' ni "juu ya mara 10 <sup>-5</sup> kwa kila jenomu kwa kizazi, ambayo ni mara 1000 zaidi ya makadirio ya awali," matokeo ambayo yanaweza kuwa na maana kwa ajili ya utafiti na uthibiti wa ustahimilivu kwa antibiotiki wa bakteria.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/317/5839/813?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=isabel+gordo&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT|title= Adaptive Mutations in Bacteria: High Rate and Small Effects|publisher=Science Magazine|date=10 Agosti 2007|accessdate=10 Septemba 2007}}</ref> ''E. koli'' inayostahimili Antibiotiki pia inaweza kupitisha jeni zinazosababisha ustahimilivu kwa antibiotiki kwenda kwa aina nyingine ya bakteria, kama vile ''Stafilokokasi aureasi,'' kupitia mchakato uitwao uhamisho wa upande wa jeni . ''E. koli'' mara nyingi hubeba plasmidi zinazostahimili madawa mengi na uzihamisha kwa urahisi iwapo ina shinikizo kwenda kwa aina nyingine. Hakika, ''E. koli'' ni mwanachama wa mara kwa mara wa jamii ya viumbe ambapo aina nyingi za bakteria huishi kwa karibu karibu. Mchanganyiko huu wa aina unaruhusu aina za ''E.'' ''koli'' ambazo zimefunikwa na pili ili kukubali na kuhamisha plasmidi kutoka na kwenda kwa bakteria zingine. Hivyo ''E. koli'' na enterobakteria nyingine ni hifadhi muhimu ya ustahimilivu wa antibiotiki unaoweza kuhamishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salyers AA, Gupta A, Wang Y |title=Human intestinal bacteria as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_2004-09_12_9/page/412 |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=412–6 |year=2004 |pmid=15337162 | doi = 10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.004 }}</ref> === Aina ya laktamisi beta === Ustahimilivu kwa antibiotiki laktamu beta umekuwa tatizo hasa katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, kama aina ya bakteria ambazo huzalisha laktamasi beta zimekuwa za kawaida zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Paterson DL, Bonomo RA |title=Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update |journal=Clin. Microbiol. Rev. |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=657–86 |year=2005 |pmid=16223952 |pmc=1265908 |doi=10.1128/CMR.18.4.657-686.2005 }}</ref> Vimeng'enya hivi vya laktamsi beta hufanya penisilini sefalosporini nyingi, kuwa tiba isiyofanya kazi. Laktamasi beta za wigo uliopanuliwa zinazozalisha ''E. koli'' ni stahimilivu sana kwa aina nyingi ya antibiotiki na maambukizi ya aina hizi ni magumu kutibu. Katika matukio mengi, mbili tu ya antibiotiki simulizi na kiasi kidogo sana cha antibiotiki za ndani ya mishipa bado zina ufanisi. Katika 2009, jeni iitwayo New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamasi (kwa kifupi NDM-1) ambayo inatoa ustahimilivu kwa antibiotiki kabapenemu ya ndani ya mifupa, ziligunduliwa katika [[Uhindi|India]] na [[Pakistan]] katika bakteria za ''E. koli'' . Kuongezeka kwa wasiwasi kuhusu maambukizi ya aina hii ya "bakteria hatari" [[Ufalme wa Muungano|nchini]] Uingereza kumesababisha wito wa ufuatiliaji zaidi na mkakati wa Uingereza nzima wa kukabiliana na maambukizi na vifo.<ref>{{cite web |title= HPA Press Statement: Infections caused by ESBL-producing E. coli |url= http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpa/news/articles/press_releases/2007/070924_esbl.htm |accessdate= 2010-11-30 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110717232443/http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpa/news/articles/press_releases/2007/070924_esbl.htm |archivedate= 2011-07-17 }}</ref> Vipimo vya uwezekano wa kuathiriwa vinafaa kuongoza tiba katika magonjwa yote ambayo viumbe vinaweza kutengwa kwa ajili ya kukuza viini. == Tiba ya feji == Tiba ya bakteriafeji virusi ambavyo hasa vinalenga baketria ya kipathojeni imekuwa ikiendelezwa kwa zaidi ya miaka 80 iliyopita, hasa katika [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti|Urusi]] ya zamani, ambapo ilitumika kuzuia kuhara kulikosababishwa na ''E. koli.'' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iitd.pan.wroc.pl/phages/phages.html|title=Therapeutic use of bacteriophages in bacterial infections|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences|accessdate=2010-11-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060208092017/http://www.iitd.pan.wroc.pl/phages/phages.html|archivedate=2006-02-08}}</ref> Hivi sasa, tiba ya kilabakteria kwa binadamu inapatikana tu katika Kituo cha Tiba ya kilabakteria katika Jamhuri ya Jeojia na [[Polandi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phagetherapycenter.com/pii/PatientServlet?command=static_conditions&language=0|title=Medical conditions treated with phage therapy|publisher=Phage Therapy Center}}</ref> Hata hivyo, tarehe 2 Januari 2007, shirika la Marekani la FDA lilitoa kibali kwa Omnilytics kutumia Tiba yake ya kilabakteria ya kuua''E.'' ''koli'' O157: H7 katika ukungu, kinyunyizio au safisha ya wanyama hai watakaochinjwa kwa ajili ya matumizi ya binadamu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20070102005459&newsLang=en|title=OmniLytics Announces USDA/FSIS Approval for Bacteriophage Treatment of ''E. coli'' O157:H7 on Livestock|publisher=OmniLytics|accessdate=2010-11-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930035711/http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20070102005459&newsLang=en|archivedate=2007-09-30}}</ref> Bakteriafeji T4 ni feji iliyotafitiwa sana kwa malengo ya kuambukiza E. koli. == Chanjo == Watafiti wamefanya juhudi kuendeleza chanjo yenye usalama, na ufanisi wa kupunguza matukio ya maambukizi duniani kote ya ''E. koli'' .<ref name="Girard_2006">{{cite journal |author=Girard M, Steele D, Chaignat C, Kieny M |title=A review of vaccine research and development: human enteric infections |journal=Vaccine |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages=2732–50 |year=2006 |pmid=16483695 | doi = 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.10.014 }}</ref> Katika Machi 2006, chanjo iliyosababisha jibu la kinga dhidi ya ''E. koli'' O157: H7 O-maalum polisakaraidi ilo unganishwa tena kwa eksotoksini ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' (O157-rEPA) iliripotiwa kuwa salama kwa watoto wa umri wa miaka miwili hadi mitano. Kazi ya awali ilikuwa tayari imeonyesha kuwa ni salama kwa watu wazima.<ref name="Ahmed_2006">{{cite journal |author=Ahmed A, Li J, Shiloach Y, Robbins J, Szu S |title=Safety and immunogenicity of ''Escherichia coli'' O157 O-specific polysaccharide conjugate vaccine in 2-5-year-old children |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2006-02-15_193_4/page/n48 |journal=J Infect Dis |volume=193 |issue=4 |pages=515–21 |year=2006 |pmid=16425130 | doi = 10.1086/499821 }}</ref> Awamu ya III ya majaribio ya kimatibabu ya kuthibitisha ufanisi kwa kiwango kikubwa wa matibabu imepangwa.<ref name="Ahmed_2006"></ref> Katika 2006 Afya ya Wanyama ya Fort Dodge (Wyeth) ilianzisha chanjo madhubuti ya virusi visoukali ili kudhibiti aisakulitisi na peritonitisi katika kuku. Chanjo hii ni chanjo nasaba isosumu ambayo imethibitisha kinga dhidi ya O78 na aina zisizoweza kupigwa chapa .<ref name="Watt poultry.com_2008">{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.wattpoultry.com/PoultryInternational/Article.aspx?id=22434%2F |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2021-01-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108174255/http://www.wattpoultry.com/PoultryInternational/Article.aspx?id=22434%2F |archivedate=2009-01-08 }}</ref> Katika Januari 2007 kampuni ya Kanada Madawa, Bioniche ilitangaza kuwa imetengeneza chanjo ya mifugo ambayo inapunguza idadi ya O157: H7 inayomwaga katika mbolea kwa mara 1000, hadi karibu bakteria pathojeni 1000 kwa kila gramu ya mbolea.<ref name="Pearson_2007">{{cite journal |author=Pearson H |title=The dark side of ''E. coli'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2007-01-04_445_7123/page/n22 |journal=Nature |volume=445 |issue=7123 |pages=8–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17203031 | doi = 10.1038/445008a}}</ref><ref name="CanadaAM_2007">{{cite web | title=New cattle vaccine controls ''E. coli'' infections | work=Canada AM | url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070111/ecoli_vaccine_cattle_070111/20070111?hub=CanadaAM | date=2007-01-11 | accessdate=2007-02-08 | archivedate=2007-01-13 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070113092506/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070111/ecoli_vaccine_cattle_070111/20070111?hub=CanadaAM | =https://web.archive.org/web/20070113092506/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070111/ecoli_vaccine_cattle_070111/20070111?hub=CanadaAM }} {{Wayback|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070111/ecoli_vaccine_cattle_070111/20070111?hub=CanadaAM |date=20070113092506 }}</ref><ref name="BionichePR_2007">{{cite press release | title = Canadian Research Collaboration Produces World's First Food Safety Vaccine: Against ''E. coli'' O157:H7 | publisher = Bioniche Life Sciences Inc. | date = 2007-01-10 | url = http://www.cnxmarketlink.com/en/releases/archive/January2007/10/c4698.html | accessdate = 2007-02-08 | archivedate = 2007-10-11 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011103738/http://cnxmarketlink.com/en/releases/archive/January2007/10/c4698.html | deadurl = yes }}</ref> Katika Aprili 2009 mtafiti wa Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la Michigan alitangaza kwamba ameanzisha chanjo inayofanya kazi kwa aina ya ''E. koli.'' Mahdi Saeed, profesa wa Epidemolojia na maradhi ya kuambukiza katika vyuo vya MSU vya Tiba Wanyama na Dawa za Binadamu, ametuma maombi kwa ajili ya hataza kwa ugunduzi wake na amefanya mawasiliano na makampuni ya dawa kwa ajili ya uzalishaji wa kibiashara.<ref> http://www.physorg.com/news158951048.html</ref> == Wajibu katika bioteknolojia == Kwa sababu ya historia yake ndefu ya utamaduni wa maabara na urahisi wa kushughulikiwa, ''E. koli'' pia ina jukumu muhimu katika uhandisi wa kibiolojia wa kisasa na mikrobiolojia ya kiviwanda.<ref name="lee1996">{{cite journal |author=Lee SY |title=High cell-density culture of Escherichia coli |journal=Trends Biotechnol. |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=98–105 |year=1996 |pmid=8867291 |doi=10.1016/0167-7799(96)80930-9}}</ref> Kazi ya Stanley Cohen Norman na Herbert Boyer katika ''E. koli,'' kwa kutumia plasmidi na vimeng'enya vya kuzuia kuunda DNA inayoshikana tena, ikawa msingi wa bioteknolojia.<ref name="birth">{{cite journal |author=Russo E |title=The birth of biotechnology |journal=Nature |volume=421 |issue=6921 |pages=456–7 |year=2003 |month=Januari |pmid=12540923 |doi=10.1038/nj6921-456a |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6921/full/nj6921-456a.html}}</ref> Hufikiriwa kuwa kimelea chenye uwezo mkubwa sana kwa ajili ya uzalishaji wa [[protini]] heterologu,<ref name="Cornelis"></ref> watafiti wanaweza kujumuisha jeni katika vijiumbe maradhi kwa kutumia plasmidi, kuruhusu uzalishaji kwa wingi wa protini katika mchakato uchachishaji wa kiviwanda. Mifumo ya maumbile pia imeendelezwa ambayo inaruhusu uzalishaji wa protini inayoweza kuunganishwa tena kwa kutumia ''E. koli.'' Moja ya matumizi muhimu ya kwanza ya teknolojia ya DNA inayoweza kuungana tena ilikuwa kughilibiwa kwa ''E. koli'' kuzalisha insulini binadamu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.littletree.com.au/dna.htm |title=Recombinant DNA Technology in the Synthesis of Human Insulin |accessdate=2007-11-30 |last=Tof |first=Ilanit |coauthors= |year=1994 |work= |publisher=Little Tree Pty. Ltd.}}</ref> ''E. koli'' zilizobadilishwa zimetumika katika maendelezo ya chanjo, kutumia viumbe kurejesha mazingira ya awali, na uzalishaji wa[[Kimeng'enya| vimeng'enya]] visivyoweza kusonga.<ref name="Cornelis">{{cite journal |author=Cornelis P |title=Expressing genes in different Escherichia coli compartments |journal=Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=450–4 |year=2000 |pmid=11024362 |doi=10.1016/S0958-1669(00)00131-2}}</ref> Hata hivyo,''E. koli'' haiwezi, kutumika kuzalisha baadhi ya protini tata kubwa zaidi, ambazo zina bondi za disulfidi nyingi na, hasa, thiol zisizopacha, au protini zinazohitaji pia kubadilishwa baada ya kutafsiriwa kimuundo kwa ajili ya utendajikazi.<ref name="lee1996"></ref> Tafiti pia zinafanywa katika kuweka programu katika ''E. koli'' ili labda iweze kutatua matatizo ya hisabati magumu kama vile tatizo la njia la Hamilton. == Ubora wa Mazingira == Bakteria za ''E. koli'' kwa kawaida zimekuwa zikipatikana katika maji ya burudani na uwepo wao hutumika kuashiria uwepo wa kuhasibika kwa kinyesi kwa hivi karibuni, lakini uwepo wa ''E. koli'' inaweza kosa kuwa dalili ya kinyesi cha binadamu. ''E. koli'' ni mkadhania katika wanyama wote wasioathiriwa na joto: ndege na mamalia. Bakteria ya ''E. koli'' pia zimepatikana katika [http://www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks/lab/Hansen%20et%20al%202008%20JGLR%2034.pdf samaki] na kasa. [http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/es0623156?cookieSet=1 Mchanga] na [http://www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks/lab/Ishii%20et%20al%202006%20AEM%2072.pdf udongo] pia huifadhi bakteria ya ''E.'' ''koli'' na baadhi ya aina za ''E. koli'' ambazo [http://www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks/lab/Ksoll%20et%20al%202007%20AEM%2073.pdf asilishwa] . Baadhi ya maeneo ya kijiografia yanaweza kusaidia aina za kipekee za ''E. koli'' na kinyume, baadhi aina za ''E.'' ''koli'' zina asili tofauti[http://www.d.umn.edu/~rhicks/lab/Hansen%20et%20al%202009%20AEM%2075(6).pdf ]. == Viumbe Mifano == ''E. koli'' mara nyingi hutumika kama viumbe mfano katika masomo ya mikrobiolojia. Aina zilizokuzwa (km ''E. koli'' K12) zinaishi vizuri katika mazingira ya maabara, na, tofauti na aina zisizokuzwa, zimepoteza uwezo wao wa kustawi katika utumbo. Aina nyingi za maabara hupoteza uwezo wao wa kuunda muungano wa seli tofauti.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fux CA, Shirtliff M, Stoodley P, Costerton JW |title=Can laboratory reference strains mirror "real-world" pathogenesis? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-microbiology_2005-02_13_2/page/58 |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=58–63 |year=2005 |pmid=15680764 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2004.11.001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Vidal O, Longin R, Prigent-Combaret C, Dorel C, Hooreman M, Lejeune P |title=Isolation of an Escherichia coli K-12 mutant strain able to form biofilms on inert surfaces: involvement of a new ompR allele that increases curli expression |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-bacteriology_1998-05_180_9/page/2442 |journal=J. Bacteriol. |volume=180 |issue=9 |pages=2442–9 |year=1998 |pmid=9573197 |doi= |pmc=107187}}</ref> Maumbile haya hulinda aina zisizokuzwa kutokana na kingamwili na mashambulizi mengine ya kemikali, lakini uhitaji matumizi makubwa ya nishati na rasilimali. Katika 1946, [[Joshua Lederberg]] na Edward Tatum kwanza walielezea jambo lililojulikana kama kuunganisha bakteria kwa kutumia bakteria ya ''E. koli'' kama mfano,<ref>[164] ^ {{cite journal |last=Lederberg |first=Joshua |coauthors=E.L. Tatum |year=1946 |month=19 Oktoba |title=Gene recombination in E. coli |journal=Nature |volume=158 |issue= |pages=558 |id= |url=http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/BB/G/A/S/Z/_/bbgasz.pdf |doi=10.1038/158558a0|format=PDF}} Chanzo: [http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/BB/G/A/S/Z/ Maktaba ya Kitaifa ya Tiba - Machapisho ya Joshua Lederberg ]</ref> na inabakia kuwa mfano wa msingi wa kutafiti muungano.{{Citation needed|date=Desemba 2007}} ''E. koli'' ilikuwa ni sehemu muhimu ya majaribio ya kwanza ya kuelewa jenetiki za kilabakteria,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cshl.edu/History/phagecourse.html |title=The Phage Course - Origins |accessdate=2007-12-03 |last= |first= |coauthors= |year=2006 |work= |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020720094306/http://www.cshl.edu/History/phagecourse.html |archivedate=2002-07-20 }}</ref> na watafiti mapema, kama vile Seymour Benzer, alitumia ''E. koli'' na kilabakteria ya T4 kuelewa topografia ya muundo wa jeni.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Benzer |first=Seymour |coauthors= |year=1961 |month=Machi |title=On the topography of the genetic fine structure |journal=PNAS |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=403–15 |pmc=221592 |doi=10.1073/pnas.47.3.403 }}</ref> Kabla ya utafiti wa Benzer, haikuwa inayojulikana kama jeni ilikuwa na utaratibu kimstari, au kama ulikuwa na muundo wa kimatawi. ''E. koli'' ilikuwa moja ya viumbe vya kwanza kuwa na jenomu iliyotaratibiwa; jenomu kamili ya ''E.'' ''koli'' K12 ilichapishwa na ''Sayansi'' katika 1997.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Frederick R. Blattner, Guy Plunkett III, Craig Bloch, Nicole Perna, Valerie Burland, Monica Riley, Julio Collado-Vides, Jeremy Glasner, Christopher Rode, George Mayhew, Jason Gregor, Nelson Davis, Heather Kirkpatrick, Michael Goeden, Debra Rose, Bob Mau, Ying Shao|year=1997 |month=5 Septemba |title=The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli K-12|journal=Science |volume=277 |issue=5331 |pages=1453–1462 |pmc=9278503 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5331.1453}}</ref> Majaribio ya muda mrefu ya mabadiliko kwa kutumia ''E. koli,'' yalianzishwa na Richard Lenski mwaka 1988, yameruhusu kushuhudiwa moja kwa moja kwa mabadiliko makubwa katika maabara.<ref>[172] ^ [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/dn14094-bacteria-make-major-evolutionary-shift-in-the-lab.html Bakteria zafanya mabadiliko makubwa katika maabara] ''Mwanasayansi Mpya'' </ref> Katika jaribio hili, moja ya idadi ya ''E. koli'' bila kutarajia ilitoa uwezo wa kumetaboli siterati kwa kutumia oksijeni. Uwezo huu ni nadra sana katika ''E. koli.'' Kwa kuwa kukosa uwezo na kukua kukiwepo oksijeni kwa kawaida hutumika kama njia ya kutofautisha ''E. koli'' kutokana nyingine, zinazohusiana kwa karibu sana kibakteria kama vile ''Salmonella,'' uvumbuzi huu unaweza kuashiria tukio la kipekee kuonekana katika maabara. Kwa kuchanganya nanoteknolojia na ikolojia ya kimazingira Mandhari ya mazingira magumu yanaweza kutolewa na maaelezo katika skeli ya nano.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Keymer J.E., P. Galajda, C. Muldoon R., and R. Austin|year=2006 |month=Novemba |title=Bacterial metapopulations in nanofabricated landscapes|journal=PNAS |volume=103 |issue=46 |pages= 17290–295 |pmc= |doi=10.1073/pnas.0607971103 }}</ref> Kwa mazingira sanisi kama haya majaribio ya mabadiliko kwa kutumia ''E. koli'' yamefanywa ili kutafiti biofizikia ya kukabiliana na hali katika kisiwa cha biojiografia kwenye . == Tazama Pia == * [[Escherichia coli O157:H7]] * Majaribio ya mageuzi ya muda mrefu ya ''E. koli'' * Kanuni za Kimataifa za majina ya Bakteria * Mfumo wa T4 ''rII'' * uchambuzi wa bakteria ya maji * Bakteria kolifomu * Kudhibiti ukolezi * Sumu ya chakula * Kolifomu ya kinyesi * uzalishaji wa gesi kutoka glukosi na E. koli [http://www.tgw1916.net/movies2.html maonyesho ya video] {{Wayback|url=http://www.tgw1916.net/movies2.html |date=20121124075912 }} == Marejeo == {{Marejeo|2}} == Sehemu nyingine == {{wikispecies}} {{Commons category|Escherichia coli}} ;Jumla * [http://redpoll.pharmacy.ualberta.ca/CCDB/cgi-bin/STAT_NEW.cgi Takwimu za ''E. koli'' ] {{Wayback|url=http://redpoll.pharmacy.ualberta.ca/CCDB/cgi-bin/STAT_NEW.cgi |date=20060717052111 }} * [http://www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/spinach.html Mchicha na kuzuka kwa ''E. koli'' - Marekani FDA] * [http://www.cdc.gov/foodborne/ecolispinach/ ''E. koli'' kuzuka Kutokana na Mchicha bichi - Marekani CDC] * [http://www.micron.ac.uk/organisms/eco.html Utafiti wa sasa kuhusu ''Escherichia coli'' katika Norwich Research Park] * [http://www.microbeid.com/Media/mac_img.html Picha ya E. koli katika Agari ya MacConkey ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.microbeid.com/Media/mac_img.html |date=20100528080703 }} ;Hifadhidata * [http://www.ecosal.org/ EcoSal] rasilimali ya mtandao ambayo daima inafanywa kulingana na uchapishaji wa jadi wa ASM Press ''Esicherichia koli'' ''na Salmonella: seli na Masi ya Biolojia'' * [http://www.genome.wisc.edu/sequencing/upec.htm Uropathojeniki Esicherichia koli (UPEC)] * [http://www.casper.organ.su.se/ECODAB/ ECODAB] muundo wa O-Antigeni ambayo inaunda msingi ya Uainishaji wa seroloji wa ''E. koli'' *[http://2dbase.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/cgi-bin/2d/2d.cgi 2DBase] {{Wayback|url=http://2dbase.techfak.uni-bielefeld.de/cgi-bin/2d/2d.cgi |date=20110511112533 }} 2D-PAGE hifadhidata ya Esicherichia koli Chuo Kikuu cha Bielefeld - Fermentation Engineering Group (AGFT) *[http://biobases.ibch.poznan.pl/5SData/ Hifadhidata ya 5S rRNA] Habari juu ya Utaratibu wa nukleotidi ya rRNAs 5S na jeni zao *[http://aclame.ulb.ac.be/ ACLAME] {{Wayback|url=http://aclame.ulb.ac.be/ |date=20110706132209 }} Ainisho ya Vipengele vya maumbile yanayohamahama *[http://arep.med.harvard.edu/ecoli_matrices/ AlignACE] Makalibu ambayo hutafuta maeneo ya ziada ya kujishikilia katika mlolongo wa jenomu ya E. koli *[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/microarray-as/ae/ ArrayExpress] Hifadhidata ya majaribio ya jenomu zinazofanya kazi *[Https: / / asap.ahabs.wisc.edu / ASAP / home.php ASAP] habari kamili ya jenomu kuhusu bakteria kadhaa enteriki kwa vidokezo vya jamii *[http://www.compsysbio.org/bacteriome/ Bacteriome] {{Wayback|url=http://www.compsysbio.org/bacteriome/ |date=20101126112431 }} Sehemu za kunatisha za DNA ya ''E. koli'' iliyotumika kwa Jenomu kamilifu ya ''E.'' ''koli K-12 '' *[http://biogps.gnf.org/#goto=welcome BioGPS] {{Wayback|url=http://biogps.gnf.org/#goto=welcome |date=20091230141946 }} kitovu cha jeni *[http://www.brenda-enzymes.info/ Brenda] Mfumo wa habari kaili juu ya vimeng'enya *[http://sgen.bri.nrc.ca/brimsg/bsgi.html BSGI] {{Wayback|url=http://sgen.bri.nrc.ca/brimsg/bsgi.html |date=20110706190822 }} uanzilishi wa muundo wa jenomu ya bakteria *[http://www.cathdb.info/ CATH]Ainisho ya Muundo wa protini *[http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/GenomeAtlas/ CBS Kitabu cha ramani ya Jenomu ] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516135600/http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/GenomeAtlas |date=2016-05-16 }} *[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/cdd/cdd.shtml CDD] Hifadhidata ya hifadhi ya miliki *[http://cibex.nig.ac.jp/index.jsp CIBEX] {{Wayback|url=http://cibex.nig.ac.jp/index.jsp |date=20100302194313 }} Kituo cha Hifadhidata ya Habari ya Biolojia ya Kujieleza kwa Jeni *[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/COG/old/ COGS] *[http://cgsc.biology.yale.edu/index.php Kituo cha Hifadhi ya Maumbile ya Koli] {{Wayback|url=http://cgsc.biology.yale.edu/index.php |date=20100311130121 }} Aina na habari za maumbile ya ''E. koli'' K-12 *[http://xbase.bham.ac.uk/colibase/ coliBASE] {{Wayback|url=http://xbase.bham.ac.uk/colibase/ |date=20090620110902 }} *[http://ecolihub.org EcoliHub] {{Wayback|url=http://ecolihub.org/ |date=20101201013920 }} - unaofadhiliwa na NIH na rasilimali ya kina ya takwimu za ''E. koli'' K-12 na kilabakteria yake, plasmidi, na vipengele vya maumbile yanayobadilikabadilika *[http://ecoliwiki.net EcoliWiki] {{Wayback|url=http://ecoliwiki.net/ |date=20080828091310 }} ni sehemu ya jamii ya vidokezo ya [http://www.ecolihub.org EcoliHub] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ecolihub.org/ |date=20101201013920 }} {{Model Organisms}} {{Gram-negative proteobacterial diseases}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Escherichia Coli}} [[Category:bakteria]] c1o3zldzcg5dllpb8xtjigeo3c9rsos 0 55735 1564468 1465880 2026-06-02T16:30:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564468 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Fatty liver | Image = Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease1.jpg | Caption = [[Micrograph]] showing a '''fatty liver''' ([[macrovesicular steatosis]]), as seen in [[non-alcoholic fatty liver disease]]. [[Trichrome stain]]. | DiseasesDB = 18844 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|K|70||k|70}}, {{ICD10|K|76|0|k|70}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|571.0}}, {{ICD9|571.8}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 775 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|article|170409}} | MeshName = Fatty+Liver | MeshNumber = C06.552.241 }} [[File:Stage of liver damage.JPG|thumb|Hatua mbalimbali za kuharibika kwa ini.]] '''Mafuta ya ini''' (inajulikana pia kama '''ugonjwa wa ini kuwa na mafuta'''; kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Fatty Liver Disease''; [[kifupi]]: FLD) ni tatizo linaloweza kugeuzwa ambapo vipande vikubwa vya aina maalum ya [[mafuta]] ya trigliseride hukusanyika katika [[seli za ini]] kupitia mchakato wa [[steatosisi]] (yaani uwekaji usio wa kawaida wa mafuta ndani ya seli). Licha ya kuwa na visababishi mbalimbali, tatizo la kuwa na mafuta kwenye ini linaweza kuchukuliwa kama ugonjwa mmoja ambao hutokea duniani kote katika wale wana ulaji pombe kupita kiasi na wale ambao ni feta (pamoja na au bila ya athari za insulini upinzani). Tatizo hili pia linahusishwa na magonjwa mengine ambayo huathiri [[umetaboli]] wa mafuta. <ref name="reddy">{{cite journal |author=Reddy JK, Rao MS |title=Lipid metabolism and liver inflammation. II. Fatty liver disease and fatty acid oxidation |journal=Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. |volume=290 |issue=5 |pages=G852–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16603729 |doi=10.1152/ajpgi.00521.2005}}</ref> Kimofolojia, ni vigumu kutofautisha kati ya FLD inayohusishwa na [[pombe]] na ile isiyohusishwa na pombe na aina zote mbili huonyesha mabadiliko ya vilengelenge vidogo na vikubwa vya mafuta katika hatua mbalimbali. Ukusanyikaji wa mafuta pia unaweza kufuatana na maendeleo ya kuvimba ini (hepataitisi), tatizo liitwalo steatohepataitisi. Kwa kuzingatia mchango na pombe, ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye ini unaweza kuitwa steatosisi ya pombe au ugonjwa wa ini kuwa na mafuta usiohusiana na pombe (NAFLD), na aina kali zaidi kama steatohepataitisi ya pombe (sehemu ya ugonjwa wa ini unaotokana na pombe) steatohepatitisi isiyosababishwa na pombe (NASH). ==Visababishi == Kwa kawaida, ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye ini uhusishwa na pombe au tatizo la umetaboli (ugonjwa wa kisukari, shinikizo la damu, [[Kunona|unene wa kupindukia]] na dislipidemia) lakini pia unaweza kusababishwa na mojawapo ya sababu zingine nyingi <ref name="angulo"></ref>: ;Sababu zinazohusiana na metaboli : Abetalipoproteinemia, magonjwa ya kuhifadhi glaikojeni, ugonjwa wa Weber-Christian, ugonjwa wa Wolman, papo hapo mafuta ini ya mimba lipodstrofi ;Sababu zinazohusiana na lishe : Utapiamlo, lishe ya jumla kupitia mishipa, kupoteza uzito sana, matatizo yanayotokana na kula baada ya kukaa kwa muda mkubwa bila chakula, ukwepaji wa ufyonzaji wa chakula katika matumbo, ufupishaji wa tumbo ili kupunguza ulaji, kuwa na divatikula katika sehemu ya chango jejunali na ukuaji mno wa bakteria ;Sababu zinazohusiana na dawa na sumu : Amiodaroni, methotreksati, diltiazemi, dawa za kupigana na virusi vya ukimwi zilizo na nguvu sanakazi sana tiba ya kurefusha maisha, glukokotikoidi, tamoxifen, mazingira hepatotoxins (kwa mfano, [[Posferi|fosforasi]], uyoga sumu) ;Sababu nyingine : Ugonjwa wa kuharibika kwa uchengelele, UKIMWI, Hepatitis C hasa genotype 3, na Alpha 1- upungufu wa antitripsini.<ref> Valenti L, Dongiovanni P, Piperno A, Fracanzani AL, Maggioni M, Rametta R, Loria P, Casiraghi MA, Suigo E, Ceriani R, Remondini E, Trombini P, Fargion S. Alpha 1-antitrypsin mutations katika NAFLD : Maambukizi ya juu na uhusishaji na umetaboli wa chuma iliyobadilishwa lakini si kwa kuharibu ini. Hepatolojia 2006 Oktoba, 44 (4) :857-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17006922</ref> ==Patholojia== [[File:Periportal hepatosteatosis intermed mag.jpg|thumb|right|Mikrografu ya periportal hepatic steatosis, kama inavyoweza kuonekana kutokana na matumizi ya madawa ya steroidi. Doa la Trikromu.]] Mabadiliko ya kiasi cha mafuta huwakilisha ukusanyikaji wa trigliseridi (mafuta huru) ndani ya sitoplazimu. Mwanzoni, hepatositi huwasilisha vakuli ndogo za mafuta (liposomu) zinazozunguka kiini (mabadiliko ya vilengelenge vidogo vya mafuta). Katika awamu hii chembechembe za ini huwa zimejawa na matone mengi ya mafuta ambayo huwa hayachukui nafasi ya kiini kilicho katikati ya chembechembe. Katika awamu za baadaye, na ukubwa wa vakuli hizi huongezeka na kusukuma kiini kwenye ukingo wa chembe na kuonyesha sifa kama za pete ya muhuri (mabadiliko ya vilengelenge vikubwa vya mafuta). Vilengelenge hivi huwa vimesawiri vizuri na huonekana vikiwa "tupu" kwa sababu mafuta huyeyuka wakati wa usindikaji tishu. Vakuli kubwa zinaweza kuungana na kuzalisha cyst s ambayo ni Malena vidonda. Steatosisi ya vilengelenge vikubwa ni ya kawaida aina nyingi na ni kawaida yanayohusiana na pombe, ugonjwa wa kisukari, [[Kunona|fetma]] na kotikosteroidi. Ukusanyikaji mkali wa mafuta kwenye ini wakati wa mimba na ugonjwa wa Reye ni mifano ya magonjwa makali ya ini yanayosababishwa na mabadiliko ya vilengelenge vidogo vya mafuta. <ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Lee | title = Cecil Textbook of Medicine -- 2-Volume Set, Text with Continually Updated Online Reference | publisher = W.B. Saunders Company | location = Philadelphia | year = 2003 | isbn = 0721645631 }}</ref> Utambuzi wa steatosisi hufanywa wakati mafuta yaliyo kwenye ini yanazidi asilimia 5-10 kwa uzito. <ref name="reddy"></ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Adams LA, Lymp JF, St Sauver J, Sanderson SO, Lindor KD, Feldstein A, Angulo P |title=The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a population-based cohort study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_2005-07_129_1/page/113 |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=129 |issue=1 |pages=113–21 |year=2005 |pmid=16012941 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2005.04.014}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Crabb DW, Galli A, Fischer M, You M |title=Molecular mechanisms of alcoholic fatty liver: role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_alcohol_2004-08_34_1/page/35 |journal=Alcohol |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=35–8 |year=2004 |pmid=15670663 |doi=10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.07.005}}</ref> Kasoro katika umetaboli wa mafuta husababisha mwanzo wa kugonjeka kwa FDL jambo ambalo linawezatokana na kukosekana kwa usawa katika matumizi ya nishati na utengenezaji wake hivyo basi kusababisha uhifadhi wa mafuta au linaweza kuwa matokeo ya upinzani wa pembeni wa insulini, ambapo usafiri wa asidi za mafuta kutoka tishu shahamu hadi kwenye ini ni kuongezeka. <ref name="reddy"></ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Medina J, Fernández-Salazar LI, García-Buey L, Moreno-Otero R |title=Approach to the pathogenesis and treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_diabetes-care_2004-08_27_8/page/2057 |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=2057–66 |year=2004 |pmid=15277442 |doi=10.2337/diacare.27.8.2057}}</ref> Kuharibika au kuzuiwa kwa kipokezi molekuli (PPAR-α, PPAR-γ na SREBP1) ambacho hudhibiti [[vimeng'enya]] vilivyo na wajibu wa kuweka oksijeni na kusanisi Asidi za mafuta huonekana kuchangia katika ukusanyikaji wa mafuta. Aidha, ulevi unajulikana kuharibu mitokondria na miundo ingine ya seli hivyo basi kuendelea kuharibu utaratibu wa nishati wa seli. Kwa upande mwingine FLD zisizotokana na ulevi zinaweza kuanza kama nishati ya ziada iliyokosa kuvunjavunjwa kwenye seli za ini. Steatosisi ya ini inaweza kugeuzwa na kwa kiasi fulani haiendelei kama kuna kukomeshwa au kuondolewa kwa sababu msingi. [[File:Steatohepatitis high mag.jpg|thumb|right|Mikrografu ya ini lenye mafuta lililoharibika (steatohepatitisi).]] Ukusanyikaji wa mafuta mengi kwenye ini wakati mwingine hufuatana na kuvimba, hali ambayo inajulikana kama ''steatohepatitisi.'' Kuendelea kwa steatohepatitisi inayosababishwa na pombe (ASH) au ile isiyosababishwa na pombe (Nash) hutegemea kuendelea au ukali wa sababu inayosababisha. Vidonda vya kipatholojia hufanana katika hali zote mbili. Hata hivyo, kiasi ya majibu ya uvimbe hutofautiana sana na si lazima yahusiane na kiasi cha ukusanyikaji wa mafuta. Steatosisi (ubakishaji wa mafuta) na mwanzo wa steatohepatitisi zinaweza kuwakilisha hatua za mfululizo katika kuendelea kwa FLD. <ref name="pmid9547102">{{cite journal |author=Day CP, James OF |title=Steatohepatitis: a tale of two "hits"? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_1998-04_114_4/page/842 |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=114 |issue=4 |pages=842–5 |year=1998 |pmid=9547102 |doi=10.1016/S0016-5085(98)70599-2}}</ref> Ini lililovimba sana na lenye kiwango cha juu cha steatosisi mara nyingi huendelea hadi kwenye aina kali zaidi ya ugonjwa huu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Gramlich T, Kleiner DE, McCullough AJ, Matteoni CA, Boparai N, Younossi ZM |title=Pathologic features associated with fibrosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-pathology_2004-02_35_2/page/196 |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=196–9 |year=2004 |pmid=14991537 |doi=10.1016/j.humpath.2003.09.018}}</ref> Kuvimba na kuoza kwa [[Aswantationtaiosiaosis|hepatosi]] kwa kiwango tofauti mara nyingi hutokea katika hatua hii. Majibu ya kufa na kuvimba kwa seli za ini husababisha kuchochewa kwa seli zilizo na umbo la nyota ambazo huwa na jukumu msingi katika fibrosisi ya ini. Kiwango cha fibrosisi hutofautiana sana. Fibrosisi perisinusoida hutokea sana, hasa katika watu wazima, na hutawala sana katika eneo 3 kuzunguka mishipa iliyo mwisho wa ini. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Zafrani ES |title=Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: an emerging pathological spectrum |journal=Virchows Arch. |volume=444 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |year=2004 |pmid=14685853 |doi=10.1007/s00428-003-0943-7}}</ref> Ueneaji wa sirosisi unaweza kuathiriwa na kiwango cha mafuta na kiasi cha steatohepatitisi na sababu zingine mbalimbali zinazohamasisha. Katika FLD inayosababisha wa pombe mabadiliko hadi kwenye sirosisi yanayohusiana na maendeleo ya matumizi ya pombe yameandikwa vizuri ni mchakato wa kushiriki katika FLD yasiyo ya pombe ni chini ya wazi. == Uaguzi== Watu wengi huwa hawaonyeshi dalili za ugonjwa na kwa kawaida hugunduliwa kibahati kwa sababu ya vipimo vinavyofanyiwa ini linalokosa kufanya kazi vizuri au hepatomegalia inayobainika katika hali tofauti ya kimatibabu. Biokemia ya ini iliyoongezeka hupatikana katika asilimia 50 ya wagonjwa walio na steatosisi rahisi <ref>{{cite book | last = Sleisenger | first = Marvin | title = Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease | publisher = W.B. Saunders Company | location = Philadelphia | year = 2006 | isbn = 1416002456 }}</ref> . Kiwango cha Alt ya majimaji ya damu huwa juu ya kiwango cha AST katika kibadala kisicho cha vileo na kinyume chake ni FLD ya pombe (AST: ALT zaidi ya 2:1). Tafiti zinazohusisha upigaji picha hupatikana sana sana wakati wa mchakato wa kutathmini. Ultrasonografia huonyesha ini "kali" lenye ekojenisi iliyoongezeka. Upigaji picha za kimatibabu unaweza kusaidia katika utambuzi wa mafuta kwenye ini; maini yenye mafuta huwa na [[Densiti|uzito]] wa chini kuliko wengu kwenye tomografia inayofanyiwa kwenye kompyuta (CT) na mafuta huonekana yakiangaa katika picha za mvumo wa picha za kismaku. T1 (MRIs). Hata hivyo, hakuna picha za kimatibabu, anaweza kutofautisha steatosisi rahisi kutoka Nash advanced Histological. Utambuzi na ini biopsy ni kutafuta wakati tathmini ya ukali unahitajika. ==Matibabu== Matibabu ya ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye ini yanategemea kinachosababisha athari yake, na kwa ujumla, kutibu na kusababisha msingi itakuwa nyuma mchakato wa steatosisi kama kutekelezwa katika hatua za mwanzo. == Matatizo == Kufikia asilimia 10 ya FLD ya ugonjwa wa sirotiki unaosababishwa na pombe itasababisha ksinoma ya sel za ini. Jumla ya matukio ya saratani ya ini katika FLD isiyosababishwa na pombe bado hayajahesabiwa, lakini uhusiano ulioko ni dhahiri <ref>{{cite journal |author=Qian Y, Fan JG |title=Obesity, fatty liver and liver cancer |journal=Hbpd Int |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=173–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15908310 |doi=}}</ref> . == Epidemiolojia== Maambukizi ya FLD katika jumla ya watu ni kati ya asilimia 10 na asili 24% katika nchi mbalimbali. <ref name="angulo"></ref> Hata hivyo, hali hii huonekana katika juu ya asilimia 75 ya watu walio na unene wa kupindukia, asilimia 35 ambao wataendelea mpaka FLD isiyosababishwa na pombe, <ref>{{cite journal |author=Hamaguchi M, Kojima T, Takeda N, Nakagawa T, Taniguchi H, Fujii K, Omatsu T, Nakajima T, Sarui H, Shimazaki M, Kato T, Okuda J, Ida K |title=The metabolic syndrome as a predictor of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2005-11-15_143_10/page/n69 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=143 |issue=10 |pages=722–8 |year=2005 |pmid=16287793 |doi=}}</ref> ingawa hakuna ushahidi wa matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi. FLD ndicho kisababishi kikuu cha jaribio la ini kutofanya kazi vizuri nchini Marekani. <ref name="angulo">{{cite journal |author=Angulo P |title=Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2002-04-18_346_16/page/1220 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=346 |issue=16 |pages=1221–31 |year=2002 |pmid=11961152 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra011775}}</ref> "Ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye ini hutokea katika asilimia 33 ya Wamarekani wa Ulaya, asilimia 45 ya Marekani-Wahispania, na asilimia 24 ya Wamarekani-Waafrika." <ref> Daniel J. DeNoon. [http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/news/20080925/fatty-liver-disease-genes-affect-risk Ugonjwa wa Kuwa Mafuta kwenye Ini: Hatari Zinazoathiri Jeni] WebMD. 26 Septemba 2008.</ref> == Tazama pia == * [[Sirosisi]] * Steatosisi * Steatohepatitisi * Tatizo la metaboli * Ugonjwa wa ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye ini usiosababishwa na pombe * Ugonjwa wa ini unaosababishwa na vileo * Ukusanyikaji wa mafuta kwenye sehemu maalum ya ini ==Marejeo == {{Marejeo|2}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.aasld.org Chama cha Marekani cha Utafiti wa Magonjwa ya Ini] * [http://www.liverfoundation.org Taasisi ya Marekani ya Ini] * {{Chorus|00474}} * Picha ya [http://www.pathologyatlas.ro/fatty-change-liver-steatosis-pathology.php Atlas of Pathology] * [http://www.liverdiseaseherbs.info/fatty_liver.htm Mafuta ya ini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.liverdiseaseherbs.info/fatty_liver.htm |date=20100806193815 }} [[Category:Ini]] [[Category:Magonjwa]] 94jdhw547sag84r045ruqzrt168n8vt 0 55750 1564488 1500361 2026-06-02T17:05:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564488 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Alcohol use disorders world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|Ulemavu-ulibadilisha maisha kwa waliotatizika na matumizi ya pombe kwa kila wakaazi 100,000 mwaka wa 2004 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [. 7] [8] [9] [10] [11 ] [12]]] [[File:Alcohol by Country.png|thumb|200px|Jumla ya rekodi ya matumizi ya pombe kwa kila mwananchi (15 +), kwa lita za pombe halisi <ref> Ripoti ya Kilimwengu ya Hali ya Pombe ya 2004 </ref>]] [[File:Possible long-term effects of ethanol.svg|thumb|300px|right|La muhimu zaidi katika madhara yanayoweza kutokea kufuatana matumizi ya muda mrefu ya ethanoli. Zaidi ya hayo, katika wanawake wajawazito,husababisha dalili za ulevi wa kijusi.]] '''Athari za muda mrefu za pombe''' hutapakaa baina ya uwezekano wa faida za kiafya kwa watumiaji wa viwango vya chini vya pombe hadi madhara makubwa katika hali ya [[Utumiaji mbaya wa vileo|matumizi mabaya ya pombe]] kwa muda mrefu. Viwango vya juu vya matumizi ya pombe huhusiana na ongezeko la hatari ya kuendeleza ulevi, ugonjwa wa moyo, kutofyonza vyakula, ugonjwa sugu wa kongosho, ugonjwa wa ini kutokana na pombe, na [[kansa]]. Uharibifu kwa mfumo mkuu wa neva na mfumo wa neva za pembeni unaweza kusababishwa matumizi kila mara ya pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM |title=[Neurophysiologic findings in chronic alcohol abuse] |language=German |journal=Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=129–32 |year=1985 |month=Machi |pmid=2988001 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Testino G |title=Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view |journal=Hepatogastroenterology |volume=55 |issue=82-83 |pages=371–7 |year=2008 |pmid=18613369 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi kwa muda mrefu yanaweza kuharibu takribani kila kiungo na mfumo katika mwili.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Woody |editor1-last=Caan |editor2-first=Jackie de |editor2-last=Belleroche |title=Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice |url=http://books.google.com/?id=nPvbDUw4w5QC |edition=1st |date=11 Aprili 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415278911 |pages=19–20}}</ref> Ubongo unaokua wa kijana aliyebaleghe huwa hasa katika hatari kubwa ya kudhurika na sumu ya pombe.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Mellon | first1 = RD. | last2 = Simone | first2 = AF. | last3 = Rappaport | first3 = BA. | title = Use of anesthetic agents in neonates and young children. | url = http://www.anesthesia-analgesia.org/cgi/content/full/104/3/509 | journal = Anesth Analg | volume = 104 | issue = 3 | pages = 509–20 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1213/01.ane.0000255729.96438.b0 | pmid = 17312200 }}</ref> Kihistoria, madaktari wametetea pombe kwa faida zake za kiafya na hivi karibuni kwa ajili ya uwezo wake wa kulinda watumiaji dhidi ya ugonjwa wa moyo. Kuna ushahidi wa faida kwa mishipa ya moyo inayotokana na kutumia kinywaji 1- 2 kwa siku, hata hivyo, faida za kiafya kutokana na unywaji pombe kwa wastani ni swala lenye utata. Shauku zimetolewa kuwa sawa na ilivyo katika sekta ya dawa, wadau wa sekta ya pombe piawamehusika katika kutilia chumvi faida za kiafya za pombe. Pombe inapaswa kuonekana kama dawa ya burudani yenye uwezo mkubwa wa kusababisha athari mbaya kwa afya na hipependekezwi kwa-ulinzi wa moyo badala ya mbinu nyinginezo za salama na zilizothibitika za jadi kama vile lishe bora mazoezi na tiba za dawa.<ref name="Sellman-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Sellman | first1 = D. | last2 = Connor | first2 = J. | last3 = Robinson | first3 = G. | last4 = Jackson | first4 = R. | title = Alcohol cardio-protection has been talked up. | journal = N Z Med J | volume = 122 | issue = 1303 | pages = 97–101 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19851424 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Sinkiewicz | first1 = W. | last2 = Weglarz | first2 = M. | title = [Alcohol and wine and cardiovascular diseases in epidemiologic studies] | journal = Przegl Lek | volume = 66 | issue = 5 | pages = 233–8 | month = | year = 2009 | doi = | pmid = 19739580 }}</ref> Baadhi ya wataalamu wanadai kuwa faida za matumizi ya pombe ya wastani zinaweza kupitwa na ongezeko la hatari ikiwa ni pamoja na majeraha, vurugu, uharibifu wa mimba, aina fulani za [[saratani]], ugonjwa wa kongosho na presha.<ref name="Andréasson-"></ref> Kwa vile faida bainifu za kiafya za matumizi ya pombe ya wastani ni ndogo kwa watu walio katika hatari ndogo ya kupata maradhi ya moyo, wataalamu wengine wanatahadharisha itumike kwatahadhari kwa sababu ya uwezekano kwamba kupendekeza matumizi wastani ya pombe kunaweza kusababisha ongezeko la hatari ya matumizi mabaya ya pombe, hasa miongoni mwa vijana.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2010-11-30 |archivedate=2020-11-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111230707/https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf }}</ref> Manufaa haya ya matumizi wastani ya pombe yanapitwa na hatari za matumizi ya pombe wastani.<ref name="Andréasson-"></ref> ==Tafiti za kisayansi== ===Historia=== Madhara mabaya ya matumizi ya pombe kwa muda mrefu kupita kiasi ni sawa na yale yanaoonekana katika vitulizi-hipnoti vingine (mbali na sumu kwa viungo ambayo hutatiza zaidi katika pombe). Athari za kujiondoakatika pombe na utegemezi hukaribia sana kufanana.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gitlow |first1=Stuart |title=Substance Use Disorders: A Practical Guide |url=http://books.google.com/?id=rbrSdWVerBUC |edition=2nd |date=1 Oktoba 2006 |publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins |location=USA |isbn=978-0781769983 |pages=101–103}}</ref> Pombe cha kiwango wastani ina athari chanya na hasi kwa afya. Athari hasi ni pamoja na ongezeka la hatari ya magonjwa ya ini, sarataniya orofarinji, kansa ya umio na [[ugonjwa wa kongosho.]] Kinyume na hayo, unywaji wastani wa pombe unaweza kuwa na athiri za faida kwa gastriti na kolelithiasi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Taylor B, Rehm J, Gmel G |title=Moderate alcohol consumption and the gastrointestinal tract |journal=Dig Dis |volume=23 |issue=3-4 |pages=170–6 |year=2005 |pmid=16508280 |doi=10.1159/000090163 |url=http://content.karger.com/produktedb/produkte.asp?typ=fulltext&file=DDI20050233_4170}}</ref> Matumizi sugu na mabaya ya pombe huwa na athari kubwa kwa afya ya mwili na akili. Unywaji sugu wa pombe kupita kiasi au utegemezi pombe, unaweza kusababisha uharibifu mpana viungo mbalimbali vya nevaza ubongo,mfumo wa neva ama ugonjwa wa mishipa ya moyo, maradhi ya ini, na neoplasmsi isiyopona. Matatizo ya akili ambayo huhusishwa na ulevi ni pamoja na mfadhaiko mkubwa, disthimia, mania, hipomania, tatizo la hofu fobia , tatizo la wasiwasi wa kijumla, tatizo la tabia za mtu, skizofrenia, [[kujiua]], upunufu wa mfumo wa utendakazi mwilini (km kazi za kumbukumbu, hisia, kazi za uamuzi, uwezo wa kuona,mwendo na uwiano) na uharibifu wa ubongo. utegemezi wa pombe ni huhusishwa na shinikizo la damu, ugonjwa wa moyo na kiharusi cha iskemi, kansa ya mfumo wa upumuaji, mbali pia na saratani ya mfumo wa mlo, ini, kifua na ovari. Unywaji kupita kiasi huhusishwa na ugonjwa wa ini, kama vile sairosi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cargiulo T |title=Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence |journal=Am J Health Syst Pharm |volume=64 |issue=5 Suppl 3 |pages=S5–11 |year=2007 |month=Machi |pmid=17322182 |doi=10.2146/ajhp060647 |url=}}</ref> Utafiti zimelenga wanaume na wanawake, vikundi vya umri mbalimbali na watu wa makundi mengi ya kijamii. Machapisho kwa sasa yanafikia jumla ya mamia huku tafiti zikiweza kuonyesha uwiano uliopo kati ya matumizi wastani ya pombe na afya ambayo labda yanaweza kuwa yalitokana na athari za manufaa ya maingiliano ya kijamii ambayo mara nyingi huambatana na matumizi ya pombe. Baadhi ya njia mahususi ambapo pombe huweza kuathiri afya ya mishipa ya moyo zimetafitiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vliegenthart R, Oei HH, van den Elzen AP, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption and coronary calcification in a general population |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=164 |issue=21 |pages=2355–60 |year=2004 |month=Novemba |pmid=15557415 |doi=10.1001/archinte.164.21.2355 }}<br> {{cite journal |author=Koppes LL, Twisk JW, Snel J, Van Mechelen W, Kemper HC |title=Blood cholesterol levels of 32-year-old alcohol consumers are better than of nonconsumers |journal=Pharmacol Biochem Behav. |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=163–7 |year=2000 |month=Mei |pmid=10837856 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0091-3057(00)00195-7 |doi=10.1016/S0091-3057(00)00195-7}}<br> {{cite journal |author=Albert MA, Glynn RJ, Ridker PM |title=Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein |journal=Circulation |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=443–7 |year=2003 |month=Januari |pmid=12551869 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12551869 |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000045669.16499.EC}}<br> {{cite journal |author=Baer DJ, Judd JT, Clevidence BA, ''et al.'' |title=Moderate alcohol consumption lowers risk factors for cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women fed a controlled diet |journal=Am J Clin Nutr. |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=593–9 |date=1 Machi 2002|pmid=11864868 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11864868 }}<br> {{cite journal |author=Catena C, Novello M, Dotto L, De Marchi S, Sechi LA |title=Serum lipoprotein(a) concentrations and alcohol consumption in hypertension: possible relevance for cardiovascular damage |journal=J. Hypertens. |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=281–8 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12569257 |doi=10.1097/01.hjh.0000052436.12292.26 |doi_brokendate=2009-01-13 }}</ref> ===Mtazamo wa kisasa=== Utafiti fulani katika baadhi ya nchi umedai kuwa vifo vinavyosababishwa na sababu zozote zile vinaweza kufikia viwango vya baina ya 16 hadi 28% kwa uchache miongoni mwa wanywaji wa wastani (vinywaji 1-2 kwa siku) ikilinganishwa na ile miongoni mwa wanaojiepusha na unywaji kabisa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Boffetta P, Garfinkel L |title=Alcohol drinking and mortality among men enrolled in an American Cancer Society prospective study |journal=Epidemiology |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=342–8 |year=1990 |month=Septemba |pmid=2078609 |doi=10.1097/00001648-199009000-00003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Coate D |title=Moderate drinking and coronary heart disease mortality: evidence from NHANES I and the NHANES I Follow-up |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=888–90 |year=1993 |month=Juni |pmid=8498629 |pmc=1694739 |url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8498629 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.83.6.888}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fuchs CS, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption and mortality among women |journal=N Engl J Med. |volume=332 |issue=19 |pages=1245–50 |year=1995 |month=Mei |pmid=7708067 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=7708067&promo=ONFLNS19 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199505113321901}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Klatsky AL, Friedman GD, Siegelaub AB |title=Alcohol and mortality. A ten-year Kaiser-Permanente experience |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1981-08_95_2/page/139 |journal=Ann Intern Med. |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=139–45 |year=1981 |month=Agosti |pmid=7258861 }}</ref> Mmwandishi wa habari Roni Caryn Rabin wa New York Times anasema kwamba takwimu za utafiti huu zina makosa.<ref name="NYT"> Roni Caryn Rabin, "Pombe" ni Nzuri Kwako? Baadhi ya Wanasayansi Wanashuku, ''"New York Times,'' 16 Juni 2009, uk. D6 [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05EFD81F3BF935A25755C0A96F9C8B63 web version]</ref> ====Upeo wa kiasi kinachopendekezwa==== Nchi mbalimbali hupendekeza kiasi tofauti cha upeo wa kunywewa. Kwa nchi nyingi kiasi cha upeo kwa wanaume ni 210g-140g kwa wiki. Kwa wanawake, kiasi ni 84g-140g kwa wiki. Nchi nyingi hupendekeza kutumiwa kwa pombe kabisa wakati ujauzito ama kunyonyesha. ==Vifo vinavyohusiana na pombe== Matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi ni mojawapo ya sababu zinazoweza kuzuilikaambayo husababisha vifo vingi kote duniani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ |title=Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data |journal=Lancet |volume=367 |issue=9524 |pages=1747–57 |year=2006 |month=Mei |pmid=16731270 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9 |url=}}</ref> Utafiti mmoja unahusisha pombe na kila kifo 1 katika 25 kote duniani na kwamba 5% ya miaka wanayoishi watu na ulemavu hutokana na matumizi ya pombe.<ref> BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8118475.stm Uhusiano wa pombe na moja katika vifo 25]</ref><ref> Jürgen Rehm, Colin Mathers, Svetlana Popova, Montarat Thavorncharoensap, Yot Teerawattananon, Jayadeep Patra [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)60746-7/abstract Mzigo wa Kilimwengu wa magonjwa na maumivu na gharama za kiuchumi zinatokana na matumizi ya pombe na kutumia matatizo ya utumiaji pombe] ''The Lancet,'' Juzuu 373, Toleo 9682, Kurasa 2223 - 2233, 27 Juni 2009 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736 (09) 60746-7</ref> Nchi hukusanya takwimu kuhusu wanaofariki kwa ajili ya pombe. Huku baadhi ya takwimu zikihusiana na athari za muda mfupi kama vile ajali, nyingi huhusiana na athari za muda mrefu wa kutumia pombe. === Urusi === "Matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi nchini Urusi, hasa kmiongoni mwa wanaume, katika miaka ya hivi karibuni imesababisha zaidi ya nusu ya vifo katika umri wa miaka 15-54.<ref> IARC [http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/2009/IARCLancet270709.pdf Pombe husababisha zaidi ya nusu ya vifo vyote vya mapema katika watu wazima nchini Urusi]</ref> ===Uingereza=== Vifo vinavyohusiana na pombe nchini Uingereza ni huainishwa kwa kutumia Uainisho wa Kimataifa wa Magonjwa, Toleo la Kumi (ICD-10).<ref name="NSO">[55] ^ [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=14496 Vifo vinavyohusiana na pombe nchini Uingereza] na viungo vinginevyo</ref> ICD-10 hujumuisha: * Matatizo ya akili na tabia kutokana na matumizi ya pombe - ICD-10 F10 * Kuzorota kwa mfumo wa neva kutokana na pombe - ICD-10 G31.2 * Polineuropathi ya pombe - ICD-10 G62.1 * Kadiomiopathi ya pombe - ICD-10 I42.6 * Gastriti ya Pombe - ICD-10 K29.2 * Ugonjwa wa ini wa pombe - ICD-10 K70 * Hepatitis sugu , isiyoainishwa mahali kwingine kokote - ICD-10 K73 * Fibrosi na sairosi ya ini - ICD-10 K74 (bila kujumuisha K74.5 K74.3-Sairosi ya biliari) * Ugonjwa sugu wa kongosho kutokana na pombe - ICD-10 K86.0 * Sumu itumikayo kiajali kutokana na mkumbano na pombe - ICD-10 X45 * Sumu itumikayo na mtu binafsi kimaksudi kutokana na mkumbano na pombe - ICD-10 X65 * Sumu kutokana matumizi na kukumbana na pombe, bila kusudi wazi - Y15 ICD-10 Mashirika ya takwimu ya Uingereza yanaripoti kwamba "Kulikuwa na vifo 8,724 vinavyouhusiana na pombe katika mwaka 2007, chini zaidi kuliko 2006, lakini zaidi ya mara mbili ya 4,144 iliyorekodiwa katika mwaka 1991. Kiwango cha vifo kuhusiana na pombe kilikuwa 13.3 ya watu kwa kila watu 100,000 mwaka 2007, ikilinganishwa na idadi ya watu 100,000 6.9 kwa mwaka 1991."<ref> [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1091 Vifo vya Pombe : Viwango vyalia nchini Uingereza]</ref> Nchini Skotlandi, NHS inakisio kwamba katika mwaka 2003 kifi cha kia mtu mmoja katika 20 waliofariki inaweza kuhusishwa na pombe.<ref> BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8126129.stm Pombe huua mmoja katika Waskoti 20'] 30 Juni 2009</ref> Utafiti wa 2009 uligundua kuwa watu 9,000 hufa kutokana na magonjwa yanayohusiana na pombe kila mwaka, mara tatu ya idadi ya miaka 25 ya hapo awali. ===Marekani=== Kituo cha Udhibiti na Uzuiaji Magonjwa kinaripoti kuwa, "Kutoka 2001-2005, kulikuwa na takribani vifo 79,000 kila mwaka zinazotokana na matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi ni ya 3 katika sababu zinazoambatana na mitindo ya kimaisha kwa kusababisha vifo kwa watu nchini Marekani kila mwaka".<ref> Vituo vya Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa [http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/ Pombe na Afya ya umma]</ref> Utafiti mmoja wa 1993 ulikadiria vifo vya waliofariki Marekani kupitia pombe kuwa 100,000. <ref> J. Michael McGinnis, William H. Foege [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/270/18/2207?ijkey=f6b2a35ebda67d08b66074771b6a6000007c3770 Sababu Halisi za Vifo nchini Marekani] ''JAMA'' 1993, 270 (18) :2207-2212.</ref> === Vifo kwa ujumla === Utafiti uliotazamiwa wa miaka 23 wa madaktari wa kiume 12,000 Waingereza [[Ufalme wa Muungano]]wenye umri wa miaka 48-78, waligundua kuwa vifo kwa jumla vilikuwa vya chini sana kwa makundi yaliyokunywa chini ya "vipimo" 2 (Vipimo vya Uingereza = 8 g) kwa siku zaidi ya ilivyokuwa katika makundi ya wasiokunywa pombe. Zaidi ya vipimo 2 kwa siku ilihusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya vifo. Pombe iliwakilishwa 5% ya vifo katika sampuli ya madaktari.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I |title=Mortality in relation to alcohol consumption: a prospective study among male British doctors |journal=Int J Epidemiol |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=199–204 |year=2005 |month=Februari |pmid=15647313 |doi=10.1093/ije/dyh369 |url=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/34/1/199}}</ref> ==Mfumo wa mishipa ya moyo == Uchambuzi-mpevu wa tafiti 34 uligundua upungufu wa hatari ya vifo kutokana na ugonjwa wa moyo kwa wanaume ambao hutumia vinywaji 2-4 kwa siku na wanawake ambao hutumia 1-2 kwa siku.<ref name="Di Castelnuovo-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Di Castelnuovo | first1 = A. | last2 = Costanzo | first2 = S. | last3 = Bagnardi | first3 = V. | last4 = Donati | first4 = MB. | last5 = Iacoviello | first5 = L. | last6 = de Gaetano | first6 = G. | title = Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies. | url = http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/22/2437 | journal = Arch Intern Med | volume = 166 | issue = 22 | pages = 2437-45 | month = Desemba | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1001/archinte.166.22.2437 | PMID = 17159008 }}</ref> Uchambuzi-mpevu wa jaribio usioratibiwa uligundua kwamba matumizi ya pombe kwa kiasi cha wastani hupunguza kiwango cha seramu ya fibrinojeni, protini ambayo husaidia mchakato wa kugandisha na kukuza viwango vya ongezeko la ukuajib wa aina ya plasminojeni ya tishu,kimeng'enya ambayo husaidia kuyeyusha mgandamano.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Rimm | first1 = EB. | last2 = Williams | first2 = P. | last3 = Fosher | first3 = K. | last4 = Criqui | first4 = M. | last5 = Stampfer | first5 = MJ. | title = Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and haemostatic factors. | journal = BMJ | volume = 319 | issue = 7224 | pages = 1523-8 | month = Dec | year = 1999 | PMID = 10591709 }}</ref> Kiwango cha seramu ya protini C-tendaji(CRP)ya kuvimba na kiashiria cha hatari ya CHD, ni cha chini kwa watu ambao hunywa kiasi wastani kuliko wale wasiokunywa pombe kabisa; hivyo basi inaonyesha kuwa matumizi ya pombe kwa kiasi cha wastani inaweza kuwa na athari zinazozuia kuvimba.<ref name="Albert-2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Albert | first1 = MA. | last2 = Glynn | first2 = RJ. | last3 = Ridker | first3 = PM. | title = Alcohol consumption and plasma concentration of C-reactive protein. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_circulation_2003-01-28_107_3/page/442 | journal = Circulation | volume = 107 | issue = 3 | pages = 443-7 | month = Jan | year = 2003 | doi = | PMID = 12551869 }}</ref><ref name="Stewart-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Stewart | first1 = SH. | last2 = Mainous | first2 = AG. | last3 = Gilbert | first3 = G. | title = Relation between alcohol consumption and C-reactive protein levels in the adult US population. | url = http://www.jabfm.org/cgi/reprint/15/6/437.pdf | format = PDF | journal = J Am Board Fam Pract | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 437-42 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 12463288 }}</ref><ref name="Imhof-2001">{{Cite journal | last1 = Imhof | first1 = A. | last2 = Froehlich | first2 = M. | last3 = Brenner | first3 = H. | last4 = Boeing | first4 = H. | last5 = Pepys | first5 = MB. | last6 = Koenig | first6 = W. | title = Effect of alcohol consumption on systemic markers of inflammation. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2001-03-10_357_9258/page/762 | journal = Lancet | volume = 357 | issue = 9258 | pages = 763-7 | month = Mar | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04170-2 | PMID = 11253971 }}</ref> Mbali na matokeo yake kwa akili, pombe ina athari dhidi ya mgandamano, yenye matokeo sawa na warfarini.<ref name="Mennen">{{cite journal |author=Mennen LI, Balkau B, Vol S, Cacès E, Eschwège E |title=Fibrinogen: a possible link between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease? DESIR Study Group |journal=Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=887–92 |date=1 Aprili 1999 |pmid=10195914 |url=http://atvb.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10195914 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2013-01-12 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130112121432/http://atvb.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10195914 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Paassilta M, Kervinen K, Rantala AO, ''et al.'' |title=Social alcohol consumption and low Lp(a) lipoprotein concentrations in middle aged Finnish men: population based study |journal=BMJ |volume=316 |issue=7131 |pages=594–5 |date=14 Februari 1998|pmid=9518912 |pmc=28464 |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9518912 }}</ref> Zaidi ya hayo, ugonjwa wa moyo ni wa kiasi cha chini kwa wanywao kwa wastani kuliko watumiaji chai.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lacoste L, Hung J, Lam JY |title=Acute and delayed antithrombotic effects of alcohol in humans |journal=Am J Cardiol. |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=82–5 |year=2001 |month=Januari |pmid=11137839 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-9149(00)01277-7 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9149(00)01277-7}}<br>{{cite journal |author=Pahor M, Guralnik JM, Havlik RJ, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption and risk of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in older persons |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_1996-09_44_9/page/1030 |journal=J Am Geriatr Soc |volume=44 |issue=9 |pages=1030–7 |year=1996 |month=Septemba |pmid=8790226 }}<br>Ridker, P., ''et al.'' Unywaji pombe wastani unaweza kupunguza hatari ya mshtuko wa moyo. American Medical Association press release , 22 Septemba 1994<br>{{cite book |author=Ridker, P. |chapter=The Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis and Acute Thrombosis |editor=Manson, JoAnn E. |title=Prevention of myocardial infarction |url=https://archive.org/details/preventionofmyoc0000unse |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1996 |pages= |isbn=0-19-508582-5 }}</ref> Licha ya ushahidi wa kiepidemiolojia, baadhi ya watu wanakosoa wazo la kupendekeza pombe kuwa na faida za kiafya. Daktari katika Shirika la Afya Duniani alisema kuwa kupendekeza matumizi ya pombe wastani kwa faida za kiafya ni "ya ujinga na hatari."< ref>{{cite journal |author=Naimi TS, Brown DW, Brewer RD, ''et al.'' |title=Cardiovascular risk factors and confounders among nondrinking and moderate-drinking U.S. adults |journal=Am J Prev Med |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=369–73 |year=2005 |month=Mei |pmid=15831343 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2005.01.011 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2005-05_28_4/page/369}}</ref> Kumekuwa hakuna majaribio yaliyoratibiwa na kudhibitiwa kuonyesha faida za pombe kwa moyo. Kutokana na hatari ya kutumia vibaya, utegemezi, athari mbaya, pombe haifai kamwe kupendekezwa kwa faida za moyo. Badala yake, chakula bora, mazoezi na kama inapohitajika matumizi ya dawa ndizo tiba zinazopendekezwa kwa kutunza moyo.<ref name="Vogel-2002">{{Cite journal | last1 = Vogel | first1 = RA. | title = Alcohol, heart disease, and mortality: a review. | journal = Rev Cardiovasc Med | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–13 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12439349 }}</ref> Imesemwa kuwa faida za kiafya za pombe ni swala la kujadiliwa na huenda lilitiliwa chumvi na wadau wa sekta ya pombe. Pombe inafaa kuchukuliwa kama dawa-lewevu ya burudani ambayo ina uwezo wa kuzua athari kali na mbaya kwa afya na haipaswi kutangazwa kwa utunzaji wa moyo.<ref name="Sellman-2009"></ref> ===Ugonjwa wa pembeni wa mishipa (PAD)=== "Matumizi wastani ya pombe inaonekana kupunguza hatari ya PAD katika wanaume walio na afya".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Camargo CA, Stampfer MJ, Glynn RJ, ''et al.'' |title=Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease in US male physicians |journal=Circulation |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=577–80 |date=4 Februari 1997 |pmid=9024142 |url=http://www.circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/95/3/577 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2011-02-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212015931/http://www.circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/95/3/577 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> "Katika utafiti huu mkubwa uliohusu raia, matumizi wastani ya pombe yalionyesha uhusiano wa kupungua kuhusiana na ugonjwa wa pembeni wa mishipa miongoni mwa wanawake, waliplinganishwa na wanaume. Mkolezo wa mabaki kutokana na sigara huenda uliweza kuwa kuathiri matokeo. Miongoni mwa wasiovuta sigara, uhusiano wa kinyume ulionekana kati ya matumizi ya pombe na ugonjwa wa pembeni wa mishipa katika wanaume na wanawake."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vliegenthart R, Geleijnse JM, Hofman A, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease: the Rotterdam study |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=155 |issue=4 |pages=332–8 |year=2002 |month=Februari |pmid=11836197 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/155/4/332 |doi=10.1093/aje/155.4.332}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Mingardi R, Avogaro A, Noventa F, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol intake is associated with a lower prevalence of peripheral vascular disease in non-insulin dependent diabetic women |journal=Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Disease |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=301–8 |year=1997}}</ref> ===Uzibifu wa muda (IC)=== Utafiti uligundua kwamba matumizi wastani ya pombe yalikuwa na athari ya kinga dhidi ya uzibifu wa muda. Hatari ya chini zidi ilionekana katika wanaume waliotumia na vinywaji 1 hadi 2 kwa siku na kwa wanawake ambao wanaotumia kinywaji nusu hadi 1 kwa siku.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Djoussé L, Levy D, Murabito JM, Cupples LA, Ellison RC |title=Alcohol consumption and risk of intermittent claudication in the Framingham Heart Study |journal=Circulation |volume=102 |issue=25 |pages=3092–7 |date=19 Desemba 2000|pmid=11120700 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/102/25/3092 }}</ref> ===Mshtuko wa moyo na kiharusi=== Unywaji pombe wa kiasi cha wastani umeonekana kuwasaidia wale ambao wamekumbwa na mshtuko wa moyo kuendelea kuishi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Muntwyler J, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Gaziano JM |title=Mortality and light to moderate alcohol consumption after myocardial infarction |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1998-12-12_352_9144/page/1882 |journal=Lancet |volume=352 |issue=9144 |pages=1882–5 |year=1998 |month=Desemba |pmid=9863785 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)06351-X }}<br>{{cite journal |author=Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Sherwood JB, Mittleman MA |title=Prior alcohol consumption and mortality following acute myocardial infarction |journal=JAMA |volume=285 |issue=15 |pages=1965–70 |year=2001 |month=Aprili |pmid=11308432 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11308432 |doi=10.1001/jama.285.15.1965}}</ref><ref>[100] ^ [http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/506828/ Pombe husaidia kupunguza uharibifu baada ya mshtuko wa moyo]</ref> Hata hivyo, matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi husababisha ongezeko la hatari ya kupata ugonjwa wa moyo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Djoussé L, Gaziano JM |title=Alcohol consumption and heart failure: a systematic review |journal=Curr Atheroscler Rep |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=117–20 |year=2008 |month=Aprili |pmid=18417065 |doi= 10.1007/s11883-008-0017-z|url= |pmc=2365733}}</ref> Durusu ya maandishi iligundua kuwa unywaji pombe kwa kiasi nusu ulitoa kiwango bora zidi cha ulinzi kwa moyo. Hata hivyo, walibainisha kuwa kwa sasa hapajakuwa na majaribio yaliyoratibiwa kuthibitisha ushahidi ambao unaonyesha jukumu la vipimo vidogo vya pombe kukinga kwa dhidi ya mshtuko wa moyo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kloner RA, Rezkalla SH |title=To drink or not to drink? That is the question |journal=Circulation |volume=116 |issue=11 |pages=1306–17 |year=2007 |month=Septemba |pmid=17846344 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.678375 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/116/11/1306}}</ref> Hata hivyo, matumizi wastani ya pombe huhusishwa na shinikizo la damu.<ref name="Andréasson-"></ref> Pana ongezeko la hatari ya kwa hipatrigliseridemia, kadiomiopathi presha,, na [[kiharusi]] iwapo vinywaji 3 au zaidi vya pombe vitatumiwa kwa siku.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saremi A, Arora R |title=The cardiovascular implications of alcohol and red wine |journal=Am J Ther |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=265–77 |year=2008 |pmid=18496264 |doi=10.1097/MJT.0b013e3180a5e61a |url=}}</ref> Ikilinganishwa na kuacha pombe, unywaji wa kiasi wastani huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya [[Kiharusi|kiharusi.]] Unywaji wa kiasi cha chini hauna faida yeyote kwa kuzuia kiharusi.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/377381.stm | work=BBC News | title=Alcohol benefits debunked | date=25 Juni 1999 | accessdate=11 Mei 2010}}</ref> ===Kadiomiopathi=== Kiasi kikubwa cha pombe kinaweza kusababisha kadiomiopathiya pombe, inayojulikana kama " dalili za moyo wa likizo." Kadiomiopathi ya pombe hujitokeza kwa namna ambayo kimatibabu ya hufanana na kadiomiopathi iliyopanuka idiopathi, inayoshirikisha hipartrofi ya misuli ya moyo ambayo inaweza kusababisha aina fulani ya arithmia ya moyo. Tofauti hizi zisizo za kawaida za umeme, zinazowakilisha katika EKG, mara nyingi hutofautiana kwa hali, lakini huwa kutoka mabadiliko mbalimbali ya vipindi vya muda vya PR, QRS, au QT hadi vipindi na matukio paroxsysmal ya tachycardia ventricular. Pathofisiolojia (sababu za kuugua mwilini) ya kadiomiopathi ya pombe haijatambuliwa kikamilifu, lakini baadhi ya nadharia huelezea kuhusu ongezeko la utoaji wa epinefrini na norepinefrini, ongezeko la utendaji, au ongezeko la kiwango cha asidi huria za mafuta zisizo na plazma ya kama taratibu inayowezekana.<ref>{{EMedicine|med|1024|Holiday Heart Syndrome}}</ref> ===Magonjwa ya damu=== Walevi wanaweza kuwa na upungufu wa damu kutokana na sababu kadhaa,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Savage D, Lindenbaum J |title=Anemia in alcoholics |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=322–38 |year=1986 |pmid=3747828 |doi=}}</ref> pia wanaweza kupata thrombositopenia kutokana na athari ya sumu ya megakariositi, au kutokana na hipespleni. ==Mfumo wa neva== Matumizi ya pombe sugu ya kiasi kikubwa cha pombe huvuruga ukuaji wa ubongo, na kusababisha ubongo kunywea, shida ya akili, utegemezi wa kimwili, kuongezeka kwa matatizo ya neva za akili na matatizo na usumbufu wa utambuzi licha ya kuvuruga kemia ya ubongo. Hata hivyo baadhi ya tafiti zimeonyesha kwamba unywaji pombe cha kiwango wastani unaweza kupunguza hatari ya shida ya akili ikiwa ni pamoja na ugonjwa Alzeima, ingawa pana tafiti ambazo zilipata matokeo kinyume. Kwa sasa kutokana na miundo duni ya mbinu za utafiti, maandishi sio toshelezi kuhusu iwapo unywaji wastani wa pombe huongeza au hupunguza hatari ya shida ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Panza F, Capurso C, D'Introno A, ''et al.'' |title=Vascular risk factors, alcohol intake, and cognitive decline |journal=J Nutr Health Aging |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=376–81 |year=2008 |pmid=18548174 |doi= 10.1007/BF02982669|url=}}</ref> Ushahidi kuhusu athari za kinga ya matumizi wastani ya pombe kwa upungufu wa utambuzi katika misingi inayohusiana na umri imependekezwa na utafiti fulani, hata hivyo, utafiti mwingine haukupata athari za kinga kutokana na matumizi ya pombe kwa wastani.<ref name="Panza-2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Panza | first1 = F. | last2 = Capurso | first2 = C. | last3 = D'Introno | first3 = A. | last4 = Colacicco | first4 = AM. | last5 = Frisardi | first5 = V. | last6 = Lorusso | first6 = M. | last7 = Santamato | first7 = A. | last8 = Seripa | first8 = D. | last9 = Pilotto | first9 = A. | title = Alcohol drinking, cognitive functions in older age, predementia, and dementia syndromes. | journal = J Alzheimers Dis | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 7-31 | month = Mei | year = 2009 | doi = 10.3233/JAD-2009-1009 | PMID = 19494429 }}</ref> Baadhi ya ushahidi unaonyesha kuwa matumizi ya kiwango cha pombe cha chini hadi wastani unaweza kuharakisha kupunguka kwa kiasi cha ubongo. 0/} ===Kiharusi=== Utafiti wa 2003 uliofanywa na Johns Hopkins ulihusisha matumizi wastani ya pombe na kunywea kwa ubongo nao haukuona upungufu wowote wa hatari ya kiharusi miongoni mwa wanywao kwa wastani.<ref> [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/12/031205052952.htm Matumizi ya Pombe Wastani Huhusishwa na Kunywea kwa Ubongo]</ref> ===Ukuaji wa ubongo=== Matumizi ya kiasi kikubwa cha pombe kwa kipindi cha muda unaweza kutatiza ukuaji wa ubongo wa kawaida binadamu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=White AM, Bae JG, Truesdale MC, Ahmad S, Wilson WA, Swartzwelder HS |title=Chronic-intermittent ethanol exposure during adolescence prevents normal developmental changes in sensitivity to ethanol-induced motor impairments |journal=[[Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res.]] |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=960–8 |year=2002 |month=Julai |pmid=12170104 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02628.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA |title=fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women |journal=[[Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res.]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=236–45 |year=2001 |month=Februari |pmid=11236838 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2001&volume=25&issue=2&spage=236 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2019-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208071401/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2001&volume=25&issue=2&spage=236 |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208071401/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2001&volume=25&issue=2&spage=236 }}</ref> Upungufu katika kukumbuka taarifa za kimazungumzo na zisizozungumzwa na katika utendaji wa kuona zilidhihirika kwa vijana walio na historia ya unywaji katika miaka ya mapema na katikati ya ubaleghe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Squeglia LM, Jacobus J, Tapert SF |title=The influence of substance use on adolescent brain development |journal=Clin EEG Neurosci |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=31–8 |year=2009 |month=Januari |pmid=19278130 |doi= |url= |pmc=2827693}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brown SA, Tapert SF, Granholm E, Delis DC |title=Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: effects of protracted alcohol use |journal=[[Alcohol Clin Exp Res]]. |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=164–71 |year=2000 |month=Februari |pmid=10698367 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04586.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2000&volume=24&issue=2&spage=164 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2019-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208071407/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2000&volume=24&issue=2&spage=164 |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208071407/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0145-6008&date=2000&volume=24&issue=2&spage=164 }}</ref> Wakati wa ubalehe hatua muhimu za ukuaji wa neva hutokea. Unywaji wa kilevi, ambayo ni kawaida miongoni mwa vijana huhitilatiana na hatua hii muhimu ya ukuaji.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Crews | first1 = F. | last2 = He | first2 = J. | last3 = Hodge | first3 = C. | title = Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmacology-biochemistry-and-behavior_2007-02_86_2/page/n6 | journal = Pharmacol Biochem Behav | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–99 | month = Feb | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001 | pmid = 17222895 }}</ref> Matumizi mazito ya pombe huzuia ukuaji wa seli mpya za ubongo.<ref>[131] ^ Chama cha Marekani cha Kuendeleza ya Sayansi ya [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-11/uonc-nbc110504.php seli Mpya za ubongo hukua wakati wa kuacha pombe,utafiti wa UNC unaonyesha]</ref> Takribani nusu ya walevi sugu wanaweza kuwa na miopathi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Urbano-Marquez A, Estruch R, Navarro-Lopez F, Grau JM, Mont L, Rubin E |title=The effects of alcoholism on skeletal and cardiac muscle |journal=[[N. Engl. J. Med.]] |volume=320 |issue=7 |pages=409–15 |year=1989 |pmid=2913506 |doi=10.1056/NEJM198902163200701}}</ref> Vikundi vya misuli inayokaribiana ndiyo hasa huathirika. Asilimia ishirini na tano ya walevi wanaweza kuwa na neuropathi ya pembeni, ikiwa ni pamoja na zilizo huru.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Monforte R, Estruch R, Valls-Solé J, Nicolás J, Villalta J, Urbano-Marquez A |title=Autonomic and peripheral neuropathies in patients with chronic alcoholism. A dose-related toxic effect of alcohol |journal=[[Arch. Neurol.]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=45–51 |year=1995 |pmid=7826275 }}</ref> ===Utambuzi na shida ya akili=== Unywaji wa pombe kupita kiasi huhusishwa na mvurugiko wa kumbukumbu unaoweza kuwepo. Uwezo huu wa utambuzi uliovurugika husababisha ongezeko la kushindwa kutimiza kazi inayonuiwa katika siku zijazo, kwa mfano, kusahau kufunga mlango au kutuma barua kwa wakati unaotakikana. Jinsi kiasi cha pombe na muda wa kutumika unavyoongezeka ndivyo ukali wa madhara huongezeka kwa viungo.<ref name="Heffernan-2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Heffernan | first1 = TM. | title = The impact of excessive alcohol use on prospective memory: a brief review. | journal = Curr Drug Abuse Rev | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–41 | month = Jan | year = 2008 | pmid = 19630703 }}</ref> Kiungo mojawapo kinachohisi sana madhara ya sumu ya matumizi ya pombe kwa muda mrefu ni ubongo. Nchini Ufaransa takribani 20% ya wanaolzwa katika vituo vya afya ya akili huhusiana na kuvurugika kwa utambuzi kutokana na ulevi, hasa shida za akili kuhusiana na pombe. Unywaji pombe sugu kupita kiasi pia huhusishwa na upungufu mkubwa wa utambuzi na matatizo mbalimbali ya neva za akili. Wazee ndio huhisi sana mwathiriko wa sumu ya madhara ya pombe kwenye ubongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pierucci-Lagha A, Derouesné C |title=[Alcoholism and aging. 2. Alcoholic dementia or alcoholic cognitive impairment?] |language=French |journal=Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=237–49 |year=2003 |month=Desemba |pmid=15683959 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Pana baadhi ya ushahidi usio mkamilifu kuwa kiasi kidogo cha pombe kinachotumiwa katika katika miaka ya mapema ya maisha ya utu uzima huw a na kinga ya ni maisha ya baadaye dhidi ya kupungua kwa utambuzi na shida ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Peters R, Peters J, Warner J, Beckett N, Bulpitt C |title=Alcohol, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly: a systematic review |journal=Age Ageing |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=505–12 |year=2008 |month=Septemba |pmid=18487267 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afn095 |url=http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/37/5/505}}</ref> Hata hivyo, utafiti fulani ulihitimisha kuwa, "Matokeo yetu yanaonyesha kwamba, licha ya mapendekezo yaliyopita, matumizi ya kiasi wastani cha pombe hayawezi kuwalinda watu wazee dhidi ya kupungua kwa utambuzi wao".<ref>[142] ^ Claudia Cooper, Paul Bebbington, Howard Meltzer, Rachel Jenkins, Traolach Brugha, James Lindesay na Gill Livingston [http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/jnnp.2008.163964v1 Alcohol in moderation, premorbid cognition intelligence and Cognition In Older Adults: results from the Psyciatric Morbity Survey ]''J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry'' doi: 10.1136 / jnnp.2008.163964</ref> Asetaldehidi hutolewa na ini ini wakati wa kusagwa kwa ethanoli. Watu walio na upungufu wa jeni ambayo hutumika kubadilisha asetaldehidi baadaye kuwa asidi asetiki (hali inayobainika zaidi kwa watu wa asili ya Asia ya Mashariki) wanaweza kuwa katika hatari kubwa ya kupataugonjwa wa Alzeima. "Matokeo haya yanaonyesha kwamba upungufu wa ALDH2 ni kigezo cha hatari kwa LOAD [-kujitokeza kwa ugonjwa Alzeima katika miaka ya baadaye ] ..." Dalili za Wernicke-Korsakoff ni dhihirisho la upungufu wathiamini, kwa kawaida kama athari ya kiwango cha pili cha matumizi mabaya ya pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martin PR, Singleton CK, Hiller-Sturmhöfel S |title=The role of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic brain disease |journal=Alcohol Res Health |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=134–42 |year=2003 |pmid=15303623 }}</ref> Dalili hizi ni dhihirisho la pamoja la matatizo mawili ya mwanzoni , Saikosi ya Korsakoff na uvimbaji ubongo (enselopathia) wa Wernicke, yaliyotajwa kuambatana na majina ya Dkt. Sergei Korsakoff na Dkt. Carl Wernicke. Uvimbe wa ubongo wa Wernicke ni dhihirisho kubwa wa dalili na hubainika kwa hali ya kuchanganyikiwa wakati ambapo dalili kuu za saikosi ya Korsakoff ni amnesia na mvurugiko wa utendaji.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Butters N |title=The Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: a review of psychological, neuropathological and etiological factors |journal=Curr Alcohol |volume=8 |pages=205–32 |year=1981 |pmid=6806017 |doi= |url= }}</ref> ===Mitetemo Isiyoepukika=== Mitetemo isiyoepukika inaweza kuondolewa kwa muda mfupi kufikia kwa hadi thuluthi mbili ya wagonjwa kwa kunywa kiasi kidogo cha pombe.<ref> {{cite journal |author=Bain PG, Findley LJ, Thompson PD, ''et al.'' |title=A study of hereditary essential tremor |journal=Brain |volume=117 |issue=(Pt 4) |pages=805–24 |year=1994 |month=Agosti |pmid=7922467 |doi=10.1093/brain/117.4.805 |url=http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7922467}}<br> {{cite journal |author=Lou JS, Jankovic J |title=Essential tremor: clinical correlates in 350 patients |journal=Neurology |volume=41 |issue=2 (Pt 1) |pages=234–8 |year=1991 |month=Februari |pmid=1992367 }}<br> {{cite journal |doi=10.1002/mds.870131316 |author=Wasielewski PG, Burns JM, Koller WC |title=Pharmacologic treatment of tremor |journal=Mov Disord. |volume=13 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=90–100 |year=1998 |pmid=9827602 }}<br> {{cite journal |author=Boecker H, Wills AJ, Ceballos-Baumann A, ''et al.'' |title=The effect of ethanol on alcohol-responsive essential tremor: a positron emission tomography study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-neurology_1996-05_39_5/page/650 |journal=Ann. Neurol. |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=650–8 |year=1996 |month=Mei |pmid=8619551 |doi=10.1002/ana.410390515 }}<br> {{cite journal |author= |title=Setting a steady course for benign essential tremor |journal=Johns Hopkins Med Lett Health After 50 |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=3 |year=1999 |month=Desemba |pmid=10586714 }}</ref> ===Usingizi=== Matumizi sugu ya pombe katika kuleta usingizi yanaweza kusababisha ukosefu wa usingizi. Kutembea mara kwa mara katika hatua za usingizi, huku kukiwa na kuamkaamka kutokana na maumivu ya kichwa na diaforesi. Kusitisha matumizi mabaya sugu ya pombe pia kunaweza kusababisha usumbufu makubwa wa usingizi kwa ndoto nyingi. Matumizi mabaya sugu ya pombe huhusishwa na NREM hatua ya kulala ya 3 na 4 pamoja na ukandamizaji usingizi wa REM na kugawanyika kwa usingizi wa REM. Wakati wa kujiondoa katika ulevi, usingizi wa REM kwa kawaida hukolezwa kama sehemu ya athari ya kujibia.<ref name="sleep_medicine_a04">{{Cite book | last1 = Lee-chiong | first1 = Teofilo | title = Sleep Medicine: Essentials and Review | date = 24 Aprili 2008 | publisher = Oxford University Press, USA | url = http://books.google.com/?id=s1F_DEbRNMcC&pg=PT105 | isbn = 0-19-530659-7 | page = 105 }}</ref> ===Athari za afya ya akili=== Viwango vya juu ya vya mfadhaiko mkubwa hutokea kwa wanywaji pombe kwa wingi na wale ambao hutumia pombe vibaya. Utata hapo awali umehusu swala la iwapo wale waliotumia pombe vibaya na kupatwa na tatizo la mfadhaiko mkubwa walikuwa wakijitibu kibinafsi(ambayo inaweza kuwa kweli katika baadhi ya matukio), lakini utafiti wa hivi karibuni sasa umehitimisha kuwa unywaji sugu wa pombe kupita kiasi nayo yenyewe huweza moja kwa moja kusababisha ukuaji wa tatizo la mfadhaiko mkubwa katika idadi kubwa ya watumiaji wa pombe vibaya. Matumizi mabaya ya pombe inahuhusishwa na idadi kadhaa ya matatizo ya afya ya akili na viwango vya juu sana vya walevi [[kujiua.]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chignon JM, Cortes MJ, Martin P, Chabannes JP |title=[Attempted suicide and alcohol dependence: results of an epidemiologic survey] |language=French |journal=Encephale |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=347–54 |year=1998 |pmid=9809240 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Utafiti wa watu waliolazwa hospitalini kwa ajili ya majaribio ya kujiua uligundua kwamba wale ambao walikuwa walevi walikuwa mara 75 zaidi ya wale ambao wangefanikiwa kujiua kuliko wasiotimia pombe ambao walijaribu kujiua.<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Ayd | first1 = Frank J. | title = Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences | url = http://books.google.com/?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C | date = 31 Mei 2000 | publisher = Lippincott-Williams Wilkins | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0-7817-2468-5 | page = 349 }}</ref> Katika idadi jumla ya wanywaji pombe, ongezeko la hatari ya kujiua ikilinganishwa na umma yote kijumla ni mara 5-20 zaidi. Karibu asilimia 15 ya walevi hujiua. Matumizi mabaya ya dawa nyingine pia huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kujiua. Takribani asilimia 33 ya visa vya kujiua kwa walio chini ya miaka 35 ni kutokana na pombe au dutu matumizi mabaya ya vilewevu vingine.<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Appleby | first1 = Louis | last2 = Duffy | first2 = David | last3 = Ryan | first3 = Tony | date = 25 Aug 2004 | title = New Approaches to Preventing Suicide: A Manual For Practitioners | url= http://books.google.com/?id=d6Kw9GaJdzEC | publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers | isbn = 978-1-84310-221-2 | pages = 31–32 }}</ref> Tafiti zimeonyesha kwamba utegemezi wa pombe unahusiana moja kwa moja na tamaa na mwasho.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jasova D, Bob P, Fedor-Freybergh P |title=Alcohol craving, limbic irritability, and stress |journal=Med Sci Monit. |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=CR543–7 |year=2007 |month=Desemba |pmid=18049433 |doi= |url=http://www.medscimonit.com/fulltxt.php?ICID=563763 |issn= |accessdate=2008-05-13}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine umeonyesha kuwa matumizi ya pombe ni kigezo muhimu cha kumwelekeza mtu katika tabia zisizoambatana na maadili ya jamii kwa watoto.<ref name="antisocial">{{cite journal |author=Young R, Sweeting H, West P |title=A longitudinal study of alcohol use and antisocial behaviour in young people |journal=Alcohol Alcohol. |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=204–14 |year=2008 |pmid=17977868 |doi=10.1093/alcalc/agm147 |url=http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17977868|accessdate=2008-05-13 |pmc=2367698}}</ref> Unyogovu, wasiwasi na hofu ni matatizo ya kawaida yaliyoripotiwa na watu wanaotegemea pombe. Ulevi huhusishwa na upungukaji wa kutenda katika mifanyiko ya ubongo ambayo huwajibikia mchakato wa kihisia (kwa ''mfano'' amigdala na hipokampusi).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marinkovic K|coauthors=Oscar-Berman M, Urban T, O'Reilly CE, Howard JA, Sawyer K, Harris GJ|date=|year=2009 |month= Novemba|title=Alcoholism and dampened temporal limbic activation to emotional faces|journal=Alcohol Clin Exp Res |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1880–92 |pmid=19673745 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01026.x}}</ref> Ushahidi kwamba matatizo ya afya ya akili mara nyingi hutokana na matumizi mabaya ya pombe kuvuruga kemikali za neva za ubongo hudihirika kupitia kuimarika au upotevu wa dalili ambako hutokea baada ya muda mrefu bila kutumia pombe, ingawa matatizo yanaweza kuwa kuzidi katika kipindi cha awali baada ya kujionda katika pombe na kupona.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wetterling T |coauthors=Junghanns K |date=|year=2000 |month= Desemba|title=Psychopathology of alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence|journal=Eur Psychiatry |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=483–8 |pmid=11175926 |doi=10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00519-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Cowley DS |year=1992 |month= Januari|date=24 |title=Alcohol abuse, substance abuse, and panic disorder|journal=Am J Med |volume=92 |issue=1A |pages=41S–8S |pmid=1346485 |doi=10.1016/0002-9343(92)90136-Y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cosci F |coauthors=Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ |date=|year=2007 |month= Juni|title=Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2007-06_68_6/page/n84 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=874–80 |pmid=17592911 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v68n0608}}</ref> Tatizo la akili (saikosi) ni matokeo ya kiwango cha pili ya hali nyingi zinazohusiana na pombe ikiwa ni pamoja na madhara makali ya sumu na kujitoa baada ya matumizi ya muda mrefu.<ref name="emedicine">{{EMedicine|med|3113|Alcohol-Related Psychosis}}</ref> Matumizi mabaya ya pombe kwa muda mrefu yanaweza kusababisha dalili za namna ya tatizo la akili kuibuka, zaidi ya ilivyo na dawa nyingine za matumizi mabaya. Matumizi mabaya ya pombe yameonyeshwa kusababisha ongezeko la 800% ya hatari ya tatizo la akili(saikosi) kwa wanaume, na ongezeko la 300% la hatari ya tatizo la sikosi kwa wanawake,ambazo hazihusiani na matatizo ya akili kabla ya yaliyopo kwa sasa. Hii ni kubwa zaidi kuliko ongezeko la hatari ya ugonjwa wa akili unaonekana kutokana na bangi ambayo hufanya matumizi mabaya ya pombe kuwa chanzo kikubwa sana cha matatizo ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tien AY, Anthony JC |title=Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences |journal=J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. |volume=178 |issue=8 |pages=473–80 |year=1990 |month=Agosti |pmid=2380692 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Maono-njozi kwa wingina / au ya udanganyifu wa akili ni kawaida sasa wakati mgonjwa amelewa au kujiondoa kutoka ulevi kwa siku za karibuni.<ref name="emedicine"></ref> Ingawa pombe husaidia awali kupunguza dalili za fobia au hofu za kijamii, matumizi mabaya ya pombe kwa muda mrefu yanaweza kuzidisha dalili za fobia ya kijamii na kusababisha dalili za fobia ya kijamii hasa wakati wa kujiondoa katika pombe. Athari hii si ya kipekee kwa pombe lakini inaweza pia kutokea kwa matumizi ya muda mrefu wa dawa za kulevya ambazo zina mfumo sawa wa utendaji wa pombe kama vile benzodiazepini ambazo ni wakati mwingine hupendekezwa kama vitulizi kwa watu walio na matatizo ya pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Terra MB, Figueira I, Barros HM |title=Impact of alcohol intoxication and withdrawal syndrome on social phobia and panic disorder in alcoholic inpatients |journal=Rev Hosp Clin Fac Med Sao Paulo |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=187–92 |year=2004 |month=Agosti |pmid=15361983 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0041-87812004000400006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |doi=10.1590/S0041-87812004000400006 }}</ref> Takriban nusu ya wagonjwa wanaohudhuria huduma za afya ya akili kwa hali ikiwa ni pamoja na ugonjwa wa wasiwasi kama vile tatizo la hofu au fobia ya kijamii ni matokeo ya pombe au utegemezi wa benzodiazepini. Ilibainishwa kwamba kila mtu ana kiwango cha uhisivu wake binafsi kwa matumizi ya pombe au dawa za hipnotiki-tulizi hivyo basi kitu ambacho mtu mmoja anaweza kuvumilia bila ya kuathirika kiafya, mgonjwa mwingine anaweza kutatizika sana kiafya na kwamba hata unywaji wastani unaweza kusababisha dalili za wasiwasi unaojibia na matatizo ya kulala. Mtu ambaye anatatizika na madhara ya sumu ya pombe hawezi kufaidika na aina nyingine za tiba au dawa kwa vile hazizisulihishi dalili za kimsingi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cohen SI |title=Alcohol and benzodiazepines generate anxiety, panic and phobias |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=73–7 |year=1995 |month=Februari |pmid=7769598 |pmc=1295099 }}</ref> ==Mfumo wa mmeng'enyo wa chakula na ongezeko la uzani== Athari za pombe kwa ongezeko la uzani ni swala tata:<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cordain L, Bryan ED, Melby CL, Smith MJ |title=Influence of moderate daily wine consumption on body weight regulation and metabolism in healthy free-living males |journal=J Am Coll Nutr |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=134–9 |date=1 Aprili 1997 |pmid=9100213 |url=http://intl.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/2/134 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2009-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501191524/http://intl.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/2/134 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> huku tafiti nyingine zikishindwa kugundua upungufu <ref>{{cite journal |author=Arif AA, Rohrer JE |title=Patterns of alcohol drinking and its association with obesity: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994 |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=5 |pages=126 |year=2005 |pmid=16329757 |pmc=1318457 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-5-126 |url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/5/126}}</ref> nyingine zimegundua pombe kuwa na athari kwa ongezeko la uzani. Matumizi ya pombe kwa muda mrefu huongeza hatari ya gastriti sugu (kuvimba tumbo),<ref>{{cite journal |author=[[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] (NIAAA) |title=Health risks and benefits of alcohol consumption |journal=Alcohol Res Health |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |year=2000 |pmid=11199274 |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2020-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111230707/https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh24-1/05-11.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name="bode1">{{cite journal |author=Bode C, Bode JC |title=Alcohol's role in gastrointestinal tract disorders |journal=Alcohol Health Res World |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=76–83 |year=1997 |pmid=15706765 |url=https://webapps.ou.edu/alcohol/docs/12EtohGastroinstestinalTractDisorders76.pdf |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2015-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174805/https://webapps.ou.edu/alcohol/docs/12EtohGastroinstestinalTractDisorders76.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ni sababu mojawapo ya sairosi, hepatiti, na wa kongosho katika hali zake zote, sugu na kali. ===Dalili za Metaboli=== Utafiti ulihitimisha kuwa, "Matumizi madogo hadi wastani ya pombe huhusishwa na tatizo la upungufu wa dalili za metaboli , pamoja na athari nzuri kwa mafuta, mzingo wa kiuno, na mfungo wa insulini. Uhusiano huu alibainika zaidi miongoni mwa wazungu na miongoni mwa wanywaji wa bia na mvinyo."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Freiberg MS, Cabral HJ, Heeren TC, Vasan RS, Curtis Ellison R |title=Alcohol consumption and the prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome in the US.: a cross-sectional analysis of data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=27 |issue=12 |pages=2954–9 |year=2004 |month=Desemba |pmid=15562213 |url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/12/2954 |doi=10.2337/diacare.27.12.2954}}</ref> "Uwiano usio wa kawaida wa dalili za metaboli na vipengele vyake vilionyesha kuongeza kwa matumizi ya pombe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yoon YS, Oh SW, Baik HW, Park HS, Kim WY |title=Alcohol consumption and the metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: the 1998 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |journal=Am J Clin Nutr'''. |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=217–24 |date=1 Julai 2004|pmid=15213051 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/80/1/217 }}</ref>'''''' ===Athari kwa Kibofu nyongo === Utafiti umegundua kwamba unywaji pombe hupunguza hatari ya kupatwa na vijiwe vya nyongo. Ikilinganishwa na ilivyo kwa watu wanaojiepusha na pombe, hatari jumla kutokana na ugonjwa wa vijiwe vya nyongo, kudhibiti umri, jinsia, elimu sigara, na uwiano wa ukubwa-mwili na uzani , ni 0.83 kwa wanywao mara chache na wanywao mara nyingi kwa kiasi wastani (<25 ml ya ethanoli kwa siku), 0.67 kwa wanywao kiasi cha kati ( 25-50 ml kwa siku), na 0.58 kwa wanywao kwa wingi. Uhusiano huu wa kinyume ulionyesha uthabiti katika safu za umri, jinsia na mwili uwiano wa ukubwa-mwili na uzani."<ref>{{cite journal |author=La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Ferraroni M, Negri E |title=Alcohol drinking and prevalence of self-reported gallstone disease in the 1983 Italian National Health Survey |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_1994-05_47_5/page/533 |journal=Epidemiology |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=533–6 |year=1994 |month=Septemba |pmid=7986868 }}</ref> Idadi ya nyakati za unywaji pia inaonekana kuwa sababu inayochangia. "Ongezeka la idadi ya nyakati za matumizi ya pombe pia ilihusishwa na ya upungufu wa hatari. Kwa kuunganisha taarifa za wingi wa kiasi cha pombe na idadi ya nyakati za unywaji pombe, mkondo wa matumizi ya pombe uliodhihirisha unywaji wa mara kwa mara (siku 5-7 kwa wiki) wa kiasi chochote cha pombe ulihusishwa na upungufu wa hatari ya kuugua ikilinganishwa na wasiotumia pombe. Kinyume na hayo, unywaji pombe wa mara kwa mara (siku 1-2 kwa wiki) haukuonyesha uhusiano wowote na hatari ya kuugua." Matumizi ya pombe hayahusiani na ugonjwa wa vijiwe vya nyongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sahi T, Paffenbarger RS, Hsieh CC, Lee IM |title=Body mass index, cigarette smoking, and other characteristics as predictors of self-reported, physician-diagnosed gallbladder disease in male college alumni |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=147 |issue=7 |pages=644–51 |date=1 Aprili 1998|pmid=9554603 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9554603 }}</ref> Hata hivyo utafiti mmoja ulipendekeza kuwa wanywaji pombe ambao huchukua vitamini C (asidi ya askorbi) inaweza kupunguza hatari ya ugonjwa wa vijiwe vya nyongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Simon JA, Grady D, Snabes MC, Fong J, Hunninghake DB |title=Ascorbic acid supplement use and the prevalence of gallbladder disease. Heart & Estrogen-Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group |journal=J Clin Epidemiol |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=257–65 |year=1998 |month=Machi |pmid=9495691 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435697802806 |doi=10.1016/S0895-4356(97)80280-6}}</ref> ===Ugonjwa wa ini=== Ugonjwa wa ini kutokana na pombe ni tatizo kubwa kwa afya ya umma. Kwa mfano nchini Marekani hadi kufikia watu milioni mbili wana matatizo yanayohusiana na ugonjwa wa ini. Matumizi mabaya ya pombe kwa muda mrefu yanaweza kusababisha mafuta ya ini, sirosi na hepatiti ya pombe. Njia za matibabu ni chache na hatua mojawapo muhimu zaidi inayojumuisha ni kusitisha matumizi ya pombe. Katika matukio ya ugonjwa mkali wa ini, njia ya pekee ya matibabu inaweza kuwa kupandikiza ini kwa wagonjwa walioacha pombe. Utafiti kubainisha ufanisi viziua-TNF. Baadhi ya dawa za nyongeza, kwa mfano, mbaruti za maziwa na silimarini, zinaonekana kuwa faida fulani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barve A, Khan R, Marsano L, Ravindra KV, McClain C |title=Treatment of alcoholic liver disease |journal=Ann Hepatol |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=5–15 |year=2008 |pmid=18376362 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fehér J, Lengyel G |title=[Silymarin in the treatment of chronic liver diseases: past and future] |language=Hungarian |journal=Orv Hetil |volume=149 |issue=51 |pages=2413–8 |year=2008 |month=Desemba |pmid=19073452 |doi=10.1556/OH.2008.28519 |url=http://www.akademiai.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&doi=10.1556/OH.2008.28519}}</ref> Pombe ni sababu inayoongoza katika kusababisha [[kansa ya ini]] katika nchi za Magharibi, huchangia 32-45% ya saratani ya hepati. Hadi watu nusu milioni nchini Marekani hupata matatizo ya kansa ya ini [[Kansa ya ini|inayohusiana]]na<ref>{{cite journal |author=Voigt MD |title=Alcohol in hepatocellular cancer |journal=Clin Liver Dis |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=151–69 |year=2005 |month=Februari |pmid=15763234 |doi=10.1016/j.cld.2004.10.003 |url=http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/retrieve/pii/S1089-3261(04)00115-1}}</ref>pombe <ref>{{cite journal |author=Morgan TR, Mandayam S, Jamal MM |title=Alcohol and hepatocellular carcinoma |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=127 |issue=5 Suppl 1 |pages=S87–96 |year=2004 |month=Novemba |pmid=15508108 |doi= 10.1053/j.gastro.2004.09.020|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016508504015999}}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe wastani pia huongeza hatari ya ugonjwa wa ini.<ref name="Andréasson-"></ref> ===Ugonjwa wa kongosho=== Matumizi mabaya ya pombe ni sababu inayoongoza ya ugonjwa kali wa kongosho na ugonjwa wa kongosho wa muda mrefu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Frossard JL, Steer ML, Pastor CM |title=Acute pancreatitis |journal=Lancet |volume=371 |issue=9607 |pages=143–52 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18191686 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60107-5 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140-6736(08)60107-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bachmann K, Mann O, Izbicki JR, Strate T |title=Chronic pancreatitis--a surgeons' view |journal=Med. Sci. Monit. |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=RA198–205 |year=2008 |month=Novemba |pmid=18971885 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Unwaji pombe sugu wa kupindukia unaweza kusababisha uharibifu wa kongosho unaopelekea maumivu makali ya muda mrefu ambayo yanaweza kuendeleo na kuwa kansa ya kongosho.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nair RJ, Lawler L, Miller MR |title=Chronic pancreatitis |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=76 |issue=11 |pages=1679–88 |year=2007 |month=Desemba |pmid=18092710 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-12-01_76_11/page/1678}}</ref> Kongosho sugu mara nyingi husababisha matatizo ya ufyonzaji wa chakula tumboni na ugonjwa wa kisukari. ==Mifumo mingine== ===Ugonjwa wa mapafu kutokana na pombe=== Utumiaji sugu wa pombe hutatiza kazi nyingi muhimu za seli katika mapafu. Hitilafu za seli hizi huzidisha uwezekano wa kuongezeka kwa kupata matatizo makubwa kutokana na ugonjwa wa mapafu. Tafiti za hivi karibuni zinabainisha vifo vinavyohusiana na ugonjwa wa ini kutokana na pombe zikilinganishwa na vya ugonjwa wa ini kutokana na pombe. Watumiaji pombe wako katika hatari kubwa ya kupatwa na dalili mbaya za dhiki za upumuaji (ARDS) na hupatwa na kiwango cha juu cha vifo kutokana na ARDS ikilinganishwa na wasiokunywa pombe. ===Vijiwe vya figo === Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa unywaji pombe unahusiana na upungufu wa hatari ya kupatwa na vijiwe vya figo. Utafiti mmoja ulihitimisha kuwa, "Kwa vile bia ilionekana kukinga dhidi ya vijiwe vya figo,athari za kimwili za vilewevu mbali na ethanoli, hasa zile za hopsi, lazima pia kuchunguzwa".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hirvonen T, Pietinen P, Virtanen M, Albanes D, Virtamo J |title=Nutrient intake and use of beverages and the risk of kidney stones among male smokers |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=150 |issue=2 |pages=187–94 |date=15 Julai 1999|pmid=10412964 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/150/2/187 }}</ref> "... Matumizi ya kahawa, pombe na virutubisho vya vitamini C vihusiana kwa kinyume na vijiwe".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Soucie JM, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H, Thun M |title=Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=143 |issue=5 |pages=487–95 |date=1 Machi 1996|pmid=8610664 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/143/5/487 }}</ref> "Baada ya mpatano wa kimwili na matayarisho kwa ajili ya unywaji wa vinywaji vingine, hatari ya ukuaji wa vijiwe ulipungua kwa kiasi kifuatacho kwa kila 240-ml (8-oz) iliyonywewa kwa siku: 10% kwa kahawa yenye kafeni ; 10% kwa kahawa isiyo na kafeni, 14 % kwa chai, 21% kwa bia, na mvinyo, 39% ".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ |title=Prospective study of beverage use and the risk of kidney stones |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=143 |issue=3 |pages=240–7 |date=1 Februari 1996|pmid=8561157 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8561157 }}</ref> "... ukuaji wa vijiwe ulipungua kwa kiasi kifuatazo kwa kila 240-ml (8-oz) iliyotunywewa kila siku: 10% a kahawa yenye kafeni, 9% kwa kahawa isiyo na kafeni, 8% ya chai, na 59% kwa divai." (Cl data iliyotolewa kutoka nukuu mbili za mwisho.).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ |title=Beverage use and risk for kidney stones in women |journal=Ann Intern Med. |volume=128 |issue=7 |pages=534–40 |date=1 Aprili 1998|pmid=9518397 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9518397 |doi=10.1059/0003-4819-128-7-199804010-00003 |doi_brokendate=2010-03-16 }}</ref> ===Hitilafu katika ngono === Unywaji pombe kupindukia wa muda mrefu unaweza kusababisha uharibifu kwa mfumo mkuu wa neva na mfumo wa neva za pembeni na kupelekea kupoteza tamaa ya ngono na kutosisimka kwa wanaume hususani unywaji wa pombe kali bila kula chakula na matunda Pia mboga mboga na kutokufanya mazoezi .<ref>{{cite journal |author=Taniguchi N, Kaneko S |title=[Alcoholic effect on male sexual function] |language=Japanese |journal=Nippon Rinsho |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=3040–4 |year=1997 |month=Novemba |pmid=9396310 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ===Utofautiano wa homoni=== Unywaji pombe kupita kiasi unaweza kusababisha mchakato wa hiperoestrojeni.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fentiman | first1 = IS. | last2 = Fourquet | first2 = A. | last3 = Hortobagyi | first3 = GN. | title = Male breast cancer. | journal = Lancet | volume = 367 | issue = 9510 | pages = 595–604 | month = Feb | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68226-3 | pmid = 16488803 }}</ref> Imekisiwa kwamba vinywaji vilivyo pombe vinaweza kudhibiti misombo ya estrojeni. Kwa wanaume, viwango vikubwa vya estrojeni vinaweza kusababisha kushindwa kwa kazi za makende na ukuaji wa hulka ya uke ikiwa ni pamoja na ukuaji wa matiti ya kiume zinazoitwa jainekomastia.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gavaler | first1 = JS. | title = Alcoholic beverages as a source of estrogens. | journal = Alcohol Health Res World | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 220–7 | month = | year = 1998 | pmid = 15706799 }}</ref><ref name="Weiss-2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Weiss | first1 = JR. | last2 = Moysich | first2 = KB. | last3 = Swede | first3 = H. | title = Epidemiology of male breast cancer. | journal = Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–6 | month = Jan | year = 2005 | url = http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/14/1/20.long | pmid = 15668471 }}</ref> Kwa wanawake, viwango juu vya estrojeni kutokana na unywaji pombe kupindukia vimehusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kansa ya matiti.<ref name="Weiss-2005"></ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Boffetta | first1 = P. | last2 = Hashibe | first2 = M. | title = Alcohol and cancer. | journal = Lancet Oncol | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–56 | month = Feb | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70577-0 | pmid = 16455479 }}</ref> ===Ugonjwa wa kisukari melitusi=== Wanywaji pombe wa wastani wanaweza kuwa katika hatari ndogo ya kupata kisukari kuliko wasiokunywa. Kwa upande mwingine, ulevi wa pombe na matumizi ya pombe kwa kiasi cha kikubwa huweza kuzidisha hatari ya aina 2 za ugonjwa wa kisukari kwa wanawake."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Carlsson S, Hammar N, Grill V, Kaprio J |title=Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish twin cohort study |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=2785–90 |year=2003 |month=Oktoba |pmid=14514580 |url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/10/2785 |doi=10.2337/diacare.26.10.2785}}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe huimarisha uhisivu wa insulini.<ref>[245] ^ J Hong1, RR Smith, AE Harvey na NP Núñez [http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v33/n2/abs/ijo2008266a.html Matumizi ya pombe hukuza uhisivu wa insulini bila ya kuathiri viwango vya mafuta ya mwili] ''International Journal of Obesity'' (2009) 33, 197-203; doi: 10.1038/ijo.2008.266</ref> ===Ugonjwa wa maumivu ya viungo=== Matumizi ya kila mara ya pombe huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya maumivu ya viungo kutokana na jongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Star VL, Hochberg MC |title=Prevention and management of gout |journal=Drugs |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=212–22 |year=1993 |month=Februari |pmid=7681372 |doi= 10.2165/00003495-199345020-00004|url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Eggebeen AT |title=Gout: an update |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=76 |issue=6 |pages=801–8 |year=2007 |month=Septemba |pmid=17910294 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-09-15_76_6/page/800}}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe huhusishwa na upungufu wa hatari ya maumivu ya viungo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://arc.org.uk/arthinfo/patpubs/6033/6033.asp |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2010-11-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224073218/http://www.arc.org.uk/arthinfo/patpubs/6033/6033.asp |archivedate=2010-02-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R, Aho K, Kautiainen H, Hakala M |title=Reduced incidence of alcohol related deaths in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis |journal=Ann Rheum Dis. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=75–6 |year=2000 |month=Januari |pmid=10627433 |pmc=1752983 |url=http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10627433 |doi=10.1136/ard.59.1.75}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nagata C, Fujita S, Iwata H, ''et al.'' |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control epidemiologic study in Japan |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-dermatology_1995-05_34_5/page/333 |journal=Int J Dermatol. |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=333–7 |year=1995 |month=Mei |pmid=7607794 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-4362.1995.tb03614.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Aho K, Heliövaara M |title=Alcohol, androgens and arthritis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-the-rheumatic-diseases_1993-12_52_12/page/897 |journal=Ann Rheum Dis. |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=897 |year=1993 |month=Desemba |pmid=8311545 |pmc=1005228 |doi=10.1136/ard.52.12.897-b }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hardy CJ, Palmer BP, Muir KR, Sutton AJ, Powell RJ |title=Smoking history, alcohol consumption, and systemic lupus erythematosus: a case-control study |journal=Ann Rheum Dis. |volume=57 |issue=8 |pages=451–5 |year=1998 |month=Agosti |pmid=9797548 |pmc=1752721 |url=http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/57/8/451 |doi=10.1136/ard.57.8.451}}</ref> Tafiti mbili za hivi karibuni zinaripoti kwamba jinsi pombe zaidi inavyotumiwa, ndivyo hatari ya kupatwa na maumivu ya viungo hupungua. Miongoni mwa watu wanaokuunywa mara kwa mara, robo moja ya wanaokunywa zaidi walikuwa na kiwango cha hadi 50% cha chini cha uwezekano wa kupata ugonjwa wakilinganishwa na nusu ambao hunywa kidogo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Källberg H, Jacobsen S, Bengtsson C, ''et al.'' |title=Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis; Results from two Scandinavian case-control studies |journal=Ann Rheum Dis. |year=2008 |month=Julai |pmid=18535114 |doi=10.1136/ard.2007.086314 |volume=68 |pages=222 |issue=2 }}</ref> Watafiti walibainisha kuwa matumizi ya pombe wastani pia hupunguza hatari ya matukio mengine ya kutatiza kama vile ugonjwa mishipa ya moyo. Baadhi ya michakato ya kibayolojia ambapo kwayo ethanoli hupunguza hatari ya maumivu ya viungo na kuzuia uharibifu wa upotevu wa madini ya uzito wa fupa (BMD), ambayo ni sehemu ya mchakato wa maradhi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jonsson IM, Verdrengh M, Brisslert M, ''et al.'' |title=Ethanol prevents development of destructive arthritis |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=258–63 |year=2007 |month=Januari |pmid=17185416 |pmc=1765445 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608620104 }}</ref> Utafiti ulihitimisha kuwa, "Pombe ama hulinda dhidi ya RAmaumivu ya viungo au, watu walio na RA husitisha unywaji wao baada ya kudhihirika kwa RA".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R, Aho K, Kautiainen H, Hakala M |title=Reduced incidence of alcohol related deaths in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis |journal=Ann Rheum Dis. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=75–6 |year=2000 |month=Januari |pmid=10627433 |pmc=1752983 |url=http://ard.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/59/1/75 |doi=10.1136/ard.59.1.75}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine uligundua kuwa, "Wanawake waliopitisha miaka ya kuzaa ambao kwa wastani hutumia zaidi ya vinywaji 14 vya pombe kwa wiki walikuwa na upungufu wa hatari ya maumivu ya viungo ..."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Voigt LF, Koepsell TD, Nelson JL, Dugowson CE, Daling JR |title=Smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_1994-05_47_5/page/525 |journal=Epidemiology |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=525–32 |year=1994 |month=Septemba |pmid=7986867 }}</ref> ===Osteoporosi=== Matumizi wastani ya pombe huhusishwa na uzito wamadini ya mfupa kwa wanawake waliopitisha umri wa kujifungua. "...Matumizi ya pombe yalipunguza sana ya uwezekano wa [osteoporosis]."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Siris ES, Miller PD, Barrett-Connor E, ''et al.'' |title=Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment |journal=JAMA |volume=286 |issue=22 |pages=2815–22 |year=2001 |month=Desemba |pmid=11735756 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11735756 |doi=10.1001/jama.286.22.2815}}</ref> "Unywaji wa pombe wastani ulihusishwa na BMD katika wanawake wazee waliopita miaka ya kujifungua".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rapuri PB, Gallagher JC, Balhorn KE, Ryschon KL |title=Alcohol intake and bone metabolism in elderly women |journal=Am J Clin Nutr. |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=1206–13 |date=1 Novemba 2000 |pmid=11063451 |url=http://intl.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/5/1206 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2012-05-27 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120527081459/http://intl.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/5/1206 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> "Unywa wa kijamii huhusishwa na uzito wa juu wa madini ya mfupa katika wanaume na wanawake [juu] 45".<ref>{{cite journal |author=Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E |title=A prospective study of alcohol consumption and bone mineral density |journal=BMJ |volume=306 |issue=6891 |pages=1506–9 |year=1993 |month=Juni |pmid=8518677 |pmc=1677960 |doi=10.1136/bmj.306.6891.1506 }}</ref> Hata hivyo,matumizi mabaya ya pombe ni huhusishwa na upungufu wa mfupa.<ref name="Ronis-2007">{{Cite journal | last1 = Ronis | first1 = MJ. | last2 = Wands | first2 = JR. | last3 = Badger | first3 = TM. | last4 = de la Monte | first4 = SM. | last5 = Lang | first5 = CH. | last6 = Calissendorff | first6 = J. | title = Alcohol-induced disruption of endocrine signaling. | journal = Alcohol Clin Exp Res | volume = 31 | issue = 8 | pages = 1269–85 | month = Aug | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00436.x | pmid = 17559547 }}</ref><ref name="Peer-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Peer | first1 = KS. | last2 = Newsham | first2 = KR. | title = A case study on osteoporosis in a male athlete: looking beyond the usual suspects. | journal = Orthop Nurs | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 193–9; quiz 200–1 | month = | year = 2005| doi = | pmid = 15928528 }}</ref> ===Ngozi=== Matumizi mabaya ya pombe kupita kiasi ni huhusishwa na matatizo mbalimbali ya ngozi ikiwa ni pamoja naurtikaria, pofiria tarda kutanea, kuhisi joto na kujaa, stigmata ya ngozi ya saiirosi, soriasisi, pruritusi, ugonjwa wa seborei ya ngozi na rosasea.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kostović K, Lipozencić J |title=Skin diseases in alcoholics |journal=Acta Dermatovenerol Croat |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=181–90 |year=2004 |pmid=15369644 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Utafiti wa 2010 ulihitimisha, "unywaji bia usio mwepesi huhusishwa na hatari ya kuongezeka kwa uwezekano wa kupata soriasisi kwa wanawake. Vinywaji vingine vya kulevya havikuongeza hatari ya soriasis katika katika utafiti huu."<ref>[279] ^ Abrar A. Qureshi, Patrick L. Dominguez, Hyon K. Choi, Jiali Han, Gary Curhan [http://archderm.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/archdermatol.2010.204 Unywaji pombe na Hatari ya Soriasisi katika Wanawake Marekani:Tafiti linalotazamiwa] {{Wayback|url=http://archderm.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/archdermatol.2010.204 |date=20100820111906 }} ''Arch Dermatology'' doi: 10.1001/archdermatol.2010.204</ref> ==Mfumo wa kinga, bakteria Ukolezi, maambukizi ya virusi na kansa== ===Maambukizi ya bakteria=== Kuna athari za kinga ya matumizi ya pombe dhidi ya maambukizi makali ya ''H pylori'' <ref>{{cite journal |author=Brenner H, Rothenbacher D, Bode G, Adler G |title=Relation of smoking and alcohol and coffee consumption to active ''Helicobacter pylori'' infection: cross sectional study |journal=BMJ |volume=315 |issue=7121 |pages=1489–92 |date=6 Desemba 1997|pmid=9420488 |pmc=2127930 |url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7121/1489 }}</ref> Kinyume na hayo, unywaji pombe (unapolinganisha wale ambao hunywa> 30 gm ya pombe kila siku kwa wasiokunywa) haihusiani na hatari kubwa ya vidonda vya duodena.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Aldoori WH, Giovannucci EL, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, Wing AL, Willett WC |title=A prospective study of alcohol, smoking, caffeine, and the risk of duodenal ulcer in men |journal=Epidemiology |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=420–4 |year=1997 |month=Julai |pmid=9209857 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1044-3983&volume=8&issue=4&spage=420 |doi=10.1097/00001648-199707000-00012}}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe kupita kiasi ya pombe unaoonekana katika walevi hujulikana kama kigezo hatari cha nyumonia. ===Homa ya mafua=== Utafiti kuhusu homa ya mafua ulipata kuwa "Idadi kubwa ya vinynywaji vya pombe (hadi vitatu au vinne kwa siku) vilihusishwa na upungufu wa hatari ya kupata homa ya mafua kwa sababu ya kunywa kulihusishwa na ulipunguaji wa magonjwa baada ya kuugua. Hata hivyo, faida za kunywa zilitokeza tu miongoni mwa wasiovuta sigara... Ingawa matumizi ya pombe hayakuchangia hatari ya ugonjwa ya kimwili kwa wavutaji, matumizi wastani ya pombe yalihusishwa na upunguaji wa hatari kwa wasiovuta sigara."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cohen S, Tyrrell DA, Russell MA, Jarvis MJ, Smith AP |title=Smoking, alcohol consumption, and susceptibility to the common cold |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=83 |issue=9 |pages=1277–83 |year=1993 |month=Septemba |pmid=8363004 |pmc=1694990 |url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/83/9/1277 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.83.9.1277}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine ulihitimisha kuwa, "Matokeo yanaonyesha kwamba unywaji divai, hasa divai nyekundu unaweza kuwa na athari ya kinga dhidi ya hioma ya mafua. Bia, vileo vikali na pombe jumla hazionekani kuathiri matukio ya homa ya mafua."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Takkouche B, Regueira-Méndez C, García-Closas R, Figueiras A, Gestal-Otero JJ, Hernán MA |title=Intake of wine, beer, and spirits and the risk of clinical common cold |journal=Am J Epidemiol. |volume=155 |issue=9 |pages=853–8 |year=2002 |month=Mei |pmid=11978590 |url=http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/155/9/853 |doi=10.1093/aje/155.9.853}}</ref> ===Kansa=== Shirika la Kimataifa la Taasisi ya Utafiti wa Saratani (Centre International de Recherche sur le Saratani) la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Duniani]]liliainisha pombe kama kasinojeni la Kundi ya 1. Tathmini yake inasema, "Kuna ushahidi wa kutosha kwa hali ya kasinojeni ya vinywaji wa vileo kwa binadamu .... Vinywaji vya pombe vina kasinojeni kwa binadamu (Kundi la 1)."<ref> IARC Monografu ya Tathmini za Hatari za Kasinojeni kwa Binadamu: Juzuu 44 ''[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol44/volume44.pdf Unywaji Pombe : Muhtasari wa taarifa iliyoripotiwa na Tathmini]'' </ref> Idara ya Marekani &amp; Huduma za Kibinadamu 'Mpango wa Afya ya Taifa uliotaja pombe kama ''kasinojeni inajulikana '' mwaka wa 2000.<ref> National Toxicology Program [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s007alco.pdf Matumizi ya vinywaji vilewevu: Yanajulikana kuwa kasinojeni kwa binadamu] wa Iliotajwa kwanza katika ''Ripoti ya Tisa Kuhusu Kasinojeni '' (2000) (PDF)</ref> Utafiti mmoja uliamua kwamba "3.6% ya matukio yote ya kansa duniani yanahusiana na kunywa pombe ambayo husababisha 3.5% ya vifo vyote vya kansa ".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oncolink.com/resources/article.cfm?c=3&s=8&ss=23&id=13383&month=08&year=2006 |title=Mzigo mkubwa wa kansa zinazohusiana na pombe |accessdate=2024-01-20 |archivedate=2008-05-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504161019/http://www.oncolink.com/resources/article.cfm?c=3&s=8&ss=23&id=13383&month=08&year=2006 }}</ref> Ripoti ya jopo la Wakfu wa Utafiti wa Saratani Duniani iitwayo ''Chakula, Lishe, Shughuli za kimwili na Kuzuia Saratani: Mtazamo wa Kilimwengu'' wapata ushahidi wa "kushawishi" kwamba kunywa pombe huongeza hatari aina za saratani zifuatazo: kinywa na koo, umio, kolorektamu (wanaume), kifua (kabla na baada ya umri wa kujifungua).<ref name="WCRF">WCRF [http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/downloads/Second_Expert_Report.pdf Chakula, Lishe, Shughuli za kimwili na ya Kuzuia Saratani: Mtazamo wa Kilimwengu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/downloads/Second_Expert_Report.pdf |date=20090325235446 }}</ref> Ukolezi mkubwa wa asetalidehidi, ambayo huzalika wakati mwili unavunja ethanoli, unaweza kuharibu DNA katika seli zilizo na afya. Taasisi ya Taifa ya Matumizi mabaya ya Pombe na Ulevi zimeonyesha kwamba asetalidehidi hushikamana na poliaminesi ambayo ni misombo inayotokea kwa kawaida nayo ni muhimu kwa ukuaji wa seli - kuibusha aina ya msingi wa DNA hatari inayoitwa Cr-Pdg adduct.<ref> ''Makala ya '' New Scientist [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/mg18725125.600.html "Uhusiano wa pombe na kansa umeelezezwa"]</ref> Hata viwango vya wastani vya matumizi ya pombe huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya aina fulani za kansa.<ref name="Andréasson-"></ref> ==Athari za pombe kwa kijusi == Dalili za ulevi wa kijusi au FAS ni tatizo la kudumu kutokana na pungufu za kuzaliwa ambazo hutokea katika kizazi cha wanawake ambao hunywa pombe wakati wa ujauzito. Unywaji pombe kupindukia au wakati wa hatua za awali za ukuaji wa kijusi imehusishwa kikamilifu na FAS, matumizi wastani ya pombe huhusishwa na uharibifu wa kijusi. <ref name="Andréasson-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Andréasson | first1 = S. | last2 = Allebeck | first2 = P. | title = [Alcohol as medication is no good. More risks than benefits according to a survey of current knowledge] | journal = Lakartidningen | volume = 102 | issue = 9 | pages = 632–7 | date = 28 Februari - 6 Machi 2005 | pmid = 15804034 }}</ref> Pombe huvuka kizuizi cha plasenta na inaweza kudidimiza ukuaji wa kijusi au uzito, kuzua stigmata za pekee usoni , kuharibuneva na miundo ya ubongo, na kusababisha matatizo mengine ya kimwili, kiakili au kitabia. .<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ulleland CN |title=The offspring of alcoholic mothers |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=197 |issue= |pages=167–9 |year=1972 |month=Mei |pmid=4504588 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1972.tb28142.x }}</ref> Kijusi kuonjeshwa pombe ndiyo sababu inayoongoza kwa kusababisha ulemavu wa akili katika nchi za Kimagharibi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Abel EL, Sokol RJ |title=Incidence of foetal alcohol syndrome and economic impact of FAS-related anomalies |journal=Drug Alcohol Depend |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=51–70 |year=1987 |month=Januari |pmid=3545731 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0376-8716(87)90087-1 |doi=10.1016/0376-8716(87)90087-1 }}</ref> Matumizi ya pombe wakati wa ujauzito huhusishwa na insulini ya ubongo na ukinzani wa sababu za ukuaji wa vipengele sawa na insulini.<ref name="Ronis-2007"></ref> ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo|2}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/index.html Pombe na Afya: Ushahidi wa Kisasa. ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/index.html |date=20070427093736 }}[http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/index.html Chuo Kikuu cha Boston / Jarida la Taasisi ya Taifa ya Matumizi Mabaya ya Pombe na Ulevi] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/index.html |date=20070427093736 }} * [http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/alcohol/index_en.htm Health EU Portal] Pombe na Afya katika EU * [http://www.drinking.nhs.uk/index.html Pombe inaohusiana na shinikizo la damu, saratani, na mshtuko wa moyo] {{Wayback|url=http://www.drinking.nhs.uk/index.html |date=20101201180308 }} (NHS) [[Category:Vinywaji]] [[Jamii:afya]] t3ib5ya8fhiod2qgmlpaoqnufrbkeyu 0 68340 1564472 1465913 2026-06-02T16:40:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564472 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Hypertension | Image = Grade 1 hypertension.jpg | Caption = Automated arm [[sphygmomanometer|blood pressure meter]] showing [[artery|arterial]] hypertension (shown a [[systolic blood pressure]] 158&nbsp;mmHg, [[diastolic blood pressure]] 99&nbsp;mmHg and [[heart rate]] of 80 beats per minute). | DiseasesDB = 6330 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|10||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|11||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|12||i|10}},<br/>{{ICD10|I|13||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|15||i|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|401}} | OMIM = 145500 | MedlinePlus = 000468 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1106 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|1097}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|267}} | MeshID = D006973 }} '''Shinikizo la juu la damu''' (HTN) au '''presha ya juu ya damu''' (pia huitwa '''shinikizo la mishipa ya damu''', HBP), ni [[ugonjwa]] sugu ambapo [[nguvu ya msukumo wa damu]] katika [[mshipa|mishipa]] ni kubwa kuliko kawaida. Ongezeko hilo husababisha [[moyo]] kufanya kazi kupita kiasi ili uzungushe [[damu]] katika [[mishipa ya damu]]. Kwa kawaida halina dalili, ila likidumu lina madhara makubwa kwa [[afya]]. Shinikizo la juu la damu ndilo sababu kubwa ([[kihatarishi]]) ya [[upoozaji]], [[mshtuko wa moyo]] (mashambulizi ya moyo), [[moyo kushindwa kufanya kazi]], [[kutuna kwa ukuta]] wa mishipa (k.m., [[kutuna kwa ukuta wa aota au mkole]]), [[chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo au peripheral arterial disease]], na inasababishwa na [[ugonjwa sugu wa figo]]. Hata ongezeko la wastani la shinikizo la damu hupunguza [[matarajio ya muda wa kuishi]]. Kuna vipimo viwili vya shinikizo la damu, yaani systolic na diastolic: shinikizo au presha ya systolic ni [[kipimo]] cha damu ambacho kinapima nguvu ya msukumo wa damu katika mishipa ya damu wakati moyo unadunda. Shinikizo au presha ya diastole inapima nguvu ya msukumo wa damu katika mishipa ya damu wakati moyo umetulia au kati ya [[mapigo ya moyo]] (diastole). Kipimo cha kawaida cha shinikizo la damu ni 100–140&nbsp;[[milimita]] za [[zebaki]] (mmHg) upande wa systolic (kipimo cha juu) na 60–90&nbsp; milimita za zebaki upande wa diastolic (kipimo cha chini). Shinikizo la juu la damu hutokea kama kipimo kikiwa zaidi ya 140/90&nbsp;mmHg kwa muda mrefu. Kuna aina mbili za shinikizo la juu la damu: [[shinikizo la juu la damu la asili]] na [[shinikizo la damu linalosababishwa na magonjwa mengine]]. Kadiri ya [[asilimia]] 90–95 za watu wanaathiriwa na "shinikizo la juu la damu la asili", yaani wana ugonjwa huu bila kuwa na chanzo cha kisayansi kinachofahamika.<ref name="pmid10645931">{{cite journal |author=Carretero OA, Oparil S |title=Essential hypertension. Part I: Definition and etiology |journal=Circulation |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=329–35 |year=2000 |month=January |pmid=10645931 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/101/3/329.long |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.329}}</ref> Magonjwa mengine ya [[mafigo]], mishipa, moyo, [[mfumo wa homoni]] huathiri asilimia 5–10 iliyobaki ya watu wenye shinikizo la damu (ndilo shinikizo la damu linalosababishwa na magonjwa mengine). Ili kudhibiti shinikizo la damu, [[lishe bora]] na mabadiliko katika mtindo wa kuishi lazima yazingatiwe pamoja na kupunguza matatizo yanayoathiri [[afya]]. Hata hivyo, matumizi ya [[dawa]] ni muhimu kwa watu ambao mabadiliko ya mtindo wa maisha hautoshelezi kupunguza shinikizo la juu la damu, kutuna kwa [[ukuta wa ateri]] mithili ya puto kutokana na udhaifu wa sehemu hiyo. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Uainishaji wa shinikizo la damu== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |- ! rowspan=2 | Classification (JNC7)<ref name="jnc7">{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, ''et al.'' |title=Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure |journal=Hypertension |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1206–52 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14656957 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.long}}</ref> ! colspan=2 | Systolic pressure ! colspan=2 | Diastolic pressure |- ! [[mmHg]] ! [[Pascal (unit)|kPa]] ! mmHg ! kPa |- | Kawaida | 90–119 | 12–15.9 | 60–79 | 8.0–10.5 |- | Dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu | 120–139 | 16.0–18.5 | 80–89 | 10.7–11.9 |- | Aina ya 1 shinikizo la juu la damu - kali | 140–159 | 18.7–21.2 | 90–99 | 12.0–13.2 |- | Aina ya 2 shinikizo la juu la damu - kali kiasi | ≥160 | ≥21.3 | ≥100 | ≥13.3 |- | [[Isolated systolic hypertension|Isolated systolic<br/>shinikizo la juu la damu - kali sana]] | ≥140 | ≥18.7 | <90 | <12.0 |} ===Watu wazima=== Kwa watu wenye umri wa miaka 18 au zaidi, shinikizo la juu la damu linaweza kuwa systolic na/au diastolic kama kipimo hicho ni zaidi kuliko kipimo cha kawaida kinachokubalika ambacho ni (139&nbsp;mmHg systolic, 89&nbsp;mmHg diastolic: tazama table — Uainishaji (JNC7)). Kama vipimo vinapatikana baada ya kutumia chombo kinachopima presha kwa masaa 24 (24-hour ambulatory) au kufanya maangalizi nyumbani, vipimo vya chini vinatumiwa (135&nbsp;mmHg systolic or 85&nbsp;mmHg diastolic). Pia miongozo ya kimataifa ya hivi karibuni imegawanya shinikizo la damu katika vikundi mbali mbali vyenye vipimo chini ya kipimo cha shinikizo la juu la damu ili kuthibitisha hatari iliyopo ya shinikizo la juu la damu. JNC7 (2003)<ref name="jnc7" /> anatumia neno dalili ya kuwa na shinikizo la juu la kwa presha ya damu iliyo kati ya 120 na 139&nbsp;mmHg systolic na/au 80–89&nbsp;mmHg diastolic, wakati Miongozo ya ESH-ESC (2007)<ref name=ESH-ESC>{{cite journal |author=Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, ''et al.'' |title=2007 ESH-ESC Practice Guidelines for the Management of Arterial Hypertension: ESH-ESC Task Force on the Management of Arterial Hypertension |journal=J. Hypertens. |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=1751–62 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17762635 |doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282f0580f |url=}}</ref> and BHS IV (2004)<ref name=BHSIV>{{cite journal |author=Williams B, Poulter NR, Brown MJ, ''et al.'' |title=Guidelines for management of hypertension: report of the fourth working party of the British Hypertension Society, 2004-BHS IV |journal=J Hum Hypertens |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=139–85 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=14973512 |doi=10.1038/sj.jhh.1001683 |url=}}</ref> inatenganisha katika vikundi vya hali inayofaa, vya kawaida, na vya kawaida kiasi kutofautisha presha zilizopo chini ya 140&nbsp;mmHg systolic na 90&nbsp;mmHg diastolic. Shinikizo la juu la damu pia imegawanywa katika vikundi vifuatavyo: JNC7 inatofautisha shinikizo la juu la damu aina ya I, shinikizo la juu la damu aina ya II, na shinikizo la juu la damu hatua kali sana. Shinikizo la juu la damu ambayo ni kali sana (Isolated systolic hypertension) ni presha ya juu sana inayoambatana na presha ya kawaida ya diastolic, hali hii huwatokea sana wazee.<ref name="jnc7"/> The ESH-ESC Guidelines (2007)<ref name=ESH-ESC /> and BHS IV (2004),<ref name = BHSIV /> inatambua aina ya tatu (aina ya III) ya shinikizo la juu la damu kwa watu ambao wana presha ya juu ya systolic inayozidi 179&nbsp;mmHg au presha ya diastolic inayozidi 109&nbsp;mmHg. Shinikizo la juu la damu liko katika kundi la "sugu" kama [[madawa]] hayapunguzi shinikizo la damu hadi vipimo vya kawaida.<ref name="jnc7"/> ===Watoto wadogo na wachanga=== Si kawaida kwa [[watoto waliozaliwa karibuni]] kuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu na ni asilimia 0.2 hadi 3% ya watoto wachanga ambao wanapata. Shinikizo la damu haipimwi mara kwa mara kama watoto ni wadogo na wana afya nzuri. <ref name=Dionne>{{cite journal |author=Dionne JM, Abitbol CL, Flynn JT |title=Hypertension in infancy: diagnosis, management and outcome |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=17–32 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=21258818 |doi=10.1007/s00467-010-1755-z |url=}}</ref> Shinikizo la damu huwapata watoto ambao wako katika hatari kubwa. Kuna masuala tofauti ya kuangalia, kama vile [[kipindi cha ujazito]], umri baada ya utungaji mimba, na [[uzito wakati wa kuzaliwa]] kabla ya kuamua kama kipimo cha shinikizo la damu ni cha kawaida kwa mtoto mchanga.<ref name=Dionne /> ===Watoto na vijana=== Ni kawaida kwa watoto na vijana kupata shinikizo la damu (asilimia 2–9% hutegemea na umri, jinsia, na asili)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Din-Dzietham R, Liu Y, Bielo MV, Shamsa F |title=High blood pressure trends in children and adolescents in national surveys, 1963 to 2002 |journal=Circulation |volume=116 |issue=13 |pages=1488–96 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17846287 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.683243 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_circulation_2007-09-25_116_13/page/n73}}</ref> and is associated with long-term risks of ill-health.<ref name=fourth>{{cite journal |author= |title=The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents |journal=Pediatrics |volume=114 |issue=2 Suppl 4th Report |pages=555–76 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15286277 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Hivi sasa kuna pendekezo la kuwapima damu watoto wenye zaidi ya miaka mitatu na kuangalia kama wana shinikizo la juu la damu kila wanapoenda kupimwa afya yao. Kabla ya kuthibitisha kama mtoto ana shinikizo la juu la damu mtoto lazima apimwe mara kadhaa.<ref name = fourth /> Shinikizo la damu huongezeka utotoni kufuatana na umri , wa watoto, shinikizo la damu linatambulika kama ni systolic ya kawaida au diastolic baada ya kupimwa zaidi ya mara tatu au zaidi ya asilimia 95 ambayo ni kawaida kufuatana na jinsia, umri na urefu wa mtoto. Dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu (Prehypertension) kwa watoto linatambulika kama shinikizo au presha ya kawaida ya systolic au shinikizo au presha ya diastolic kama ni zaidi au sawa na asilimia 90, lakini ni chini ya asilimia 95.<ref name=fourth />Kwa vijana, inapendekezwa kwamba shinikizo la juu la damu na dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu zichunguzwe na kuainisha kwa kutumia vigezo vya watu wazima.<ref name=fourth /> ==Ishara na dalili== Mara nyingi watu wenye shinikizo la damu hawana dalili yoyote, na huwa inagundulika baada ya kufanya uchunguzi kwa kawaida kupitia [[Uchunguzi (medicine)|screening]], au wakati maangalizi ya afya yanafanywa kwa sababu nyingine. Watu wengine wenye shinikizo la damu huwa wanapata [[maumivu ya kichwa]] (haswa nyuma ya kichwa na asubuhi), pamoja na [[kuchanganyikiwa]], [[kizunguzungu]], [[sikio kelele]] (mvumo au mazomeo masikioni), kutoweza kuona vizuri au [[Syncope (medicine)|matukio ya kuzirai]].<ref name=Fisher2005>{{cite book |author=Fisher ND, Williams GH |editor=Kasper DL, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, ''et al.'' |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|edition=16th |year=2005 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-07-139140-1 |pages=1463–81 |chapter=Hypertensive vascular disease}}</ref> Baada ya [[uchunguzi wa mwili]], kunakuwa na wasiwasi wa shinikizo la juu la damu kama [[kuna upanuzi wa mishipa ya damu ya retina]] baada ya kufanya uchunguzi wa [[optic fundus]] iliyopo nyuma ya jicho kwa kutumia [[chombo cha kufanyia uchunguzi yaani ophthalmoscopy]].<ref name=Wong2007>{{cite journal |author=Wong T, Mitchell P |title=The eye in hypertension |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9559 |pages=425–35 |year=2007 |month=February |pmid=17276782 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60198-6}}</ref> Classically, ukali wa mabadiliko ya shinikizo la damu ya retina linagawanya kwenye vikundi kuanzia I hadi IV, ingawa inaweza kuwa vigumu kuzitofautisha aina kali kiasi.<ref name=Wong2007/> Chombo cha kufanyia uchunguzi wa macho kinaweza kuonyesha muda ambao mtu amekuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu=Fisher2005/> ===Shinikizo la juu la damu litokanalo na magonjwa mengine=== Dalili zingine zinaweza kusababishwa na [[magonjwa mengine]], yani shinikizo la damu linaloletwa na sababu zingine zinazojulikana kama vile [[magonjwa ya figo]] au [[mabadiliko ya mfumo wa homoni]]. Kwa mfano, unene wa kifua na tumbo, [[uthibiti mbaya wa sukari]], [[moon facies]] au mkusanyiko wa mafuta usoni, mkusanyiko wa mafuta mgongoni ("buffalo hump") na purple [[striae]] au alama za unene huonyesha dalili ya [[ugonjwa wa homoni wa Cushing's syndrome]].<ref name=ABC>{{cite book |author=O'Brien, Eoin; Beevers, D. G.; Lip, Gregory Y. H. |title=ABC of hypertension |url=https://archive.org/details/abcofhypertensio0000unse |publisher=BMJ Books |location=London |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=1-4051-3061-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Ugonjwa unaoathiri kikoromeo]] na [[acromegaly]] yaani mwili hutengeneza homoni ya kukuza umbo pia huweza kuleta shinikizo la juu la damu na dalili zake za kawaida huonekana.<ref name="ABC" /> Wembamba wa mishipa ya tumbo au abdominal [[bruit]] inaweza kuwa ni ishara ya [[renal artery stenosis]] au kuziba kwa mishipa ya damu ipelekayo damu kwenye figo. Shinikizo la chini la damu katika miguu au mapigo ya mshipa wa mguu yanayochelewa au ukosefu wa mapigo [[mshipa wa mguu|mapigo ya mshipa wa mguu]] inaweza kuwa ni dalili ya [[aortic coarctation]] (kupungua kwa upana wa mshipa mkuu utoao damu kwenye moyo kwenda mwilini). Shinikizo la damu ambalo linalotofautiana sana na kuumwa kwa kichwa, mpapatiko wa moyo, kubadilika rangi ya ngozi, na utoaji jasho ni lazima kuwe na wasiwasi wa [[pheochromocytoma yaani saratani ya tezi iliyo juu ya figo]].<ref name="ABC" /> ===Hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la juu la damu=== Shinikizo la damu lililo juu kupita kiasi (sawa au zaidi ya 180 au diastolic ya 110, wakati mwingine huitwa shinikizo la damu linaloweza kuleta kifo au linaloharakisha kifo) inatambulika kama "hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la juu la damu." Shinikizo la damu vinavyozidi vipimo hivi vinaonyesha hali kubwa ya hatari ya ugonjwa huu. Watu wenye viwango hivi vya shinikizo la damu wanaweza wasiwe na dalili zozote, ila wanaweza kulalamika kuumwa kwa kichwa (asilimia 22% ya wagonjwa)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Papadopoulos DP, Mourouzis I, Thomopoulos C, Makris T, Papademetriou V |title=Hypertension crisis |journal=Blood Press. |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=328–36 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=20504242 |doi=10.3109/08037051.2010.488052 |url=}}</ref> na kuwa na kizunguzungu kuliko watu wa kawaida.<ref name=Fisher2005/> Dalili zingine za hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la damu ni kutoona vizuri au kutopumua vizuri kwa sababu moyo haufanyi kazi vizuri au kutojisikia vizuri [[uchovu]] kwa sababu mafigo yanashindwa kufanya kazi.<ref name="ABC" /> Watu wengi wenye hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la damu wanatambulika kuwa na msukumo mkubwa wa damu, lakini vichocheo vingine vinaweza kuongezea msukumo.<ref name=Marik2007>{{cite journal |author=Marik PE, Varon J |title=Hypertensive crises: challenges and management |journal=Chest |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages=1949–62 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17565029 |doi=10.1378/chest.06-2490 |url=http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/131/6/1949.long |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2012-12-04 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121204174126/http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/131/6/1949.long |dead-url=yes }}</ref> "Shinikizo la damu la ghafla", zamani ilikuwa inajulikana kama "shinikizo la damu inayodhuru", hutokea ikiwa kuna ithibati ya madhara yanayotokea katika ogani za mwili kwa sababu ya shinikizo la juu la damu. Madhara haya yanaweza kuwa [[hypertensive encephalopathy]] au shinikizo kichwani, inasababishwa na uvimbe wa ubongo na kutofanya kazi vizuri, na husababisha kichwa kuumwa na [[kupoteza fahamu]] (kuchanganyikiwa au kusinzia). Retinal [[papilloedema]] and fundal [[kuvuja damu kutokana na mpasuko wa mishipa midogo ya macho]] na [[kutoa usaha au maji]] ni dalili nyingine ya madhara ya ogani. [[Maumivu ya kifua]] yanaweza kuwa ni dalili ya uharibifu wa misuli ya moyo (ambayo baadaye yanaleta [[upungufu wa damu kati ya misuli ya moyo]]) au wakati mwingine [[ukuta wa ndani wa aorta huchanika na damu]], kuchanika kwa ukuta wa mshipa mkuu uitwao [[aota/mkole]]. Kukosa pumzi, kukohoa, na kukohoa makohozi yenye damu ni dalili ya [[pulmonary edema au mapafu kujaa maji]]. Hali hii inaleta uvimbe wa seli za mapafu unaosababishwa na [[udhaifu wa upande wa kushoto wa moyo]], na uwezo mdogo wa [[upande wa kushoto]] wa moyo kusukuma damu kutoka kwenye mapafu hadi mishipa ya damu.<ref name=Marik2007/> Figo kupoteza uwezo wake wa kufanya kazi upesi (figo kushindwa kufanya kazi kwa ghafla) na [[microangiopathic hemolytic anemia au upungufu wa damu]] (uharibifu wa seli za damu) unaweza kutokea.<ref name=Marik2007/> Katika hali hizi, shinikizo la chini la damu ni muhimu ili kupunguza madhara ya ogani.<ref name=Marik2007/> Kwa upande mwingine, hakuna ushahidi unaonyesha kuwa shinikizo la damu linatakiwa kupunguzwa kwa kasi wakati wa matatizo ya dharura ya shinikizo la juu la damu iwapo kuna ogani iliyoathirika. Upunguzaji wa ghafla wa shinikizo la damu unaweza kuwa ni hatari.<ref name="ABC" /> Matumizi ya dawa ya kushusha shinikizo la damu hatua kwa hatua zaidi ya masaa 24 hadi 48 yanapendekezwa wakati wa dharura inayotokana na shinikizo la juu la damu.<ref name=Marik2007/> ===Ujauzito=== Shinikizo juu la damu hutokea takriban 8-10% za ujauzito. Wanawake karibu wote wenye shinikizo juu la damu wakiwa na mimba walikwishaumwa na shinikizio la damu la kawaida. Hali hiyo ikitokea katika ujaa uzito ni dalili ya kwanza ya kifafa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa. Maradhi hayo hutokea katika muda wa pili wa ujaa uzito na majuma machache baada ya kujifungua. Uaguzi wa maradhi hayo ni pamoja na shinikizo la damu kuongezeka na dalili za protini ndani ya mkojo. Maradhi hayo hutokea takribin 5% ya ujaa uzito yakisababisha takribin 16% ya vifo vya wenye ujaa uzito. Hatari ya kifo cha mtoto inaongezeka maradufu kutokana na maradhi hayo dunia nzima. Kwa kawaida hakuna dalili maalum za kifafa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa hugunduliwa na uchujaji wa kawaida. Zinapotokea dalili za maradhi hayo hizo ndizo ni kuumwa kichwani, taabu za kuona vizuri (mwanga wa kumulika ghafla) kutapika, maumivu ya epigastriumu na kuvimba. Kifafaa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa wakati mwingine inaweza kuletea hali inayotisha maisha inayoitwa kifafa cha mimba. Kifafa cha mimba kinaleta hali ya dharura ya shinikizo la damu inayotatiza sana. Matatizo hayo ni pamoja na upofu, kuvimba kwa ubongo, utendaji wa kiklonasi ulio katika hali ya kukazika au kuvutika na kutia kifafa, kuharibika kwa mafigo, edema ya mapafu, disseminated intravascular coagulation (kutoganda vizuri kwa damu). Shinikizo juu ya damu ikiathiri uja uzito: Dawa Ukunga na Elimuuzazi:<ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/261435-overview title=Hypertension and Pregnancy author=Gibson, Paul coauthors= date=July 30 2009 work=eMedicine Obstetrics and Gynecology publisher=Medscape pages= accessdate=2009-06=16}</ref> ===Watoto wadogo na wachanga=== Kushindwa kustawi, kutiliwa kifafa, usumbufu, uchovu/kukosa nguvu, hali inayorudiarudia ya kudhikisha kwa mapofu kushindwa kuhema vizuri Shinikizo Juu la Damu: <ref>eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine” url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/889877-overview title=Hypertension author=Rodriguez-Cruz, Edwin coauthorsw=Ettinger, Leigh M date=April 6, 2010 wor4k=eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine publisher=Medscape pages= accessdate=2009-06-16}</ref> can be associated with hypertension in neonates and young infants. Kuhusu watoto wachanga ambao wameshahitimu umri zaidi pamoja na wana, shinikizo la juu la damu linaweza kuumiza kichwa, usumbufu usioelezeka, uchovu (uchovu wa kiganga), kushindwa kustawi, macho kutiliwa kiwi, kutokwa na damu puani, hatimaye kiharusi uso kupoozwa baadaye. <ref>Name=Dionne ref name=”urlHpertension: eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine.</ref> ===Kuzidi kwa ukali wa shinikizo la juu la damu=== Shinikizo la juu la damu linachangia vifo vya watoto wachanga kuliko athari nyingine, nalo linaweza kupatiwa kinga.<ref>{{cite web|title= Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks.|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf|work=World Health Organization|year=2009|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> It increases the risk of [[ischemic heart disease]]<ref name=pmid12493255>{{cite journal |author=Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R |title=Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies |journal=Lancet |volume=360 |issue=9349 |pages=1903–13 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12493255 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11911-8|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2002-12-14_360_9349/page/n13}}</ref> [[strokes]],<ref name="ABC" /> [[peripheral vascular disease]],<ref name="pmid18375152">{{cite journal |author=Singer DR, Kite A |title=Management of hypertension in peripheral arterial disease: does the choice of drugs matter? |journal=European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=701–8 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18375152 |doi=10.1016/j.ejvs.2008.01.007}}</ref> and other cardiovascular diseases, including [[heart failure]], [[aortic aneurysm]]s, diffuse [[atherosclerosis]], and [[pulmonary embolism]].<ref name="ABC" /> Hypertension is also a risk factor for [[cognitive impairment]], [[dementia]], and [[chronic kidney disease]].<ref name="ABC" /> Other complications include: *[[Hypertensive retinopathy]] *[[Hypertensive nephropathy]]<ref name="pmid19330604">{{cite journal |author=Zeng C, Villar VA, Yu P, Zhou L, Jose PA |title=Reactive oxygen species and dopamine receptor function in essential hypertension |journal=Clinical and Experimental Hypertension |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=156–78 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19330604 |doi=10.1080/10641960802621283}}</ref> ==Sababu== ===Shinikizo la juu la damu la msingi=== Shinikizo la juu la damu la msingi ni aina inayojulikana zaidi, ikiwa chanzo cha 90-95% za waathirika wa shinikizo la juu la damu<ref name="pmid10645931"/> Takriban katika jamii zote za kisasa shinikizo la damu linapanda juu katika nyakati za kuzeeka.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vasan|first=RS|coauthors=Beiser, A, Seshadri, S, Larson, MG, Kannel, WB, D'Agostino, RB, Levy, D|title=Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: The Framingham Heart Study.|journal=JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association|date=2002 Feb 27|volume=287|issue=8|pages=1003-10|pmid=11866648}}</ref> Shinikizo la juu la damu linatokana katika ushirikiano wa viini-urithi na athari za mazingira. Viini-urithi vingi vya kawaida vikiwa na athari ndogo juu ya shinikizo la damu vimeshatambulika<ref>The International Consortium for Blood Pressure Genome-Wide Association Studies. Genetic variants in novel pathways influence blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk. Nature 2011; 478: 103–109 doi:10.1038/nature10405</ref> na vilevile vingine vya nadra lakini vyenye athari kubwa katika hilo<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lifton|first=RP|coauthors=Gharavi, AG, Geller, DS|title=Molecular mechanisms of human hypertension.|journal=Cell|date=2001 Feb 23|volume=104|issue=4|pages=545-56|pmid=11239411}}</ref> lakini shinikizo juu la damu linalotokana na viini-athari halijaeleweka vizuri hadi leo hii. [[Chumvi]] kidogo tu,<ref>{{cite journal|last=He|first=FJ|coauthors=MacGregor, GA|title=A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes.|journal=Journal of human hypertension|date=2009 Jun|volume=23|issue=6|pages=363-84|pmid=19110538}}</ref> matunda na vyakula visivyo na [[mafuta]] mengi (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension ([[DASH diet]])), [[mazoezi]],<ref name="ReferenceA">Dickinson HO, Mason JM, Nicolson DJ, Campbell F, Beyer FR, Cook JV, Williams B, Ford GA. Lifestyle interventions to reduce raised blood pressure: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens. 2006;24:215-33.</ref> [[weight loss]]<ref name=HaslamJames>{{cite journal |author=Haslam DW, James WP |title=Obesity |journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492 |pages=1197–209 |year=2005 |pmid=16198769 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1}}</ref> na kutokunywa [[vileo]] sana ni misaada dhidi ya presha kupanda.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S, Kotchen TA ''et al.'' | year = 2002 | title = Primary prevention of hypertension: Clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program | url = | journal = JAMA | volume = 288 | issue = 15| pages = 1882–8 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.15.1882 | pmid = 12377087 }}</ref> Jinsi [[uchovu]],<ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[kahawa]],<ref>Mesas AE, Leon-Muñoz LM, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Lopez-Garcia E. The effect of coffee on blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in hypertensive individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:1113–26.</ref> na upungufu wa [[vitamini D]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vaidya A, Forman JP |title=Vitamin D and hypertension: current evidence and future directions |journal=Hypertension |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=774–9 |year=2010 |month=November |pmid=20937970 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.140160 |url=}}</ref> vinavyochangia presha ya juu haieleweki vizuri. Kinzano dhidi ya [[insulin]] inafikiriwa pia kupandisha presha.<ref name="pmid12364344">{{cite journal |author=Sorof J, Daniels S |title=Obesity hypertension in children: a problem of epidemic proportions |journal=Hypertension |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=441–447 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=12364344 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000032940.33466.12 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12364344 |accessdate=2009-06-03 |archive-date=2012-12-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205010228/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12364344 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Utafiti wa hivi karibuni umedhulumu matukio ya maisha ya watoto wachanga kwa mfano, [[uzito mdogo wa mtoto mchanga]], tabia ya uvutaji sigara ya akina mama, na [[kutowanyonyesha watoto]] kama athari za hatari zinazoumiza watu wazima na shinikizo la damu la kimsingi.<ref name = "Lawlor 2005">{{cite journal|last=Lawlor|first=DA|coauthors=Smith, GD|title=Early life determinants of adult blood pressure.|journal=Current opinion in nephrology and hypertension|date=2005 May|volume=14|issue=3|pages=259-64|pmid=15821420}}</ref> Hata hivyo, mahusiano hayo yanabaki fumbo.<ref name = "Lawlor 2005"/> ===Shinikizo la juu la damu la hatua ya pili=== Shinikizo la juu la damu la hatua ya pili linatokana na chanzo kinachojulikana. Maradhi ya mafigo ni chanzo kinachozidi cha shinikizo la juu la damu hatua ya pili.<ref name="ABC" /> Chanzo kingine cha shinikizo la juu la damu ni hali tofauti za tezi zenye kunyesa ndani kwa ndani kama kwa mfano [[Cushing's syndrome]], [[hyperthyroidism]], [[hypothyroidism]], [[acromegaly]], [[Conn's syndrome]] or [[hyperaldosteronism]], [[hyperparathyroidism]], and [[pheochromocytoma]].<ref name="ABC" /><ref>Dluhy RG, Williams GH. Endocrine hypertension. In: Wilson JD, Foster DW, Kronenberg HM, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1998:729-49.</ref> Vyanzo vingine vya shinikizo la juu la damu hatua ya pili ni pamoja na [unene], [kushindwa kupumua kunakoleta usingizi wa mang’amung’amu], [kuwa na mimba], [kufinyika kwa aota], ulaji zaidi wa [urukususu] na dawa fulani zilizo halali zikiwa na zile zote zisizo halali pamoja na dawa za kienyeji.<ref name="ABC" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Grossman E, Messerli FH |title=Drug-induced Hypertension: An Unappreciated Cause of Secondary Hypertension |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=125 |issue=1 |pages=14–22 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=22195528 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.05.024 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2012-01_125_1/page/14}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[Image:Arterial pressure diagram.png|thumb|right|350px|A diagram explaining factors affecting [[arterial pressure]]]] Watu karibu wote wakiumia shinikizo la juu la damu la kimsingi linalowekwa imara, kinzi inayoongezeka kwa utiririko wa damu ([[kinzi kabisa ukingoni]]) inasababisha shinikizo la hali ya juu wakati utiririko wa damu kutoka moyoni unaendelea kama kawaida.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Conway J |title=Hemodynamic aspects of essential hypertension in humans |journal=Physiol. Rev. |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=617–60 |year=1984 |month=April |pmid=6369352 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiological-reviews_1984-04_64_2/page/617}}</ref> Uthibitisho upo kubainisha vijana wengine wanaoumia shinikizo la juu la damu ambalo halijashikana kabisa wana utiririko wa damu kutoka moyoni wa kiwango cha juu, pigo linalozidi kawaida la moyo na kinzi ya kawaida ukingoni (hyperkinetic borderline hypertension).<ref name = Palatini>{{cite journal |author=Palatini P, Julius S |title=The role of cardiac autonomic function in hypertension and cardiovascular disease |journal=Curr. Hypertens. Rep. |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19442329 |doi= |url=}}</ref> These individuals develop typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as their cardiac output falls and peripheral resistance rises with age.<ref name = Palatini /> Whether this pattern is typical of all people who ultimately develop hypertension is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Andersson OK, Lingman M, Himmelmann A, Sivertsson R, Widgren BR |title=Prediction of future hypertension by casual blood pressure or invasive hemodynamics? A 30-year follow-up study |journal=Blood Press. |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=350–4 |year=2004 |pmid=15771219 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Increased peripheral resistance in established hypertension is mainly attributable to structural narrowing of small arteries and arterioles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Folkow B |title=Physiological aspects of primary hypertension |journal=Physiol. Rev. |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=347–504 |year=1982 |month=April |pmid=6461865 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiological-reviews_1982-04_62_2/page/n2}}</ref> Reduction in number or density of capillaries may also contribute to peripheral resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Struijker Boudier HA, le Noble JL, Messing MW, Huijberts MS, le Noble FA, van Essen H |title=The microcirculation and hypertension |journal=J Hypertens Suppl |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=S147–56 |year=1992 |month=December |pmid=1291649 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Shinikizo juu la damu pia linahusika na ukosefu wa ujikunjaji wa mishipa iliyoko ukingoni,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Safar ME, London GM |title=Arterial and venous compliance in sustained essential hypertension |journal=Hypertension |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=133–9 |year=1987 |month=August |pmid=3301662 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hypertension_1987-08_10_2/page/133}}</ref> which may increase return of blood to the heart, increase cardiac [[Preload (cardiology)|preload]], and ultimately cause [[diastolic dysfunction]]. Ikiwa kuongezeka kwa finyo linaloendelea la mishipa ya damu huchangia shinikizo la juu la damu la kimsingi linalowekwa imara hakujathibitishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schiffrin EL |title=Reactivity of small blood vessels in hypertension: relation with structural changes. State of the art lecture |journal=Hypertension |volume=19 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=II1-9 year=1992 month=February pmid=1735561 doi= }</ref> [[Pulse pressure]] (difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure) is frequently increased in older people with hypertension. This situation can involve systolic pressure that is abnormally high, but diastolic pressure may be normal or low. This condition is called [[isolated systolic hypertension]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV |title=Clinical practice. Isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=357 |issue=8 |pages=789–96 |year=2007 |month=August |pmid=17715411 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp071137 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-08-23_357_8/page/788}}</ref> High pulse pressure in elderly people with hypertension or isolated systolic hypertension is explained by increased [[arterial stiffness]], which typically accompanies aging and may be exacerbated by high blood pressure.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA |title=Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness |journal=Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=932–43 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15731494 |doi=10.1161/01.ATV.0000160548.78317.29 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arteriosclerosis-thrombosis-and-vascular-biology_2005-05_25_5/page/932}}</ref> Many mechanisms have been proposed to account for rise in resistance seen within arterial system in hypertension. Most evidence implicates one or both of these causes: * Disturbances in renal salt and water handling, particularly abnormalities of intrarenal [[renin-angiotensin system]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Navar LG |title=Counterpoint: Activation of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system is the dominant contributor to systemic hypertension |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=1998–2000; discussion 2015 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=21148349 |pmc=3006411 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00182.2010a |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-12_109_6/page/1998}}</ref> * Abnormalities of [[sympathetic nervous system]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Esler M, Lambert E, Schlaich M |title=Point: Chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system is the dominant contributor to systemic hypertension |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=1996–8; discussion 2016 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=20185633 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00182.2010 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-12_109_6/page/1996}}</ref> These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that both contribute to some extent in most cases of essential hypertension. Limedokezwa kuwa kutofanya vizuri kwa kuta za ndani za mishipa ya damu pamoja na inflamesheni ya mishipa huenda inachangia kinzi inayoongezeka ukingoni pamoja na kuharibika kwa mishipa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Versari D, Daghini E, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Taddei S |title=Endothelium-dependent contractions and endothelial dysfunction in human hypertension |journal=Br. J. Pharmacol. |volume=157 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19630832 |pmc=2707964 |doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00240.x |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Marchesi C, Paradis P, Schiffrin EL |title=Role of the renin-angiotensin system in vascular inflammation |journal=Trends Pharmacol. Sci. |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=367–74 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18579222 |doi=10.1016/j.tips.2008.05.003 |url=}}</ref> == Utambuzi == {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left: 15px; text-align: center" |- |+ Mfano vipimo kutumbukiza katika shinikizo la damu ! Mfumo ! Majaribio |- | [[mfumo mkojo ya figo]] | [[Urinalysis Microscopic urinalysis]], [[proteinuria]], serum bun [[blood urea nitrogen BUN]] <small> ([[damu urea nitrojeni]]) </small> na /au [[creatinine]] |- | [[Endokrini mfumo Endokrini]] | Serum [[sodiamu]], [[potasiamu]], [[calcium]], [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone|TSH]] <small> ([[thyroid-stimulating hormone]]) </small>. |- | [[Umetaboli]] | [[kufunga damu glucose]], cholesterol jumla, [[High-density lipoprotein|HDL]] na [[LDL]] cholesterol, [[triglycerides]] |- | Wengine | [[Hematocrit]], [[electrocardiogram]], na [[radiograph kifua]] |- | colspan=2 | Vyanzo: ''Harrison's ya kanuni ya dawa za ndani''<ref name="isbn0-07-147691-1">{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |editor= |others= |title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine |edition= |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-07-147691-1 |doi= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> ''others''<ref name="pmid19417858">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RS |title=The 2009 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=279–86 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19417858 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(09)70491-X|url= |pmc=2707176 |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=Khan NA |display-authors=3 |last4=Grover |first4=S |last5=McKay |first5=DW |last6=Wilson |first6=T |last7=Penner |first7=B |last8=Burgess |first8=E |last9=McAlister |first9=FA}}</ref><ref name="pmid18548142">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RJ |title=The 2008 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=455–63 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18548142 |pmc=2643189 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(08)70619-6|url= |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=Khan NA |display-authors=3 |last4=Grover |first4=S |last5=McAlister |first5=FA |last6=McKay |first6=DW |last7=Wilson |first7=T |last8=Penner |first8=B |last9=Burgess |first9=E}}</ref><ref name="pmid17534459">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RS |title=The 2007 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=529–38 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17534459 |pmc=2650756 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(07)70797-3|url= |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=McAlister FA |display-authors=3 |last4=McKay |first4=DW |last5=Grover |first5=S |last6=Wilson |first6=T |last7=Penner |first7=B |last8=Burgess |first8=E |last9=Bolli |first9=P}}</ref><ref name="pmid16755312">{{cite journal |author=Hemmelgarn BR |title=The 2006 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part I – Blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=573–81 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16755312 |pmc=2560864 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(06)70279-3|url= |author-separator=, |author2=McAlister FA |author3=Grover S |display-authors=3 |last4=Myers |first4=MG |last5=McKay |first5=DW |last6=Bolli |first6=P |last7=Abbott |first7=C |last8=Schiffrin |first8=EL |last9=Honos |first9=G}}</ref><ref name="pmid16003448">{{cite journal |author=Hemmelgarn BR |title=The 2005 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: part 1- blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=645–56 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=16003448 |doi= |url= |author-separator=, |author2=McAllister FA |author3=Myers MG |display-authors=3 |last4=McKay |first4=DW |last5=Bolli |first5=P |last6=Abbott |first6=C |last7=Schiffrin |first7=EL |last8=Grover |first8=S |last9=Honos |first9=G}}</ref> |} Shinikizo la damu ni kupatikana wakati mgonjwa ana vinavyoendelea shinikizo la damu. Kijadi,<ref name="NICE127 full"/> utambuzi unahitaji vipimo vitatu vya sphygmomanometer tofauti kwa vipindi vya mwezi mmoja.<ref>{{cite book |author=North of England Hypertension Guideline Development Group |chapter=Frequency of measurements |page=53 |title=Essential hypertension (NICE CG18) |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |date=1 August 2004 |url=http://guidance.nice.org.uk/index.jsp?action=download&o=48384 |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2012-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714085714/http://guidance.nice.org.uk/index.jsp?action=download&o=48384 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ya awali ya ukaguzi ya wagonjwa la damu ni pamoja na historia na uchunguzi wa kimwili [[Medical history|history]] na [[physical examination]]. Pamoja na Upatikanaji wa saa 24 [[ambulatory wachunguzi wa shinikizo la damu]] mashine ya damu nyumbani shinikizo, muhimu wa kuepuka utambuzi sahihi ya wagonjwa na shinikizo la damu kanzu nyeupe imesababisha mabadiliko katika itifaki. Katika Uingereza, sasa ni bora kufuatilia moja alimfufua kliniki ya kusoma na kipimo ambulatory. Kufuatilia pia inaweza kufanyika, lakini chini ya walau, na nyumbani ufuatiliaji shinikizo la damu katika kipindi cha siku saba.<ref name="NICE127 full">{{cite book |author=National Clinical Guideline Centre |title=Hypertension (NICE CG 127) |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |chapter=7 Diagnosis of Hypertension, 7.5 Link from evidence to recommendations |page=102 |date=August 2011 |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723014309/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723014309/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf }}</ref> Mara baada ya uchunguzi wa shinikizo la damu yamepatikana, madaktari kujaribu kubaini sababu ya msingi juu ya hatari na dalili nyingine, kama sasa. [[shinikizo la damu sekondari]] ni ya kawaida zaidi kwa watoto karibisha kijani na kesi nyingi husababiswa na ugonjwa wa figo [[renal disease]]. Msingi au shinikizo la damu ni muhimu zaidi ya kawaida katika Vijana na ina hatari nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na hatima na historia ya familia ya shinikizo la damu.<ref name="pmid16719248">{{cite journal | author = Luma GB, Spiotta RT | title = Hypertension in children and adolescents | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2006-05-01_73_9/page/n79 | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 73 | issue = 9 | pages = 1558–68 | month = may | year = 2006 | pmid = 16719248}}</ref> Vipimo vya maabara pia kuwa walifanya kubainisha sababu ya uwezekano wa shinikizo la damu ya sekondari, na kuamua kama shinikizo la damu unaosababisha uharibifu wa moyo, macho, na mafigo. Vipimo vya ziada kama ajali ya ugonjwa wa[[kisukari]] na Viwango vya juu vya cholesterol ni kutumbukiza kwa sababu hizi ni hali ya hatari kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya [[ugonjwa wa moyo]] na kuhitaji matibabu.<ref name="pmid10645931"/> Creatinine [[Serum]] ni kipimo cha kupima kwa uwepo wa ugonjwa wa figo, ambao unaweza kuwa ama sababu au matokeo ya shinikizo la damu. Serum creatinine peke inaweza kuza thamani [[kiwango ya glomerular filtration]]. Miongozo ya hivi karibuni kutetea matumizi ya mamlinganyo uingizaji kama vile [[Muundo wa mpangilio wa chakula katika formula figo Magonjwa]] (MDRD) na makisio ya kiwango cha glomerular filtration (eGFR). <ref name = JNC7 /> eGFR pia yanaweza kutoa kipimo msingi ya kazi ya figo ambayo yanaweza kutumika kwa ajili ya kufuatilia madhara ya dawa kadhaa antihypertensive juu ya kazi ya figo. Upimaji wa sampuli za mkojo kwa ajili ya [[proteinuria|protini]] kutumika kama kiashiria cha sekondari ya ugonjwa wa figo. [[Electrocardiogram]] (EKG/ECG) ni kufanyika kwa kuangalia kwa ushahidi kwamba moyo upo katika matatizo kutokana na shinikizo la damu. Inaweza pia kuonyesha kugandamana kwa misuli ya moyo ([[kushoto ventrikali hypertrophy]]) au kama moyo una uzoefu kabla madogo ya usumbufu kama vile mashambulizi ya kimya moyo. [[Kifua X-ray]] au [[echocardiogram]] pia inaweza kufanywa kwa kuangalia kwa ishara ya moyo utvidgningen au uharibifu wa moyo. <ref name="ABC" /> ==Kinga== Idadi ya watu ambao wanashinikiza la juu la damu ni kubwa japo hawatambui.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=B|coauthors=Poulter, NR, Brown, MJ, Davis, M, McInnes, GT, Potter, JF, Sever, PS, McG Thom, S, British Hypertension, Society|title=Guidelines for management of hypertension: report of the fourth working party of the British Hypertension Society, 2004-BHS IV.|journal=Journal of human hypertension date=2004 Mar|volume=18|issue=3|pages=139-85|pmid=14973512}}</ref> Hutua ya kushughulikia idadi ya watu wote wanaotakiwa kupunguza madhara ya shinikizo la damu na kupunguza haja ya tiba ya antihypertensive dawa za kulevya. Mabadiliko ya maisha Ilipendekeza kuwa shinikizo la damu liwe chini, kabla ya kuanza dawa za tiba. 2004 Uingereza shinikizo la damu Society la miongozo<ref name="ReferenceB"/> mapendekezo ya mabadiliko ya maisha yafuatayo sambamba na miongozo ilivyoainishwa na Marekani ya taifa ya mipango ya High BP elimu ya mwaka 2002<ref>{{cite journal | author = Whelton PK ''et al.'' | year = 2002 | title = Primary prevention of hypertension. Clinical and public health advisory from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program | url = | journal = JAMA | volume = 288 | issue = 15| pages = 1882–1888 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.15.1882 | pmid = 12377087 }}</ref> kwa ajili ya kuzuia msingi wa shinikizo la damu ni kama ifuatavyo: * Kudumisha kawaida uzito wa mwili (kwa mfano. mwili molekuli index 20–25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>). * Kupunguza malazi sodium ujali kwa mmol <100&nbsp; mmol/ siku (<6 g ya kloridi sodium au<2.4 g ya sodium kwa siku). * Kushiriki katika shughuli za mara kwa mara aerobic kimwili kama vile kutembea upesi (≥30 min kwa siku, wengi siku za juma). * Punguza pombe kwa vitengo visivyozidi 3 units/ kwa siku kwa wanaume na vitengo visivyozidi 2 units/ kwa siku kwa wanawake. * Hutumia lishe lenye matunda na mbonga (kwa mfano, angalau tano sehemu kwa siku). Mabadiliko mwafaka ya mtindo wa maisha yanaweza kupunguza shinikizo la damu kama ilivyo kwa dawa ya mtu binafsi ya antihypertensive na kupata matokeo bora zaidi. <ref name="ReferenceB"/> ==Udhibiti== ===Mabadiliko katika mtindo wa maisha === Aina ya kwanza ya matibabu ya shinikizo la damu ni inafanana na mabadiliko ya mtindo wa maisha yaliyopendekezwa,<ref name="npsppr">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.org.au/health_professionals/publications/prescribing_practice_review/current/prescribing_practice_review_52 |title=NPS Prescribing Practice Review 52: Treating hypertension |date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=NPS Medicines Wise |accessdate=November 5, 2010 |archivedate=2013-06-26 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HefAmPDs?url=http://www.nps.org.au/publications/health-professional/prescribing-practice-review }}</ref> na ni pamoja na mabadiliko ya malazi<ref>{{cite journal|last=Siebenhofer|first=A|coauthors=Jeitler, K, Berghold, A, Waltering, A, Hemkens, LG, Semlitsch, T, Pachler, C, Strametz, R, Horvath, K|title=Long-term effects of weight-reducing diets in hypertensive patients journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-09-07|volume=9|pages=CD008274|pmid=21901719|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008274.pub2|editor1-last=Siebenhofer|editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> physical exercise, and weight loss. Mazoezi ya viungo, na kupunguza uzito. Mabadiliko haya yote yameonekana kupunguza kwa kiasi kikubwa shinikizo la damu<ref>{{cite journal |author=Blumenthal JA |title=Effects of the DASH diet alone and in combination with exercise and weight loss on blood pressure and cardiovascular biomarkers in men and women with high blood pressure: the ENCORE study |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=170 |issue=2 |pages=126–35 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=20101007 |doi=10.1001/archinternmed.2009.470 |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Babyak MA |author3=Hinderliter A |display-authors=3 |last4=Watkins |first4=L. L. |last5=Craighead |first5=L. |last6=Lin |first6=P.-H. |last7=Caccia |first7=C. |last8=Johnson |first8=J. |last9=Waugh |first9=R.}}</ref> kama shinikizo la damu ni ya juu kiasi cha kuhalalisha matumizi ya haraka ya dawa, mabadiliko ya maisha bado yanapendekezwa.. Mipango mbalimbali iliyoundwa na kupunguza dhiki ya kisaikolojia [[biofeedback]], ulegezaji, au kutafakari hutangazwa ili kupunguza shinikizo la damu. Hata hivyo, tafiti za kisayansi , kwa ujumlahazina usaidi wala ufanisi wao, kwa sababu masomo kwa ujumla ya ubora wa chini.<ref name="pmid19822104">{{cite journal |author=Greenhalgh J, Dickson R, Dundar Y |title=The effects of biofeedback for the treatment of essential hypertension: a systematic review |journal=Health Technol Assess |volume=13 |issue=46 |pages=1–104 |year=2009 |month=October |pmid=19822104 |doi=10.3310/hta13460 |url= |doi_brokendate=2010-08-21}}</ref><ref name="pmid18350109">{{cite journal |author=Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW |title=Stress Reduction Programs in Patients with Elevated Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=Curr. Hypertens. Rep. |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=520–8 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18350109 |pmc=2268875 |doi= 10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3|url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |doi= |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Bond K |author3=Karkhaneh M |display-authors=3 |last4=Tjosvold |first4=L |last5=Vandermeer |first5=B |last6=Liang |first6=Y |last7=Bialy |first7=L |last8=Hooton |first8=N |last9=Buscemi |first9=N}}</ref> Malazi na mabadiliko kama vile chakula [[cha chini sodiamu]] ni faida. Muda mrefu ( zaidi ya wiki 4) chini -sodiamu chakula katika [[Caucasian, race Caucasians]] ni bora katika kupunguza shinikizo la damu, kwa watu na shinikizo la damu na kwa watu wenye shinikizo la damu ya kawaida .<ref name=cochrane2008>{{cite journal|last=He|first=FJ|coauthors=MacGregor, GA|title=Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure. journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2004|issue=3|pages=CD004937|pmid=15266549|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD004937/frame.html}}</ref> pia , chakula [[DASH diet]], lishe lenye karanga, nafaka, samaki, kuku, matunda, na mboga, ambayo husaidia kukuza moyo na [[Taifa , Mpafu, na damu Taasisi]], punguza shinikizo la damu. Kipengele kikubwa cha mpango wa [[sodiamu]], ingawa mlo pia ni tajiri [[potassiamu]], [[magnesiamu]], [[calcium]], na [[protini]].<ref name="dashguide">{{cite web|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/hbp/dash/new_dash.pdf|title=Your Guide To Lowering Your Blood Pressure With DASH|format=PDF|accessdate=2009-06-08}}</ref> ===Dawa=== Madarasa kadhaa ya dawa, pamoja inajulikana kama [[antihypertensive madawa]] ya kulevya s, sasa zipo kwa ajili ya kutibu shinikizo la damu. Mtu hatari wa moyo na mishipa ( ikiwa ni pamoja na hatari ya infarction myocardial na kiharusi) na masomo ya shinikizo la damu ni kuchukuliwa wakati maagizo madawa ya kulevya.<ref name=nps01>{{cite journal |url=http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/4/108/12 |title=Drug treatment of elevated blood pressure |author=Nelson, Mark |journal=Australian Prescriber |issue=33 |pages=108–112 |accessdate=August 11, 2010}}</ref> Ikiwa matibabu ya madawa ya kulevya ni ikianzishwa,Moyo ya taifa,Mapafu,na damu Taasisi ya saba ya pamoja ya kamati ya taifa ya juu ya shinizo la damu (JNC-7)<ref name = JNC7>{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, ''et al.'' |title=Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure |journal=Hypertension |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1206–52 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14656957 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.long}}</ref> Inapendezeka kwamba kufuatilia daktari kwa ajili ya Kukabiliana na matibabu kwa ajili ya kutathmini na athari yoyote mbaya kutokana na dawa. Kupunguza [[shinikizo la damu]] na 5&nbsp;mmHg inaweza kupunguza hatari ya kiharusi kwa 34% na hatari ya[[ungonjwa wa moyo ischemic]] kwa 21%. Shinikizo la damu kupunguza pia husaidia kupunguza uwezekano wa [[shida ya akili]], [[moyo kushindwa]], na [[vifo]] kutokana na [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Law M, Wald N, Morris J |title=Lowering blood pressure to prevent myocardial infarction and stroke: a new preventive strategy |journal=Health Technol Assess |volume=7 |issue=31 |pages=1–94 |year=2003 |pmid=14604498 |url=http://www.hta.ac.uk/fullmono/mon731.pdf |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2011-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304150457/http://www.hta.ac.uk/fullmono/mon731.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Lengo la matibabu ya lazima ya kupunguza shinikizo la damu na chini ya 140/90&nbsp;mmHg kwa ajili ya watu wengi, na chini kwa kale wenye ugonjwa wa kisukari au ugonjwa wa figo. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa afya kupendekeza kuweka Viwango vya chini 120/80&nbsp;mmHg.<ref name=nps01 /><ref>{{cite web|first=Gina |last=Shaw |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/73/88927.htm |title=Prehypertension: Early-stage High Blood Pressure |publisher=WebMD |date=2009-03-07 |accessdate=2009-07-03}}</ref> Kama lengo shinikizo la damu si alikutana,matibabu zaidi inahitajika.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000200702.76436.4b|url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/3/345|title=Therapeutic Inertia Is an Impediment to Achieving the Healthy People 2010 Blood Pressure Control Goals|author=Eni C. Okonofua; Kit N. Simpson; Ammar Jesri; Shakaib U. Rehman; Valerie L. Durkalski; Brent M. Egan|journal=Hypertension|volume=47|issue=2006;47:345|pages=345–51|date=January 23, 2006|accessdate=2009-11-22|pmid=16432045}}</ref> Miongozo juu ya uchaguzi wa dawa na jinsi ya kuamua bora kwa ajili ya matibabu subgroups mbalimbali vilivyobadilika na tofauti kati ya nchi. Wataalamu wala kukubaliana kuhusu dawa bora.<ref name=Compare10>{{cite journal|last=Klarenbach|first=SW|coauthors=McAlister, FA, Johansen, H, Tu, K, Hazel, M, Walker, R, Zarnke, KB, Campbell, NR, Canadian Hypertension Education, Program|title=Identification of factors driving differences in cost effectiveness of first-line pharmacological therapy for uncomplicated hypertension. journal=The Canadian journal of cardiology|date=2010 May|volume=26|issue=5|pages=e158-63|pmid=20485695}}</ref> The [[Kushirikiana Cochrane]], [[Shirila la Afya ya Duniani]], na Umoja wa Mataifa kusaidi miomgozo ya chini -dozi [[Thiazide|thiazide-makao diuretic]] kama matibabu ina penda zaidi ya awali.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright JM, Musini VM |title=First-line drugs for hypertension |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD001841 |year=2009 |pmid=19588327 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001841.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Wright |editor1-first=James M}}</ref><ref name=Compare10/> Uingereza Miongozo kusisitiza [[calcium channel blocker]]s (CCB) kwa ajili ya watu zaidi ya umri wa miaka 55 au ya Afrika au Caribbean asili ya familia. Miongozo kupendekeza [[angiotensin-kuwabadili enzyme kiviza]]s (ACEI)s kama matibabu ina penda zaidi ya awali kwa ajili ya watu wadogo.<ref name="NICE127-drug"/> katika Japan, kwa kunzia na mtu yeyote wa Madarasa sita ya dawa ikiwa ni pamoja na : CCB, ACEI/ARB, thiazide diuretics, [[beta blockers]], na [[blockers alpha]] ni aliona nafuu. Katika Canada, yote ya dawa hizi isopokuwa alpha blockers- ni Ilipendekeza kama inawezekana chaguzi ya kwanza. <ref name=Compare10/> ====Madawa ya mchanganyiko==== Watu wengi wanahitaji zaidi ya moja ya madawa ya kudhibiti shinikizo la damu zao. JNC7<ref name = JNC7/> and ESH-ESC guidelines<ref name=ESH-ESC /> Wakili kuanza matibabu ya madawa ya mbili wakati shinikizo la damu ni zaidi ya 20&nbsp; mmHg hapo juu systolic au zaidi ya 10&nbsp; mmHg juu ya malengo ya diastolic. Michanganyiko ya ku penda zaidi ni rennin-angiotensin na Kalsium channel blockers, au inhibitors renin–angiotensin na diuretics.<ref name = sever>{{cite journal |author=Sever PS, Messerli FH |title=Hypertension management 2011: optimal combination therapy |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=32 |issue=20 |pages=2499–506 |year=2011 |month=October |pmid=21697169 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehr177 |url=}}</ref> Michanganyiko kukubalika ni pamoja na yafuatayo: * Calcium channel blockers na diuretics * Beta blockers na diuretics * Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers na beta blockers * Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers na ama verapamil or diltiazem Michanganyiko haikubaliki ni kama ifuatavyo: * Yasiyo ya calcium blockers (kama vile verapamil au diltiazem) na beta blockers * Dual renin–angiotensin mfumo blockade (Kwa mfano, angiotensin kuwabadili enzyme kiviza + angiotensin receptor blocker) * Renin–angiotensin mfumo blockers na beta blockers * Beta blockers na madawa ya anti-adrenergic. <ref name = sever /> Kuepuka michanganyiko ya kiviza ACE inhibitor au angiotensin II adui receptor antagonist, a diuretic, na [[NSAID]] ( Ikiwa pamoja na kuchangua COX-2 inhibitors na madawa ya kulevya nonprescribed kama vile ibuprofen) kila inapowezekana kutokana na hatari kubwa ya kushindwa kwa figo papo hapo. Mchanganyiko inajulikana simo kama “whammy triple” katika maandiko ya Australia ya Afya. <ref name="npsppr" /> Vidonge vyenye mchanganyiko za kudumu wa Madarasa mawili ya dawa za kutosha. Wakati wao ni rahisi, wao ni bora akiba kwa ajili ya watu ambao ni amara katika vipengele mtu binafsi. <ref>{{cite book |title=British National Formulary |volume=No. 62 |date=September 2011 |chapter=2.5.5.1 Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors |chapterurl=http://bnf.org/bnf/bnf/current/2578.htm |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2021-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223201747/https://about.medicinescomplete.com/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===Wazee=== Kutibu wastani kwa presha kali itapungua vifo na athari upande wa moyo na mishipa katika watu wenye umri wa miaka 60 na kuendelea.<ref name=Cochrane09/> Katika watu zaidi ya miaka 80 na umri wa tiba haionekani kwa kiasi kikubwa kupunguza vifo vya jumla lakini kupunguza hatari ya ungonjwa wa moyo.<ref name=Cochrane09>{{cite journal |author=Musini VM, Tejani AM, Bassett K, Wright JM |title=Pharmacotherapy for hypertension in the elderly |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD000028 |year=2009 |pmid=19821263 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000028.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Musini |editor1-first=Vijaya M}}</ref> Ilipendekeza shinikizo la damu lengo ni chini ya 140/90&nbsp;mm Hg na [[thiazide diuretic]]s ya kuwa dawa yaku penda zaidi katika Amerika.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Aronow WS, Fleg JL, Pepine CJ, ''et al.'' |title=ACCF/AHA 2011 expert consensus document on hypertension in the elderly: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus documents developed in collaboration with the American Academy of Neurology, American Geriatrics Society, American Society for Preventive Cardiology, American Society of Hypertension, American Society of Nephrology, Association of Black Cardiologists, and European Society of Hypertension |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=2037–114 |year=2011 |month=May |pmid=21524875 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.008 |url=}}</ref> Katika mwongozo mpya Uingereza, [[Kalsiamu-channel blocker]]s ya matibabu ina penda zaidi na masomo kliniki lengo la chini ya 150/90&nbsp;mmHg, au chini ya 145/85&nbsp;mmHg juu ya ufuatiliaji ambulatory au nyumbani shinikizo la damu.<ref name="NICE127-drug">{{cite web |author=National Institute Clinical Excellence |title=1.5 Initiating and monitoring antihypertensive drug treatment, including blood pressure targets |work=GC127 Hypertension: Clinical management of primary hypertension in adults |url=http://publications.nice.org.uk/hypertension-cg127/guidance#initiating-and-monitoring-antihypertensive-drug-treatment-including-blood-pressure-targets-2 |date=August 2011 |accessdate=2011-12-23 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HefEbMNE?url=http://publications.nice.org.uk/hypertension-cg127/guidance#initiating-and-monitoring-antihypertensive-drug-treatment-including-blood-pressure-targets-2 |archivedate=2013-06-26 }}</ref> ===Shinikizo sugu la damu=== Shinikizo sugu la damu ni shinikizo la damu kwamba bado hapo juu lengo shinikizo la damu licha ya matumizi ya mawakala wa tatu antihypertensive mali ya madaraja mbalimbali ya madawa ya kulevya antihypertensive wote mara moja. Miongozo kwa ajili ya kutibu shinikizo la damu sugu yamechapishwa katika Uingereza<ref name="NICE-BP">{{cite web |title=CG34 Hypertension - quick reference guide |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |date=28 June 2006 |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-03-04 |archivedate=2009-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313072133/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313072133/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf }}</ref> and the US.<ref name="pmid18391085">{{cite journal |author=Calhoun DA |title=Resistant hypertension: diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hypertension_2008-06_51_6/page/1403 |journal=Hypertension |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=1403–19 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18391085 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.189141 |author-separator=, |author2=Jones D |author3=Textor S |display-authors=3 |last4=Goff |first4=D. C. |last5=Murphy |first5=T. P. |last6=Toto |first6=R. D. |last7=White |first7=A. |last8=Cushman |first8=W. C. |last9=White |first9=W.}}</ref> ==Uenezi== Mwaka [[2015]] takriban 16-37% ya idadi ya watu wazima wa dunia, walikuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu.<ref name="pmid15652604">{{cite journal |author=Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J |title=Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data |journal=[[The Lancet]] |volume=365 |issue=9455 |pages=217–23 |year=2005 |pmid=15652604 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17741-1}}</ref> Ilikuwa ni kawaida katika nchi zote: zilizoendelea (333 milioni) na zisizostawi (639 milioni).<ref name="pmid15652604"/> Hata hivyo, viwango hutofautiana vikubwa katika mikoa mbalimbali kwa viwango vya chini kama 3.4% (wanaume) na 6.8% (wanawake) katika maeneo ya vijijini [[India]] na kama 68.9% ( wanaume) na 72.5% (wanawake) katika [[Polandi]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Whelton PK, He J |title=Worldwide prevalence of hypertension: a systematic review |journal=J. Hypertens. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=11–9 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=15106785 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Mwaka 1995 ilikadiriwa kuwa milioni 43 watu Marekani walikuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu au walikuwa wakitumia dawa ya kulipunguza. [[Takwimu]] hiyo inawakilisha karibu 24% ya idadi ya watu wazima nchini. <ref name="pmid7875754">{{cite journal |author=Burt VL |title=Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population. Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1991 |journal=Hypertension |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=305–13 |year=1995 |month=March |pmid=7875754 |doi= |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7875754 |access date=2009-06-05 |author-separator=, |author2=Whelton P |author3=Roccella EJ |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=C |last5=Cutler |first5=JA |last6=Higgins |first6=M |last7=Horan |first7=MJ |last8=Labarthe |first8=D |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2012-12-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205091508/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7875754 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Viwango vya shinikizo la damu nchini Marekani walikuwa kuongezeka na kufikia 29% mwaka 2004.<ref name="pmid7607734"/><ref name="pmid17608879">{{cite journal |author=Ostchega Y, Dillon CF, Hughes JP, Carroll M, Yoon S |title=Trends in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in older U.S. adults: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988 to 2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_2007-07_55_7/page/1056 |journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=1056–65 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17608879 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01215.x}}</ref> Kama ilivyo mwaka 2006 shinikizo la damu huathiri watu wazima 76 milioni Marekani (34% ya idadi ya watu) na kuwa miongoni mwa viwango yva juu zaidi vya shinikizo la damu katika dunia kwa 44%.<ref name =AHA2010 /> Ni zaidi ya kawaida katika Wamerikani uliotekea na chini ya kawaida katika Wazungu na [[Hispanics]]. Viwango vya kuongezeka kwa umri, na ni mkubwa [[kusini mashariki mwa Marekani]]. Shinikizo la damu ni la kawaida zaidi ndani ya wanaume kulinganisha na wanawake (ingawa wanakuwa wamemaliza kuelekea kupunguza tofauti hii) na kwa wale wa hali ya [[chini kiuchumi]].<ref name="pmid10645931"/> === Watoto=== Viwango ya shinikizo la damu kwa watoto inaongezeka.<ref name="pmid19421783">{{cite journal |author=Falkner B |title=Hypertension in children and adolescents: epidemiology and natural history |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume= 25|issue= 7|pages= 1219–24|year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19421783 |pmc=2874036 |doi=10.1007/s00467-009-1200-3}} </ref> Zaidi shinikizo la damu kwa watoto, hasa kabla ya [[ubalehe]], linategemea ugonjwa mwingine wa msingi. Mbali na fetma, figo ugomjwa ni sababu ya kawaida (60–70%) ya shiniko la damu kwa watoto. Vijana kawaida kuwa na msingi au muhimu shinikizo la damu, ambayo akaunti kwa ajili ya 85–95% ya kesi. <ref name=aafp>{{cite journal |author=Luma GB, Spiotta RT |title=Hypertension in children and adolescents |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=1558–68 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16719248 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20060501/1558.html |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926230038/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20060501/1558.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==Historia== [[Image:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg|Mchoro wa [[veni]] katika [[kitabu]] cha [[William Harvey]] ''Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus'' (“An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living Beings”)|right|thumb]] Uelewa wa kisasa wa mfumo wa moyo ulianza na kazi ya mtabibu [[William Harvey]] (1578-1657). Harvey alielezea mzunguko wa damu katika kitabu chake ''De Otu ordis'' ("On Motion of the Heart and Blood"). [[Padri]] wa [[Uingereza]] [[Stephen Hales]] alifanya kipimo cha kwanza cha kuchapishwa cha kipimo cha shinikizo la damu katika mwaka 1733 .<ref name="pmid1744849"/><ref name=Kotchen2011>{{cite journal |author=Kotchen TA |title=Historical trends and milestones in hypertension research: a model of the process of translational research |journal=Hypertension |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=522–38 |year=2011 |month=October |pmid=21859967 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.177766}}</ref> Maelezo ya shinikizo la damu kama ugonjwa ulitoka, miongoni mwa wengine, [[Thomas Young]] katika mwaka 1808 na [[Richard Bright (mtabibu)|Richard Bright]] katika mwaka 1836 .<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Ripoti ya kwanza ya muiniko wa shinikizo la damu katika mtu bila ushahidi wa ugonjwa wa figo ilitolewa na [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]] (1849-1884).<ref>{{cite book |editor=Swales JD|title=Manual of hypertension |url=https://archive.org/details/manualofhyperten0000unse|publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=1995 |pages=xiii |isbn=0-86542-861-1}}</ref> Hata hivyo, shinikizo la damu kama chombo cha kliniki ilikuja kuwa katika mwaka 1896 na uvumbuzi wa cuff [[sphygmomanometer]] na [[Scipione Riva-Rocci]] mwaka 1896.<ref>{{cite book | title=A century of arterial hypertension 1896–1996 | editor=Postel-Vinay N | page=213 | location=Chichester | publisher=Wiley | year=1996 | isbn=0-471-96788-2}}</ref> Uvumbuzi huu uliruhusu shinikizo la damu kupimwa katika [[zahanati]]. Mwaka 1905, [[Nikolai Korotkoff]] aliboresha mbinu kwa kueleza [[Korotkoff sounds]] ambazo zilisikiwa wakati ateri ilikuwa auscultated na stetoskopu wakati sphygmomanometer cuff ilikuwa imwetolewa upepo<ref name=Kotchen2011/> Kihistoria matibabu ya kiitwacho "ugonjwa mgumu wa pigo la moyo" ilihusisha kupunguza kiasi cha damu na [[blood letting]] au kupaka [[leech]]es.<ref name="pmid1744849">{{cite journal |author=Esunge PM |title=From blood pressure to hypertension: the history of research |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=621 |year=1991 |month=October |pmid=1744849 |pmc=1295564}}</ref> [[Yellow Emperor]] wa Uchina, [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Cornelius Celsus]], [[Galen]], na [[Hippocrates]] walitetea kuruhusu damu.<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Katika karne za 19 na 20, kabla ya matibabu ya ufanisi ya pharmacological ya shinikizo la damu ilikuwa inawezekana, taratibu tatu za matibabu zilitumika, zote zikiwa na athari mbalimbali. Namna hizi ni pamoja na taratibu kali za kizuizi cha sodiamu, (kwa mfano, lishe la mchele <ref name="pmid1744849"/>), [[sympathectomy]] (upasuaji wa kukausha sehemu za [[sympathetic nervous system]]), na tiba ya pyrogen (kudungwa dutu ambazo zilisababisha homa, pasipo moja kwa moja kupunguza shinikizo la damu).<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Kemikali ya kwanza ya shinikizo la damu, [[sodium thiocyanate]], ilitumika mwaka 1900 lakini ilikuwa na madhara mengi na haikupendwa.<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Mawakala wengine kadhaa waliundwa baada ya [[World War II|Second World War]]. Maarufu zaidi na fanisi kiasi ilikuwa [[tetramethylammonium hidrojeni]] na isio na uasili yake [[hexamethonium]], [[hydralazine]], na [[reserpine]] (inayotokana na mmea wa dawa ''[[Rauwolfia serpentina]]''). Uvumbuzi kubwa ilikuwa ya mafanikio na ugunduzi wa mawakala wa mdomo wa kwanza nzuri wanapatikana wanayovumiliwa. Ya kwanza ilikuwa [[chlorothiazide]], ya kwanza [[thiazide]] [[diuretic]], ambayo iliundwa na kiua vijasumu [[sulfanilamide]] na kupatikana mwaka 1958.<ref name="pmid1744849"/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Novello FC, Sprague JM | title=Benzothiadiazine dioxides as novel diuretics | journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. | year=1957 | volume=79 | pages=2028 | doi=10.1021/ja01565a079|issue=8}}</ref> Iliongeza takamwili ya chumvi wakati inazuia mkusanyiko wa maji. [[randomized controlled trial]] ambayo ilifadhiliwa na [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Administration]] ikilinganishwa na [[hydrochlorothiazide]] pamoja na reserpine pamoja na hydralazine dhidi ya placebo. Utafiti huo ulisimamishwa mapema kwa sababu wale walio katika kundi la shinikizo la juu la damu ambao walikuwa wanapata tiba walipatwa na matatizo mengi zaidi ya wagonjwa waliotibiwa na ilionekana ni vibaya kumnyima matibabu kutoka kwao. Utafiti uliendelea kwa watu wenye shinikizo la damu ya chini na kuonyesha kwamba matibabu, hata katika watu walio na shinikizo la damu kiasi, kupunguza hatari ya kufa moyo na mishipa kwa zaidi ya nusu. <ref>{{cite journal | author=Freis ED | title=The Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on Antihypertensive Agents. Implications for Stroke Prevention | journal=Stroke | year=1974 | volume=5 | pages=76–77 | pmid=4811316 | url=http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/5/1/76.long | format=PDF | issue=1 | doi=10.1161/01.STR.5.1.76}}</ref> Mwaka 1975, [[Lasker Award|Lasker Special Public Health Award]] ilitolewa kwa timu ambayo iliunda chlorothiazide. Matokeo ya tafiti hizi ilisababisha kampeni za afya za umma ili kuongeza uelewa wa umma wa shinikizo la damu na ilikuza kipimo na matibabu ya shinikizo la damu. Hatua hizi huonekana zilichangia angalau kwa sehemu kwa kupungua kwa asilimia 50 katika ugonjwa wa kiharusi na ischemic heart kati ya 1972 na 1994. == Jamii na utamaduni == ===Uelewa=== [[Image:HTNstudyupd.png|thumb|right|Grafu inaonyesha kiwango cha ufahamu, matibabu na udhibiti wa shinikizo la damu ikilinganishwa na kati ya utafiti nne ya [[National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey|NHANES]]<ref name="pmid7607734">{{cite journal |author=Burt VL |title=Mwelekeo wa maambukizi, ufahamu, matibabu, na udhibiti wa shinikizo la damu katika idadi ya Marekani ya watu wazima. Takwimu kutoka kwa utafiti wa makadirio ya afya, ya kwama 1960-1991 |journal=Hypertension |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=60–9 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7607734 |doi= |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |accessdate=2009-06-05 |author-separator=, |author2=Cutler JA |author3=Higgins M |display-authors=3 |last4=Horan |first4=MJ |last5=Labarthe |first5=D |last6=Whelton |first6=P |last7=Brown |first7=C |last8=Roccella |first8=EJ |archive-date=2012-12-20 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |dead-url=yes |https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |=https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 }}</ref>]] [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] limebainisha shinikizo la damu kama chanzo kikubwa cha [[cardiovascular]] [[Mortality rate|mortality]]. [[The World Hypertension League]] (WHL), shirika mwamvuli la jamii 85 ya taifa ya shinikizo la damu na ligi, ilitambua kuwa zaidi ya asilimia 50 ya watu walio na shinikizo la damu duniani hawajui hali yao.<ref name="pmid17534457">{{cite journal |author=Chockalingam A |title=Impact of World Hypertension Day |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=517–9 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17534457 |pmc=2650754 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(07)70795-X|url= }}</ref> Ili kukabiliana na tatizo hili, WHL imeanzisha kampeni ya kimataifa juu ya shinikizo la damu mwaka 2005 na kutunikia tarehe 17 Mei kila mwaka kama [[World Hypertension Day]] (WHD). Zaidi ya miaka mitatu iliyopita, vyama zaidi vya kitaifa vimekuwa vikishiriki katika WHD na wamekuwa wabunifu katika shughuli zao za kupata ujumbe kwa umma. Mwaka 2007, kulikuwa na rekodi ya ushiriki kutoka nchi ya wanachama 47 ya WHL. Wakati wa wiki ya WHD, nchi hizi zote zilishirikiana na serikali za mitaa, jamii za kitaaluma, mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali, na viwanda binafsi kukuza ufahamu wa shinikizo la damu kupitia kampeni kadhaa [[Mass media|media]] na umma. Ukitumia [[mass media]] kama vile [[wavuti]] na [[runinga]], ujumbe umewafikia zaidi ya watu milioni 250. Vile kasi inaongezeka mwaka baada yaa mwaka, WHL ina matumaini kuwa karibu watu wote wanaokadiriwa kufikia bilioni 1.5 ambao wameathirika na muinuko wa shinikizo la damu wanaweza kufikiwa.<ref name="pmid18548140">{{cite journal |author=Chockalingam A |title=World Hypertension Day and global awareness |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=441–4 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18548140 |pmc=2643187 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(08)70617-2|url= }}</ref> ===Uchumi=== Shinikizo la damu ni shida sugu ya kawaida ya matibabu inayochochea ziara kwa watoa huduma msingi wa afya nchini Marekani. Shirika la Moyo Marekani limekadiria gharama za moja kwa moja na zisizo za moja kwa moja ya shinikizo la damu katika [[dola]] bilioni 76.6 katika mwaka 2010.<ref name = AHA2010>{{cite journal |author=Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, ''et al.'' |title=Heart disease and stroke statistics--2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=121 |issue=7 |pages=e46–e215 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20019324 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192667 |url=}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, asilimia 80 ya watu walio na shinikizo la damu wanafahamu hali zao na asilimia 71 wanachukua baadhi ya dawa dhidi ya shinikizo la damu. Hata hivyo, asilimia 48 tu ya watu ambao wanafahamu wana shinikizo la damu wanadhibiti ipasavyo hali hiyo.<ref name = AHA2010 /><ref name="pmid19124418">{{cite journal |author=Alcocer L, Cueto L |title=Hypertension, a health economics perspective |journal=Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=147–55 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=19124418 |doi=10.1177/1753944708090572 |url=http://tak.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124418 |accessdate=2009-06-20 |archive-date=2012-12-04 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121204191320/http://tak.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124418 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Madaktari wanakabiliwa na shida nyingi katika kudhibiti shinikizo la damu, ikiwa ni pamoja na upinzani kwa kutumia dawa mbalimbali ili kufikia malengo ya shinikizo la damu. Watu pia wanakabiliwa na changamoto ya kufuata ratiba ya dawa na kufanya mabadiliko ya maisha. Hata hivyo, kufikia malengo ya shinikizo la damu inawezekana. Kupunguza shinikizo la damu inapunguza gharama kwa kiasi kikubwa ambayo inahusishwa na huduma ya matibabu ya juu.<ref name="The Economic Impact of Hypertension">{{cite journal |author=William J. Elliott |title=The Economic Impact of Hypertension |journal=The Journal of Clinical Hypertension |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=3–13 |year=2003 |month=October |doi= 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2003.02463.x |pmid=12826765}}</ref><ref name="pmid18345711">{{cite journal |author=Coca A |title=Economic benefits of treating high-risk hypertension with angiotensin II receptor antagonists (blockers) |journal=Clinical Drug Investigation |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=211–20 |year=2008 |pmid=18345711 |doi= 10.2165/00044011-200828040-00002|url= }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|2}} [[Jamii:Tiba]] [[jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Damu]] [[Jamii:Moyo]] avzb33j63cqy5ux2zie8yrvwenxh2sg 0 69848 1564458 1500402 2026-06-02T16:14:26Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564458 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Maambukizi ya njia za mkojo | ICD10 = {{ICD10|N|39|0|n|30}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|599.0}} | ICDO = | Image = Pyuria.JPG | Caption = Multiple [[white blood cell|white cells]] seen in the urine of a person with a urinary tract infection via [[Urine microscopy#Microscopic examination|microscopy]] | OMIM = | OMIM_mult = | MedlinePlus = 000521 | eMedicineSubj = emerg | eMedicineTopic = 625 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|626}} | DiseasesDB = 13657 | MeshID = D014552 }} '''Maambukizi ya njia za mkojo''' ni [[maambukizi]] ya [[bakteria]] katika [[njia za mkojo]]. * Yanapoathiri sehemu ya chini ya njia hizo, maambukizi hayo hujulikana kama [[sisititisi]] ndogo (maambukizi ya [[kibofu]]). * Yanapoathiri sehemu ya juu ya njia za mkojo, maambukizi hayo hujulikana kama [[pilonifritisi]] (maambukizi ya [[figo]]).<!-- <ref name=EM2011/> --> [[Dalili]] katika sehemu ya chini ya njia za mkojo ni pamoja na [[uchungu]] wakati wa [[kukojoa]] na aidha kukojoa kila mara au kuhisi haja ya kukojoa (au zote mbili). Dalili za maambukizi ya figo huhusisha pia [[homa]] na [[maumivu]] ya [[fumbatio]] (mwanya wa [[Nyonga|fupanyonga]]). Katika [[wazee]] na [[watoto wachanga]], dalili haziwi wazi kila wakati. [[Kisababishi]] kikuu cha aina hizo mbili ni''[[Escherichia coli]].'' Hata hivyo, katika matukio machache, bakteria wengineo, [[virusi]] au [[kuvu]] wanaweza kuwa ndivyo visababishi. Maambukizi ya njia za mkojo huwatokea mara nyingi zaidi [[wanawake]] kuliko [[wanaume]]. [[Nusu]] ya [[idadi]] ya wanawake huambukizwa wakati fulani [[Maisha|maishani]] mwao. Marudio hutokea mara nyingi. Vipengele visababishi vilivyo hatari ni pamoja na [[ngono]] na pia [[historia ya kifamilia]]. Maambukizi ya figo yanaweza kufuatia maambukizi ya kibofu, pia yanaweza kusababishwa na maambukizi ya [[damu]]. [[Utambuzi]] katika wanawake wachanga wenye [[afya]] unaweza kutazamwa kwa msingi wa dalili pekee. Utambuzi unaweza kuwa mgumu kwa watu walio na dalili zisizo wazi kwani bakteria wanaweza kuwepo hata kama mtu huyu hana maambukizi. Katika matukio yenye matatizo au ikiwa [[matibabu]] hayajafaulu, [[uchunguzi wa vimelea katika mkojo]] wakati mwingine husaidia. Mtu aliye na maambukizi ya kila mara anaweza kutumia [[kipimo]] kidogo cha [[antibiotiki]] kama namna ya kuzuia. Matukio madogo ya maambukizi katika njia za mkojo hutibiwa kwa urahisi kwa kutumia mfululizo wa [[antibiotiki]]. Hata hivyo [[usugu]] dhidi ya antibiotiki zinazotumika kutibu hali hii, unaendelea kuongezeka. Watu walio na matukio yenye matatizo, wakati mwingine hushurutika kutumia antibiotiki kwa [[muda]] mrefu zaidi au watumie antibiotiki zinazodungwa ndani ya [[misuli]]. Ikiwa dalili hazipungui baada ya [[siku]] [[mbili]] au [[tatu]], mtu atahitaji kufanyiwa uchunguzi zaidi. Katika wanawake, maambukizi ya njia za mkojo ndiyo maambukizi yanayotokea mara nyingi zaidi katika aina zote za maambukizi ya bakteria. [[Asilimia]] [[kumi]] ya wanawake hupata maambukizi ya nia za mkojo kila [[mwaka]]. ==Dalili na ishara== [[File:Pyuria2011.JPG|thumb|Mkojo unaweza kuwa na usaha (hali inayojulikana kama [[piuria]]) kama inavyoonekana katika mtu aliye na [[sepsisi]] kufuatia maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.]] Maambukizi ya sehemu ya chini ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo pia hujulikana kama maambukizi ya kibofu. Dalili zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi ni [[disuria|hisia za kuchomeka wakati wa kukojoa]] na kukojoa kila mara (au kuhisi kukojoa) bila [[mchozo wa uke]] na maumivu mengi.<ref name=Review08/> Dalili hizi zinaweza kutofautiana kutoka dalili zisizo kali hadi dalili kali<ref name=EM2011>{{cite journal|last=Lane|first=DR|coauthors=Takhar, SS|title=Diagnosis and management of urinary tract infection and pyelonephritis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_emergency-medicine-clinics-of-north-america_2011-08_29_3/page/539|journal=Emergency medicine clinics of North America|date=2011 Aug|volume=29|issue=3|pages=539-52|pmid=21782073}}</ref>. Katika wanawake wenye afya njema, dalili hizi hudumu kwa wastani siku sita. Baadhi ya watu huwa na maumivu juu ya [[mfupa wa kinene]] au kwenye [[maumivu ya kiuno]].<!-- <ref name=EM2011/> --> Watu walio na maambukizi katika sehemu ya juu ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo au [[pilonifritisi]] (maambukizi ya figo), wanaweza kuwa na [[maumivu ya fumbatio|maumivu ya fupanyonga]], [[homa]] au [[kichefuchefu]] na kutapika. Dalili hizi huambatana na kikundi cha dalili za maambukizi ya upande wa chini cha mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.<ref name=EM2011/> Mkojo huwa na damu mara nadra sana<ref name=Sal2011/> au kuwa na [[piuria]] (usaha katika mkojo).<ref>{{cite book|last=Arellano|first=Ronald S.|title=Non-vascular interventional radiology of the abdomen|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9781441977311|pages=67|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=au-OpXwnibMC&pg=PA67}}</ref> ===Katika watoto=== Katika watoto wachanga, dalili pekee ya maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yanaweza kuwa homa.<!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> Mashirika mengi ya afya<!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> hupendekeza uchunguzi wa vimelea katika mkojo wakati watoto wa kike wa chini ya [[umri]] wa miaka miwili au wa kiume ambao hawajatahiriwa wa chini ya umri wa mwaka mmoja wanapopata homa. Watoto wachanga walio na maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo wakati mwingine hukumbwa na ugumu wa kula, [[kutapika]], hulala sana au kuonyesha dalili za [[umanjano]].<!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> Watoto wakubwa wanaweza kukumbwa na [[kutoweza kujizuia kukojoa]] kwa ghafla (kupoteza udhibiti wa kibofu).<ref name=PeadsNA2011/> ===Katika wazee=== Dalili za mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo zinakosekana mara nyingi katika [[Miaka ya uzeeni|uzee]]. Wakati mwingine, dalili pekee ufukunyungu (kutoweza kujizuia kukojoa), [[Kiwango kilichobadilika cha kujifahamu|mabadiliko katika hali ya nafsi]], au [[uchovu]].<ref name=EM2011/> Dalili ya kwanza katika wazee ni [[sepsisi]], ambayo ni maambukizi ya damu<ref name=Sal2011/> Utambuzi unaweza kutatizika kwa sababu wazee wengi wana ufukunyungu au wana [[dimenshia]] wana (hali ulemavu wa akili). ==Kisababishi== ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' ndicho kisababishi cha [[asilimia]] 80–85 ya maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo. ''[[Staphylococcus saprophyticus]]'' ndicho kisababishi cha asilimia 5–10 ya matukio haya.<ref name=Review08/> Kwa nadra sana, maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo husababishwa na maambukizi ya [[virusi]] au [[kuvu]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Amdekar|first=S|coauthors=Singh, V, Singh, DD|title=Probiotic therapy: immunomodulating approach toward urinary tract infection.|journal=Current microbiology|date=2011 Nov|volume=63|issue=5|pages=484-90|pmid=21901556}}</ref> Visababishi vya kibakteria ni pamoja na: ''[[Klebsiella]]'', ''[[Proteus bacteria|Proteus]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', na ''[[Enterobacter]]''. Visababishi vya kibakteria huwa havitokei mara nyingi na kwa kawaida huhusishwa na hali zisizo za kawaida za mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo au kuweka [[katheta]] kwenye mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.<ref name=Sal2011/> Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yanayosababishwa na''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' kwa kawaida hutokea kufuatia maambukizi yanayotokana na [[damu]].<ref name=EM2011/> ===Jinsia=== [[Ngono]] husababisha asilimia 75–90 ya maambukizi ya kibofu katika wanawake wadogo wanaojihusisha na ngono sana. Hatari ya kuambukizwa huhusianishwa na idadi ya marudio ya ngono.<ref name=Review08>{{cite journal|author=Nicolle LE|title=Uncomplicated urinary tract infection in adults including uncomplicated pyelonephritis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urologic-clinics-of-north-america_2008-02_35_1/page/n14|journal=Urol Clin North Am|volume=35|issue=1|pages=1–12, v|year=2008|pmid=18061019|doi=10.1016/j.ucl.2007.09.004}}</ref> Huku maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yakitokea mara vyingi wakati wanawake wanapoolewa, tamko "sisititisi ya fungate" hutumika mara nyingi. Katika wanawake [[Ukomohedhi|baada ya ukomo wa hedhi]] ngono haizidishi hatari ya kupata maambukizi hayo.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> Kinyume chake, matumizi ya [[spemisidi]] huongeza hatari ya maambukizi hayo.<ref name=Review08/> Wanawake hupata maambukizi mengi zaidi ya aina hiyo kwa sababu wana [[urethra]] fupi na iliyo karibu na [[kinyeo]].<ref name=NA2011>{{cite journal|last=Dielubanza|first=EJ|coauthors=Schaeffer, AJ|title=Urinary tract infections in women.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2011-01_95_1/page/27|journal=The Medical clinics of North America|date=2011 Jan|volume=95|issue=1|pages=27-41|pmid=21095409}}</ref> Huku kiwango cha [[estrojeni]] ya wanawake (homoni) kinaposhuka kufuatia [[ukomohedhi]], hatari ya maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo hupanda kwa sababu ya kupoteza [[flora ya uke]] inayokinga bakteria njema ukeni.<ref name=NA2011/> ===Katheta za mkojo=== [[Katheta]] huongeza hatari ya maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.<!-- <ref name=NA2011/> --> Hatari ya [[bakteriuria]] (bakteria kwenye mkojo) ni asilimia 3 hadi 6 kila siku. [[Antibiotiki]] haifaulu kuzuia maambukizi.<ref name=NA2011/> Hatari ya maambukizi husika inaweza kupunguzwa kwa kutumia katheta inapohitajika, kwa kutumia [[ufundisanifu usio na bakteria]] kuingiza katheta na kuhakikisha kuwa katheta hii inavuta mkojo bila kuzibika. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Nicolle LE|title=The chronic indwelling catheter and urinary infection in long-term-care facility residents|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_infection-control-and-hospital-epidemiology_2001-05_22_5/page/316|journal=Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol|volume=22|issue=5|pages=316–21|year=2001|pmid=11428445|doi=10.1086/501908}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Phipps S, Lim YN, McClinton S, Barry C, Rane A, N'Dow J|title=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=|issue=2|pages=CD004374|year=2006|pmid=16625600|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004374.pub2|editor1-last=Phipps|editor1-first=Simon|chapter=Short term urinary catheter policies following urogenital surgery in adults}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Gould CV, Umscheid CA, Agarwal RK, Kuntz G, Pegues DA|title=Guideline for prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections 2009|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_infection-control-and-hospital-epidemiology_2010-04_31_4/page/319|journal=Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol|volume=31|issue=4|pages=319–26|year=2010|pmid=20156062|doi=10.1086/651091}}</ref> ===Nyingine=== Maambukizi ya kibofu ni ya kawaida sana katika familia kadhaa.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> Sababu nyingine za hatari ni pamoja na [[ugonjwa wa kisukari|kisukari]],<ref name=Review08/> [[tohara|kutotahiriwa]], na kuwa na [[kibofu kinene]] mno.<ref name=EM2011/> Vipengele vinavyochangia matatizo havijulikani vyema. Vipengele hivi ni pamoja na matatizo hatarishi ya [[Anatomia|kianatomia]] (yanaohusiana na muundo wa kimwili), kiutumizi au kiumetaboli.<!-- <ref name=bryan/> --> Maambukizi tata ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo huwa magumu kutibiwa na huhitaji utathmini, [[matibabu]] na ufuatilizi wa kina zaidi. <ref name=bryan>[http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/infectious%20disease/Urinary%20Tract%20Infections.htm Infectious Disease, Chapter Seven, Urinary Tract Infections] from ''Infectious Disease Section of Microbiology and Immunology On-line''. By Charles Bryan MD. University of South Carolina. This page last changed on Wednesday, April 27, 2011</ref> Katika watoto, maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo huhusianishwa na mwendo usio wa kawaida wa [[mkojo]] kutoka katika [[kibofu]] hadi [[ureta]] au [[figo]] na [[kufungika kwa choo]].<ref name=PeadsNA2011/> ==Pathogenesisi== [[Bakteria]] inayosababisha maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo huingia kibofuni kupitika urethra. Hata hivyo, maambukizi yanaweza kuingia kupitia damu au [[limfu]].<!-- <ref name=Sal2011/> --> Madaktari wanaamini kuwa bakteria hii huingia katika urethra kutoka matumboni. Wanawake wako katika hatari kuu zaidi kwa sababu ya maumbile ya viungo vyao vya ndani.<!-- <ref name=Sal2011/> --> Baada ya kuingia katika kibofu, bakteria za''E. Coli'' zina uwezo wa kujibandika katika pembezo mwa kibofu na kuunda [[bayofilamu]] (mpako wa vidubini) inayopinga mwitikio wa kingamwili.<ref name=Sal2011/> ==Kinga== Idadi kubwa ya njia za kukinga hazijathibitishwa kubadili matokeo ya mara nyingi ya maabukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo. Njia hizi ni pamoja na [[tembe za kuzuia mimba]] au [[kondomu]], kukojoa punde baada ya ngono, aina ya chupi iliyotumiwa, mbinu za usafi wa kibnafsi zinazotumika baada ya kukojoa au [[kukunya]], au kama mtu kwa kawaida huoga kwa karai au mfereji.<ref name=Review08/> Vilevile, hakuna ushahidi wa kutosheleza kyuonyesha kuwa kukawisha mkojo, kutumia [[kisodo]] na kuonya uke kwa maji mengi kunaweza kusababisha maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.<ref name=NA2011/> Watu wanaoambukizwa mara kwa mara na pia kutumia spemisidi au kiwambo kama njia ya kuzuia mimba wanashauriwa kutumia mbinu zinginezo.<ref name=Sal2011/> (Maji au kidonge cha) matunda ya [[kranberi]] yanaweza kupunguza matukio katika watu wanaoambukizwa mara kwa mara. Hata hivyo, kuzoea matunda ya kranberi kwa muda mrefu ni jambo linaloweza kupelekea matatizo.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jepson RG, Craig JC|title=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=1|pages=CD001321|year=2008|pmid=18253990|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001321.pub4|editor1-last=Jepson|editor1-first=Ruth G|chapter=Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infections }}</ref> Matatizoo ya tumbo na matumbo hutokea katika zaidi ya asilimia 30 ya watu wanaokunywa maji ya matunda ya kranberi au kutuia vidonge vyake.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rossi|first=R|coauthors=Porta, S, Canovi, B|title=Overview on cranberry and urinary tract infections in females.|journal=Journal of clinical gastroenterology|date=2010 Sep|volume=44 Suppl 1|pages=S61-2|pmid=20495471}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka wa 2011, [[probiotoki]] zinazotumika ndani ya uke zinzhitaji utafiti zaidi ili kutambua iwapo zina manufaa.<ref name=Sal2011/> ===Matibabu kwa kutumia dawa=== Kwa watu walio na maambukizi yanayojirudiarudia, matumizi ya antibiotiki kwa muda mrefu hunufaisha.<ref name=Review08/> Dawa zinazotumika mara nyingi ni pamoja na [[nitrofurantoin]] na [[trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]].<!-- <ref name=Sal2011/> --> Ikiwa maambukizi yanahusiana na ngono (kujamiana), baadhi ya wanawake hunufaika kwa kutumia antibiotiki baada ya ngono.<ref name=Sal2011/> Kwa wanawake walio katika kipindi cha ukomohedhi, [[estrojini]] (aina ya homoni) ya [[kupakwa]] ukeni imetambulika kupunguza kurejea kwa maambukizi.<!-- <ref name=Cochrane2008/> --> Kinyume na malai ya kupakwa, utumizi wa estrojini ya ukeni kutoka[[pesari|pesari]] haujanufaisha inapotumika kama kipimo cha kiwango cha chini cha antibiotiki.<ref name=Cochrane2008>{{cite journal|last=Perrotta|first=C|coauthors=Aznar, M, Mejia, R, Albert, X, Ng, CW|title=Oestrogens for preventing recurrent urinary tract infection in postmenopausal women.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2008-04-16|issue=2|pages=CD005131|pmid=18425910|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005131.pub2}}</ref> Idadi fulani ya [[chajo]] zingali zikitengenezwa kufikia mwaka wa 2011.<ref name=Sal2011/> ===Katika watoto=== Ushahidi kuwa antibiotiki [[profilaktiki|zinazozuia]] hupunguza maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo katika watoto ni mdogo sana.<ref name=Child2010>{{cite journal|last1=Dai|first1=B|last2=Liu|first2=Y|last3=Jia|first3=J|last4=Mei|first4=C|title=Long-term antibiotics for the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Archives of disease in childhood|volume=95|issue=7|pages=499–508|year=2010|pmid=20457696|doi=10.1136/adc.2009.173112}}</ref> Katika visa adimu katika watu wasio na matatizo ya figo, maambukizi yanayorejea ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo husababisha mataizo ya figo. Matatizo haya hupelekea chini ya theluthi ya asilimia (asilimia 0.33) ya [[ugonjwa wa muda mrefu wa figo]] katika watu wazima.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Salo|first=J|coauthors=Ikäheimo, R, Tapiainen, T, Uhari, M|title=Childhood urinary tract infections as a cause of chronic kidney disease.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2011 Nov|volume=128|issue=5|pages=840-7|pmid=21987701}}</ref> ==Utambuzi wa ugonjwa== [[Image:Bacteriuria pyuria 4.jpg|thumb| [[Basilia]] (bakteria za umbo la vijiti, zilizoonyeshwa hapa kama nyeusi na za umbo la maharagwe) zilizoonyeshwa katikati ya seli nyeupe za damu zilizo kwenye sampuli ya mkojo. Mabadiliko haya yanaonyesha maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.]] Katika visa visivyo hatari, uchunguzi wa kimaabara hauhitajiki na maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yanaweza kutambuliwa kulingana na dalili pekee.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> [[Uchanganuzi wa mkojo]] (kupima mkojo) unaweza kutumika kubainisha utambuzi katika matukio tata, kuchunguza uwepo wa [[nitraiti za mkojo]] [[chembechembe nyeupe za damu]] (lukosaiti) au [[lukosaiti esterasi]]. Uchuguzi mwingine, [[uchunguzi wa mkojo kwa kutumia hadumini]], huangazia uwepo wa[[seli nyekundu za damu]], chembechembe nyeupe za damu au bakteria.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> [[Uchunguzi wa viini wa kimakrobayolojia|uchunguzi viini]] wa mkojo huchukuliwa kuwa chanya iwapo utaonyesha idadi ya koloni za bakteria ikiwa <sup>3</sup> [[vitengo vinavyounda koloni]] 10 au zaidi kwa kila mL ya kiumbe cha kawaida cha njia ya mkojo.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> Uchunguzi pia unaweza kutumika kupima kiwango cha usikivu wa antibayotiki na kusaidia kubaini aina ya tiba ya antibiotiki itakayotumika.<!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> Hata hivyo, wanawake wanaotambulika kuwa na maambukizi wanaweza kuboresha afya kwa kutumia matibabu ya antibiotiki<ref name=Review08/> Dalili za maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo zinaweza kuwa hafifu katika watu wazee, kwa hivyo utambuzi unaweza kuwa mgumu bila kupata vipimo vya kutegemewa. ===Uainishaji=== Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yanayohusisha sehemu ya chini ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo hujulikana kama maambukizi ya kibofu. Maambukizi yanayohusisha sehemu ya juu ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo hujulikana kama pilonifritisi au maambukizi ya figo.<!-- <ref name=EM2011/> --> Iwapo mkojo una bakteria nyingi lakini hakuna dalili, hali hii kujulikana kama bakteriuria.<ref name=EM2011/> . Iwapo maambukizi yanahusisha sehemu ya juu ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo, mgonjwa huyu ana [[kisukari tamu]], ana mimba, ni mume au ana[[udhaifu wa kingamwili]] (kingamwili iliyodhoofika kufuatia ugonjwa mwingine), maambukizi haya huchukuliwa kama yaliyo na matatizo..<ref name=Sal2011/> Watoto wanapokuwa na homa pia, maambukizi haya ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo huchukuliwa kuwa maambukizi ya sehemu ya juu ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo. <ref name=PeadsNA2011>{{cite journal|last=Bhat|first=RG|coauthors=Katy, TA, Place, FC|title=Pediatric urinary tract infections.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_emergency-medicine-clinics-of-north-america_2011-08_29_3/page/637|journal=Emergency medicine clinics of North America|date=2011 Aug|volume=29|issue=3|pages=637-53|pmid=21782079}}</ref> ===Katika watoto=== Ili kutambua maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo katika watoto, viini vunafaa kutambulika katika mkojo. <!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> Mara nyingi, uchafuzi husababisha changamoto hivyo kipeo cha CFU/mL <sup>5</sup>&nbsp; 10 hutumika kuchukua sampuli ya kati ya "kitegeo safi", CFU/mL <sup>4</sup>&nbsp; 10 hutumika kwa sampuli zilizotolewa kwa katheta, na CFU/mL <sup>2</sup>&nbsp; 10 hutumika kwa [[mpumuo wa juu ya kinena]] (sampuli inayotolewa moja kwa moja kutoka ndani ya kibofu kwa kutumia sindano). <!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> The [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] hushauri kwamba "mifuko ya mkojo" isitumiwe kuchukua sampuli kwa sababu ya kiwango cha juu cha uchafuzi wakati mkojo huo unapochunguzwa. Inapendekezwa kutumia katheta iwapo mgonjwa hawezi kutumia choo. <!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> Baadhi ya makundi ya kiafya kama vile [[Chuo cha Marekani cha Wanapidriatiki]], hupendekeza [[picha za matibabu za figo]] na [[voiding sistorethrogramu ya kuvuta]] (kutazama urethra na kibofu cha mkojo kwa kutumia picha za moja kwa moja wanapokojoa) katika watoto wote walio na umri wa chini ya miaka 2 na wana maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo.<!-- <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> --> Hata hivyo, kwa sababu kuna ukosefu wa matibabu mwafaka iwapo matatizo yatapatikana, makundi mengine kama vile [[Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Fanaka ya Matibabu]] hushauri picha za kila mara kwa watoto wa umri wa chini ya miezi 6 au walio na matokeo ya uchunguzi yasiyo ya kawaida.<ref name=PeadsNA2011/> ===Utambuzi tofautishi=== Katika wanawake walio na [[sevisitisi]] (inflamesheni ya [[seviksi]]) au [[vajinitisi]] (inflamesheni ya [[uke]]) na wavulana walio na dalili za maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo, maambukizi yanaweza kuwa yamesababishwa na ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' au''[[Neisseria gonorrheae]]'' <ref>{{cite journal|last=Raynor|first=MC|coauthors=Carson CC, 3rd|title=Urinary infections in men.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2011-01_95_1/page/43|journal=The Medical clinics of North America|date=2011 Jan|volume=95|issue=1|pages=43-54|pmid=21095410}}</ref><ref name=EM2011/> Vajinitisi pia inaweza kusababishwa na [[vulvovajinitisi ya kandida|maambukizi ya chachu]] <ref name=Book2011>{{cite book|last=Leung|first=David Hui ; edited by Alexander|title=Approach to internal medicine : a resource book for clinical practice|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9781441965042|pages=244|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=lnXNpj5ZzKMC&pg=PA244|edition=3rd ed.|coauthors=Padwal, Raj}}</ref> [[sisititisi ya ndani ya maungo]] (uchungu wa muda mrefu wa ndani ya kibofu) inaweza kuwa kisababishi cha dalili za mara kwa mara za maambukizi ya viungo vya mfumo wa mkojo, lakini ambao sampuli za mkojo wao havionyeshi maambukizi baada ya uchunguzi, wala hawapati nafuu baada ya kupewa antibiotiki. ==Matibabu== [[Fenasopiridini]] inaweza kutumika pamoja na antibiotiki ili kupunguza muwasho wa maambukizi ya kibofu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gaines|first=KK|title=Phenazopyridine hydrochloride: the use and abuse of an old standby for UTI.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urologic-nursing_2004-06_24_3/page/207|journal=Urologic nursing|date=2004 Jun|volume=24|issue=3|pages=207-9|pmid=15311491}}</ref> Hata, fenasopiridini kwa sasa haitumiki kwa sababu za usalama wa kiafya, hasa hatari kuu ya [[methemoglobinemia]] (kiwango cha juu ya kawaida cha [[methemoglobini]] katika damu).<ref>{{cite book|last=Aronson|first=edited by Jeffrey K.|title=Meyler's side effects of analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs|year=2008|publisher=Elsevier Science|location=Amsterdam|isbn=9780444532732|pages=219|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=2WxotnWiiWkC&pg=PA219}}</ref> [[Asetaminofeni]] inaweza kutumika kutibu homa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Glass|first=[edited by] Jill C. Cash, Cheryl A.|title=Family practice guidelines|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9780826118127|pages=271|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4uKsZZ4BoRUC&pg=PA271|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Wanawake walio na maambukizi madogo na ya mara kwa mara ya viungo vya mfumo wa mkojo hunufaika kutokana na tiba ya kibinafsi; ufuatilizi wa kibinafsi utahitajika tu iwapo matibabu ya kwanza hayatafaulu. <!-- <ref name=Review08/> --> Wanawake wanaweza kupata maelekezo ya antibiotiki kutoka kwa wataalamu wa afya kwa kutumia simu ya mkononi.<ref name=Review08/> ===Yasiyo na matatizo=== Maambukizi yasiyo na utata yanaweza kutambuliwa na kutibiwa kwa msingi wa dalili pekee. <ref name=Review08/> [[antibiotiki]] za kumeza kama vile [[trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]] (TMP/SMX), [[cephalosporin]], [[nitrofurantoin]], au [[kwinoloni ya|fluoroquinolone]] hufupisha sana muda anaochukua mgonjwa kupona. Matibabu haya yote ni mwafaka kwa kiwango sawa.<ref name=Cochrane10>{{cite journal|author=Zalmanovici Trestioreanu A, Green H, Paul M, Yaphe J, Leibovici L|title=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=10|issue= 10|pages=CD007182|year=2010|pmid=20927755|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007182.pub2|editor1-last=Zalmanovici Trestioreanu|editor1-first=Anca|chapter=Antimicrobial agents for treating uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women}}</ref> Matibabu ya siku 3 kwa kutumia trimethoprim, TMP/SMX, au fluorokwinoloni kwa kawaida hutosha. Nitrofurantoin huhitaji siku 5-7&nbsp;.<ref name=Review08/><ref name=IDSA2010/> Baada ya matibabu, mgonjwa hutarajiwa kupata nafuu baada ya saa 36. Takriban asilimia 50 ya watu watapata nafuu bila matibabu baada ya siku au wiki chache.<ref name=Review08/> [[Jamii ya Magonjwa Sambazi ya Marekani]] haipendekezi fluorokwinoloni kutumika kama matibabu ya kwanza kwa sababu inakisiwa kuwa kuitumia sana kunaweza kupelekea [[ukinzani wa antibiotiki|ukinzani]] dhidi ya kikundi hiki cha matibabu, hivyo kupunguza manufaa yake.<ref name=IDSA2010>{{cite journal|last=Gupta|first=K|coauthors=Hooton, TM, Naber, KG, Wullt, B, Colgan, R, Miller, LG, Moran, GJ, Nicolle, LE, Raz, R, Schaeffer, AJ, Soper, DE, Infectious Diseases Society of, America, European Society for Microbiology and Infectious, Diseases|title=International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.|journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2011 Mar 1|volume=52|issue=5|pages=e103-20|pmid=21292654}}</ref> Licha ya tahadhari hii, kuna ukinzani ambao umetokea dhidi ya matibabu haya yote ambapo unahusiana na matumizi yake ya wingi.<ref name=Review08/> Katika baadhi ya mataifa, [[Trimethoprim]] pekee huchukuliwa kama sawa na TMP/SMX.<ref name=IDSA2010/> Watoto walio na maambukizi madogo ya viungo vya mfumo wa mkojo mara nyingi hunufaika na matibabu ya siku 3 ya antibiotiki.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestbets.org/bets/bet.php?id=939|title=BestBets: Je, matibabu ya muda mfupi ni bira kuliko ya muda mrefu katika matibabu ya maambukizi ya ya viungo vya mfumo wa mkojo|accessdate=2013-11-28|archive-date=2009-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814225657/http://www.bestbets.org/bets/bet.php?id=939|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Pilonifritisi=== Pilonifritisi (maambukizi ya figo) hutibiwa kwa kina zaidi kuliko maambukizi madogo ya kibofu kwa kutumia matibabu ya muda mrefu ya antibiotiki au antibiotiki [[za ndani ya misuli]].<ref name=Pylo2011>{{cite journal|last=Colgan|first=R|coauthors=Williams, M, Johnson, JR|title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute pyelonephritis in women.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2011-09-01_84_5/page/519|journal=American family physician|date=2011 Sep 1|volume=84|issue=5|pages=519-26|pmid=21888302}}</ref> Siku saba za kutumia florokuinoloni aina ya [[ciprofloxacin]] kwa kawaida hutumika katika sehemu za kijiografia ambapo kima cha ukinzani ni chini ya asilimia 10.<!-- <ref name=Pylo2011/> --> Iwapo kima cha ukinzani katika eneo ni zaidi ya asilimia 10, kipimo cha dawa ya kudungwa ndani ya misuli iitwayo [[ceftriaxone]] mara nyingi hupendekezwa. .<!-- <ref name=Pylo2011/> --> Watu walio na dalili mbaya zaidi wakati mwingine hulazwa hospitalini ili kuendelea kupewa antibiotiki.<ref name=Pylo2011/> Iwapo dalili hazitapungua kufuatia siku mbili au tatu za matibabu, matatizo kama vile [[kufungana kwa njia ya mkojo]] kunakotokana na[[mawe ya figo]] huchunguzwa.<ref name=Pylo2011/><ref name=EM2011/> ==Epidemiolojia== Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo mara nyingi huwa maambukizi ya bakteria katika wanawake. Maambukizi haya hutokea mara nyingi kati umri wa miaka 16 na 35&nbsp;. Asilimia 10 ya wanawake hupata maambukizi kila mwaka; asilimia 60 huwa na maambukizi katika wakati fulani maishani mwao.<ref name=Review08/><ref name=Sal2011>{{cite journal|last=Salvatore|first=S|coauthors=Salvatore, S, Cattoni, E, Siesto, G, Serati, M, Sorice, P, Torella, M|title=Urinary tract infections in women.erati, M, Sorice, P, Torella, M|title=Urinary tract infections in wom|journal=European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology|date=2011 Jun|volume=156|issue=2|pages=131-6|pmid=21349630}}</ref> . Mara nyingi, maambukizi hujirudia, huku takriban nusu ya watu wakiambukizwa tena kabla ya mwaka kuisha.<!-- <ref name=Sal2011/> --> Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo hutokea mara nne zaidi katika wanawake kuliko wanaume.<ref name=Sal2011/>Pilonifritisi (maambukizi ya figo) hutokea kwa upungufu wa kati ya mara 20–30. <ref name=Review08/> Pilonifritisi ndicho kisababishi kikuu cha[[maambukizi ya hospitalini|maambukizi yanayotoka hospitalini]], huku yakichangia takriban asilimia 40 ya maambukizi yanayotoka hospitalini.<ref name=Nurse2010>{{cite book|title=Brunner & Suddarth's textbook of medical-surgical nursing.|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781785891|pages=1359|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=SmtjSD1x688C&pg=PA1359|edition=12th ed.}}</ref> . Viwango vya dalili za kibakteria katika mkojo huongezeka kwa miaka kutoka asilimia 2 hadi 7 katika wanawake walio katika umri wa kuzaa, hadi hata asilimia 50 katika wanawake wazee zaidi walio katika mashirika ya utunzaji.<ref name=NA2011/> Viwango vya dalili za kibakteria katika mkojo wa wanaume wa umri wa zaidi ya miaka 75 ni katik ya asilimia 7 na 10. Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo yanaweza kuwadhuru asilimia 10 ya watu katika miaka yao ya utotoni.<ref name=Sal2011/> Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo katika watoto ndiyo yanayopatikana mara nyingi zaidi katika wavulana wasio tahiri wa umri wa chini ya mwezi 3, wakifuatwa na wasichana wa umri wa chini ya mwaka 1.<ref name=PeadsNA2011/> Hata hivyo, takwimu katika watoto hutofautiana pakubwa. Katika kikundi cha watoto walio na homa, kati ya asilimia 2 na 20 yao wa umri wa kati ya kuzaliwa na miaka 2 walitambulika kuwa na maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo. <ref name=PeadsNA2011/> ==Jamii na tamaduni== Nchini Marekani, maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo huchangia takriban ziara milioni 7 na ziara milioni 1 za vitengo vya dharura na watu 100, 000 wanaolazwa hospitali kila mwaka.<ref name=Sal2011/> Gharama ya maambukizi haya ni kubwa sana kulingana na wakati unaotumika na bei ya utunzaji wa kiafya. <!-- <ref name=Nurse10/> --> Gharama ya moja kwa moja ya matibabu inakadiriwa kuwa &nbsp;bilioni&nbsp;1.6 za Marekani.<ref name=Nurse2010/> ==Historia== Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo ya ekuwa yakielezwa tangu siku za kale. Maelezo ya kwanza kuwahi kuandikwa, ambayo yanapatikana katika [[Mafunjo ya Ebers]], ni ya takriban [[karne ya 16|1550 BC]].<ref name=His2008>{{cite book|last=Al-Achi|first=Antoine|title=An introduction to botanical medicines : history, science, uses, and dangers|year=2008|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=Westport, Conn.|isbn=9780313350092|pages=126|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HMzxKua4_rcC&pg=PA126}}</ref> Wamisri walieleza maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo kama "kutoa joto kutoka ndani ya kibofu"<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson...]|first=[general ed.: Graham|title=Topley and Wilson's Principles of bacteriology, virology and immunity : in 4 volumes|year=1990|publisher=Arnold|location=London|isbn=0713145919|pages=198|edition=8. ed.}}</ref> Mitishamba[[kufyonza damu]], na kupumzika ndizo aina matibabu zilizotumika kufikia mwaka wa 1930, wakati antibiotiki zilipatikana.<ref name=His2008/> ==Katika ujauzito== Wanawake walio na maambukizi nya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo wako katika hatari zaidi ya maambukizi ya fiigo <!-- <ref name=NA2011/> -->Wakati wa [[ujauzito]], viwango vya juu vya[[projesteroni]] (homoni) huongeza hatari ya upungufu ulaini wa ureta na kibofu. Ulaini wa misuli uliopungua hupelekea ongezeko la uwezekano wa kurudi kwa mkojo, ambapo mkojo hurudi kupitia ureta kuelekea katika figo.<!-- <ref name=NA2011/> --> Wanawake wajawazito hawana ongezeko la hatari ya dalili bakteriuria, lakini iwapo bakteriuria zipo, wanawake wajawazito wana hatari ya asilimia 25-40 ya maambukizi ya figo.<ref name=NA2011/> Kwa hivyo, matibabu hupendekezwa iwapo utambuzi wa mkojo utaonyesha dalili ya maambukizi—hata kama dalili hazipo.<!-- <ref name=Preg10/> --> [[Cephalexin]] au[[nitrofurantoin]] hutumika kwa kawaida kwa sababu matibabu haya kwa kijumla huchukiwa kuwa salama katika ujauzito<ref name=Preg10>{{cite journal|author=Guinto VT, De Guia B, Festin MR, Dowswell T|title=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=|issue=9|pages=CD007855|year=2010|pmid=20824868|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007855.pub2|editor1-last=Guinto|editor1-first=Valerie T|chapter=Different antibiotic regimens for treating asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy}}</ref> Maambukizi ya figo wakati wa ujauzito yanaweza kupelekea[[kuzaliwa kabla ya kupevuka]] au [[pri-eklampsia]] (hali ya[[shinikizo la damu|shinikizo la damu]].Matatizo ya figo wakati wa ujauzito yanaweza kupelekea [[mitukutiko]]).<ref name=NA2011/> ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa ya bakteria]] kp1mol4902cjsl0kh7599klwxathyeb 0 70146 1564463 1465915 2026-06-02T16:19:55Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564463 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Pumu | Image = AsthmaInhaler.jpg | Alt = Fluticasone metered dose inhaler | Caption = Peak flow meters are used to measure the [[peak expiratory flow]]rate, important in both monitoring and diagnosing asthma.<ref name=GINA_2011_page18>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=18}}</ref> | DiseasesDB = 1006 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|45||j|40}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|493}} | ICDO = | OMIM = 600807 | MedlinePlus = 000141 | eMedicineSubj = article | eMedicineTopic = 806890 | MeshID = D001249 | GeneReviewsID = | GeneReviewsName = }} '''Pumu''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''[[w:Asthma|asthma]]'') ni [[ugonjwa]] wa kudumu wa [[uvimbe]] wa [[koromeo|makoromeo]] ulio na sifa za [[dalili]] zinazobadilika na kujirudia, [[hewa]] kuzibwa na [[bronkospasimu]].<ref name=NHLBI07p11-12>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=11–12}}</ref> Dalili ni pamoja na [[kukoroma]], [[kukohoa]], kujikaza kwa [[kifua]], na [[kukosa pumzi]].<ref name=bts2009p4>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=4}}</ref> Inashukiwa kusababishwa na [[jenetikia]] pamoja na hali ya [[mazingira]].<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir>{{cite journal |author=Martinez FD |title=Genes, environments, development and asthma: a reappraisal |journal=Eur Respir J |volume=29|issue=1 |pages=179–84 |year=2007 |pmid=17197483 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00087906}}</ref> Kwa kawaida huzingatia mtindo wa dalili, matokeo baada ya matibabu ya muda, na [[spirometri]].<ref name=lemanske>{{cite journal |author=Lemanske RF, Busse WW|title=Asthma: clinical expression and molecular mechanisms|journal=J. Allergy Clin. Immuno. |volume=125 |issue=2 Suppl 2 |pages=S95–102 |year=2010|month=February|pmid=20176271 |pmc=2853245 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2009.10.047 }}</ref> Imeainishwa kulingana na idadi ya dalili, wingi wa kupumua kwa nguvu ([[Spirometri|FEV1]]), na [[idadi ya juu ya kupumua]].<ref name=Yawn2008/> Inaweza pia kuainishwa kama [[Atopi|atopiki]] (ya nje) au isiyo ya atopiki (ya ndani)<ref name=RobbinsCotran2010/> ambapo atopi inarejelea maelekezo ya kuanzia type 1 hypersensitivity.<ref>{{cite book | title=Stedman's Medical Dictionary | publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins | edition=28 | year=2005 |isbn=0-7817-3390-1 }}</ref> Dalili kali hutibiwa na [[Beta2-adrenergic agonist]] ya kuvuta (kama vile [[salbutamol]]) na kotikosteroidi za [[mdomo]].<ref name=NHLBI07p214>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=214}}</ref> Katika visa vikali kotikosteroidi za mishipa, [[salfeti ya magnesia]] na ulazwaji [[hospitali|hospitalini]] unaweza kuhitajika.<ref name=NHLBI07p373>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=373–375}}</ref> Dalili zinaweza kuzuiwa kwa kujiepusha na visababishi, kama vile [[alajeni]]<ref name="NHLBI07p169">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=169–172}}</ref> na [[mwasho|vitu vinavyowasha]], na kwa kutumia kotikosteroidi za kuvuta.<ref name=GINA_2011_page71>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=71}}</ref> [[Beta-adrenoceptor agonist zinazofanya kazi kwa muda mrefu]] (LABA) au [[leukotriene antagonist]] inaweza kutumika kando ya kotikosteroidi iwapo dalili za ugonjwa hazitadhibitiwa.<ref name=GINA_2011_page33>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=33}}</ref> Uenezi umeongezeka tangu mwaka [[1970]]. Kufikia [[2011]], watu [[milioni]] 235–300 walikuwa wameathiriwa ulimwenguni,<ref name=WHO2011/><ref name=GINA_2011_page3/> ikijumuisha takribani [[Kifo|vifo]] 250,000.<ref name=GINA_2011_page3>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=3}}</ref> {{TOC limit|limit=3}} ==Ishara na dalili== {{listen | filename = Wheeze2O noise reduced.ogg | title = Wheezing | maelezo = Sauti ya kukoroma kama inavyosikika kwa stethoskopu. | format = [[Ogg]] }} Ugonjwa huu huwa na visa vya kujirudia vya [[kukoroma]], [[upungufu wa pumzi]], kujikaza kwa kifua, na [[kukohoa]].<ref name=GINA2011p2>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|pp=2–5}}</ref> [[Makohozi]] yanaweza kutoka mapafuni, lakini kwa kawaida huwa vigumu kuyatoa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jindal|first=editor-in-chief SK|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|page=242|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EvGTw3wn-zEC&pg=PA242}}</ref> Ukiendelea kupata nafuu yanaweza kutokea uchafu kama [[usaha]] kwa sababu ya kiwango cha juu cha [[seli nyeupe]] za [[damu]] ziitwazo [[esinofili]].<ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Ronald B.|title=Chest medicine : essentials of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-7817-5273-2|page=62|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZzlX2zJMbdgC&pg=PA62|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Dalili huwa mbaya zaidi [[usiku]] na mapema [[asubuhi]] au kwa athari ya mazoezi au [[baridi]].<ref name=bts2009p14>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=14}}</ref> Baadhi ya watu wenye ugonjwa huu ni nadra kwa kawaida kuhisi dalili, kwa athari za visababishi, ilhali wengine wanaweza kuwa na dalili zinazotambulika na zinazoendelea.<ref name=GINA2011_p8-9>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|pp=8–9}}</ref> ===Hali zinazohusiana=== Hali kadhaa za afya hutokea mara nyingi kwa walio na pumu ikiwa ni pamoja na: [[ugonjwa wa ucheuaji wa astro-esophajeli]] (GERD), [[rhinosinusitisi]], na [[apnea inayosumbua wakati wa kulala]].<ref name=Boulet2009>{{cite journal |author=Boulet LP |title=Influence of comorbid conditions on asthma |journal=Eur Respir J |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=897–906 |year=2009|month=April |pmid=19336592 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00121308 }}</ref> Matatizo ya kisaikolojia huwa ya kawaida<ref name=Boulay2011>{{cite journal|last=Boulet|first=LP|coauthors=Boulay, MÈ|title=Asthma-related comorbidities.|journal=Expert review of respiratory medicine|date=2011 Jun|volume=5|issue=3|pages=377–93|pmid=21702660}}</ref> na [[wasiwasi]] unaotokea kati ya asilimia 16–52 na [[tatizo la sununu]] katika [[asilimia]] 14–41.<ref name=Andrew2010>{{cite book|last=editors|first=Andrew Harver, Harry Kotses,| title=Asthma, health and society a public health perspective|year =2010|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-78285-0|page=315|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=nkP8_h_ewLMC&pg=PA315}}</ref> Hata hivyo, haijulikani iwapo ugonjwa huu husababisha matatizo ya kisaikolojia au iwapo matatizo ya kisaikolojia husababisha pumu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=M|coauthors=Bruton, A; Moffat, M; Cleland, J|title=Asthma and psychological dysfunction.|journal=Primary care respiratory journal : journal of the General Practice Airways Group|date=2011 Sep|volume=20|issue=3|pages=250–6|pmid=21674122}}</ref> ==Visababishi== Ugonjwa huu husababishwa na mchanganyiko wa mwingiliano mgumu na usioeleweka kikamilifu wa kimazingira na kijenetiki.<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Miller |first=RL | coauthors=Ho SM|title=Environmental epigenetics and asthma: current concepts and call for studies | journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine| volume=177 | issue=6 | pages=567–573 | year=2008 | month=March | pmid=18187692|doi=10.1164/rccm.200710-1511PP | pmc=2267336 }}</ref> Masuala haya huathiri ukali wake na matokeo yake baada ya matibabu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Choudhry S, Seibold MA, Borrell LN "et al." |title=Dissecting complex diseases in complex populations: asthma in latino americans |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=226–33|year=2007 |pmid=17607004 |doi=10.1513/pats.200701-029AW |pmc=2647623}}</ref> Inaaminika kuwa ongezeko la hivi karibuni la ugonjwa huu unasababishwa na kubadilika kwa masuala ya [[kiepijenetiki]] ([[kuridhika]] kando na yanayohusiana na [[Mfuatano wa DNA]]) na kubadilika kwa mazingira ya kuishi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dietert|first=RR|title=Maternal and childhood asthma: risk factors, interactions, and ramifications.|journal=Reproductive toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.)|date=2011 Sep|volume=32|issue=2|pages=198–204|pmid=21575714}}</ref> ===Mazingira=== Masuala mengi ya kimazingira yamehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu na maumivu ikiwa ni pamoja na: alejeni, kuchafuka kwa hewa na kemikali zingine za kimazingira.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kelly|first=FJ|coauthors=Fussell, JC|title=Air pollution and airway disease.|journal=Clinical and experimental allergy : journal of the British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology|date=2011 Aug|volume=41|issue=8|pages=1059–71|pmid=21623970}}</ref> [[Uvutaji sigara na ujauzito|Kuvuta sigara wakati wa ujauzito]] na baada ya kuzaa huhusishwa na hatari kuu za dalili zinazofanana na za pumu.<ref name=GINA2011_p6>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=6}}</ref> [[alama ya kiwango cha chini cha ubora wa hewa|aina ya hewa]], kutoka kwa magari barabarani au ngazi za juu za [[ozoni]] ,<ref name=GINA2011_p61>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=61}}</ref> zimehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu na ongezeko la ukali wake.<ref name=Gold>{{cite journal |author=Gold DR, Wright R |title=Population disparities in asthma |journal=Annu Rev Public Health|volume=26 |pages=89–113|year=2005 |pmid=15760282|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144528 }}</ref> Hatari ya [[mchanganyiko wa ogani fukivu]] inaweza kuchochea kutokea kwa pumu; [[uhatarisho wa fomadeidi]], kwa mfano, huwa na ushirikiano halisi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McGwin|first=G|coauthors=Lienert, J; Kennedy, JI|title=Formaldehyde exposure and asthma in children: a systematic review.|journal=Environmental health perspectives|date=2010 Mar|volume=118|issue=3|pages=313–7|pmid=20064771}}</ref> Pia, [[fithaleti]] katika [[PVC]] huhusishwa na ugonjwa huu kwa watoto na watu wazima<ref>{{cite journal |author= Jaakkola JJ, Knight TL. |title= The role of exposure to phthalates from polyvinyl chloride products in the development of asthma and allergies: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-health-perspectives_2008-07_116_7/page/845 |journal= Environ Health Perspect |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=845–53 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid= 18629304 |pmc= 2453150 |doi= 10.1289/ehp.10846 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bornehag|first=CG|coauthors=Nanberg, E|title=Phthalate exposure and asthma in children.|journal=International journal of andrology|date=2010 Apr|volume=33|issue=2|pages=333–45|pmid=20059582}}</ref> kama ilivyo kwa viwango vya juu vya [[hatari ya endotoksini]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Liu AH|title=Something old, something new: indoor endotoxin, allergens and asthma |journal=Paediatr Respir Rev|volume=5|issue=Suppl A |pages=S65–71 |year=2004 |pmid=14980246|doi=10.1016/S1526-0542(04)90013-9 }}</ref> <!--Alejeni--> Pumu huhusishwa na uhatarisho wa alejeni za ndani ya nyumba.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=SK|coauthors=Matsui, EC|title=Mazingira ya ndani ya nyumba na athari zake kwa athma ya utotoni.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2011 Apr|volume=11|issue=2|pages=137–43|pmid=21301330}}</ref> Alejeni za kawaida za ndani ni pamoja na: [[wadudu wa vumbi]], [[mende]], magamba ya wanyama, na kuvu.<ref name=Arshad>{{cite journal|last=Arshad|first=SH|title=Does exposure to indoor allergens contribute to the development of asthma and allergy?|journal=Current allergy and asthma reports|date=2010 Jan|volume=10|issue=1|pages=49–55|pmid=20425514}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Custovic|first=A|coauthors=Simpson, A|title=The role of inhalant allergens in allergic airways disease.|journal=Journal of investigational allergology & clinical immunology : official organ of the International Association of Asthmology (INTERASMA) and Sociedad Latinoamericana de Alergia e Inmunologia|year=2012|volume=22|issue=6|pages=393–401; qiuz follow 401|pmid=23101182}}</ref> Juhudi za kupunguza wadudu wa vumbi zimepatikana kutofaa.<ref name=Gotzsche2008/> Maambukizi fulani yanayohusiana na upumuaji yanaweza kuongeza hatari ya kupata pumu yanapopatikana utotoni kama vile:<ref name=NHLBI07p11>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=11}}</ref>''[[virusi vya sinksia vya upumuaji]]'' na ''[[virusi vya rhino]]''.<ref name=M38/> Hata hivyo maambukizi mengine yanaweza kupunguza hatari.<ref name=M38/> ====Nadharia ya usafi==== [[Nadharia ya usafi]] hujaribu kuelezea viwango vya kuongezeka kwa pumu kote ulimwenguni kama matokeo ya moja kwa moja na yasiyokusudiwa ya kupungua kwa hatari wakati wa utotoni, hadi kwa bakteria na virusi visivyo na maambukizi.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Ramsey | first=CD |coauthors=Celedón JC | title=The hygiene hypothesis and asthma | journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine| volume=11 | issue=1 | pages=14–20 | month=January | year=2005 |pmid=15591883 | doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000145791.13714.ae }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bufford | first=JD | coauthors=Gern JE | title=The hygiene hypothesis revisited |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_immunology-and-allergy-clinics-of-north-america_2005-05_25_2/page/247 |journal=Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America | volume=25 | issue=2 |pages=247–262 | month=May |year=2005 | pmid=15878454 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2005.03.005}}</ref> Imependekezwa kuwa kupungua kwa hatari ya bakteria na virusi sehemu yake ni kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa usafi na kupungua kwa ukubwa wa familia katika jamii za kisasa.<ref name=Brook2013>{{cite journal|last=Brooks|first=C|coauthors=Pearce, N; Douwes, J|title=The hygiene hypothesis in allergy and asthma: an update.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2013 Feb|volume=13|issue=1|pages=70–7|pmid=23103806}}</ref> Ushahidi unaodhibitisha nadharia ya usafi ni pamoja na viwango vya chini vya pumu kwa mashamba na maboma yaliyo na wanyama vipenzi.<ref name=Brook2013/> Matumizi ya [[antibiotiki]] mapema maishani yamehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murk|first=W|coauthors=Risnes, KR, Bracken, MB|title=Prenatal or early-life exposure to antibiotics and risk of childhood asthma: a systematic review.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2011 Jun|volume=127|issue=6|pages=1125–38|pmid=21606151|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-2092}}</ref> Pia, kuzaa kwa njia ya [[operesheni ya Siza]] huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari (lililokadiriwa kwa asilimia 20–80) ya pumu—ongezeko hili la hatari linahusishwa na ukosefu wa kudhibiti bora wa bakteria ambao mtoto mchanga angepata kutoka kwa njia inayopitia kwenye njia ya uzazi.<ref>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=72}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Neu|first=J|coauthors=Rushing, J|title=Cesarean versus vaginal delivery: long-term infant outcomes and the hygiene hypothesis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinics-in-perinatology_2011-06_38_2/page/321|journal=Clinics in perinatology|date=2011 Jun|volume=38|issue=2|pages=321–31|pmid=21645799}}</ref> Kuna uhusiano kati ya pumu na kiwango cha utajiri.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Von Hertzen|first=LC|coauthors=Haahtela, T|title=Asthma and atopy -the price of affluence?|journal=Allergy|date=2004 Feb|volume=59|issue=2|pages=124–37|pmid=14763924}}</ref> ===Jenetikia=== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ CD14-endotoxin interaction based on CD14 SNP C-159T<ref name=Martinez_CD14 /> |- ! Endotoxin levels !! CC genotype !! TT genotype |- ! High exposure | Low risk || High risk |- ! Low exposure |High risk || Low risk |} [[Historia]] ya [[familia]] ni suala la hatari huku [[jeni]] nyingi tofauti zikihusishwa.<ref name=El2010>{{cite book|last=Elward|first=Graham Douglas, Kurtis S.|title=Asthma|year=2010|publisher=Manson Pub.|location=London|isbn=978-1-84076-513-7|pages=27–29|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=gS4BsugTBvoC&pg=PA27}}</ref> Iwapo mmoja wa [[pacha|mapacha]] ataathiriwa, uwezekano wa mwingine kuwa na ugonjwa ni takriban asilimia 25.<ref name=El2010/> Kufikia mwisho wa [[2005]], jeni zilikuwa zimehusishwa na pumu katika idadi sita au zaidi za watu zilizotengana ikiwa ni pamoja na:''[[Glutathione S-transferase Mu 1|GSTM1]]'', ''[[Interleukin 10|IL10]]'',''[[CTLA-4]]'', ''[[SPINK5]]'',''[[Leukotriene C4 synthase|LTC4S]]'', ''[[Interleukin-4 receptor|IL4R]]'' na ''[[ADAM33]]'' kati ya zingine.<ref name=Hoffjan/> Nyingi za jeni hizi zinahusiana na [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] au urekebishaji wa [[inflamesheni]]. Hata kati ya orodha ya jeni zilizodhibitishwa na uchunguzi uliorudiwa, matokeo hayajawa sawa kati ya idadi zote za watu zilizotathminiwa.<ref name=Hoffjan /> Mwaka wa 2006 zaidi ya [[jeni]] 100 zilihusishwa na pumu katika uchunguzi wa [[muungano wa jeni]] moja pekee;<ref name=Hoffjan>{{cite journal|author=Ober C, Hoffjan S |title=Asthma genetics 2006: the long and winding road to gene discovery |journal=Genes Immun |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=95–100 |year=2006 |pmid=16395390|doi=10.1038/sj.gene.6364284 }}</ref> mengi yanaendelea kutambuliwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halapi|first=E|coauthors=Bjornsdottir, US|title=Overview on the current status of asthma genetics.|journal=The clinical respiratory journal|date=2009 Jan|volume=3|issue=1|pages=2–7|pmid=20298365}}</ref> Baadhi ya tofauti ya jenetikia unaweza kusababisha ugonjwa unapounganishwa na hatari ya kimazingira.<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir /> Kwa mfano [[upolimofi moja ya nunukliotaidi]] katika eneo la [[CD14]] na hatari ya [[endotoksini]] (zao la bakteria). Hatari ya endotoksini unaweza kupatikana kutoka kwa vyanzo kadhaa vya kimazingira ikiwa ni pamoja na moshi wa tobako, mbwa na mashamba. Hatari ya pumu, kisha husababishwa na jenetiki ya mtu na kiwango cha hatari ya endotoksini.<ref name=Martinez_CD14>{{cite journal |author=Martinez FD |title=CD14, endotoxin, and asthma risk: actions and interactions |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=221–5 |year=2007|pmid=17607003 |doi=10.1513/pats.200702-035AW |pmc=2647622}}</ref> ===Hali ya tiba=== Seti ya [[kizema ya atopi]], [[aleji ya mafua]] na pumu huitwa atopi.<ref name="Bolognia"/> Suala la hatari kuu zaidi la kupata ugonjwa ni historia ya [[atopi|ugonjwa wa atopi]];<ref name=NHLBI07p11/> huku pumu ikitokea kwa kiwango cha juu kwa walio na [[kizema]] au [[mafua|mafua ya mzio]].<ref name=GINA2011_p4>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=4}}</ref> Ugonjwa huu umehusishwa na [[Churg–Strauss syndrome]], ugonjwa wa kipekee wa kingamwili na [[vaskulitisi]]. Watu binafsi walio na aina fulani za [[utikaria]] pia wanaweza kuhisi dalili za pumu.<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author=Rapini, Ronald P.; Bolognia, Jean L.; Jorizzo, Joseph L.|title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007|isbn=1-4160-2999-0 }}</ref> Kuna uhusiano kati ya [[unene]] na hatari ya ugonjwa huku zikiwa zimeongezeka miaka iliyopita hivi karibuni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beuther DA |title=Recent insight into obesity and asthma |journal=Curr Opin Pulm Med|volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=64–70|year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19844182 |doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283338fa7}}</ref><ref name=holguin>{{cite journal |author=Holguin F, Fitzpatrick A |title=Obesity, asthma, and oxidative stress|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-03_108_3/page/754 |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=754–9 |year=2010|month=March |pmid=19926826|doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00702.2009 }}</ref> Masuala kadhaa yanaweza kusababisha ikiwa ni pamoja na kupungua kwa utendakazi wa upumuo kwa sababu ya ongezeko la mafuta na hasa kwa kuwa tishu ya adiposi husababisha hali ya pro-inflamesheni.<ref name="Woods 2009">{{cite journal |author=Wood LG, Gibson PG |title=Masuala ya chakula husababisha innate immune activation katikia athma |journal=Pharmacol. Ther.|volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=37–53 |year=2009|month=July |pmid=19375453|doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.03.015 }}</ref> Dawa za [[Beta blocker]] kama vile [[propranolol]] zinaweza kusababisha ugonjwa kwa walio na uwepesi wa kuipata.<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Rourke ST |title=Antianginal actions of beta-adrenoceptor antagonists |journal=Am J Pharm Educ |volume=71|issue=5 |pages=95|year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17998992 |pmc=2064893 }}</ref> [[Cardioselective beta-blockers]], hata hivyo, huonekana kuwa salama kwa walio na ugonjwa mdogo au wa kiasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Salpeter|first=S|coauthors=Ormiston, T; Salpeter, E|title=Cardioselective beta-blocker use in patients with reversible airway disease.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|year=2001|issue=2|pages=CD002992|pmid=11406056}}</ref> Dawa zingine zinazoweza kusababisha matatizo ni [[ASA]], [[NSAID]], na [[vizuizi vya enzaimu anjiotensini-badilishi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Covar|first=RA|coauthors=Macomber, BA; Szefler, SJ|title=Medications as asthma trigers.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_immunology-and-allergy-clinics-of-north-america_2005-02_25_1/page/169|journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America|date=2005 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=169–90|pmid=15579370}}</ref> ===Ongezeko=== Baadhi ya watu huwa na pumu tulivu kwa majuma au miezi kisha kuwa kali kwa ghafla. Watu tofauti huathirika kwa njia tofauti na masuala mbalimbali.<ref name=Baxi2010>{{cite journal |author=Baxi SN, Phipatanakul W |title=The role of allergen exposure and avoidance in asthma |journal=Adolesc Med State Art Rev |volume=21 |issue=1|pages=57–71, viii–ix |year=2010 |month=April |pmid=20568555 |pmc=2975603 }}</ref> Watu wengi binafsi wanaweza kupata ongezeko kali kutokana na baadhi ya maajenti sababishi.<ref name=Baxi2010/> Visababishi vya kinyumbani vya ugonjwa huu ni pamoja na [[vumbi]], [[magamba]] ya mnyama (hasa manyoya ya paka na mbwa), mende [[alejeni]] na [[kuvu]].<ref name=Baxi2010/> [[marashi]] ni kisababishi cha kawaida cha mashambulizi kali kwa kina mama na watoto. [[Ambukizo]] la [[virusi|virusi]] na bakteria la trakti ya juu ya kupumua unaweza kuongeza ugonjwa.<ref name=Baxi2010/> Mfadhaiko wa kisaikolojia [[(kibiolojia)|mfadhaiko]] unaweza kuzidisha dalili—inakisiwa kuwa mfadhaiko hubadilisha mfumo wa kingamwili na hivyo huongeza athari ya inflamesheni ya njia ya hewa kutokana na alejeni na vitu ambavyo huwasha.<ref name=Gold/><ref name="Chen2007">{{cite journal |author=Chen E, Miller GE |title=Stress and inflammation in exacerbations of asthma|journal=Brain Behav Immun. |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=993–9|year=2007 |pmid=17493786|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.009|pmc=2077080}}</ref> ==Pathofisiolojia== [[File:Asthma.jpg|thumb|alt=Sehemu ya tishu ya njia ya hewa inayoonyesha ukuta ulio na doa la waridi na kamasi ya rangi nyeupe uliojaa upande wa ndani|Kizuizi cha mwanya wa [[bronkioli]] kutoka mucoid exudate, [[goblet cell]] [[metaplasia]], na epitheliumu [[utando msingi]] unaovimba kwa mtu aliye na pumu.]] Pumu husababishwa na uvimbe kwa njia za hewa ikifuatiwa na mikazo katika eneo hilo [[msuli mdogo]].<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Hii pamoja na visababishi vingine husababisha maumivu yanayotokana na njia ya hewa iliyonyembamba na dalili za hali ya juu za kukoroma.<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Uwembamba unaweza kurudi hali yake ya kawaida bila matibabu<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Mara kwa mara njia za hewa hujibadilisha.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Mabadiliko ya njia za hewa ni pamoja na ongezeko kwa [[esinofili]] na kunenepa kwa [[lamina lililofanana na neti]].<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Msuli wa njia za hewa inaweza kuwa kubwa kwa ukali na kuongezeka kwa idadi ya tezi ya miukosi.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Aina zingine za seli zilizohusika ni pamoja na: [[T lymphocytes]], [[macrophages]], na [[nutrofili]].<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Pia kunaweza kuwa na vijenzi vya [[mfumo wa kinga]] pamoja na: [[cytokines]], [[chemokines]], [[histamine]], na [[leukotrienes]] miongoni mwa zingine.<ref name=M38/> ==Utambuzi== Pumu umetambulika vizuri, ilhali hakuna ufafanuzi hata moja ulioidhinishwa.<ref name=M38/> Inafafanuliwa na [[Uvumbuzi wa Kidunia wa Pumu]] kama "ulemavu mkali wa inflamesheni katika njia za hewa ambapo seli mingi na elementi za seli huwa na jukumu. Inflamesheni kali inahusishwa na mwitikio uliozidi wa njia ya hewa zinazosababisha matukio ya kukoroma, kushindwa kupumua, mikazo kifuani na kukohoa hasa usiku au asubuhi na mapema. Matukio haya kwa kawaida yanahusiana na kutapakaa kwa hewa mwilini lakini mtiririko wa hewa uliozuiwa ambao unabadilika kwa pafu ambayo mara kwa mara inaweza kurudi kwa hali ya kawaida bila matibabu au na matibabu".<ref name=GINA2011p2 /> Kwa sasa hakuna uchunguzi maalum na utambuzi unaofanana hasa uliokatika muundo wa dalili na mwitikio kwa tiba muda unapoendelea.<ref name=lemanske/><ref name=M38/> Utambuzi unapaswa kushukiwa ikiwa kuna: ukoromaji unaotokea mara kwa mara, kukohoa au kupumua kwa ugumu na hizi dalili hutokea au kuzidi kwa sababu ya mazoezi, maambukizi ya virusi, alejeni au hewa chafu.<ref name=NAEPP42>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=42}}</ref> Kisha [[Spirometry]] hutumika kuthibitisha utambuzi.<ref name=NAEPP42/> Utambuzi kwa watoto waliochini ya miaka sita ni vigumu kwa sababu ni wadogo kufanyiwa spirometry.<ref name=GINA2011p20>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=20}}</ref> ===Spirometry=== [[Spirometry]] inapendekezwa ili isaidie utambuzi na udhibiti.<ref name="AAAAIfive">{{Citation|author1=American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology|author1-link=American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology|date=|title=Five things physicians and patients should question|publisher=[[American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology]]|work=Choosing wisely: an initiative of the [[ABIM Foundation]]|page=|url=http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf|accessdate=August 14, 2012|archive-date=2012-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103151124/http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="NIHasthmaguide">{{cite book |author=Third Expert Panel on the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma |title=Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma |year=2007 |publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (US) |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7232/}}</ref> Hii ndio uchunguzi bora wa pumu.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Ikiwa [[FEV1]] kilichopimwa na mbinu hii kitakuwa bora na zaidi ya asilimia 12 kufuatiliwa na utoaji wa kipanua bronkasi kama vile [[sabutamoli]], husaidia kwa utambuzi.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Hata hivyo inaweza kuwa sawa kwa walio na historia ya ugonjwa isiyokali, isiyojitokeza.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> [[Kiwango cha hewa mtu anaweza kuvuta kwa pumzi moja]] inaweza kusaidia kutofautisha pumu [[COPD]].<ref name=M38/> Ni muhimu kufuatilia spirometry kila mwaka moja au mbili ili kufuatilia jinsi ugonjwa unavyodhibitiwa.<ref name=NHLBI07p58>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=58}}</ref> ===Njia nyingine=== [[Kipimo]] cha [[tatizo la methacholine]] kinahusisha kuvuta hewa ya kuongeza viwango vya dutu vinavyosababisha njia ya hewa kuwa nyembamba katika eneo linalochangia kupata magonjwa.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Ikiwa hakuna dalili inamaanisha hana ugonjwa; ikiwa ana dalili, hata hivyo, si ya ugonjwa hasa.<ref name=M38/> Ushahidi mwingine unaochangia ni: tofauti ya asilimia ≥20 kwa [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]] angalau siku tatu kwa wiki kwa wiki mbili, uboreshaji kwa asilimia ≥20 ya kiwango cha kupumua ukifuatiliwa na matibabu ya sabutamoli, kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta au prinisoni, au upungufu wa asilimia ≥20 ya kifaa cha kupima hewa kutoka kwa mapafu ikifuatiliwa na hatari ya kisababishi.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pinnock H, Shah R |title=Asthma |journal=BMJ |volume=334 |issue=7598 |pages=847–50|year=2007 |pmid=17446617 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39140.634896.BE |pmc=1853223}}</ref> Kipimo cha kiwango cha juu cha kupumua hubadilika zaidi kuliko ya spirometry, hata hivyo, haijakubaliwa kwa utambuzi wa mara kwa mara.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP2007p59/> --> Inaweza kuwa ya manufaa ya kujitathmini kila siku kwa wale walio na ugonjwa uliokali kiasi hadi kwa iliyokali na kutathmini matokeo yanayofaa kwa matibabu mapya.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP2007p59/> --> Inaweza pia kuwa ya manufaa ya kuongoza kwa matibabu kwa walio na hali ya kuongezeka kwa ukali wa ugonjwa.<ref name=NAEPP2007p59>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=59}}</ref> ===Uainishaji=== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ Clinical classification (≥ 12 years old)<ref name=Yawn2008/> |- ! scope="col" style="width:6em;" | Severity ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | Symptom frequency ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | Night time symptoms ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | %FEV<sub>1</sub> of predicted ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | FEV<sub>1</sub> Variability ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | SABA use |- ! scope="row" | Intermittent | ≤2/week | ≤2/month | ≥80% | <20% | ≤2 days/week |- ! scope="row" | Mild persistent | >2/week | 3–4/month | ≥80% | 20–30% | >2 days/week |- ! scope="row" | Moderate persistent | Daily | >1/week | 60–80% | >30% | daily |- ! scope="row" | Severe persistent | Continuously | Frequent (7×/week) | <60% | >30% | ≥twice/day |} Ugonjwa huu huainishwa kulingana na dalili inavyojitokeza mara kwa mara, kutoka kwa pumzi inayotolewa nje ([[spirometry|FEV<sub>1</sub>]]), na [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]].<ref name=Yawn2008>{{cite journal |author=Yawn BP |title=Factors accounting for asthma variability: achieving optimal symptom control for individual patients |journal=Primary Care Respiratory Journal |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=138–147 |month=September |year=2008 |url=http://www.thepcrj.org/journ/vol17/17_3_138_147.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5nySCf5x8?url=http://www.thepcrj.org/journ/vol17/17_3_138_147.pdf |archivedate=2010-03-04 |pmid=18264646 |doi=10.3132/pcrj.2008.00004 |access-date=2014-01-09 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Pumu inaweza kuainishwa kama atopi (iliyo ya nje) au isiyo ya atopi (iliyo ya ndani), kwa kuzingatia iwapo dalili zimechochewa na alejeni (atopi) au la (zisizo za atopi).<ref name="RobbinsCotran2010">{{cite book |editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Vinay |editor2-last=Abbas |editor2-first=Abul K |editor3-last=Fausto|editor3-first=Nelson |editor4-last=Aster |editor4-first=Jon |title=Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease |publisher=Saunders |edition=8th |year=2010|isbn=978-1-4160-3121-5 |page=688 |oclc=643462931 }}</ref> Pumu unapoainishwa kulingana na ukali, kwa sasa hakuna mbinu halisi ya kuainisha vikundi vidogo mbalimbali vya ugonjwa huu zaidi ya mfumo huu.<ref name=Moore2010>{{cite journal |author=Moore WC, Pascual RM |title=Update in asthma 2009 |journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine |volume=181 |issue=11 |pages=1181–7 |year=2010 |month=June|pmid=20516492 |doi=10.1164/rccm.201003-0321UP}}</ref> Kutafuta njia za kutambua vikundi vidogo vinavyoitikia vyema kwa aina tofauti za matibabu ni lengo muhimu la utafiti wa pumu.<ref name=Moore2010/> Ingawa pumu ni hali kali [[pingamizi ya ugonjwa wa pafu|pingamizi]], haichukuliwi kama sehemu ya [[ugonjwa kali unaopinga mapafu]] kwa kuwa jina hili linahusu mchanganyiko wa magonjwa zisizoweza kurudi katika hali iliyosawa kama vile [[bronkektasisi]],[[bronkitisi kali]], na [[emphysema]].<ref name="Self, Timothy 2009">{{cite book|editor=Mary Anne Koda-Kimble, Brian K Alldredge, et al. |author1=Self, Timothy|author2=Chrisman, Cary |author3=Finch, Christopher |title=Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs |edition=9th |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2009 |chapter=22. Asthma |oclc=230848069 }}</ref> Tofauti na magonjwa haya, kizuizi cha njia ya hewa huweza kurudi katika hali yake ya kawaida; hata hivyo, isipotibiwa, inflamesheni kali kutokana na pumu huweza kusababisha mapafu kuwa na kizuizi kisichorudi kwa hali yake ya kawaida kwa sababu ya njia ya hewa kupata muundo mwingine.<ref name=Delacourt2004>{{cite journal |last=Delacourt|first=C|title=Conséquencesbronchiques de l'asthme non traité|trans_title=Bronchial changes in untreated asthma |journal=Archives de Pédiatrie|volume=11 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=71s–73s|month=June |year=2004 |pmid=15301800}}</ref> Tofauti na [[emphysema]], ugonjwa huu huathiri bronkia, sio [[alveoli]].<ref name=Schiffman2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/article.htm |title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |first=George |last=Schiffman |date=18 December 2009 |publisher=MedicineNet |accessdate=2 September 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828011049/http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/article.htm |archivedate=2010-08-28 |deadurl=no }}</ref> ====Kuzidi kwa pumu==== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ Severity of an acute exacerbation<ref name=BTS58/> |- ! style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Near-fatal | colspan="2" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | High [[Arterial blood gas|PaCO<sub>2</sub>]] and/or requiring mechanical ventilation |- ! rowspan="9" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Life threatening</br>(any one of) |- ! Clinical signs ! Measurements |- | Altered [[level of consciousness]] | [[Peak flow]]< 33% |- | Exhaustion | [[Oxygen saturation]]< 92% |- | [[Arrhythmia]] | [[Arterial blood gas|PaO<sub>2</sub>]]< 8 kPa |- | Low [[blood pressure]] | "Normal" PaCO<sub>2</sub> |- | [[Cyanosis]] | |- | Silent chest | |- | Poor respiratory effort | |- ! rowspan="5" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Acute severe</br>(any one of) |- | colspan="2" | Peak flow 33–50% |- | colspan="2" | Respiratory rate ≥ 25 breaths per minute |- | colspan="2" | Heart rate ≥ 110 beats per minute |- | colspan="2" | Unable to complete sentences in one breath |- ! rowspan="3" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray; border-bottom: 3 px solid darkgray;"| Moderate | colspan="2" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Worsening symptoms |- | colspan="2" | Peak flow 50–80% best or predicted |- | colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 3 px solid darkgray;" | No features of acute severe asthma |} Ugonjwa kali uliozidi huitwa ''shambulizi la pumu''. Dalili zinazotambulika ni [[upungufu wa hewa]], [[kukorota|ukorotaji]], na [[kujikaza kwa kifua]].<ref name=M38/> Wakati hizi ni dalili za kwanza za ugonjwa,<ref name=Barnes2008>{{cite book|last=Barnes |first=PJ |chapter=Asthma |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00asfa |editor1-last=Fauci|editor1-first=Anthony S |editor2-last=Braunwald|editor2-first=E, |editor3-last=Kasper|editor3-first=DL |location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2008 |edition=17th|isbn=978-0-07-146633-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00asfa/page/1596 1596]–1607}}</ref> baadhi ya watu huonyesha kwa [[kukohoa]], na katika hali kali, mwendo wa kupumua unaweza kuwa umeharibika sana kiasi kwamba ukoromaji hausikiki.<ref name=BTS58/> Dalili zinzazotokea wakati wa shambulizi la ugonjwa ni pamoja na matumizi zinazosaidia [[misuli]] za kupumua ([[sternocleidomastoid]] na [[misuli ya scalene]] za shingo), kunaweza kuwa na [[pulsus paradoxus|mpwito wa moyo wa kifumbo]] (mpwito uliodhaifu wakati wa kuvuta hewa na ulio na nguvu wakati wa kutoa hewa), na kuvimba kwa kifua.<ref name=Maitre1995>{{cite journal |author=Maitre B, Similowski T, Derenne JP |title=Physical examination of the adult patient with respiratory diseases: inspection and palpation |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1584–93 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=8575588 |url=http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/8/9/1584.long |access-date=2014-01-09 |archive-date=2015-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429223309/http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/8/9/1584.long |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[sinosisi|rangi ya bluu]] ya ngozi na kucha inaweza kutokea kutokana na ukosefu wa oksijeni.<ref name=Werner2001>{{cite journal|last=Werner |first=HA |title=Status asthmaticus in children: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2001-06_119_6/page/n47 |journal=Chest |volume=119 |issue=6|pages=1596–1607 |year=2001|month=June|pmid=11399724|doi=10.1378/chest.119.6.1913 }}</ref> Katika hali ya maumivu usio kali [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]] ni ≥200&nbsp;ya lita moja kwa dakika au asilimia ≥50 ya utabiri uliobora.<ref name=Shiber2006>{{cite journal |author=Shiber JR, Santana J|title=Dyspnea |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2006-05_90_3/page/453|journal=Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=90|issue=3 |pages=453–79 |year=2006|month=May|pmid=16473100 |doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2005.11.006 }}</ref> Wastani wake unafasiliwa kama kati ya 80 na 200&nbsp;ya lita moja kwa dakika au asilimia 20 na 50 ya utabiri uliobora bali iliokali inafasiliwa kama ≤&nbsp;80 ya lita kwa dakika au asilimia ≤25 ya utabiri uliobora.<ref name=Shiber2006/> [[Pumu iliyo kali mno]], ulioitwa hali ya kuwa na pumu kali mbeleni, na inayoendelea kwa muda mrefu, ni ugonjwa kali uliozidi ambao hautibii na matibabu ya kawaida ya kipanua koromeo na kotikosteroidi.<ref name=Shah2012/> Nusu ya hali hizi zimesababishwa na maambukizi kutoka kwa mengine yaliyosababishwa na alejeni, hewa chafu, ukosefu wa dawa au kuzitumia kwa njia isiyofaa.<ref name=Shah2012>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=R|coauthors=Saltoun, CA|title=Chapter 14: Athma uliokali mno (hali ya kuwa na athma kali, na inayoendelea kwa muda mrefu).|journal=Allergy and asthma proceedings : the official journal of regional and state allergy societies|date=2012 May–Jun|volume=33 Suppl 1|pages=S47-50|pmid=22794687}}</ref> [[Pumu ya brittle]] ni aina ya ugonjwa unaotambuliwa na mashambulizi makali yanayorudi.<ref name=BTS58>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=54}}</ref> Aina ya kwanza ya ugonjwa wa brittle ni ugonjwa ulio tofauti na mtiririko wa upeo mpana, licha ya makali ya dawa. Aina ya pili ya ugonjwa wa brittle ni ugonjwa ulio na usuli uliothibitiwa kwa njia inayofaa na ukali wa ghafla.<ref name=BTS58/> ====Yanayosababisha na mazoezi ==== Zoezi linaweza kusababisha [[kuminya bronkasi]] kwa wote walio na wasio kuwa na ugonjwa.<ref name=EIB2012>{{cite journal|last=Khan|first=DA|title=Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction: burden and prevalence.|journal=Allergy and asthma proceedings : the official journal of regional and state allergy societies|date=2012 Jan–Feb|volume=33|issue=1|pages=1–6|pmid=22370526}}</ref> Hutokea kwa watu wengi walio na pumu na hadi asilimia 20 ya watu wasio kuwa na ugonjwa.<ref name=EIB2012/> Hutokea mara nyingi kwa wanariadha wa tabaka la juu, kwa viwango vinavyobadilika kutoka asilimia 3 kwa wanaoshiriki katika mashindano ya [[bobsled]] hadi asilimia 50 kwa [[wanariadha wa baiskeli]] na asilimia 60 kwa [[cross-country skiing]].<ref name=EIB2012/> Ingawa inaweza kutokea katika hali yoyote ya hewa ni ya kawaida zaidi wakati hewa ni kavu na baridi.<ref name=GINA_2011_page17>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=17}}</ref> Beta2-agonists ya kuvuta inaonekana kuwa haileti mabadiliko katika matokeo ya wanariadha wasiokuwa na pumu<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carlsen|first=KH|coauthors=Anderson, SD; Bjermer, L; Bonini, S; Brusasco, V; Canonica, W; Cummiskey, J; Delgado, L; Del Giacco, SR; Drobnic, F; Haahtela, T; Larsson, K; Palange, P; Popov, T; van Cauwenberge, P; European Respiratory, Society; European Academy of Allergy and Clinical, Immunology; GA(2)LEN,|title=Treatment of exercise-induced asthma, respiratory and allergic disorders in sports and the relationship to doping: Part II of the report from the Joint Task Force of European Respiratory Society (ERS) and European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) in cooperation with GA(2)LEN.|journal=Allergy|date=2008 May|volume=63|issue=5|pages=492–505|pmid=18394123}}</ref> hata hivyo dozi za kumeza zinaweza kuboresha uvumilivu na nguvu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kindermann|first=W|title=Do inhaled beta(2)-agonists have an ergogenic potential in non-asthmatic competitive athletes?|journal=Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)|year=2007|volume=37|issue=2|pages=95–102|pmid=17241101}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pluim|first=BM|coauthors=de Hon, O; Staal, JB; Limpens, J; Kuipers, H; Overbeek, SE; Zwinderman, AH; Scholten, RJ|title=β₂-Agonists and physical performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.|journal=Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)|date=2011 Jan 1|volume=41|issue=1|pages=39–57|pmid=21142283}}</ref> ====Kazini==== Pumu unaotokea (au kuzidishwa na) mazingira ya kazini, hurejelewa kama [[magonjwa ya kazini]].<ref name=Baur2012/> Hata hivyo hali nyingi haziripotiwi au kutambuliwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kunnamo|first=ed.-in-chief: Ilkka|title=Evidence-based medicine guidelines|year=2005|publisher=Wiley|location=Chichester|isbn=978-0-470-01184-3|page=214|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=frYEiHYtOv0C&pg=PA214}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kraft|first=editors, Mario Castro, Monica|title=Clinical asthma|year=2008|publisher=Mosby / Elsevier|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-323-07081-2|pages=Chapter 42|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=y9WYwLVn7pgC&pg=PT1185}}</ref> Inakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 5-25 ya ugonjwa huu kwa watu wazima huhusiana na mahali pa kazi.<!-- <ref name=Baur2012/> --> Maajenti karibu mia moja wamehusishwa na ya kawaida ikiwa: [[isocyanates]], nafaka na uchafu wa mbao, [[colophony]], [[soldering flux]], [[ulimbo wa mpira]], wanyama, na [[aldehydes]].<!-- <ref name=Baur2012/> --> Uajiri uliohusishwa na hatari kubwa ya matatizo inajumuisha: wale ambao [[wanajipaka rangi]], waokaji na watengenezao chakula, wauguzi, wafanyikazi wa kemikali, wanaofanyakazi na wanyama, [[wati weko]], watengenezaji nywele na wafanyikazi wa mabao.<ref name=Baur2012>{{cite journal|last=Baur|first=X|coauthors=Aasen, TB; Burge, PS; Heederik, D; Henneberger, PK; Maestrelli, P; Schlünssen, V; Vandenplas, O; Wilken, D; ERS Task Force on the Management of Work-related, Asthma|title=The management of work-related asthma guidelines: a broader perspective.|journal=European respiratory review : an official journal of the European Respiratory Society|date=2012 Jun 1|volume=21|issue=124|pages=125–39|pmid=22654084}}</ref> ===Utambuzi tofauti=== Hali zingine zinaweza kusababisha dalili zinazofanana na za pumu.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46/> --> Kwa watoto, magonjwa mengine ya njia ya hewa kama vile [[mzio wa pua]] na [[sinositisi]] zinapaswa kuangiliwa pia kama visababishi vinavyofunga njia ya hewa ikijumuisha: [[Kifaa_kigeni#Kwa njia za hewa|kitu kigeni mwilini]], [[tracheal stenosis]] au [[laryngotracheomalacia]], [[vizingo vya utomvu]], hurefushwa [[Tezi]] au uzito wa shingo.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46> --> Kwa watu wazima, [[COPD]], [[kutofanya kazi kwa moyo]], uzito wa hewa kupita, vile vile dawa za kukomesha athiri ya ACE zinapaswa kuangaliwa.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46> --> Kwa watu wote [[kutofanya kazi kwa mshipi wa sauti]] inaweza kutokea pia.<ref name=NAEPP46>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=46}}</ref> [[Pumu zibifu wa kudumu]] inaweza kuwa na ugonjwa huu na inaweza kutokea kama tatizo la kudumu. Katika umri wa miaka 65 watu wengi walio na ugonjwa wa njia ya hewa iliyofunganga watakuwa na pumu na COPD. Kati hali hii, COPD inaweza kutofautishwa kwa nutrofili nyingi katika njia ya hewa, inayoongezwa na ukubwa wa ukuta, na kuongezeka kwa msuli mdogo bronkia. Hata hivyo, kiwango hiki cha kuchunguza haiwezi kutekelezwa kwa sababu COPD na pumu huwa na kanuni sawa za usimamizi: kotikosteroidi, kuwepo kwa beta agonists, na hatua za kuacha kuvuta sigara.<ref name=Gibson>{{cite journal |author=Gibson PG, McDonald VM, Marks GB |title=Asthma in older adults |journal=Lancet |volume=376|issue=9743 |pages=803–13 |year=2010 |month=September |pmid=20816547|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61087-2 }}</ref> Hukaribiana na pumu kwa dalili, huhusiana na uvutaji wa sigara, umri mkubwa, kutobadilika kwa dalili baada ya kuweka kipanua bronkasi, na upungufu wa kuwepo kwa atopi katika familia.<ref name=Hargreave>{{cite journal |author1=Hargreave FE |author2=Parameswaran K |title=Asthma, COPD and bronchitis are just components of airway disease |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=264–267 |month=August |year=2006 |url=http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/264.full |pmid=16880365 |doi=10.1183/09031936.06.00056106 |access-date=2014-01-09 |archive-date=2016-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113080726/http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/264.full |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Applied Therapeutics 2009">{{cite book|author=Diaz, P. Knoell |title=Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs|edition=9th |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2009|chapter=23. ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu zibifu }}</ref> ==Uzuiaji== Ushahidi wa kufanya kazi kwa mikakati ya kuzuia kutokea kwa ugonjwa ni finyu.<ref name="NHLBI07p184"/> Baadhi huonyesha matumaini ikijumuisha: kuepekuna na sehemu zilizo na moshi [[katika uterasi]] na baada ya kuzaa, [[unyonyeshaji]], na ongezeko la utunzaji au familia kubwa lakini hakuna hata moja inayopendekezwa kwa dalili hii.<ref name="NHLBI07p184">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=184–5}}</ref> Kufichuliwa kwa mnyama mapema inaweza kusaidia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lodge|first=CJ|coauthors=Allen, KJ; Lowe, AJ; Hill, DJ; Hosking, CS; Abramson, MJ; Dharmage, SC|title=Perinatal cat and dog exposure and the risk of asthma and allergy in the urban environment: a systematic review of longitudinal studies.|journal=Clinical & developmental immunology|year=2012|volume=2012|pages=176484|pmid=22235226}}</ref> Matokeo ya ufichuzi kwa wanyma wakati mwingine inashida<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chen|first=CM|coauthors=Tischer, C; Schnappinger, M; Heinrich, J|title=The role of cats and dogs in asthma and allergy—a systematic review.|journal=International journal of hygiene and environmental health|date=2010 Jan|volume=213|issue=1|pages=1–31|pmid=20053584}}</ref> na inapendekezwa tu wanyma watolewe nyumbani ikiwa binadamu ana dalili za aleji ya mnyama huyo.<ref name=Au2005/> Upangaji mlo wakati wa ujauzito au unyonyeshaji haibainishi kama njia nzuri na hivyo haipendekezwi.<ref name=Au2005>{{cite journal|last=Prescott|first=SL|coauthors=Tang, ML; Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and, Allergy|title=The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy position statement: Muhtasari wa uzuiaji wa aleji kwa watoto.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_2005-05-02_182_9/page/464|journal=The Medical journal of Australia|date=2005 May 2|volume=182|issue=9|pages=464–7|pmid=15865590}}</ref> Utoaji au upunguzaji wa vitu vilivyo hatari kwa watu kazini inaweza kuwa salama.<ref name=Baur2012/> ==Udhibiti== Ilhali hakuna matibabu ya pumu, dalili zinaweza kuboreshwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ripoll|first=Brian C. Leutholtz, Ignacio|title=Exercise and disease management|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4398-2759-8|page=100|url=http://books.google.ch/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA100|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Mpango maalum, ulioboreshwa kwa kufuatilia na kudhibiti dalili inapaswa kutengenezwa. Mpango huu unapaswa kujumuisha upunguzaji wa alejeni, kwa uchunguzi wa kutathmini ukali, na matumizi ya dawa. Mpango wa matibabu unapaswa kuandikwa chini na kuwashauri kuhusu marekebisho ya matibabu kulingana na mabadiliko ya dalili.<ref name=GINA_2011_page56>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=56}}</ref> Njia mwafaka ya kutibu ni kutambua visababishi, kama vile [[Madhara ya uvutaji wa sigara kwa afya|uvutaji wa sigara]], wanyama, au [[aspirin]], na kuepukana nao. Ikiwa haiwezekani, matumizi ya dawa utahitajika. Dawa ya matibabu yanachaguliwa kwa kuzingatia, vitu vingi, ukali wa ugonjwa na marudio ya dalili. Matibabu maalum ya pumu huanishwa kwa jumla katika kategoria zinazojitokeza na zinazochukua muda.<ref name=NHLBI07p213>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=213}}</ref><ref name=BGMA08>{{cite web|url=http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf|title=British Guideline on the Management of Asthma|format=PDF|publisher=Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203455/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf|archivedate=2008-08-19|deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Vipanua bronkasi]] vinapendekezwa kwa dalili za muda mfupi.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Matibabu mengine hayahitajiki, kwa wanaokuwa na maumivu kila mara.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Ikiwa ugonjwa itaendelea kudumu (kuwa mgonjwa zaidi ya mara mbili kwa wiki moja), dozi ndogo ya kuvuta ya kotikosteroidi au nyingine, ya kunywa [[leukotriene antagonist]] au [[mast cell stabilizer]] inapendekezwa.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Kwa walio na maumivu kila siku, dozi kubwa ya kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta inatumiwa. Wakati wa maumivu, kotikosteroidi ya kumeza zinaongezwa kwa matibau haya.<ref name="NHLBI07p214">{{harvnb|NHLBI kielekezie|200707|p=214}}</ref> ===Ubadilishaji wa mtindo wa maisha=== Uepaji wa visababishi ni sehemu kuu ya kuboresha udhibiti na kuzuia kupatwa na ugonjwa. Visababishi vya kawaida sana ni pamoja na [[alejeni]], moshi (tobako na vingine), uchafuzi wa hewa, [[Kizuizi beta#Maajenti wasio chaguzi|vizuizi beta visivyo chaguzi]], na chakula kilicho na salfeti.<ref name=NAEPP2007p69>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=69}}</ref><ref name=thomson>{{cite journal |author=Thomson NC, Spears M |title=Athari ya kuvuta sigara kwa matokeo ya matibabu kwa wagonjwa walio na pumu |journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol|volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57–63 |year=2005 |pmid=15643345|doi=10.1097/00130832-200502000-00011}}</ref> Uvutaji sigara na [[uvutaji moshi kutoka kwa anayevuta sigara]](moshi wa mtu mwingine) unaweza kupunguza utendakazi wa dawa kama vile kotikosteroidi.<ref name=Stap2011>{{cite journal| author=Stapleton M, Howard-Thompson A, George C, Hoover RM, Self TH| title=Smoking and asthma. | journal=J Am Board Fam Med | year= 2011 | volume= 24| issue= 3 | pages= 313–22 | pmid=21551404 | doi=10.3122/jabfm.2011.03.100180}}</ref> Juhudi za kudhibiti wadudu wa vumbi, pamoja na kuchunja hewa, kemikali za kuua wadudu, kutumia kivuta vumbi, vitu vya kufunika godoro na njia zingine hazikuwa na mabadiliko kwa dalili za ugonjwa.<ref name=Gotzsche2008>{{cite journal |author=[[Peter C. Gøtzsche|PC Gøtzsche]], HK Johansen|title=House dust mite control measures for asthma|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=2 |pages=CD001187 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001187.pub3 |pmid=18425868|editor1-last=Gøtzsche |editor1-first=Peter C}}</ref> ===Dawa=== [[Dawa]] zinazotumika kutibu pumu zimegawanywa mara mbili: zinazotuliza maumivu haraka kwa kutibu dalili kali; na za kudhibiti maumivu kwa muda mrefu ambazo huzuia ongezeko la ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p213">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=560}}</ref> ;Zinazofanya kazi haraka [[File:Salbutamol2.JPG|thumb|alt=Kopo la mviringo juu ya kishikizi cha buluu cha plastiki|[[Sabutamoli]] kivutia dawa cha dozi kinachotumika kwa matibabu.]] * beta2-adrenajiki agonisti[[inayofanya kazi kwa muda mfupi|beta<sub>2</sub>-adrenosepta agonistsi]] (SABA), kama vile [[sabutamoli]] (''albuterol'' [[Jina linalotumika Marekani|USAN]]) ni matibabu ya kwanza ya dalili za ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p214" /> *Dawa za [[Anticholinergic]] kama vile [[ipratropiamu|bromidi ya ipratropiamu]], hupeana faida zinapotumika pamoja na SABA kwa walio na dalili.<ref name="NHLBI07p214" /> Vipanuzi vya bronkasi visivyo na anticholinergic inaweza pia hutumika iwapo mtu hawezi kustahimili SABA.<ref name="Self, Timothy 2009"/> * Kipokezi cha adrenaji cha zamani, kisichochaguliwa sana [[adrenajiki agonistsi]], kama vile [[epinephrine]] ya kuvuta huwa na matokeo sawa na yale ya SABA.<ref name=Rodrigo>{{cite journal|author=Rodrigo GJ, Nannini LJ |title=Comparison between nebulized adrenaline and beta2 agonists for the treatment of acute asthma. Uchunguzi wa meta wa majaribio tofauti meta-analysis of randomized trials|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-emergency-medicine_2006-03_24_2/page/217 |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=217–22 |year=2006 |pmid=16490653|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2005.10.008}}</ref> Hazipendekezwi kwa sababu ya tatizo la kuchangamsha moyo.<ref name="NHLBI07p351">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=351}}</ref> ;Udhibiti wa muda mrefu [[File:Fluticasone.JPG|thumb|alt=Kopo la mviringo juu ya kishikizi cha plastiki cha rangi ya chungwa|[[Fluticasone propionate]] kivutia dawa kwa kawaida kinachotumika kwa udhibiti wa muda mrefu.]] *Kotikosteroidi huchukuliwa kama matibabu yanayofaa kwa udhibiti wa muda mrefu.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Aina zinazovutwa hutumika isipokuwa kwa ugonjwa kali unaoendelea, ambapo kotikosteroidi za kumeza zitahitajika.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Hupendekezwa kuwa aina za kuvutwa zitumike mara moja au mbili kwa siku, kulingana na ukali wa dalili.<ref name="NHLBI07p218">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=218}}</ref> *[[Adrenosepta agonisti beta zinazofanya kazi kwa muda mrefu]] (LABA) kama vile [[salmeterol]] na [[formoterol]] zinaweza kuboresha udhibiti wa ugonjwa, angalau kwa watu wazima, zinapopeanwa pamoja na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta.<ref name=Ducharme2010>{{cite journal|last=Ducharme|first=FM|coauthors=Ni Chroinin, M; Greenstone, I; Lasserson, TJ|title=Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled corticosteroids versus same dose inhaled corticosteroids for chronic asthma in adults and children.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010 May 12|issue=5|pages=CD005535|pmid=20464739}}</ref> Kwa watoto faida hii si hakika.<ref name=Ducharme2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ducharme|first=FM|coauthors=Ni Chroinin, M; Greenstone, I; Lasserson, TJ|title=Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled steroids versus higher dose inhaled corticosteroids in adults and children with persistent asthma.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010 Apr 14|issue=4|pages=CD005533|pmid=20393943}}</ref> Zinapotumika bila steroidi huongeza hatari ya [[athari]]<ref name=Fanta2009>{{cite journal |author=Fanta CH|title=Asthma |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2009-03-05_360_10/page/1002|journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=360|issue=10|pages=1002–14 |year=2009|month=March |pmid=19264689 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra0804579 }}</ref> na hata zikitumiwa na kotikosteroidi zinaweza kuongeza hatari kidogo.<ref name=Cates2012>{{cite journal|last=Cates|first=CJ|coauthors=Cates, MJ|title=Regular treatment with formoterol for chronic asthma: serious adverse events.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Apr 18|volume=4|pages=CD006923|pmid=22513944}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cates|first=CJ|coauthors=Cates, MJ|title=Regular treatment with salmeterol for chronic asthma: serious adverse events.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2008 Jul 16|issue=3|pages=CD006363|pmid=18646149}}</ref> *[[Leukotriene antagonist]] (kama vile [[montelukast]] na [[zafirlukast]]) zinaweza kutumika kando na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta, pia pamoja na LABA.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Dhibitisho hairuhusu matumizi katika ongezeko la ugonjwa.<ref name=GINA_2011_page74>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Watts|first=K|coauthors=Chavasse, RJ|title=Leukotriene receptor antagonists in addition to usual care for acute asthma in adults and children.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 May 16|volume=5|pages=CD006100|pmid=22592708}}</ref> Kwa watoto chini ya umri wa miaka mitano, therapi ya kuongeza baada ya kuvuta kotikosteroidi inapendekezwa.<ref name=bts2009p43>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=43}}</ref> *[[Mast cell stabilizer]] (kama vile [[sodiamu kromolini]]) haitumiki badala ya kotokosteroidi.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> ;Njia za kupeana Dawa hupeanwa kama [[kifaa cha kuvutia dawa]] (KKD) pamoja na [[kifaa cha kupeana dawa ya pumu]] au kama [[kivutia dawa cha poda]]. Kifaa kinachopeana dawa ni [[silinda]] ya [[plastiki]] ambayo huchanganya dawa na hewa, na kurahisisha kupata [[dozi]] kamili ya dawa. [[Nebulaiza]] inaweza kutumiwa. Nebulaiza na kifaa cha kutoa nafasi hufaa kwa walio na dalili, hata hivyo hakuna thibitisho kuamua iwapo kuna au hakuna tofauti kwa dalili kali.<ref name="NHLBI07p250">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=250}}</ref> ;Athari Matumizi ya muda mrefu ya kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta huwa na hatari ndogo ya athari.<ref name=Safe09>{{cite journal|last=Rachelefsky|first=G|title=Inhaled corticosteroids and asthma control in children: assessing impairment and risk.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2009 Jan|volume=123|issue=1|pages=353–66|pmid=19117903|doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3273}}</ref> Hatari ni pamoja na kutokea kwa [[cataract]] na kurudi nyuma kidogo kwa akili.<ref name=Safe09/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dahl R |title=Systemic side effects of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with asthma |journal=Respir Med |volume=100 |issue=8|pages=1307–17 |year=2006 |month=August|pmid=16412623|doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2005.11.020}}</ref> ===Dawa nyingine=== Pumu isipobadilika na dawa za kawaida, kuna aina zingine za chaguo zinazopatikana kwa udhibiti wa dharura na uzuizi wa milipuko. Kwa udhibiti wa dharura aina zingine za chaguo ni: *[[Oksijeni]] ili kutuliza [[haipoksia (dawa)|haipoksia]] ikiwa [[kiwango cha juu cha oksijeni|viwango vya juu]] iko chini ya asilimia 92.<ref name=rodrigo>{{cite journal |author=Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Hall JB |title=Acute asthma in adults: a review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2004-03_125_3/page/1081 |journal=Chest |volume=125|issue=3 |pages=1081–102 |year=2004 |pmid=15006973| doi = 10.1378/chest.125.3.1081}}</ref> *[[Salfeti ya magnesia]] matibabu ya mishipa ya ndani yameonyeshwa kusababisha athari ya kupanua bronkasi inapotumika pamoja na matibabu mengine katika mashambulizi makali ya ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p373">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=373}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Chest |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=396–8 |date = August 2002|doi=10.1378/chest.122.2.396 |title=Magnesium Treatment for Asthma : Where Do We Stand? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2002-08_122_2/page/396 |last1=Noppen |first1=M. |pmid=12171805 }}</ref> *[[Helioksi]], mchanganyiko wa heli na oksijeni, unaweza kutumiwa kwa visa vikali visivyoonyesha mabadiliko kwa kutumia dawa.<ref name="NHLBI07p373"/> * Sabutamoli ya mishipa ya ndani haitetewi na dhibitisho linalopatikana na hivyo hutumika tu kwa visa vikali zaidi.<ref name=rodrigo/> *[[Methylxanthines]] (kama vile [[theophylline]]) wakati mmoja ilitumika kwa wingi, lakini haiongezi athari za beta-agonistsi.<ref name=rodrigo/> Matumizi yake kwa maumivu makali huwa na pingamizi.<ref name=GINA_2011_page37>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=37}}</ref> * Kitiaganzi kinachojitenga [[ketamini]] inaweza kutumiwa kinadharia iwapo [[intubesheni]] na [[uingizaji wa hewa]] utahitajika kwa watu wanaokaribia kuwa na tatizo la upumuo; hata hivyo, hakuna dibitisho kutoka kwa majaribio ya kliniki ili kudhibitisha hili.<ref name="NHLBI07p399">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=399}}</ref> Kwa walio na ugonjwa kali unaoendelea usiodhibitiwa na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta na LABAS [[themoplasti ya bronkasi]] inaweza kutumiwa.<ref name=Bronch10>{{cite journal|last=Castro|first=M|coauthors=Musani, AI, Mayse, ML, Shargill, NS|title=Bronchial thermoplasty: a novel technique in the treatment of severe asthma.|journal=Therapeutic advances in respiratory disease|date=2010 Apr|volume=4|issue=2|pages=101–16|pmid=20435668|doi=10.1177/1753465810367505}}</ref> Huhusisha hupeanaji wa nishati joto kwa njia za hewa wakati wa mifululizo ya [[bronkoskopi|bronkoskopi]].<ref name=Bronch10/> Ingawa inaweza kuongeza idadi ya maumivu katika miezi michache ya kwanza huonekana kupunguza idadi ambayo hufuata.<!-- <ref name=GINA_2011_page70> -->Athari za kupita mwaka mmoja hazijulikani.<ref name=GINA_2011_page70>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=70}}</ref> ===Dawa mbadala=== Watu wengi, kama wale walio na matatizo ya muda mrefu, hutumia [[dawa mbadala|matibabu mbadala]]; uchunguzi unaonyesha kuwa takribani asilimia 50 hutumia baadhi ya therapi isiyo ya kawaida.<ref name=blanc>{{cite journal |author=Blanc PD, Trupin L, Earnest G, Katz PP, Yelin EH, Eisner MD |title=Alternative therapies among adults with a reported diagnosis of asthma or rhinosinusitis : data from a population-based survey |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2001-11_120_5/page/1461 |journal=Chest|volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1461–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11713120| doi = 10.1378/chest.120.5.1461}}</ref><ref name=shenfield>{{cite journal |author=Shenfield G, Lim E, Allen H |title=Survey of the use of complementary medicines and therapies in children with asthma |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-paediatrics-and-child-health_2002-06_38_3/page/252 |journal=J Paediatr Child Health |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=252–7|year=2002 |pmid=12047692| doi = 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2002.00770.x}}</ref> Kuna data chache ya kudhibitisha utendakazi wa therapi hizi. Ushahidi hautoshi kudhibitisha matumizi ya vitamini C.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kaur | first=B | title=Vitamin C supplementation for asthma | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | issue=1 | pages=CD000993| year=2009 | pmid=19160185 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000993.pub3 | coauthors=Rowe BH, Arnold E | editor1-last=Arnold | editor1-first=Elizabeth | unused_data=coauthorsRowe BH, Arnold E }}</ref> [[Acupuncture]] haipendekezwi kwa matibabu maana hakuna ushahidi wa kudhibitisha matumizi yake.<ref name="NHLBI07p240"/><ref name=mccartney>{{cite journal |author=McCarney RW, Brinkhaus B, Lasserson TJ, Linde K|title=Acupuncture for chronic asthma |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1|pages=CD000008 |year=2004 |pmid=14973944 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000008.pub2|editor1-last=McCarney |editor1-first=Robert W}}</ref> [[Kutia aioni kwa hewa]] haionyeshi ushahidi wa mabadiliko ya dalili au kusaidia utendakazi wa mapafu; hii ikitumika sawa kwa jenereta hasi na zisizo hasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blackhall|first=K|coauthors=Appleton, S; Cates, CJ|title=Ionisers for chronic asthma.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Sep 12|volume=9|pages=CD002986|pmid=22972060}}</ref> "Therapi za mikono", ikiwa ni pamoja na [[osteopathi|osteopathi]], [[kiropraktiki]], [[therapi ya kimwili|fiziotherapi]] na [[therapi ya pumzi|therapi ya pumzi]] washawishi, wasio na ushahidi wa kudhibitisha matumizi kwa kutibu pumu.<ref name=hondras>{{cite journal |author=Hondras MA, Linde K, Jones AP |title=Manual therapy for asthma |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=2 |pages=CD001002 |year=2005|pmid=15846609 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001002.pub2 |editor1-last=Hondras|editor1-first=Maria A}}</ref> [[Mbinu ya Butyko ya kupumua]] ya kudhibiti upitishaji wa hewa nyingi inaweza kusababisha upungufu wa matumizi ya dawa hata hivyo haina athari yoyote kwa pafu.<ref name=BGMA08/> Hivyo kamati ya wastadi ilihisi kuwa ushahidi haukutosha kudhibitisha matumizi yake.<ref name="NHLBI07p240">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=240}}</ref> == Prognosisi== [[File:Asthma world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|alt=Ramani ya ulimwengu Ulaya ukiwa umepakwa rangi ya manjano, sehemu nyingi za Amerika ukiwa na rangi ya chungwa na Kusini mwa Afrika ukiwa na rangi nyekundu nzito|[[Ulemavu-uliobadilisha miaka ya maisha]] kwa pumu kwa watu 100,000&nbsp;mwaka wa 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html|title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2009 |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=Nov. 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111101009/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html%7Carchivedate%3D 11 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<100}} {{legend|#fff200|100–150}} {{legend|#ffdc00|150–200}} {{legend|#ffc600|200–250}} {{legend|#ffb000|250–300}} {{legend|#ff9a00|300–350}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|350–400}} {{legend|#ff6e00|400–450}} {{legend|#ff5800|450–500}} {{legend|#ff4200|500–550}} {{legend|#ff2c00|550–600}} {{legend|#cb0000|>600}} {{Multicol-end}} ]] Prognosi ya pumu ni nzuri, hasa kwa watoto walio na ugonjwa usio mkali.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Allan B. |editor1-last=Wolfson |editor2-first=Ann|editor2-last=Harwood-Nuss |title=Harwood-Nuss' Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=Idb0Z658lFQC&pg=PT465 |date=September 2009|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-8943-1 |pages=432–|first1=Michelle J. |last1=Sergel |first2=Rita K. |last2=Cydulka |chapter=Ch. 75: Asthma|edition=5th}}</ref> Vifo vimepungua katika miongo michache iliyopita kwa sababu ya utambuzi na uboreshaji wa utunzaji.<ref name=NHLBI07p1>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=1}}</ref> Ulimwenguni umesababisha [[ulemavu]] wa watu milioni 19.4&nbsp; kufikia mwaka wa 2004 (milioni 16&nbsp;wakiwa katika hali ya chini na ya kawaida katika nchi zinazoendelea).<ref>{{cite book|last=Organization|first=World Health|title=The global burden of disease : 2004 update.|url=https://archive.org/details/globalburdenofdi0000unse_i1e5|year=2008|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-92-4-156371-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/globalburdenofdi0000unse_i1e5/page/35 35]|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Kwa pumu uliotambuliwa wakati wa utotoni, [[nusu]] ya hali hizi hazitafanyiwa utambuzi baada ya mwongo mmoja.<ref name=El2010/> Upitishaji wa hewa hutengenezwa upya, lakini haijulikani ikiwa italeta faida au madhara.<ref name=Maddox>{{cite journal |author=Maddox L, Schwartz DA |title=The pathophysiology of asthma |journal=Annu. Rev. Med. |volume=53|pages=477–98 |year=2002 |pmid=11818486 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.103921}}</ref> Matibabu ya mapema kwa kutumia kotikosteroidi inaonekana kuzuia au kusaidia kupunguza matumizi kwa pafu.<ref name=beckett>{{cite journal |author=Beckett PA, Howarth PH|title=Pharmacotherapy and airway remodelling in asthma? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_thorax_2003-02_58_2/page/163|journal=Thorax |volume=58|issue=2 |pages=163–74 |year=2003 |pmid=12554904| doi = 10.1136/thorax.58.2.163|pmc=1746582}}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[Image:Prevalence of Clinical Asthma world map - GINA2004.svg|thumb|left|alt=Ramani ya dunia ikiwa na Ulaya, Marekani Kaskazini, Australia na sehemu nyingi za Marekani Kusini yakichorwa nyekundu, sehemu nyingi za Asia yakiwa manjano, na sehemu nyingi za Afrika yakiwa kijivu|Viwango vya pumu katika nchi tofauti ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2004. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#e0e0e0|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<1%}} {{legend|#fff200|1-2%}} {{legend|#ffdc00|2-3%}} {{legend|#ffc600|3-4%}} {{legend|#ffb000|4-5%}} {{legend|#ff9a00|5-6%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|6-7%}} {{legend|#ff6e00|7-8%}} {{legend|#ff5800|8-10%}} {{legend|#ff4200|10-12.5%}} {{legend|#ff2c00|12.5–15%}} {{legend|#cb0000|>15%}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Kufikia mwaka wa 2011, watu milioni 235–300 ulimwenguni walikuwa wameathiriwa na ugonjwa huu,<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite web|title=World Health Organization Fact Sheet Fact sheet No 307: Asthma|year=2011|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|accessdate=Jan 17th,2013|archivedate=2011-06-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629035454/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/}}</ref><ref name=GINA_2011_page3/> na karibu watu 250,000 hufa kila mwaka.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Viwango vyao hutofautiana kati ya nchi zilizo na maambukizi kati ya asilimia 1 hadi 18.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Zinapatikana sana katika [[katika nchi zilizoendelea|zilizoendelea]] kuliko [[nchi zinazokuwa]].<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Kuna viwango vya chini barani Asia, Ulaya Mashariki na Afrika.<ref name=M38/> Katika nchi zilizoendelea ni kawaida kwa wale walio na shida ya kifedha unapolinganisha na nchi zinazokuwa inapatikana sana kwa walio na fedha.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Sababu ya tofauti hizi haijulikani.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Nchi zilizo na pato la chini wanajumulisha asilimia 80 ya vifo.<ref>{{cite web|author=World Health Organization|authorlink=World Health Organization|title=WHO: Asthma|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|accessdate=2007-12-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215181927/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|archivedate=2007-12-15|deadurl=no}}</ref> Ilhali ugonjwa huu unapatikana kwa [[wavulana]] mara mbili zaidi ya [[wasichana]],<ref name=GINA2011p2/> ukali wa ugonjwa hutokea kwa viwango sawa.<ref name=Bush2009>{{cite journal|author=Bush A, Menzies-Gow A|title=Phenotypic differences between pediatric and adult asthma |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=6|issue=8 |pages=712–9 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=20008882|doi=10.1513/pats.200906-046DP }}</ref> Katika utofautishaji, wanawake wana viwango vikubwa vya pumu kuliko wanaume<ref name=GINA2011p2/> na hupatikana sana kwa wachanga kuliko wakubwa.<ref name=M38/> Viwango vya ugonjwa huu ulimwenguni viliongezeka kwa kasi kati ya [[miaka ya 1960]] na [[2008]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grant EN, Wagner R, Weiss KB |title=Observations on emerging patterns of asthma in our society |journal=[[J Allergy Clin Immunol]] |year=1999 |month=August|volume=104 |pages=S1–S9 |pmid=10452783 |doi=10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70268-X |issue=2 Pt 2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Anandan C, Nurmatov U, van Schayck OC, Sheikh A|title=Is the prevalence of asthma declining? Systematic review of epidemiological studies|journal=Allergy |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=152–67 |year=2010 |month=February|pmid=19912154 |doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02244.x }}</ref> ikipitishwa kama shida kubwa katika [[afya ya umma]] kwanzia miaka ya 1970.<ref name=M38>{{cite book|first=John F. Murray|title=Murray and Nadel's textbook of respiratory medicine.|url=https://archive.org/details/murraynadelstext0002unse|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=1-4160-4710-7|pages=Chapter 38|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Viwango vya ugonjwa havijabadilika tangu katikati ya miaka ya 1990 kukiwa na ongezeko katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bousquet|first=J|coauthors=Bousquet, PJ; Godard, P; Daures, JP|title=The public health implications of asthma.|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2005 Jul|volume=83|issue=7|pages=548–54|pmid=16175830}}</ref> Pumu huathiri takriban asilimia 7 ya watu nchini Marekani<ref name=Fanta2009/> na asilimia 5 nchini Uingereza.<ref name=Anderson2007>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=HR | coauthors=Gupta R, Strachan DP, Limb ES | title=50 years of asthma: UK trends from 1955 to 2004 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_thorax_2007-01_62_1/page/85 |journal=Thorax | volume=62 | issue=1 | pages=85–90 |month=January |year=2007 |pmid=17189533 | doi=10.1136/thx.2006.066407 | pmc=2111282 }}</ref> Kanada, Australia and Nyuzelandi vina viwango vya kati ya asilimia 14-15.<ref>{{cite book|last=Masoli|first=Matthew|title=Global Burden of Asthma|year=2004|page=9|url=http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf|access-date=2014-01-09|archive-date=2013-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502065938/http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502065938/http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf}}</ref> == Historia== Pumu uligunduliwa kitambo nchini [[Misri]] na ulitibiwa kwa kunywa [[ubani]] mchanganyiko unaoitwa [[kyphi]].<ref name="Manniche1999">{{cite book | author = Manniche L |title = Sacred luxuries: fragrance, aromatherapy, and cosmetics in ancient Egypt | pages =[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZCgVdm7UKhIC&pg=PA49 49] | year = 1999 | publisher =[[Cornell University Press]] | isbn=978-0-8014-3720-5 }}</ref> Ulitajwa rasmi kama tatizo la upumuaji na [[Hippocrates]] mwaka [[450 KK]] hivi, kutoka kwa neno la [[Kigriki]] kumaanisha "kuhema" ikiunda asili ya neno la kisasa.<ref name=M38/> Mnamo [[200 KK]] uliaminika kuhusiana kidogo na [[hisia]].<ref name=Andrew2010/> Mwaka wa [[1873]], mmoja kati ya [[karatasi]] za kwanza za dawa za kisasa kuhusu taarifa zilijaribu kuelezea ugonjwa wa [[pathofisiolojia]] ilhali nyingine mwaka wa [[1872]] ilihitimisha kuwa ugonjwa huu unaweza kutibiwa kwa kupanguza kifua na [[A.B.C. Liniment|chloroform liniment]].<ref name="pmid20747287">{{cite journal | author = Thorowgood JC | title = On bronchial asthma| journal =[[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 2 | issue = 673 | pages = 600 | year = 1873 | month = November | pmid = 20747287| pmc = 2294647 |doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.673.600}}</ref><ref name="pmid20746575">{{cite journal | author = Gaskoin G | title = On the treatment of asthma | journal = [[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 587 |pages = 339 | year = 1872 |month = March | pmid = 20746575 | pmc = 2297349 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.587.339 }}</ref> [[Dawa ya kutibu|Matibabu ya afya]] mwaka wa 1880, ilijumuisha matumizi ya [[Kudungiwa sindano ya vena |sindano ya vena]] inayoitwa [[pilocarpin]].<ref name="pmid20749537">{{cite journal | author = Berkart JB | title = The treatment of asthma| journal = [[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1016 | pages = 917–8 | year = 1880 | month = June| pmid = 20749537 | pmc = 2240555 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.1016.917}}<br/>{{cite journal | author = Berkart JB | title = The treatment of asthma | journal =[[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1017 | pages = 960–2 | year = 1880 |month = June | pmid = 20749546 | pmc = 2240530 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.1017.960 }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 1886, F.H. Bosworth alieleza uhusiano kati ya pumu na [[mafua ya mzio]].<ref name="pmid21407325">{{cite journal | author = Bosworth FH| title = Hay fever, asthma, and allied affections | journal = Transactions of the Annual Meeting of the American Climatological Association | volume = 2 | pages = 151–70 | year = 1886 | pmid = 21407325 |pmc = 2526599}}</ref> [[epinefrini]] ulirejelewa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1905 katika matibabu ya pumu.<ref name="pmid18733372">{{cite journal |author = Doig RL | title = Epinephrin; especially in asthma | journal = California State Journal of Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–5 | year = 1905 | month = February | pmid = 18733372 | pmc = 1650334}}</ref> Kotikosteroidi za kunywa zilianza kutumiwa miaka ya 1950 ilhali kotikosteroidi za kuvuta na beta agonist za kuchagua zilianza kutumika miaka ya 1960.<ref>{{cite journal|last=von Mutius|first=E|coauthors=Drazen, JM|title=A patient with asthma seeks medical advice in 1828, 1928, and 2012.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2012-03-01_366_9/page/827|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=2012 Mar 1|volume=366|issue=9|pages=827–34|pmid=22375974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Crompton G |title=A brief history of inhaled asthma therapy over the last fifty years |journal=Primary care respiratory journal : journal of the General Practice Airways Group|date=2006 Dec|volume=15|issue=6|pages=326–31|pmid=17092772}}</ref> Kati ya [[miaka ya 1930]]–[[Miaka ya 1950|1950]], ugonjwa huu ulijulikana kama "takatifu saba" [[maradhi ya saikosomatiki]]. Kisababishi chake kilichukuliwa kama [[saikolojia]], na matibabu kuangaliwa kwa uchunguzi nafsia na matibabu mengine ya [[kuzungumza]].<ref name="pmid16185365"/> Walivyofafanua wachanganuzi ukoromaji wa pumu jinsi [[mtoto]] alivyolilia [[mama]] yake, walibaini kuwa matibabu ya masumbuko ni muhimu kwa walio na pumu.<ref name="pmid16185365">{{cite journal |author=Opolski M, Wilson I |title=Asthma and depression: a pragmatic review of the literature and recommendations for future research |journal=Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health |volume=1 |page=18 |year=2005|month=September |pmid=16185365 |pmc=1253523 |doi=10.1186/1745-0179-1-18 }}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Refbegin}} *{{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Respiratory_Disorders/Asthma/}} *{{cite web |author=National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf | title=Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma | format=PDF | work=[[National Heart Lung and Blood Institute]] | year=2007 |ref={{harvid|NHLBI Guideline|2007}}}} *{{cite web| url=http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf| format=PDF| title=British Guideline on the Management of Asthma| work=[[British Thoracic Society]]| year=2008 - revised 2012| ref={{harvid|British Guideline|2009}}| accessdate=2014-01-09| archivedate=2008-08-19| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203455/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf |format=PDF |title=Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention |publisher=Global Initiative for Asthma |year=2011 |ref={{harvid|GINA|2011}} |accessdate=2014-01-09 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120205023/http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf |archivedate=2012-11-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120205023/http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf }} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Mapafu]] is76kyiffgr5cj3fnbi398oxcdhxswr 0 70554 1564501 1520069 2026-06-02T17:35:17Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox symptom | Name = Maumivu ya kiuno | Image = Lumbar region in human skeleton.svg | Caption = Maumivu ya kiuno ni tatizo la kawaida na lenye gharama. [[Mchoro]] unaonyesha eneo la [[kiuno]] katika [[kiunzi cha mifupa]] cha binadamu. | DiseasesDB = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|M|54|5|m|50}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|724.2}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 007422 | MedlinePlus_mult = {{MedlinePlus2|007425}} | eMedicineSubj = pmr | eMedicineTopic = 73 | MeshID = D017116 }} '''Maumivu ya kiuno''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: '''lumbago''') ni hali inayotokea mara nyingi na inayohusu [[misuli]] na [[mifupa]] ya upande wa chini wa [[mgongo]]. Hali hii huathiri takriban 40[[%]] ya [[watu]] kwa wakati fulani [[maisha|maishani]] mwao.<!--ref name=hoy_2012/--> [[Maumivu]] ya [[kiuno]] yanaweza kuainishwa kwa [[urefu]] kama [[maumivu]] makali ya ghafla (yanayodumu kwa kipindi cha chini ya [[wiki]] 6), maumivu sugu ya [[wastani]] (wiki 6 hadi 12), au maumivu sugu (zaidi ya wiki 12).<!--ref name=koes_2010/--> Hali hii pia inaweza kuainishwa kulingana na visababishi kama inasababishwa na [[jeraha]] au sivyo au [[maumivu hame]].<!--ref name=manusov_2012_diag/--> Katika visa vingi vya maumivu ya kiuno, kisababishi kikuu maalumu hakitambuliwi wala kukisiwa, kwa kuwa maumivu huaminika kutokana na jeraha kama vile [[mkazo wa misuli]] au [[mkazo wa viunga]].<!--ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=NIH_2013/--> Ikiwa maumivu hayaponi baada ya kutibiwa kwa njia isiyohusisha [[upasuaji]] au ikiwa maumivu yataandamana na "tahadhari" kama vile kupungua [[uzito]] bila sababu, [[homa]], au matatizo makuu ya kihisia au mwendo, uchunguzi zaidi unaweza kuhitajika kubaini kisababishi kikuu.<!--ref name=manusov_2012_diag/--> Mara nyingi, [[vifaa]] vya [[utambuzi]] kama vile [[tomografia]] iliyohasibiwa kwa [[eksirei]] havihitajiki<!--ref name=AHRQ_2013/--> navyo huandamana na hatari zake. <!--ref name=chou_2009_imaging/-->Licha ya athari hizi, matumizi ya [[pichatiba]] kuchunguza maumivu ya kiuno yameongezeka.<!--ref name=deyo_2009/--> Baadhi ya maumivu ya kiuno husababishwa na kuharibika kwa [[diski]] za baina ya [[pingili]] za [[uti wa mgongo]], na [[uchunguzi wa kunyoosha mguu]] ni muhimu katika kubaini visa hivyo.<!--ref name=manusov_2012_diag/--> Katika watu wenye maumivu sugu, mfumo wa mwili unaochakata maumivu unaweza kutofanya [[kazi]] vyema, hivyo kusababisha maumivu makali ukijaribu kujibiza shughuli zisizo na hatari kubwa.<!--ref name=salzberg_2012/--> [[Matibabu]] ya maumivu ya ghafla ya kiuno kwa kawaida huwa haihusishi upasuaji, kama vile [[dawa za kutuliza maumivu|vituliza maumivu]] na kuendeleza kazi za kawaida jinsi mtu anavyoweza licha ya maumivu.<!--ref name=menezes_2012/--> Matibabu hupendekezwa kwa kipindi ambapo yanamsaidia [[mtu]], huku [[dawa]] aina ya [[acetaminophen]] (inayojulikana pia kama [[paracetamol]]) ni ya kwanza kupendekezwa.<!--ref name=miller_2012/--> [[Dalili]] za maumivu ya kiuno hufifia baada ya wiki chache, huku 40 - 90% ya watu wakipata nafuu kabisa baada ya wiki sita.<!--ref name=menezes_2012/--> Kuna njia nyingi mbadala katika watu wasiopata nafuu baada ya matibabu ya kawaida. [[Opioidi]] zinaweza kusaidia ikiwa vituliza maumivu vya kawaida havitafaulu, ingawa kwa jumla hazipendekezwi kwa sababu zina madhara, hasa [[uraibu]].<!--ref name=miller_2012/--> Upasuaji unaweza kuwafaidisha watu wenye matatizo ya maumivu sugu na [[ulemavu]] unaohusiana na diski.<!--ref name=manusov_2012_surg/-->Upasuaji pia unaweza kuwafaidisha watu wenye [[stenosisi ya uti wa mgongo]].<!--ref name=chou_2009_surgery/--> Hakuna manufaa bayana ya upasuaji yaliyopatikana kwa visa vingine vya maumivu ya kiuno yasiyo na kisababishi cha moja kwa moja.<!--ref name=manusov_2012_surg/--> Isitoshe, kuna matibabu ya [[dawa mbadala]], ambayo ni pamoja na [[mbinu ya Alexander]] na [[mitishamba]], lakini hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kupendekeza matibabu hayo kikamilifu.<!--ref name=marlowe_2012/--> Ushahidi wa utunzaji wa [[tibamwili]]<!--ref name=walker_2011/--> na [[kunyooshaji uti wa mgongo]] umekumbwa na utata.<!--ref name=dagenais_2010/><ref name=rubinstein_2011/><ref name=rubinstein_2012/><ref name=marlowe_2012/--> Maumivu ya kiuno mara nyingi huathiri [[hisia]], tatizo linaloweza kuimarishwa kupitia [[ushauri]] wa [[saikolojia|kisaikolojia]]<!--ref name=henschke_2010/--> na/au [[dawa za kushusha utendakazi]].<!--ref name=miller_2012/--> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Ishara na dalili== Katika dalili za kawaida za maumivu ya kiuno, maumivu huanza baada ya mwendo wa kunyanyua vitu, kujipinda au kuinama. Dalili za hali hii zinaweza kuanza baada ya mwendo wowote au mtu anapoamka [[asubuhi]] inayofuata.<!--<ref name=casazza_2012/> --> Maelezo ya dalili hizi yanaweza kuwa maumivu katika sehemu fulani au maumivu yanayosambaa. Maumivu yanaweza kutokuwa makali kufuatia shughuli, kama vile kuinua miguu, au hali nyingine kama kuketi au kusimama.<!--<ref name=casazza_2012/> --> Maumivu yanayosambaa chini ya miguu (yanayojulikana kama [[maumivu ya nyonga]]) yanaweza kuwepo.<!--<ref name=casazza_2012/> --> Visa vya kwanza vya maumivu makali ya ghafla ya mgongo huanza katika [[umri]] wa miaka 20-40.<!--<ref name=casazza_2012/> --> Mara nyingi kisa hicho huwa ni sababu ya kwanza katika watu wazima kumwona [[daktari]].<ref name=casazza_2012/> Kisa hicho hurejea katika zaidi ya nusu ya waathiriwa<ref name=Stanton2010/> huku kisa cha kurejea kikiandamana na maumivu makubwa kuliko kisa cha kwanza.<ref name=casazza_2012>{{cite journal |last=Casazza |first=BA |title=Diagnosis and treatment of acute low back pain |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2012-02-15_85_4/page/343 |journal=American family physician |date=15 February 2012 |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=343–50 |pmid=22335313}}</ref> Matatizo mengine yanaweza kuandamana na maumivu ya kiuno. Maumivu sugu ya kiuno huhusishwa na matatizo ya [[usingizi]], ikiwa ni pamoja na wakati mwingi unaohitajika kulala, kusumbuka wakati wa kulala, kulala kwa kipindi kifupi, na kutotosheka na usingizi.<ref name=kelly_2011>{{cite journal |author=Kelly GA, Blake C, Power CK, O'keeffe D, Fullen BM |title=The association between chronic low back pain and sleep: a systematic review |journal=Clin J Pain |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=169–81 |year=2011 |month=February |pmid=20842008 |doi=10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181f3bdd5 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-journal-of-pain_2011-02_27_2/page/169}}</ref> Isitoshe, idadi kubwa ya watu wenye maumivu sugu ya kiuno huonyesha dalili za [[mfadhaiko]]<ref name=miller_2012>{{cite journal |author=Miller SM |title=Low back pain: pharmacologic management |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=499–510 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958559 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.005 |url=}}</ref> au [[wasiwasi]].<ref name=marlowe_2012/> ==Kisababishi== [[File:Lagehernia.png|thumb|]] Maumivu ya kiuno si [[ugonjwa]], bali ni hali inayoweza kusababishwa na matatizo mengi yanayotofautiana kwa kiwango na hatari.<ref name=borczuk_2013>{{cite journal|last=Borczuk|first=Pierre|title=An Evidence-Based Approach to the Evaluation and Treatment of Low Back Pin in the Emergency Department|journal=Emergency Medicine Practice|year=2013|month=July|volume=15|issue=7|url=http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=371}}</ref> Visa vingi vya maumivu ya mgongo havina kisababishi maalum<ref name=casazza_2012/> ingawa vinaaminika kutokana na masuala ya misuli au mifupa kama vile [[kuteguka]] au [[mkazo wa misuli]].<ref name=NIH_2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/backpain/detail_backpain.htm |title=Low Back Pain Fact Sheet |work=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke |publisher=National Institute of Health |accessdate=12 July 2013 |archivedate=2013-07-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719200618/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/backpain/detail_backpain.htm }}</ref> [[Unene wa kupindukia]], kuvuta [[sigara]], kunenepa wakati wa [[ujauzito]], mfadhaiko, matatizo ya mwili, mkao mbaya na kulala vibaya pia huchangia maumivu ya kiuno. <!-- This sentence is copied verbatim from the NIH website, which is public domain --><ref name=NIH_2013/> Orodha ya visababishi vyenye uwezekano wa kusababisha maumivu ya kiuno ni pamoja na hali zisizotokea mara nyingi.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag>{{cite journal |author=Manusov EG |title=Evaluation and diagnosis of low back pain |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=471–9 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958556 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.003 |url=}}</ref> Matatizo ya kimwili yanaweza kuwa [[osteoathritisi]], [[athritisi ya rumatoidi]], [[kuharibika kwa diski]] zilizo katikati mwa pingili za uti wa mgongo au [[henia ya diski ya uti wa mgongo]], [[kuvunjika kwa pingili za uti wa mgongo]] (kama vile kufuatia [[osteoporosisi]]) au, kwa nadra, maambukizi au tyuma ya uti wa mgongo.<ref name=NIH_2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Back_Pain/back_pain_ff.asp#b |title=Fast Facts About Back Pain|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=September 2009 |website=National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases |publisher=National Institute of Health |accessdate=10 June 2013}}</ref> [[Wanawake]] wanaweza kuwa na maumivu ya kiuno kutokana na hali zinazoathiri [[mfumo wa uzazi]], ikijumuisha [[endometriosisi]], [[sisti ya ovari]], [[saratani ya ovari]] au [[fibroidi ya uterasi]].<ref name=medline_lbp_acute_2012>{{cite web |title=Low back pain – acute |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007425.htm |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services – National Institutes of Health |accessdate=1 April 2013}}</ref> Karibu nusu ya wanawake wajawazito hulalamikia maumivu ya kiuno au ya sehemu ya [[sakramu]] wakati wa ujauzito, kufuatia mabadiliko ya hali ya kukaa na kiuo cha mvuto hivyo kusababisha mkazo wa misuli na kano.<ref name=majchrzycki_2010>{{cite journal |author=Majchrzycki M, Mrozikiewicz PM, Kocur P, ''et al.'' |title=[Low back pain in pregnant women] |language=Polish |journal=Ginekol. Pol. |volume=81 |issue=11 |pages=851–5 |year=2010 |month=November |pmid=21365902 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ==Pathofiziolojia== ===Miundo ya mgongo=== {{double image|right|Illu vertebral column.svg|200|ACDF oblique annotated english.svg|200|The five lumbar vertebrae define the lower back region|The structures surrounding and supporting the vertebrae can be sources of low back pain|The lumbar region in regards to the rest of the spine |The nerve and bone components of the vertebrae}} Sehemu ya kiuno ina [[pingili]] tano (L1-L5). Baina ya pingili za uti wa mgongo kuna [[diski]] zenye [[gegedu]] na [[nyuzi]], ambazo huzuia pingili zisikwaruzane, na pia kuukinga [[uti wa ubongo]]. [[Neva]] hutoka na kuingia katika [[uti wa ubongo]] kupitia [[foramina|vitundu maalum]] baina ya pingili, zikituma hisia na arifa kwenye [[ngozi]] na misuli. Uthabiti wa uti wa mgongo huchangiwa na kano na misuli ya mgongo na ya [[fumbatio]]. Viunga vidogo vinavyoitwa [[viunga vya zigapofizi]] huthibiti na kuelekeza mwendo wa uti wa mgongo.<ref name=floyd_2008>Floyd, R., & Thompson, Clem. (2008). Manual of structural kinesiology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.</ref> [[Misuli ya nyuzi nyingi]] hupanda na kushuka katika sehemu ya nyuma ya uti wa mgongo, na ni muhimu kwa kuwa hunyoosha uti wa mgongo na kuuimarisha wakati wa miendo kama vile kuketi, kutembea na kunyanyua vitu.<ref name=salzberg_2012/>. Mara nyingi tatizo la misuli hii hupatikana katika watu wenye maumivu sugu ya kiuno, kwa sababu maumivu haya husababisha mtu kutumia misuli ya mgongo vibaya katika harakati ya kuepuka maumivu.<ref name=freedman_2010>{{cite journal |author=Freedman MD, Woodham MA, Woodham AW |title=The role of the lumbar multifidus in chronic low back pain: a review. |journal=PM & R: the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=142-6 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=20193941 |doi=10.1016/j.pmrj.2009.11.006 |url=}}</ref> Tatizo la hali ya misuli yenye nyuzi nyingi huendelea hata baada ya maumivu kutulia, hivyo huenda ni kisababishi kikuu cha kurejea kwa maumivu.<ref name=freedman_2010/> Inapendekezwa kuwafunza watu wenye maumivu sugu ya kiuno jinsi ya kutumia misuli hii kama njia ya matibabu.<ref name=freedman_2010/> Diski ya baina ya pingili za uti wa mgongo ina [[Kiiniseli chororo|kitovu cha jelatini]] kilichozingirwa na [[kizingo cha nyuzi]].<ref name=hughes_2012>{{cite journal |author=Hughes SP, Freemont AJ, Hukins DW, McGregor AH, Roberts S |title=The pathogenesis of degeneration of the intervertebral disc and emerging therapies in the management of back pain |journal=J Bone Joint Surg Br |volume=94 |issue=10 |pages=1298–304 |year=2012 |month=October |pmid=23015552 |doi=10.1302/0301-620X.94B10.28986 |url=http://www.boneandjoint.org.uk/highwire/filestream/61400/field_highwire_article_pdf/0/1298.full-text.pdf}}</ref> Katika hali ya kawaida, bila jeraha, sehemu kubwa ya diski hii haihuishwi na [[mfumo wa usafirishaji]] wala [[mfumo wa neva]] – [[damu]] na neva hupitia nje ya diski tu.<ref name=hughes_2012/> [[Seli]] maalum zinazoweza kuishi bila kupata damu ya moja kwa moja huwa ndani ya diski.<ref name=hughes_2012/> Wakati unapopita, diski huwa ngumu na kukosa uwezo wa kuhimili shinikizo.<ref name=borczuk_2013/> Hali hii ya diski kukosa kuhimili shinnikizo huongeza shinikizo kwenye sehemu zingine za uti wa mgongo, hivyo kusababisha kano ya uti wa mgongo kuwa nene na pia vifundo vya mfupa kukua kwenye pingili.<ref name=borczuk_2013/> Kufuatia hali hii, kutakuwepo na nafasi ndogo ambapo uti wa ubongo na mizizi ya neva itaweza kupitia.<ref name=borczuk_2013/> Diski inapoharibika kufuatia jeraha au ugonjwa; muundo wake hubadilika: mishipa ya damu na neva zinaweza kuingia ndani ya diski na/au hania ya diski zinaweza kuifinya mizizi ya neva.<ref name=hughes_2012/> Mabadiliko yoyote haya yanaweza kusababisha maumivu ya mgongo.<ref name=hughes_2012/> ===Hisia za maumivu=== Kwa jumla, maumivu ni hisia isiyopendeza inayokujibiza [[Kichangamsho (fiziolojia)|tukio]] linaloharibu au linaloweza kuharibu [[tishu]] za mwili. Kuna hatua tatu kuu katika utaratibu wa kuhisi maumivu: [[Uhamishaji (fiziolojia)|uhamishaji]], usambazaji,[[hisia]], na ubadilishaji kwa kutumia neva.<ref name=salzberg_2012>{{cite journal |author=Salzberg L |title=The physiology of low back pain |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3|pages=487–98 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958558 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.014 |url=}}</ref> Seli za neva zinazotambua maumivu zina miili kwenye [[kikundi cha seli za shina la uti wa mgongo]] na nyuzi zinazosambaza arifa za neva hadi kwenye uti wa ubongo.<ref name=patel_2010>{{cite book |title=Guide to Pain Management in Low-Resource Settings |chapter=Chapter 3: Physiology of Pain |author=Patel, NB |editors=Kopf A, Patel NB |year=2010 |url=http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low_Resource_Settings&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=12162 |accessdate=2021-01-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005010917/http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low_Resource_Settings&Template=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=12162 |archivedate=2013-10-05 }} {{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low_Resource_Settings&Template=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=12162 |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2021-01-17 |archive-date=2013-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005010917/http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Guide_to_Pain_Management_in_Low_Resource_Settings&Template=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=12162 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Utaratibu wa kuhisi maumivu huanza tukio lililosababisha maumivu linapochochea ncha za [[kipokezi|seli za neva za hisia]]. Seli hii hubadilisha tukio la maumivu kuwa vimuli vya umeme kwa njia ya uhamishaji. Aina mbalimbali za nyuzi za neva husambaza arifa za umeme kutoka kwenye seli zinazotekeleza uhamishaji hadi [[pembe ya nyuma ya uti wa mgongo]]. Kutoka hapa, arifa huelekezwa kwenye [[shina la ubongo|shina la ubongo]], kisha kutoka kwenye shina la ubongo hadi sehemu mbalimbali za ubongo kama vile [[thalamasi]] na [[mfumo wa viungo]]. Katika ubongo, arifa za maumivu huchakatwa na kuainishwa katika utaratibu wa [[hisia]] ya maumivu. Kupitia njia ya uhamishaji, ubongo unaweza kubadilisha jinsi ya kusambaza arifa za neva kwa kupunguza au kuongeza utoaji wa [[nyurotransmita]].<ref name=salzberg_2012/> Sehemu za mfumo wa hisia na utaratibu wa maumivu zinaweza kukosa kufanya kazi kama kawaida; hivyo kusababisha hisia ya maumivu, hata kukiwa hakuna kisababishi chochote nje ya mwili, na kuashiria maumivu makali kutoka kisababishi maalum, au kuashiria maumivu kutoka tukio ambalo kwa kawaida halisababishi maumivu. Isitoshe, utaratibu wa ubadilishaji wa maumivu unaweza kukosa kufanya kazi kama kawaida. Matukio haya huhusika na maumivu sugu.<ref name=salzberg_2012/> ==Utambuzi== ===Uainishaji=== Kuna njia mbalimbali za kuainisha maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Kwa kijumla, kuna aina tatu za maumivu ya mgongo, zikiainishwa kulingana na visababishi: Maumivu ya mgongo kufuatia jeraha (hii ni pamoja na mikazo ya misuli na mifupa isiyo na kisababishi bayana, [[hania ya diski]], kufinywa kwa [[mizizi ya neva]], [[magonjwa yanayoharibu diski|diski zilizoharibika]] au [[magonjwa yanayoharibu viunga|ugonjwa wa viunga]], na kuvunjika kwa pingili za uti wa mgongo), maumivu ya mgongo yasiyohusiana na jeraha ([[saratani]], hali za inflamesheni [[spondiliathritisi]], na [[maambukizi]]), na [[maumivu hame]]kutoka viungo vya ndani ([[koliki ya nyongo|magonjwa ya kibofu na nyongo]], [[jiwe la figo]], [[maambukizi ya figo]], na [[aneurisimi ya aota]], miongoni mwa matatizo mengine).<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Matatizo yanayohusiana na jeraha au misuli na mifupa huchangia visa vingi (takriban 90% au zaidi),<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/><ref name=cohen_2008>{{cite journal |author=Cohen SP, Argoff CE, Carragee EJ |title=Management of low back pain |journal=BMJ |volume=337 |issue= |pages=a2718 |year=2008 |pmid=19103627 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. Kati ya visa hivi, visa vingi (karibu 75%) havina kisababishi maalum kilichobainishwa, lakini huaminiwa kutokana na mkazo wa misuli au jeraha la kano.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/><ref name=cohen_2008/> Mara nadra, visa vya maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo hutokea kufuatia matatizo ya mifumo ya mwili na ya kisaikolojia, kama vile [[fibromialgia]] na [[tatizo la somatofomu]].<ref name=cohen_2008/>Maumivu ya kiuno yanaweza kuainishwa kulingana na ishara na dalili. Maumivu enezi yasiyobadilika kufuatia mwendo wowote wa mwili, huhisiwa tu kwenye sehemu ya chini ya mgongo bila kuenea aidi ya [[matako]], huainishwa kama ''yasiyo na kisababishi maalum'', ambayo ni aina ya maumivu yanayotokea mara nyingi.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Maumivu yanayoenea kuelekea miguuni chini ya goti huwa katika sehemu moja (katika hania ya diski), au katika sehemu zote mbili (katika stenosisi ya uti wa mgongo), na yanayobadilika kwa uchungu kufuatia miendo fulani ya mwili huainishwa kama ''enezi''. Maumivu haya huchangia 7% ya visa.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Maumivu yanayoandamana na matatizo makali kama vile jeraha, homa, historia ya saratani au ulegevu mkuu wa misuli na matatizo mengine andamizi huainishwa kama ''yanayohitaji kushugulikiwa kwa dharura''.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Dalili pia zinaweza kuainishwa kulingana na muda, kama vile maumivu makali, maumivu sugu kidogo (pia yanayojulikana kama maumivu makali kidogo), au maumivu sugu. Kipindi maalum kinachohitajika ili kutambua kila mojawapo ya aina hizi za maumivu hakijabainishwa kikamilifu, lakini kwa kijumla, maumivu yanayodumu chini ya wiki sita huainishwa kama ''maumivu makali ya ghafla''. Maumivu yanayodumu kati ya wiki sita hadi kumi na mbili ni ''maumivu sugu kidogo '', ilhali maumivu ya zaidi ya wiki kumi na mbili ni ''maumivu sugu''.<ref name=koes_2010>{{cite journal |last=Koes |first=BW |coauthors=van Tulder, M; Lin, CW; Macedo, LG; McAuley, J; Maher, C |title=An updated overview of clinical guidelines for the management of non-specific low back pain in primary care. |journal=European Spine Journal |date=December 2010 |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=2075–94 |pmid=20602122 |doi=10.1007/s00586-010-1502-y}}</ref> Udhibithi na utambuzi unaweza kubadilika kulingana na kipindi cha dalili. ===Tahadhari=== {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ Dalili hatari huashiria matatizo makali |- ! Red flag<ref name=ACR_2011>{{cite journal |author=Davis PC, Wippold II FJ, Cornelius RS, ''et al.'' |title=American College of Radiology ACR Appropriateness Criteria – Low Back Pain |date=2011 |url=http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/AppCriteria/Diagnostic/LowBackPain.pdf |journal= |access-date=2014-02-03 |archive-date=2012-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704075652/http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/AppCriteria/Diagnostic/LowBackPain.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ! Vipengele vinavyowezekana kuwa visababishi<ref name=casazza_2012/> |- | Historia ya saratani || rowspan="2"|Saratani |- | Kupoteza uzito bila sababu |- | Kupoteza uwezo wa kudhibiti kibofu au kinyweo ||rowspan="3"|[[Sindromu ya kauda ekuina|Kauda<br />ekuina<br />sindromu]] |- |Udhaifu mkuu wa misuli<br />au ukosefu wa hisia |- | Kukosa hisia kwenye <br />matako ([[anestesia ya makalio]]) |- | Jeraha kubwa ikilinganishwa na umri || rowspan="2"|Mvunjiko |- | Matumizi ya steroidi za ubongo kwa muda mrefu |- | Maumivu makali kufuatia<br />upasuaji wa kiunoni mwaka uliotangulia|| rowspan="5"|Maambukizi |- | Homa |- | Maambukizi ya mfumo wa viungo vya mkojo |- | [[Ushinikizaji wa mfumo wa kingamwili]] |- | Kutumia dawa za kudungia mishipani |} Kwa kuwa muundo wa mgongo ni tata, na njia ya kuripoti kuhusu maumivu ni [[uvumi|yenye uvumi]] na huathiriwa na vipengele vya kijamii, utambuzi wa maumivvu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo si dhahiri.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Huku idadi kubwa ya maumivu ya mgongo yakisababishwa na matatizo ya misuli na viunga, visababishi hivi vinapaswa kutofautishwa na matatizo ya kineva, tyuma za uti wa mgongo, mvunjiko katika uti wa mgongo na maambukizi, miongoni mwa matatizo mengine.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=koes_2010/> Uwepo wa dalili fulani zinazojulikana kama tahadhari, huashiria haja ya uchunguzi zaidi ili kutathmini matatizo mengine andamizi yanayoweza kuhitaji matibabu maalum au ya dharura.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Uwepo wa dalili hatari haumaamishi kuna tatizo kuu. Dalili hizi ni kidokezo tu,<ref name=henschke_2013_vertfrac>{{cite journal |author=Williams CM, Henschke N, Maher CG, ''et al.'' |title=Red flags to screen for vertebral fracture in patients presenting with low-back pain |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=1 |issue= |pages=CD008643 |year=2013 |pmid=23440831 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008643.pub2 |url=}}</ref><ref name=henschke_2013_spinmal>{{cite journal |author=Henschke N, Maher CG, Ostelo RW, de Vet HC, Macaskill P, Irwig L |title=Red flags to screen for malignancy in patients with low-back pain |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=2 |issue= |pages=CD008686 |year=2013 |pmid=23450586 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008686.pub2 |url=}}</ref> na watu wengi wenye tahadhari hizi huwa hawana tatizo lolote andamizi la kuhatarisha maisha.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=koes_2010/>Bila dalili hatari, kufanya [[uchunguzi wa pichatiba]] au uchunguzi wa maabarani katika wiki nne za kwanza baada ya dalili kutokea hakujathibitishwa kuwa na umuhimu wowote.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Baada ya sababu zingine kuondolewa, watu wenye maumivu yasiyo na kisababishi bayana hupewa matibabu ya kutuliza dalili.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=koes_2010/> Jitihada za kugundua vipengele vinavyoweza kutatiza utambuzi, kama vile mfadhaiko, matumizi mabaya ya dawa, au swala kuhusu malipo ya bima, zinaweza kuwa na manufaa<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> ===Uchunguzi=== {{double image|right|Straight-leg-test.gif|200|L4-l5-disc-herniation.png|150|The straight leg raise test can detect pain originating from a herniated disc. When warranted, imaging such as MRI can provide clear detail about disc related causes of back pain (L4–L5 disc herniation shown)}} Uchunguzi wa pichatiba hupendekezwa panapokuwa na tahadhari, mfululizo wa dalili za kineva zisizopona, au maumivu yanayoendelea au yanayozidi kuwa makali.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Hususan, kutumia uchunguzi wa pichatiba mapema(Picha wa Mwangwi wa Sumaku au CT) hupendekezwa katika visa vinavyoshukiwa kuwa saratani, maambukizi, au[[sindromu ya kauda ekuina]].<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Picha wa Mwangwi wa Sumaku ni bora kidogo kuliko Tomografia ya Kompyuta katika kutambua ugonjwa wa diski. Mbinu hizi mbili ni muhimu katika utambuzi wa stenosisi ya uti wa mgongo.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Ni vipimo vichache tu vya kimwili vinavyosaidia.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Uchunguzi wa [[kunyoosha miguu]] mara nyingi huwanufaisha watu wenye hania wa diski.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> [[Uchunguzi wa diskografi ya kiuno]] unaweza kusaidia kubainisha diski maaluum inayosababisha maumivu katika watu wenye maumivu sugu ya kiwango cha juu.<ref name=manchikanti_2009_disco>{{cite journal |author=Manchikanti L, Glaser SE, Wolfer L, Derby R, Cohen SP |title=Systematic review of lumbar discography as a diagnostic test for chronic low back pain |journal=Pain Physician |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=541–59 |year=2009 |pmid=19461822 |doi= |url=http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/linkout_vw.php?issn=1533-3159&vol=12&page=541 |access-date=2014-02-03 |archive-date=2013-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005010848/http://www.painphysicianjournal.com/linkout_vw.php?issn=1533-3159&vol=12&page=541 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Vile vile, taratibu za kimatibabu kama vile kuziba neva zinaweza kutumika ili kubaini kiini maalum cha maumivu.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Tafiti zingine hupendekeza matumizi ya[[kudunga sehemu za viunga]], kudunga epidura kwenye trasfomina na kudunga sakramu na iliamu kama njia ya kufanya utambuzi<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/> Uchunguzi mwingine wa kimwili kama vile kutathmini [[skoliosisi]], ulegevu au uelemavu wa misuli, hitilafu ya msisimko wa misuli,si muhimu sana.<ref name=manusov_2012_diag/>Maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo ni mojawapo ya sababu zinazofanya watu watafute usaidizi wa daktari.<ref name=AHRQ_2013>{{cite journal |title = Use of imaging studies for low back pain: percentage of members with a primary diagnosis of low back pain who did not have an imaging study (plain x-ray, MRI, CT scan) within 28 days of the diagnosis |url = http://www.qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov/content.aspx?id=38884 |year = 2013 |publisher = [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] |accessdate = 11 June 2013 |journal = |archive-date = 2013-10-04 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131004235722/http://www.qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov/content.aspx?id=38884 |dead-url = yes }}</ref><ref name=AAFPfive>{{Citation |author1 = American Academy of Family Physicians |author1-link = American Academy of Family Physicians |date = |title = Ten Things Physicians and Patients Should Question |publisher = [[American Academy of Family Physicians]] |work = [[Choosing Wisely]]: an initiative of the [[ABIM Foundation]] |page = |url = http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-academy-of-family-physicians/ |accessdate = September 5 2012}}</ref> Katika maumivu yaliyodumu kwa wiki chache tu, kuna uwezekano wa maumivu kutulia bila matibabu.<ref name=ACPfive>{{Citation |author1 = American College of Physicians |author1-link = American College of Physicians |date = |title = Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question |publisher = [[American College of Physicians]] |work = [[Choosing Wisely]]: an initiative of the [[ABIM Foundation]] |page = |url = http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-college-of-physicians/ |accessdate = 5 September 2013}}</ref> Hivyo, ikiwa[[historia ya kimatibabu]] na[[Uchunguzi wa mwili]] wa mtu hazitabaini ugonjwa fulani kuwa kisababishi, jamii za madaktari hazipendekezi uchunguzi kama vile [[eksirei]], [[uchunguzi wa Tomografia ya Kompyuta |uchunguzi wa Tomografia ya Kompyuta]], na [[Picha za Mwangwi za Sumaku|Picha za Mwangwi wa Sumaku]].<ref name=AAFPfive/> Mgonjwa anaweza kuagiza kufanyiwa uchunguzi huo, lakini utafanywa tu ikiwa kuna dalili hatari ,<ref name=chou_2009_imaging>{{cite journal |last=Chou |first=R |coauthors=Fu, R, Carrino, JA, Deyo, RA |title=Imaging strategies for low-back pain: systematic review and meta-analysis. |journal=Lancet |date=7 February 2009 |volume=373 |issue=9662 |pages=463–72 |pmid=19200918 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60172-0}}</ref><ref name=crownover_2013>{{cite journal |author=Crownover BK, Bepko JL |title=Appropriate and safe use of diagnostic imaging |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=87 |issue=7 |pages=494–501 |year=2013 |month=April |pmid=23547591 |doi= |url=}}</ref> uchunguzi huu ni [[huduma za afya zisizohitajika]].<ref name=AHRQ_2013/><ref name=ACPfive/> Uchunguzi wa pichatiba huongeza gharama, na huhusika kwa kiwango kikubwa na upasuaji usio na manufaa ya kijumla, <ref name=chou_2011>{{cite journal |last=Chou |first=R |coauthors=Qaseem, A, Owens, DK, Shekelle, P, Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of, Physicians |title=Diagnostic imaging for low back pain: advice for high-value health care from the American College of Physicians |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2011-02-01_154_3/page/181 |journal=Annals of internal medicine |date=1 February 2011 |volume=154 |issue=3 |pages=181–9 |pmid=21282698 |doi=10.1059/0003-4819-154-3-201102010-00008}}</ref><ref name=flynn_2011>{{cite journal |author=Flynn TW, Smith B, Chou R |title=Appropriate use of diagnostic imaging in low back pain: a reminder that unnecessary imaging may do as much harm as good |journal=J Orthop Sports Phys Ther |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=838–46 |year=2011 |month=November |pmid=21642763 |doi=10.2519/jospt.2011.3618 |url=}}</ref>na minunurisho inayotumika inaweza kudhuru afya ya mgonjwa.<ref name=chou_2011/> Chini ya 1% ya vipimo vya pichatiba chini hubaini kisababishi cha tatizo hili.<ref name=AHRQ_2013/> Kupitia uchunguzi wa picha tiba, hitilafu zingine za kimwili zisizodhuru mwili zinaweza kugunduliwa, jambo linaloweza kusababisha watu waagize uchunguzi mwengine usiohitajika au kuingiwa na wasi wasi.<ref name=AHRQ_2013/> Hata hivyo, uchunguzi wa Picha wa Mwangwi wa Sumaku kwenye kiuno uliongezeka kwa zaidi ya 300% miongoni mwa watu walionufaika na huduma ya Medicare nchini Marekani mwaka wa 1994 hadi 2006.<ref name=deyo_2009>{{cite journal |last1=Deyo |first1=RA |last2=Mirza |first2=SK |last3=Turner |first3=JA |last4=Martin |first4=BI |title=Overtreating Chronic Back Pain: Time to Back Off? |journal=Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine : JABFM |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=62–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19124635 |pmc=2729142 |doi=10.3122/jabfm.2009.01.080102}}</ref> ==Kinga== Njia bora za kuzuia maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo hazijakuzwa kikamilifu.<ref name=hoy_2012>{{cite journal |author=Hoy D, Bain C, Williams G, ''et al.'' |title=A systematic review of the global prevalence of low back pain |journal=Arthritis Rheum. |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=2028–37 |year=2012 |month=June |pmid=22231424 |doi=10.1002/art.34347 |url=}}</ref> [[Mazoezi ya mwili|Mazoezi]] ni muhimu hasa katika kuzuia kurejea kwa maumivu katika watu walioathiriwa kwa zaidi ya wiki sita.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=choi_2010>{{cite journal |author=Choi BK, Verbeek JH, Tam WW, Jiang JY |editor1-last=Choi |editor1-first=Brian KL |title=Exercises for prevention of recurrences of low-back pain |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD006555 |year=2010 |pmid=20091596 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006555.pub2 |url=}}</ref> Gondoro zenye uthabiti wastani ni bora zaidi katika watu wenye maumivu sugu kuliko gondoro ngumu.<ref name=chou_2007>{{cite journal |author=Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, ''et al.'' |title=Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=147 |issue=7 |pages=478–91 |year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17909209 |doi= 10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00006|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2007-10-02_147_7/page/n64}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo unaoonyesha kuwa [[mishipi ya mgongo]] ina manufaa mengi katika kuzuia maumivu ya mgongo kuliko kuwaelimisha watu kuhusu mbinu bora za kunyanyua vitu.<ref name=guild_2012>{{cite journal |author=Guild DG |title=Mechanical therapy for low back pain |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=511–6 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958560 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.006 |url=}}</ref> [[Soli ya ndani ya viatu]] haisaidii kuzuia maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo.<ref name=sahar_2009>{{cite journal |author=Sahar T, Cohen MJ, Uval-Ne'eman V, ''et al.'' |title=Insoles for prevention and treatment of back pain: a systematic review within the framework of the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group |journal=Spine |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=924–33 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19359999 |doi=10.1097/BRS.0b013e31819f29be |url=}}</ref> ==Udhibiti== Udhibiti wa maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo hutegemea ni kipi kati ya vipengele hivi kilichosababisha hali hii: matatizo yanayohusiana na jeraha, matatizo yasiyohusiana na jeraha, au maumivu hame.<ref name=sprouse_2012>{{cite journal |author=Sprouse R |title=Treatment: current treatment recommendations for acute and chronic undifferentiated low back pain |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=481–6 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958557 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.004 |url=}}</ref> Katika visa vya maumivu makali ya ghafla yanayosababisha matatizo hafifu hadi ya wastani, lengo la matibabu ni kurejesha utendakazi wa mwili hadi hali ya kawaida, na kupunguza maumivu. Kwa kawaida, hali hii si hatari kwa sababu husuluhika bila matibabu mengi na kupona kwake huwezeshwa na jaribio la kurejesha shughuli za kawaida haraka iwezekanavyo jinsi maumivu yanavyoruhusu.<ref name=koes_2010/> Kuwapa wagonjwa [[stadi za kujikimu]] kupitia kuwahimiza kuhusu ukweli huu ni muhimu katika kuharakisha utaratibu wa kupata nafuu.<ref name=casazza_2012/> Katika watu wenye maumivu sugu kidogo na maumivu sugu, matibabu kutoka kwa wahudumu wa taaluma mbalimbali yanaweza kuwasaidia.<ref name=momsen_2012>{{cite journal |author=Momsen AM, Rasmussen JO, Nielsen CV, Iversen MD, Lund H |title=Multidisciplinary team care in rehabilitation: an overview of reviews |journal=J Rehabil Med |volume=44 |issue=11 |pages=901–12 |year=2012 |month=November |pmid=23026978 |doi=10.2340/16501977-1040 |url=http://www.medicaljournals.se/jrm/content/?doi=10.2340/16501977-1040}}</ref> ===Udhibiti wa mwili=== Imependekezwa kuongeza mazoezi ya kijumla ya mwili, lakini hakuna uhusiano bayana uliotambulika kati ya mazoezi haya na maumivu au ulemavu yanapotumika kama matibabu ya maumivu ya ghafla.<ref name=choi_2010/><ref name=hendrick_2011>{{cite journal |author=Hendrick P, Milosavljevic S, Hale L, ''et al.'' |title=The relationship between physical activity and low back pain outcomes: a systematic review of observational studies |journal=Eur Spine J |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=464–74 |year=2011 |month=March |pmid=21053026 |pmc=3048226 |doi=10.1007/s00586-010-1616-2 |url=}}</ref> Tafiti za kiwango cha chini hadi za kiwango cha juu zimependekeza kutembea kama njia ya kutibu maumivu ya ghafla.<ref name=hendrick_2010>{{cite journal |author=Hendrick P, Te Wake AM, Tikkisetty AS, Wulff L, Yap C, Milosavljevic S |title=The effectiveness of walking as an intervention for low back pain: a systematic review |journal=Eur Spine J |volume=19 |issue=10 |pages=1613–20 |year=2010 |month=October |pmid=20414688 |pmc=2989236 |doi=10.1007/s00586-010-1412-z |url=}}</ref> Kulingana na [[Mbinu ya McKenzie]] kutibu maumivu ya mgongo ni bora kidogo katika kutibu maumivu ya ghafla ya mgongo, lakini manufaa yake ya muda mfupi hayajaonekana kufaulu kikamilifu.<ref name=casazza_2012/> Kuna ushahidi wa kutosha unaopendekeza matumizi ya [[tibajoto]] kwa maumivu ya mgongo ya ghafla na maumivu sugu kidogo<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = French | first1 = SD. | last2 = Cameron | first2 = M. | last3 = Walker | first3 = BF. | last4 = Reggars | first4 = JW. | last5 = Esterman | first5 = AJ. | title = Superficial heat or cold for low back pain. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = CD004750 | month = | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004750.pub2 | PMID = 16437495 }}</ref> lakini kuna ushahidi mdogo unaopendekeza matumizi ya tibabaridi au tibajoto kwa maumivu sugu.<ref name=middelkoop_2011>{{cite journal |author=van Middelkoop M, Rubinstein SM, Kuijpers T, Verhagen AP, Ostelo R, Koes BW, van Tulder MW |title=A systematic review on the effectiveness of physical and rehabilitation interventions for chronic non-specific low back pain |journal=Eur Spine J |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=19–39 |year=2011 |pmid=20640863 |doi=10.1007/s00586-010-1518-3 |pmc=3036018}}</ref> Ushahidi dhaifu unapendekeza kuwa mishipi ya kiunoni inaweza kuongeza idadi ya siku za kwenda kazini, ingawa hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha kuwa itasaidia kupunguza maumivu.<ref name=guild_2012/> Matibabu ya sauti kuu na wimbi la sauti hayajatambulika kufaulu, hivyo hayapendekezwi.<ref name=seco_2011>{{cite journal |author=Seco J, Kovacs FM, Urrutia G |title=The efficacy, safety, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of ultrasound and shock wave therapies for low back pain: a systematic review |journal=Spine J |volume=11 |issue=10|pages=966–77 |year=2011 |month=October |pmid=21482199 |doi=10.1016/j.spinee.2011.02.002 |url=}}</ref><!--Chronic -->[[Matibabu ya mazoezi]] ni bora katika kupunguza maumivu na kuimarisha utendakazi wa mwili katika watu wenye maumivu sugu ya mgongo<ref name=guild_2012/> Mazoezi pia yametambulika kupunguza uwezekano wa maumivu kurejea kwa kipindi cha hadi miezi sita baada ya kukamilisha tiba hii ya mazoezi<ref name=smith_2010>{{cite journal |author=Smith C, Grimmer-Somers K. |title=The treatment effect of exercise programmes for chronic low back pain |journal=J Eval Clin Pract |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=484–91 |year=2010 |pmid=20438611 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01174.x}}</ref> na pia kuimarisha utendakazi wa kudumu.<ref name=middelkoop_2011/> Hakuna uhahika kuwa aina moja ya tiba ya mazoezi ni bora kuliko nyingine.<ref name=middelkoop_2010>{{cite journal |author=van Middelkoop M, Rubinstein SM, Verhagen AP, Ostelo RW, Koes BW, van Tulder MW |title=Exercise therapy for chronic nonspecific low-back pain |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=193–204 |year=2010 |pmid=20227641 |doi=10.1016/j.berh.2010.01.002}}</ref> [[Mbinu ya Alexander]] imekisiwa kufaulu katika kutibu maumivu sugu ya mgongo,<ref name=woodman_2012>{{cite journal |last=Woodman |first=JP |coauthors=Moore, NR |title=Evidence for the effectiveness of Alexander Technique lessons in medical and health-related conditions: a systematic review. |journal=International journal of clinical practice |date=January 2012 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=98–112 |pmid=22171910 |doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2011.02817.x}}</ref> na kuna ushahidi wa kutosha unaopendekeza matumizi ya [[yoga]].<ref name=ernst_2011>{{cite journal |last=Posadzki |first=P |coauthors=Ernst, E |title=Yoga for low back pain: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. |journal=Clinical rheumatology |date=September 2011 |volume=30 |issue=9 |pages=1257–62 |pmid=21590293 |doi=10.1007/s10067-011-1764-8}}</ref> [[Kusisimua neva kupitia ngozi]] hakujatambulika kufaulu katika kutibu maumivu sugu ya mgongo.<ref name=dubinsky_2009>{{cite journal |last1=Dubinsky |first1=R. M. |last2=Miyasaki |first2=J. |title=Assessment: Efficacy of transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation in the treatment of pain in neurologic disorders (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology |journal=Neurology |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=173–6 |year=2009 |pmid=20042705 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c918fc}}</ref> Utafiti kuhusu matumizi ya soli za ndani za viatu haujatamatishwa.<ref name=sahar_2009/> [[Analjesia ya umeme#Mchangamsho wa neva za pembeni|Mchangamsho wa neva za pembeni]], utaratibu wenye viwango vya chini vya uvamizi neva, ni matibabu yanayoweza kufaulu kwa visa vya maumivu sugu yasiyotibika kwa matibabu mengine, ingawa utafiti unaopendekeza hatua hii haujakamilika, na si bora kwa maumivu yanayosambaa miguuni.<ref name=nizard_2012>{{cite journal |author=Nizard J, Raoul S, Nguyen JP, Lefaucheur JP |title=Invasive stimulation therapies for the treatment of refractory pain |journal=Discov Med |volume=14 |issue=77 |pages=237–46 |year=2012 |month=October |pmid=23114579 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ===Dawa=== Udhibiti wa maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo mara nyingi huhusisha kutumia dawa kwa kipindi ambacho zinafanikisha. Katika kutibu kisa cha kwanza cha maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo, malengo makuu ni kupata nafuu kabisa. Hata hivyo, ikiwa tatizo litakuwa sugu, lengo linaweza kubadilika kuwa kudhibiti maumivu na kurejesha utendakazi wa mwili haraka iwezekanavyo. Kwa kuwa dawa za kutuliza maumivu ni bora kwa kiasi fulani, malengo ya manufaa ya dawa hizi yanaweza kutofautiana na matokeo halisia, jambo linaloweza kupunguza utoshelezaji.<ref name=miller_2012/>Kwa kawaida, dawa inayopendekezwa mara ya kwanza ni[[acetaminophen]] au[[dawa za kuzuia inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi]] (wala si aspirini), na dawa hizi huwafaa watu wengi. Kipimo cha acetaminophen kinachokubalika huwa ni salama; ingawa kipimo cha juu kinaweza kusababisha [[Kuongezeka kwa sumu|matatizo ya ini]].<ref name=miller_2012/> Dawa za kuzuia inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi ni bora katika kutibu maumivu ya ghafla kuliko acetaminophen. Hata hivyo, kuna hatari kubwa ya kusababisha madhara, ikijumuisha: [[matatizo ya mafigo|matatizo ya mafigo]], [[vidonda vya tumbo]] na uwezekano wa [[magonjwa ya moyo na mishipa|matatizo ya moyo]]. Hivyo, dawa za kuzuia inflamesheni zisozo na steroidi ni chaguo la pili baada ya acetaminophen, inayopendekezwa tu iwapo maumivu hayakushughulikiwa mapema. Dawa za kuzuia inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi hunapatikana katika aina mbalimbali; hakuna utafiti unaopendekeza kutumia[[kizuizi cha COX-2]] kuliko aina yoyote ya dawa ya kuzuia inflamesheni kwa msingi wa manufaa yake.<ref name=miller_2012/> Kwa msingi wa usalama, dawa aina ya [[naproxen]] inaweza kuwa bora zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coxib and traditional NSAID Trialists' (CNT)|first=Collaboration|coauthors=Bhala, N; Emberson, J; Merhi, A; Abramson, S; Arber, N; Baron, JA; Bombardier, C; Cannon, C; Farkouh, ME; FitzGerald, GA; Goss, P; Halls, H; Hawk, E; Hawkey, C; Hennekens, C; Hochberg, M; Holland, LE; Kearney, PM; Laine, L; Lanas, A; Lance, P; Laupacis, A; Oates, J; Patrono, C; Schnitzer, TJ; Solomon, S; Tugwell, P; Wilson, K; Wittes, J; Baigent, C|title=Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of individual participant data from randomised trials.|journal=Lancet|date=2013 Aug 31|volume=382|issue=9894|pages=769-79|pmid=23726390|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60900-9}}</ref> [[Kilainisha misuli]] pia kinaweza kunufaisha.<ref name=miller_2012/>Ikiwa maumivu yangali hayajathibitiwa, [[oipioidi]]kama vile [[morphine]] inaweza kutumiwa. Dawa hizi zina hatari ya kusababisha uraibu, na zinaweza kukosa kuchangamana na dawa zingine. Dawa hizi pia zina hatari kubwa ya kusababisha madhara, kama vile kizunguzungu, kichefuchefu, na uyabisi wa utumbo. Opioidi zinaweza kufaa kwa udhibiti wa maumivu makali ya ghafla yanayosababisha matatizo makuu.<ref name=miller_2012/> Makundi ya wataalamu wameshauri dhidi ya matumizi ya muda mrefu ya opioidi kutibu maumivu sugu ya mgongo.<ref name=miller_2012/> Katika watu wazee wenye maumivu sugu, opioidi zinaweza kutumika katika wale wanaoathiriwa vibaya na dawa ya kuzuia inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi, kama vile watu wenye kisukari, matatizo ya tumbo au moyo. Opioidi pia zinaweza kuwa kukinufaisha kikundi fulani cha watu wenye[[maumivu ya neva]].<ref name=de_leon_2013>{{cite journal |author=de Leon-Casasola OA |title=Opioids for chronic pain: new evidence, new strategies, safe prescribing |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=126 |issue=3 Suppl 1 |pages=S3–11 |year=2013 |month=March |pmid=23414718 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.11.011 |url=}}</ref>[[Dawa ya kutuliza mfadhaiko]]inaweza kuwa bora katika kutibu maumivu sugu yenye dalili zinazohusiana na mfadhaiko, lakini ina hatari ya kusababisha madhara.<!--<ref name=miller_2012/> --> Ingawa dawa za kutuliza tukutiko, [[gabapentin]] na [[carbamazepine]], wakati mwingine hutumika kutibu maumivu sugu na zinaweza kutuliza maumivu ya nyonga, hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kupendekeza matumizi yake.<ref name=miller_2012/> [[Steroidi]] za kumeza hazijathibitishwa kufaulu kutibu maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=miller_2012/> Kudunga sehemu ya viunga na kudunga steroidi kwenye diski hakujatibithishwa kuwanufaisha watu wenye maumivu sugu na yasiyosambaa. Hata hivyo, taratibu hizi zinaweza kupendekezwa katika watu wenye maumivu ya nyonga yanayoendelea.<ref name=chou_2009_rehab>{{cite journal |author=Chou R, Loeser JD, Owens DK, Rosenquist RW, Atlas SJ, Baisden J, Carragee EJ, Grabois M, Murphy DR, Resnick DK, Stanos SP, Shaffer WO, Wall EM; American Pain Society Low Back Pain Guideline Panel |title=Interventional therapies, surgery, and interdisciplinary rehabilitation for low back pain: An evidence-based clinical practice guideline from the American Pain Society |journal=Spine |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1066–77 |year=2009 |pmid=19363457 |doi=10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181a1390d}}</ref> Kudunga steroidi za ubongo kwenye[[ Epidura]] huimarisha afya, japo kwa muda mfupi kwa njia inayotiliwa shaka katika watu wenye maumivu ya nyonga, lakini hakuna manufaa ya kudumu.<ref name=pinto_2012>{{cite journal |last=Pinto |first=RZ |coauthors=Maher, CG; Ferreira, ML; Hancock, M; Oliveira, VC; McLachlan, AJ; Koes, B; Ferreira, PH |title=Epidural corticosteroid injections in the management of sciatica: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2012-12-18_157_12/page/865 |journal=Annals of internal medicine |date=18 December 2012 |volume=157 |issue=12 |pages=865–77 |pmid=23362516}}</ref> ===Upasuaji=== Upasuaji unaweza kufaa katika watu wenye hania ya diski inayosababisha maumivu makali yanayosambaa miguuni, udhaifu mkuu wa misuli ya miguu, matatizo ya kibofu au kushindwa kuthibiti kinyesi.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg>{{cite journal |last=Manusov |first=EG |title=Surgical treatment of low back pain. |journal=Primary care |date=September 2012 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=525–31 |pmid=22958562 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.010}}</ref> Upasuaji pia unaweza kufaa katika watu wenye [[stenosisi ya uti wa mgongo]].<ref name=chou_2009_surgery/> Katika visa ambavyo maswala haya hayapo, hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuthibisha manufaa ya upasuaji.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/>[[Utolewaji wa diski]] (Kutoa sehemu ya diski inayosababisha maumivu ya mguu) unaweza kutuliza maumivu haraka kuliko matibabu yasiyohusisha upasuaji.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Utolewaji wa diski hupelekea matokeo bora ukifanywa mwaka wa kwanza, lakini si mwaka wa nne hadi kumi.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Utolewaji wa diski usioingia ndani sana [[utolewaji kadri wa diski]] haujathibitishwa kusababisha matokeo tofauti kuliko utolewaji wa kawaida wa diski.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Katika hali zingine nyingi, hakuna thibitisho la kutosha kupendekeza upasuaji.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Si bayana athari ya kudumu ulio nao upasuaji dhidi ya kuharibika kwa diski.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Upasuaji usioingia ndani ya diski sana hupona haraka, lakini utafiti kuhusu ubora wake hautoshi.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Katika watu wenye maumivu yanayohisiwa kwenye sehemu ya chini ya mgongo pekee kufuatia kuharibika kwa diski, utafiti wa kuaminika umependekeza[[uunganishaji mifupa ya uti wa mgongo]] kuwa sawa na mazoezi mazito, na bora kidogo kuliko hatua nyepesi zisizohusisha upasuaji.<ref name=chou_2009_surgery>{{cite journal |author=Chou R, Baisden J, Carragee EJ, Resnick DK, Shaffer WO, Loeser JD |title=Surgery for low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society Clinical Practice Guideline |journal=Spine |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1094–109 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19363455 |doi=10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181a105fc |url=}}</ref> Uunganishaji mifupa ya uti wa mgongo unaweza kupendekezwa katika watu wenye maumivu ya mgongo kufuatia[[spondilolisthesisi ya isthmia|hali pokezi ya kuhama kwa pingili]] kwa sababu hali hii haiimariki kwa kutumia matibabu yasiyohusisha upasuaji.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Hata hivyo, ni wachache tu katika watu waliofanyiwa upasuaji wa kuunganisha mifupa ya uti wa mgongo wanaopata matokeo bora.<ref name=chou_2009_surgery/> Kuna taratibu nyingi za upasuaji ili kuunganisha mifupa ya uti wa mgongo,ingawa hakuna utafiti wa kutosha kuthibitisha kwamba mojawapo ni bora kuliko taratibu nyingine.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lee|first=CS|coauthors=Hwang, CJ; Lee, DH; Kim, YT; Lee, HS|title=Fusion rates of instrumented lumbar spinal arthrodesis according to surgical approach: a systematic review of randomized trials.|journal=Clinics in orthopedic surgery|date=2011 Mar|volume=3|issue=1|pages=39-47|pmid=21369477|doi=10.4055/cios.2011.3.1.39}}</ref> Kuongeza kipandikizi cha uti wakati wa kuunganisha mifupa hiyo huongeza hatari lakini hakuna manufaa zaidi dhidi ya maumivu au utendakazi wa mwili.<ref name=deyo_2009/> ===Matibabu mbadala=== Si wazi ikiwa utunzaji wa[[tibamwili]] au tiba ya[[unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo]] hupelekea matokeo bora zaidi au chini ya matibabu mengine katika watu wenye maumivu ya mgongo.<ref name=walker_2011>{{cite journal |last=Walker |first=BF |coauthors=French, SD, Grant, W, Green, S |title=A Cochrane review of combined chiropractic interventions for low-back pain |journal=Spine |date=1 February 2011 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=230–42 |pmid=21248591 |doi=10.1097/BRS.0b013e318202ac73}}</ref> Baadhi ya utafiti umegundua kuwa unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo hupelekea matokeo sawia au hata bora dhidi ya maumivu na kuwezesha utendakazi, ikilinganishwa na matibabu ya kawaida yanayotumika kwa muda mfupi, muda wa kadri au wa kudumu.<ref name=dagenais_2010>{{cite journal |last1=Dagenais |first1=S |last2=Gay |first2=RE |last3=Tricco |first3=AC |last4=Freeman |first4=MD |last5=Mayer |first5=JM |title=NASS Contemporary Concepts in Spine Care: spinal manipulation therapy for acute low back pain |journal=The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=918–40 |year=2010 |pmid=20869008 |doi=10.1016/j.spinee.2010.07.389}}</ref><ref name=rubinstein_2011>{{cite journal |journal= [[Cochrane Database Syst Rev]] |year=2011 |issue=2 |pages=CD008112 |title= Spinal manipulative therapy for chronic low-back pain |author= Rubinstein SM, van Middelkoop M, Assendelft WJ, de Boer MR, van Tulder MW |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008112.pub2 |pmid=21328304 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008112.pub2/abstract |volume= |editor1-last= Rubinstein |editor1-first= Sidney M}}</ref> Watafiti wengine walitambua kuwa unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo si bora katika kupunguza maumivu kuliko matibabu mengine ya kutumia dawa, unyooshaji duni wa maungo, au matibabu mengine. Watafiti hawa walipendekeza kuwa kujumuisha mbinu ya unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo katika matibabu mengine hupelekea matokeo bora.<ref name=rubinstein_2012>{{cite journal |last=Rubinstein |first=SM |coauthors=Terwee, CB; Assendelft, WJ; de Boer, MR; van Tulder, MW |title=Spinal manipulative therapy for acute low-back pain. |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |date=12 September 2012 |volume=9 |pages=CD008880 |pmid=22972127 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008880.pub2}}</ref><ref name=marlowe_2012>{{cite journal |author=Marlowe D |title=Complementary and alternative medicine treatments for low back pain |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=533–46 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958563 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.008 |url=}}</ref> Miongozo ya kitaifa imefikia maoni mbalimbali, huku baadhi yao wakikataa kupendekeza unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo, wengine wakieleza kuwa unyooshaji hutegemea chaguo la mtu, huku wengine wakipendekeza unyooshaji kwa kipindi kifupi katika watu wasioimarishwa na matibabu mengine.<ref name=koes_2010/> [[Unyooshaji wa uti wa mgongo chini ya anestesia]], au unyooshaji kwa usaidizi wa dawa, hauna utafiti wa kutosha ili kuupendekeza kwa ujasiri.<ref name=dagenais_2008>{{cite journal |last1=Dagenais |first1=S |last2=Mayer |first2=J |last3=Wooley |first3=J |last4=Haldeman |first4=S |title=Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with medicine-assisted manipulation |journal=The Spine Journal |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=142–9 |year=2008 |pmid=18164462 |doi=10.1016/j.spinee.2007.09.010}}</ref> Tibapini ni sawa tu na kipoza ungo, utunzaji wa kawaida au [[upasuaji bandia|bandia]] unaohusu tibapini dhidi ya maumivu ya ghafla yasiyo na asili bayana au maumivu sugu kidogo.<ref name=furlan_2012/> Katika watu wenye maumivu sugu, matibabu haya hupunguza maumivu kwa kiwango kidogo kuliko pasipo na matibabu yoyote, na huwa na matokeo sawa na ya kutumia dawa, lakini hayasaidii katika ulemavu.<ref name=furlan_2012/> Manufaa ya dawa hii kwa maumivu hudhihirika baada ya matibabu tu, wala si baadaye katika ufuatilizi.<ref name=furlan_2012>{{cite journal|author=Furlan AD, Yazdi F, Tsertsvadze A, Gross A, Van Tulder M, Santaguida L, Gagnier J, Ammendolia C, Dryden T, Doucette S, Skidmore B, Daniel R, Ostermann T, Tsouros S |title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and safety of selected complementary and alternative medicine for neck and low-back pain |year=2012|journal=Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine |pmid=22203884 |doi=10.1155/2012/953139 |volume=2012 |pages=953139}}</ref> Tibapini inaweza kuwa hatua bora katika watu wenye maumivu sugu yasiyotatuliwa kwa matibabu mengine kama vile dawa au matibabu yoyote yasiyohusisha upasuaji.<ref name=casazza_2012/><ref name=lin_2011>{{cite journal |author=Lin CW, Haas M, Maher CG, Machado LA, van Tulder MW |title=Cost-effectiveness of guideline-endorsed treatments for low back pain: a systematic review|journal=Eur Spine J |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1024–38 |year=2011 |month=July |pmid=21229367 |pmc=3176706|doi=10.1007/s00586-010-1676-3 |url=}}</ref> Ingawa[[matibabu ya upapasaji]] hayaonekani kupelekea manufaa mengi katika watu wenye maumivu ya ghafla, <ref name=casazza_2012/>upapasaji unaweza kusaidia watu wenye maumivu sugu kidogo, na pia maumivu sugu; hususan ukifanywa pamoja na mazoezi ya mwili na elimu ya afya.<ref name=furlan_2008>{{cite journal |author=Furlan AD, Imamura M, Dryden T, Irvin E |title=Massage for low-back pain|year=2008|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |pmid=18843627 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001929.pub2 |issue=4 |pages=CD001929}}</ref> Utafiti mmoja maarufu umependekeza kuwa tibapini na upapasaji kwa pamoja ni bora kuliko upapasaji pekee.<ref name=furlan_2008/>[[Prolotherafi]] –kudungia viowevu kwenye viunga vya mgongo ili kusababisha inflamesheni, hivyo kuchochea utaratibu wa mwili wa uponyaji – ni mbinu ambayo haijawahi kufaulu ikitumika pekee, lakini inaweza kusaidia inapojumuisha tiba nyingine.<ref name=marlowe_2012/> [[Nurofleksotherapi]], ni matibabu ambapo kipande cha chuma huingizwa chini ya ngozi ya sikio na mgongo. Matibabu haya yamegunduliwa kuwa bora katika kupunguza maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo na pia kuimarisha utendakazi wa mgongo wenyewe. Hata hivyo, tafiti zinazopendekeza mbinu hii ni chache.<ref name=marlowe_2012/><ref name=urrutia_2005>{{cite journal |author=Urrútia G, Burton K, Morral A, Bonfill X, Zanoli G |title=Neuroreflexotherapy for nonspecific low back pain: a systematic review |journal=Spine |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=E148–53 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15770167 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Matibabu ya mitishamba kama[[Hapagofitamu|mmea unaobana]] na[[willow nyeupe]]yanaweza kupunguza idadi ya watu wanaoripoti kiwango kikubwa cha maumivu; ingawa katika watu wanotumia dawa za kutuliza maumivu, tofauti yake si kubwa.<ref name=marlowe_2012/> [[Kapsikamu]] – ya muundo wa mafuta au plasta – imetambulika kutuliza maumivu na kuimarisha utendakazi wa mgongo.<ref name=marlowe_2012/> [Matibabu ya kitabia]] yanaweza kusaidia watu wenye maumivu sugu.<ref name=henschke_2010>{{cite journal |author=Henschke N, Ostelo RW, van Tulder MW, ''et al.'' |title=Behavioural treatment for chronic low-back pain |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=7 |pages=CD002014 |year=2010 |pmid=20614428 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002014.pub3 |url=}}</ref> Kuna aina mbalimbali za matibabu haya, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[uratibishaji tabia]], ambayo ni njia ambapo kiimarishi hutumika kupunguza tabia mbaya na kukuza tabia njema; [[matibabu ya utambuzi wa tabia]],ambayo husaidia watu kutambua na kubadilisha mawazo mabaya na tabia; na [[uratibishaji wa mwitikio]], ni hatua zinazoweza kubadilisha mwitikio wa maumivu kisaikolojia kwa mtu binafsi.<!-- ref name=marlowe_2012/ --> Wahudumu wa afya wanaweza kuunda mradi unganifu wa matibabu ya kitabia.<ref name=marlowe_2012/> Utafiti haujaweza kubainii iwapo [[Upunguzaji wa mfadhaiko kupitia uzingatifu]] utapunguza ukali wa maumivu ya mgongo au ulemavu unaohusiana na maumivu ya mgongo. Hata hivyo, utafiti huu unaashiria kuwa hatua hii inaweza kumwezesha mtu kukabiliana na maumivu yaliyopo.<ref name=cramer_2012>{{cite journal |author=Cramer H, Haller H, Lauche R, Dobos G |title=Mindfulness-based stress reduction for low back pain. A systematic review |journal=BMC Complement Altern Med |volume=12 |issue= |pages=162 |year=2012 |pmid=23009599 |pmc=3520871 |doi=10.1186/1472-6882-12-162 |url=}}</ref> ==Matarajio== Kwa kijumla, matokeo ya matibabu ya maumivu ya ghafla ya kiuno huwa mema. Maumivu na ulemavu hutatulika pakubwa katika wiki sita za kwanza, huku asilimia 40 – 90 ya watu wakipona kabisa.<ref name=menezes_2012>{{cite journal |last=Menezes Costa Lda |first=C |coauthors=Maher, CG; Hancock, MJ; McAuley, JH; Herbert, RD; Costa, LO |title=The prognosis of acute and persistent low-back pain: a meta-analysis. |journal=CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne |date=7 August 2012 |volume=184 |issue=11 |pages=E613-24 |pmid=22586331 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.111271 |pmc=3414626}}</ref> Katika watu watakaokuwa na dalili za hali hii baada ya wiki sita, kuimarika kwao huwa taratibu, huku mabadiliko machache yakifikiwa kwa mwaka mmoja. Kufikia mwaka mmoja, kiwango cha maumivu na ulemavu huwa cha chini katika watu wengi. Kwa bahati mbaya, maumivu ya awali ya mgongo na kuridhika kazini hutumika kutabiri matokeo ya maumivu ya mgongo baada ya tukio la ghafla la maumivu.<ref name=menezes_2012/> Matatizo mengine ya kisaikolojia kama vile mfadhaiko au kukosa furaha kufuatia kupoteza kazi kunaweza kuzidisha maumivu ya mgongo kwa muda mrefu.<ref name=miller_2012/> Kurejea kwa maumivu baada ya kisa cha kwanza hutokea katika zaidi ya nusu ya waathiriwa.<ref name=Stanton2010>{{cite journal|last=Stanton|first=TR|coauthors=Latimer, J; Maher, CG; Hancock, MJ|title=How do we define the condition 'recurrent low back pain'? A systematic review.|journal=European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society|date=2010 Apr|volume=19|issue=4|pages=533-9|pmid=19921522|doi=10.1007/s00586-009-1214-3}}</ref> Katika watu wenye maumivu sugu, matokeo ya kipindi kifupi huwa mema, huku kukiwa na mafanikio katika wiki sita za kwanza, lakini kuna mafanikio madogo baadaye. Kufikia mwaka mmoja, watu wenye maumivu sugu huendelea kupata maumivu ya kadri na ulemavu.<ref name=menezes_2012/> Watu walio katika hatari ya kupata ulemavu wa kudumu kwa kipindi kirefu ni pamoja na watu wasio na uwezo wa kukabiliana na maumivu au wanaoogopa kujishugulisha (wana uwezekano wa kupata matokeo mabaya mara 2.5 zaidi kwa mwaka), <ref name=chou_2010>{{cite journal |last1=Chou |first1=R |last2=Shekelle |first2=P |title=Will this patient develop persistent disabling low back pain? |journal=JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=303 |issue=13 |pages=1295–302 |year=2010 |pmid=20371789 |doi=10.1001/jama.2010.344}}</ref> watu wenye uwezo duni wa kukabiliana na maumivu, ulemavu wa kiutendaji, udhaifu wa afya ya kijumla, au kisababishi kikuu cha kiakili au cha kisaikolojia cha maumivu ([[Dalili za Waddell]]).<ref name=chou_2010/> ==Epidemiolojia== Maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo yanayohudumu kwa siku moja na kulemaza kazi ya mtu ni hali inayoripotiwa mara nyingi.<ref name=hoy_2012/>Duniani, takriban 40% ya watu hupata maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo wakati mmoja maishani,<ref name=hoy_2012/> huku makadirio yakiwa hata 80% katika watu wa nchi zilizostawi.<ref name=malhotra_2011>{{cite book |author=Vinod Malhotra; Yao, Fun-Sun F.; Fontes, Manuel da Costa |title=Yao and Artusio's Anesthesiology: Problem-Oriented Patient Management |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2011 |pages=Chapter 49 |isbn=1-4511-0265-8 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=qOhuwkoN15MC&pg=PT1390}}</ref> Takriban asilimia 9 hadi 12 ya watu (milioni&nbsp;632) hupata maumivu ya mgongo wakati wowote maishani, na karibu robo moja (23.2%) huripoti kuwa wamepata maumivu haya kwa wakati fulani katika kipindi cha mwezi wowote mmoja.<ref name=hoy_2012/><ref name=vos_2012>{{cite journal|last=Vos|first=T|title=Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.|journal=Lancet|date=15 December 2012|volume=380|issue=9859|pages=2163–96|pmid=23245607|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2}}</ref> Matatizo mara nyingi hutokea kati ya umri wa miaka &nbsp;20 na 40.<ref name=casazza_2012/> Visa vya maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo ni vingi katika watu wa umri wa miaka 40-80, huku wastani wa idadi ya watu wanaoathirika ikitarajiwa kuongezeka jinsi watu wanavyoendelea kuzeeka.<ref name=hoy_2012/>Haijulikani wazi iwapo ni wanaume au wanawake wanaoripoti visa vingi vya maumivu ya mgongo.<ref name=hoy_2012/><ref name=vos_2012/> Utafiti wa mwaka wa 2012 uliripoti kima cha 9.6% miongoni mwa wanaume na 8.7% miongoni mwa wanawake.<ref name=vos_2012/> Utafiti mwingine wa mwaka 2012 ulipata kima cha juu kwa wanawake kuliko wanaume. Watafiti walikisia kuwa takwimu hizi huenda zilichangiwa na maumivu kutokana na osteoporosisi, hedhi, na ujauzito miongoni mwa wanawake, au kwa sababu wanawake walikuwa tayari Zaidi kuripoti maumivu kuliko wanaume.<ref name=hoy_2012/> Takriban 70% ya wanawake hupata maumivu ya mgongo katika [[ujauzito]], huku kima cha maumivu kikiongezeka ujauzito unapokomaa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunningham|first=F|title=Williams Obstetrics|year=2009|publisher=McGraw Hill Professional|isbn=9780071702850|page=210|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=PYO2RUc4sQMC&q|edition=23}}</ref> Wavuta sigara katika ujauzito – hususan wanawake wa umri wa kubaleghe – wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kupata maumivu ya mgongo kuliko waliokuwa wakivuta awali, na wanawake waliokuwa wakivuta sigara awali wana uwezekano mkubwa kuliko wale ambao hawajawahi kuvuta.<ref name=shiri_2010>{{cite journal |author=Shiri R, Karppinen J, Leino-Arjas P, Solovieva S, Viikari-Juntura E |title=The association between smoking and low back pain: a meta-analysis |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=87.e7–35 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=20102998 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.05.028 |url=}}</ref> ==Historia== [[File:Harvey Cushing, Doris Ulmann 1920s.jpg|thumb|right|Harvey Williams Cushing, 1920s]] Maumivu ya kiuno yamewaathiri watu tangu [[enzi za shaba]]. Makala ya upasuaji wa kale yanayojulikana kama [[Mafunjo ya Edwin Smith]] katika enzi ya [[1500 KK]] yalieleza kuhusu uchunguzi tambuzi na matibabu ya mkazo wa pingili za uti wa mgongo. [[Hippocrates]] ([[460 KK]] hivi – [[370 KK]] hivi) alikuwa wa kwanza kutumia neno kurejelea maumivu ya [[nyonga]] na ya kiuno; [[Galen]] (enzi za kati hadi mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 2]] [[BK]]) alielezea suala hili kwa kina. Madaktari mwishoni mwa [[milenia ya 1]] hawakujaribu upasuaji wa mgongo. Baadala yake, walipendekeza kusubiri kwa umakinifu. Katika [[enzi za kati]], waganga wa kale walitoa matibabu ya maumivu ya mgongo wakiamini kuwa yalisababishwa na [[mapepo]].<ref name=maharty_2012>{{cite journal |author=Maharty DC |title=The history of lower back pain: a look "back" through the centuries |journal=Prim. Care |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=463–70 |year=2012 |month=September |pmid=22958555 |doi=10.1016/j.pop.2012.06.002 |url=}}</ref> Mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], madaktari waliamini kuwa maumivu ya mgongo yalisababishwa na inflamesheni au kuharibika kwa neva,<ref name=maharty_2012/> huku hali ya niuraljia na niuraitisi ikitajika mara nyingi katika fasihi za wakati huo.<ref name=lutz_2003>{{cite journal |author=Lutz GK, Butzlaff M, Schultz-Venrath U |title=Looking back on back pain: trial and error of diagnoses in the 20th century |journal=Spine |volume=28 |issue=16 |pages=1899–905 |year=2003 |month=August |pmid=12923482 |doi=10.1097/01.BRS.0000083365.41261.CF}}</ref> Hata hivyo, katika karne ya 20, imani ya visababishi hivi ilididimia.<ref name=lutz_2003/> Mwanzoni mwa karne wa 20, mpasuaji wa [[mfumoneva]] wa [[Marekani]] [[Harvey Williams Cushing]] aliongeza umaarufu wa matibabu ya maumivu ya mgongo kupitia upasuaji.<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Katika [[miaka ya 1920]] na [[Miaka ya 1930|1930]], nadharia geni zilizuka, huku madaktari wakidokeza kuna uhusiano kati ya mfumo wa neva na matatizo ya kisaikolojia kama vile ulegevu wa neva ([[niurasthenia]]) na [[histeria ya wanawake]].<ref name=maharty_2012/> Rimathoidi ya misuli ([[fibromiljia]]) pia ilitajwa sana.<ref name=lutz_2003/> Vifaa vya kisasa vya teknolojia, kama vile [[radiografia|Eksirei]] viliwapa madaktari vifaa vipya vya utambuzi, hivyo kufichua kuwa diski ya kati ya pingili za uti wa mgongo ndizo zilizokuwa chanzo cha maumivu ya mgongo katika baadhi ya visa. Mwaka wa [[1938]] mpasuaji wa mifupa, [[Joseph S. Barr]], aliripoti kuwa maumivu ya nyonga yanayohusiana na diski yaliimarika au kuponywa kupitia upasuaji wa mgongo.<ref name=lutz_2003/> Kufuatia ripoti hii, umbo la mfano wa diski lilitolewa [[miaka ya 1940]],<ref name=maharty_2012/> na kuvuma katika fasihi katika [[miaka ya 1980]] na kusaidia kuzinduliwa kwa pichatiba nyingine kama vile [[Tomografia ya Kompyuta]] na [[Picha za Mwangwi wa Sumaku]].<ref name=lutz_2003/> Mjadala huu ulififia utafiti ulipoonyesha kuwa matatizo ya diski si kisababishi kikuu cha maumivu. Tangu wakati huo, madaktari waligundua kuwa mara nyingi kuna uwezekano ya kisababishi maalumu cha maumivu ya mgongo kutobainika, hivyo wakakosoa haja ya kupata angalau kisababishi kimoja kwa sababu wakati mwingi dalili hizi zilipotea katika wiki 6 hadi 12 matibabu yasipokuwepo au yakiwepo.<ref name=maharty_2012/> ==Jamii na utamaduni== Maumivu ya sehemu ya chini ya mgongo husababisha [[gharama ya kiuchumi]] ya kiwango cha juu. Nchini Marekani, maumivu ya mgongo ni aina kuu ya maumivu katika watu wazima yanayosababisha idadi kubwa ya watu kutokwenda kazini. Halii hii pia ni tatizo kuu la misuli na mifupa linaloripotiwa mara nyingi katika kitengo cha matibabu ya dharura.<ref name=borczuk_2013/>Mwaka wa 1998, ilikadiriwa kuwa gharama ya maumivu haya ni bilioni $90 katika bajeti ya afya ya kila mwaka, huku 5% ya watu wakigharamia kiasi kikubwa zaidi (75%).<ref name=borczuk_2013/> Kati ya 1990 na 2001, kulikuwa na ongezeko la zaidi ya mikunjo miwili ya uunganishaji wa mifupa ya uti wa mgongo nchini Marekani, hata ingawa hakukuwa na mabadiliko ya viashirio vya upasuaji au utafiti kuhusu umuhimu wa upasuaji.<ref name=deyo_2009/> Gharama zaidi huingia kupitia kufifia kwa utendakazi wa mtu na kupata mapato ya chini, huku maumivu ya mgongo yakichangia 40% ya siku zote ambazo watu walikosa kufika kazini nchini Marekani.<ref name=manchikanti_2009_epi>{{cite journal |author=Manchikanti L, Singh V, Datta S, Cohen SP, Hirsch JA, ASIPP |title=Comprehensive review of epidemiology, scope, and impact of spinal pain |journal=Pain Physician |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=E35–70 |year=2009 |pmid=19668291 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Maumivu ya mgongo husababisha ulemavu kwa asilimia kubwa ya [[wafanyakazi]] nchini Kanada, Uingereza, Uholanzi na Uswisi kuliko Marekani au Ujerumani.<ref name=manchikanti_2009_epi/> ==Utafiti== [[Athroplasti ya diski|Ubadilishaji wa diski nzima]] ni chaguo la kujaribia,<ref name="hughes_2012" /> lakini hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha unaopendekeza manufaa ya ubadilishaji huu kuliko [[uunganishaji wa mifupa ya kiuno]].<ref name=manusov_2012_surg/> Watafiti wanachunguza uwezekano wa kukuza diski mpya wakitumia [[dawa ya ukuaji]] inayodungwa binadamu; vipandikizo, [[tibaseli]], na [[uhandisi wa tishu]].<ref name="hughes_2012" /> ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|2}} [[Jamii:Afya]] [[Jamii:Mgongo]] gln896wwhe4ck6wrly6ko4zxn3gp2wh 0 71717 1564499 1515386 2026-06-02T17:30:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564499 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:DNA Overview2.png|thumb|right|140px|upright|DNA, msingi wa molekuli kwa ajili ya urithi. Kila ncha ya DNA ni mlolongo wa nyukleotidi, zinazoungana katika sehemu ya kati.]] '''Jenetikia''' (kutoka [[Kigiriki]] [[Kiyunani|cha kale]] γενετικός, genetikos, [[neno]] ambalo tena linatokana na γένεσις, genesis, "[[asili]]"<ref> [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321880 Genetikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus]</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321873 Genesis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus]</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Genetic&amp;searchmode=none Online Entymology Dictionary]</ref>) ni [[tawi]] la [[biolojia]] linalochunguza [[uritishano]] na [[mwachano]] wa [[viumbe hai]].<ref name="griffiths2000sect60">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60 |chapter=Genetics and the Organism: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref><ref name="Hartl_and_Jones"> Hartl D, Jones E (2005)</ref> Kwa namna ya pekee imegundulika kwamba [[chembechembe]] zinazohifadhi [[taarifa]] za [[urithi]] wa viumbe hai zimo katika [[kiini]] cha kila [[seli]] yao kama [[nyuzinyuzi]] zinazoitwa [[kromosomu]]. Hizo zinabeba [[jeni]] kadhaa ambazo kila mojawapo inahusika na urithi wa [[tabia]] na [[umbile]] fulani kutoka kwa wazazi kwenda kwa [[kizazi]] kipya. Ukweli kwamba viumbe hai hurithi sifa kutoka kwa wazazi wao umetumika tangu zamani za kale kuboresha ma[[zao]] ya [[mimea]] na [[wanyama]] kwa njia ya [[uzalishaji teuzi]]. Hata hivyo, [[sayansi]] ya kisasa ya jenetikia, ambayo inajaribu kuelewa utaratibu wa urithi, ilianza tu na kazi ya [[Gregor Mendel]] katikati ya [[karne ya 19]].<ref name="Weiling">{{cite journal |pmid=1887835| doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 |year=1991 |last1=Weiling |first1=F |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |journal=American journal of medical genetics}}</ref> Ingawa hakujua msingi halisi wa urithi, Mendel aliona kwamba viumbe hurithi sifa kupitia vitengo maalumu ambavyo sasa vinaitwa jeni. Jeni hufanana na maeneo ndani ya [[DNA]], [[molekuli]] inayoundwa na mlolongo wa [[aina]] nne tofauti za [[nyukleotidi]]. Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hizo ndio maelezo ya kijeni ambayo viumbe huyarithi. Kwa kawaida DNA ina [[umbo]] la [[ncha]] mbili, ambazo kila moja ina nyukleotidi zinazokamilishana. Kila ncha inaweza kutumika kama [[kiolezo]] katika uumbaji wa ncha nyingine mpya: hii ndiyo njia halisi ya kutengeneza nakala za jeni ambazo zinaweza kurithiwa. Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi katika jeni hutafsiriwa na [[seli]] ili kuzalisha mlolongo wa [[aminoasidi]], hivyo kutengeneza [[protini]]; utaratibu wa aminoasidi katika protini hufanana na utaratibu wa nyukleotidi katika jeni. Uhusiano huo kati ya mpangilio wa nyukleotidi na mpangilio wa aminoasidi hujulikana kama [[kanuni ya maumbile]]. Aminoasidi zilizo katika protini huamua jinsi inavyojikunja katika umbo la pande tatu; kisha, [[utendaji kazi]] wa protini hiyo hutegemea muundo huo. Protini hutekeleza karibu ma[[jukumu]] yote yanayohitajika ili seli ziishi. Mabadiliko ya DNA katika jeni yanaweza kubadilisha aminoasidi za protini, na hivyo kubadilisha umbo lake na utendaji kazi wake: mabadiliko haya yanaweza kuwa na ma[[dhara]] makubwa katika seli na kwa kiumbe kwa jumla. Ingawa jenetikia ina athari kubwa katika sura na tabia za kiumbe, matokeo ya mwisho yanategemea mchanganyiko wa jenetikia na mambo ambayo kiumbe anayapitia wakati wa uhai wake. Kwa mfano, ingawa jeni zinaweza kuamua ukubwa au udogo wa kiumbe, [[lishe]] na mambo mengine ambayo kiumbe hupitia baada ya kuzaliwa pia huwa na athari kubwa. ==Historia== Ingawa sayansi ya jenetikia ilianza na ma[[jaribio]] na [[nadharia]] ya Gregor Mendel katika miaka ya kati ya 1800, nadharia nyingine za urithi zilikuwepo kabla yake. Nadharia maarufu wakati wa Mendel ilikuwa [[dhana]] ya kuchanganya urithi, yaani [[wazo]] la kwamba watu hurithi mchanganyiko laini wa sifa kutoka kwa wazazi wao. Mendel hakukubaliana na wazo hilo na alionyesha kwamba sifa zinajumuisha mchanganyiko wa jeni tofauti kuliko mchanganyiko unaofanana. Nadharia nyingine ambayo ilikuwa imeungwa mkono wakati huo ilikuwa urithi wa sifa zilizopatikana: imani kwamba watu hurithi sifa zilizojengwa na wazazi wao. Nadharia hiyo (ambayo kwa kawaida inahusianishwa na [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]) sasa inajulikana kuwa na makosa.<ref> Lamarck, JB (2008). Katika [[Encyclopedia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Ilirudishwa kutoka [http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-273180 Encyclopædia Britannica Online] tarehe 16 Machi 2008.</ref> Nadharia nyingine zilikuwa pamoja na [[panjenesisi]] ya [[Charles Darwin]] (ambayo ilikuwa na vipengele vya mambo mtu anayoyapata na yale anayoyarithi) na muundo mpya wa [[Francis Galton]] wa panjenesisi kama nadharia inayohusisha chembechembe na urithi.<ref>Peter J. Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergency of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989): sura 2 &amp; 3.</ref> ===Jenetikia ya Mendel na ya kale=== Sayansi ya jenetikia ya kisasa ilianzishwa na [[Gregor Mendel]], [[mmonaki|mtawa]] wa [[Waaugustino|Kiaugustino]] na [[mwanasayansi]] mwenye asili ya [[Kijerumani]] ambaye alichunguza hali ya urithi katika mimea. Katika maandishi yake "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Majaribio ya Uvyausaji wa Mimea"), iliyowasilishwa katika mwaka [[1865]] kwa ''Naturforschender Verein'' (Jumuiya ya Utafiti kuhusu Mimea na Viumbe) huko [[Brünn]], Mendel alifuatilia ruwaza za urithi za sifa fulani kwa mimea ya [[njegere]] na kuielezea kupitia [[hisabati]].<ref name="mendel">{{cite web |title= Mendel's Paper in English |url=http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg}}</ref> Ingawa ruwaza hii ya urithi ingeweza kuonekana katika sifa kadhaa, kazi ya Mendel ilipendekeza kuwa urithi ulikuwa ulihusisha chembechembe, si kupata, na kwamba ruwaza za urithi wa sifa nyingi zinaweza kuelezwa kupitia kanuni na uwiano rahisi. Umuhimu wa kazi ya Mendel haukuweza kueleweka vizuri hadi [[miaka ya 1890]], baada ya [[kifo]] chake, wakati ambapo wanasayansi wengine wakiwa wanashughulikia mambo kama hayo, waligundua upya [[utafiti]] wake. [[William Bateson]], [[mtetezi]] wa kazi ya Mendel, aliunda neno ''jenetikia'' mwaka [[1905]].<ref>genetics, ''n.,'' Oxford English Dictionary, toleo la 3.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm |title=Letter from William Bateson to Alan Sedgwick in 1905 |publisher=The John Innes Centre |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |author=Bateson W |archivedate=2007-10-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013020831/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm }}. Kumbuka kwamba barua ilikuwa imeandikiwa Sedgwick Adam, mtaalamu wa zuolojia katika chuo cha Trinity, Cambridge, wala sio "Alan", na asikanganywe na mtaalamu mashuhuri wa jiolojia wa Uingereza, Adam Sedgwick, ambaye aliishi kabla ya wakati huo // hapo awali.</ref> (Kivumishi ''jenetikia'' kilichotokana na neno la Kigiriki ''mwanzo'' - ''γένεσις,'' "asili" na kwamba kutoka kwa neno ''genno'' - ''γεννώ,'' "kujifungua", kinatangulia nomimo na kilitumika kwa mara ya kwanza kwa maana ya kibiolojia mwaka 1860).<ref>genetics, n., Oxford English Dictionary, toleo la 3.</ref> Bateson alieneza matumizi ya neno ''jenetikia'' kuelezea utafiti wa urithi katika [[hotuba]] yake ya [[uzinduzi]] wa Mkutano wa Tatu wa Kimataifa wa Uvyausaji wa Mimea huko [[London]], [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1906]] <ref name="bateson_genetics">.{{cite conference |author=Bateson, W |title=The Progress of Genetic Research |editor=Wilks, W |booktitle=Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |location=London |year=1907}}:Awali lilijulikana kama "Mkutano wa Kimataifa wa Uvyausaji na kuzalishana kwa Mimea", Wilks alibadilisha kichwa cha chapisho kutokana na hotuba ya Bateson.</ref> Baada ya kugunduliwa upya kwa kazi ya Mendel, wanasayansi walijaribu kuamua ni molekuli zipi katika seli zilizohusika na urithi. Mwaka [[1910]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] alisema kuwa jeni ziko juu ya kromosomu, kulingana na matokeo ya mabadiliko ya macho meupe yaliyohusiana na [[jinsia]] katika nzi-tunda.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/icb/23.4.855 |title=Thomas Hunt Morgan—The Geneticist |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_integrative-and-comparative-biology_1983_23_4/page/855 |year=1983 |last1=Moore |first1=JOHN A. |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=23 |pages=855}}</ref> Mwaka [[1913]] [mwanafunzi]] wake [[Alfred Sturtevant]] alitumia uhusiano wa kijeni kuonyesha kuwa jeni hupangwa kwa ,[[mstari]] kwenye kromosomu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sturtevant AH |year=1913 |title=The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=14 |pages=43–59 |url=http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/s/ahs-13.pdf}}</ref><span id="molecular"></span> [[File:Sexlinked inheritance white.jpg|left|thumb|Mawazo ya Morgan kuhusu urithi unaohusishwa na ngono wa mabadiliko uliosababisha nzi za Drosophila kuwa na macho meupe ulimwelekeza kwa nadharia-tete kwamba jeni ziko kwenye kromosomu.]] ===Jenetikia ya molekuli=== Ingawa jeni zilijulikana kuwepo kwenye kromosomu, hizo kromosomu zinajumuisha protini na DNA: wanasayansi hawakujua ni ipi kati ya hizo iliyohusika na urithi. Mwaka [[1928]], [[Frederick Griffith]] aligundua jambo la mabadiliko: bakteria zilizokufa ziliweza kuhamisha nyenzo za kijeni ili "kubadilisha" bakteria zingine zilizokuwa bado hai. Miaka [[kumi]] [[kumi na sita|na sita]] baadaye, mwaka [[1944]], [[Theodore Oswald Avery]], [[Colin McLeod]] na [[Maclyn McCarty]] walitambua [[molekuli]] iliyohusika na mabadiliko ni [[DNA]].<ref name="Avery_et_al"> {{cite journal |doi=10.1084/jem.79.2.137 |title=STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: INDUCTION OF TRANSFORMATION BY A DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID FRACTION ISOLATED FROM PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPE III |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-experimental-medicine_1944-02_79_2/page/137 |year=1944 |last1=Avery |first1=O. T. |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=79 |pages=137 |pmid=19871359 |last2=MacLeod |first2=CM |last3=McCarty |first3=M |issue=2 |pmc=2135445}} Chapisha tena: {{cite journal |pmid=33226 |year=1979 |last1=Avery |first1=OT |last2=Macleod |last3=Mccarty |title=Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. Inductions of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III. |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=297–326 |journal=The Journal of experimental medicine |doi=10.1084/jem.149.2.297 |first2=CM |first3=M |pmc=2184805}}</ref> Majaribio ya Hershey-Chase ya mwaka [[1952]] pia yalionyesha kuwa DNA (badala ya protini) ndiyo wenzo wa kijeni wa virusi ambavyo huambukiza bakteria, hivyo kutoa ushahidi zaidi kwamba DNA ndiyo molekuli inayohusika na urithi.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1085/jgp.36.1.39 |pmid=12981234 |pmc=2147348 |year= 1952 |last1= Hershey |first1= AD |last2= Chase |title= Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage. |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-physiology_1952-09-20_36_1/page/38 |volume= 36 |issue= 1 |pages= 39–56 |journal= The Journal of general physiology |first2= M}}</ref> [[James D. Watson]] na [[Francis Crick]] walitambua muundo wa DNA mwaka [[1953]], kwa kutumia kazi ya [[kristalografia]] ya [[eksirei]] ya [[Rosalind Franklin]] na [[Maurice Wilkins]] ambayo ilionyesha kuwa DNA ina muundo wa [[msokoto]] (yaani, umbo kama la [[kizibuo]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology |last=Judson |first=Horace |middle=Freeland |authorlink=Horace Freeland Judson |year=1979 |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press |isbn=0-87969-477-7 |pages=51–169}}</ref><ref name="watsoncrick_1953a">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf |doi=10.1038/171737a0 |title=Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=737 |pmid=13054692 |first2=FH |issue=4356}}</ref> Umbo la misokoto miwili lilikuwa na ncha mbili za DNA na nyukleotidi ilikuwa imeangalia ndani, na kila moja ililingana na nyukleotidi kikamilisho kwenye ncha nyingine na kuunda umbo linalofanana na vidato kwenye [[ngazi]] iliyosokotwa.<ref name="watsoncrick_1953b">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick2.pdf |doi=10.1038/171964b0 |title=Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=964 |pmid=13063483 |first2=FH |issue=4361}}</ref> Umbo hili lilionyesha kuwa maelezo ya kijeni yapo katika mpangilio wa nyukleotidi kwenye kila ncha ya DNA. Umbo hilo pia lilipendekeza njia rahisi ya kurudiarudia: kama ncha hizo zimetenganishwa, ncha zingine mpya za kila ncha iliyotenganishwa zinaweza kuundwa upya kulingana na mpangilio wa ncha za zamani. Ingawa umbo la DNA lilionyesha jinsi urithi unavyofanya kazi, bado haikujulikana jinsi DNA inavyoathiri tabia ya seli. Katika miaka iliyofuata, wanasayansi walijaribu kuelewa jinsi DNA hudhibiti mchakato wa uzalishaji protini. Iligundulika kwamba seli hutumia DNA kama kiolezo ili kujenga kijumbe kinacholingana cha RNA (molekuli iliyo na nyukleotidi, zinazofanana sana na DNA). Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi wa kijumbe RNA hutumiwa kujenga mpangilio wa aminoasidi katika protini; tafsiri hii kati ya mipangilio ya nyukleotidi na aminoasidi hujulikana kama kodi ya kijeni. Tafiti nyingi ziliweza kufanywa kutokana na uelewa huu wa molekuli ya jeni. Uvumbuzi muhimu uliofanywa na [[Frederick Sanger]] mwaka [[1977]]ulikuwa mpangilio wa mlolongo uliokuwa na DNA mwisho. [[Teknolojia]] hii inawaruhusu wanasayansi kusoma mpangilio wa nyukleotidi wa molekuli ya DNA.<ref name="sanger_et_al">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |year=1977 |last1=Sanger |first1=F |last2=Nicklen |last3=Coulson |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=S |first3=AR}}</ref> Mwaka [[1983]], [[Kary Banks Mullis]] alitengeneza [[mmenyuko]] wa mlolongo wa [[polimerasi]], hivyo kutoa njia ya haraka ya kutenga na kukuza sehemu maalum ya DNA kutoka kwa mchanganyiko.<ref name="saiki_et_al">{{cite journal |pmid=2999980 |doi=10.1126/science.2999980 |year=1985 |last1=Saiki |first1=RK |last2=Scharf |last3=Faloona |last4=Mullis |last5=Horn |last6=Erlich |last7=Arnheim |title=Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. |volume=230 |issue=4732 |pages=1350–4 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.) |first2=S |first3=F |first4=KB |first5=GT |first6=HA |first7=N}}</ref> Kutoka kwa juhudi za pamoja za "[[Mradi wa Jenomu za Binadamu]]" na juhudi sambamba za binafsi za [[Celera Genomics]], mbinu hizi na zingine zilifikia kilele katika upangiliaji wa jenomu za binadamu mwaka [[2003]].<ref name="human_genome_project"></ref> ==Sifa za urithi== ===Urithi wa kipekee na sheria za Mendel=== [[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg|right|thumb|Mraba wa Punnett ulisawirisha ubadilishanaji // uvukaji kati ya mimea miwili ya njegere iliyokuwa na kromosomu tofauti za maua ya rangi ya zambarau (B) na nyeupe (b)]] Katika ngazi yake ya msingi kabisa, urithi katika viumbe hutokea kupitia sifa za kipekee, ziitwazo jeni.<ref name="griffiths2000sect199">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.199 |chapter=Patterns of Inheritance: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Sifa hii ilivumbuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na Gregor Mendel, ambaye alifanyia utafiti utengaji wa sifa zinazorithika katika mimea ya njegere.<ref name="mendel"></ref><ref name="griffiths2000sect200">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.200 |chapter=Mendel's experiments |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Katika tafiti zake kuhusu sifa ya rangi ya maua, Mendel aliona kwamba maua ya kila mmea wa njegere yalikuwa ama rangi ya zambarau au nyeupe-lakini kamwe hakukuwa na rangi ya kati ya rangi hizo mbili. Tofauti hizo, matoleo ya kipekee ya jeni moja yanaitwa aleli//aina zinazofanana. Katika kesi ya njegere, ambayo ni [[spishi]] yenye seti mbili za kromosomu, kila mmea una aleli mbili za kila jeni, aleli moja iliyorithiwa kutoka kwa kila mzazi.<ref name="griffiths2000sect484"></ref> Spishi nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na binadamu, zina muundo huo wa urithi. Viumbe vyenye seti mbili za kromosomu na vyenye nakala mbili za aleli moja//sawa ya jeni maalum huitwa [[homozigasi]] katika sehemu hiyo ya jeni, wakati viumbe vyenye aleli mbili tofauti za jeni maalum vinaitwa [[heterozigasi]]. Seti ya aleli kiumbe maalum inaitwa [[jenotipu]] yake, wakati sifa zinazoweza kuonekana za kiumbe hicho zinaitwa [[fenotipu]] yake. Wakati viumbe ni heterozigasi kwa jeni, mara nyingi aleli moja husemekana kutawala kwani sifa zake hutawala fenotipu ya kiumbe hicho, wakati aleli nyingine inaitwa [[selipumbazi]] kwani sifa zake hufifia na haziwezi kuonekana. Baadhi ya aleli hazina utawala kamili na badala yake huonyesha ni fenotipu ya kati, au utawala wa pamoja kwa kuonyesha aleli zote mbili kwa wakati moja.<ref name="griffiths2000sect630">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.630 |chapter=Interactions between the alleles of one gene |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Wakati wa [[jozi]] la viumbe kuzaana, watoto wao kinasibu hurithi aleli moja kati ya hizo mbili kutoka kwa kila mzazi. Matokeo haya ya urithi wa kipekee na utengaji wa aleli kwa pamoja zinajulikana kama [[Sheria ya kwanza ya Mendel]] au [[Sheria ya Utengaji]]. ===Mwandiko na michoro=== [[File:Pedigree-chart-example.svg|thumb|240px|Chati za nasaba za jeni husaidia kufuatilia ruwaza za urithi wa sifa.]] Wataalamu wa jeni hutumia michoro na ishara kueleza urithi. Jeni moja huwakilishwa na herufi moja au herufi kadhaa. Mara nyingi alama ya "+" hutumika kwa aleli ya kawaida ya jeni, isiyobadilika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm |title=Genetic Notation |first=Richard W. |last=Cheney |accessdate=18 Machi 2008 |archivedate=2006-09-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908110754/http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm }}</ref> Katika majaribio ya utungisho na uzalishaji (na hasa wakati wa kujadili sheria za Mendel) wazazi hujulikana kama kizazi "P" na watoto kama kizazi "F1" (watoto wa kwanza). Wakati watoto F1 wanazalishana, watoto wao huitwa kizazi "F2" (watoto wa pili). Mmojawapo wa michoro ambayo hutumika sana kutabiri matokeo ya uzalishaji mtambuka ni [[mraba wa Punnett]]. Wakati wa kufanyia utafiti magonjwa ya binadamu yanayohusiana na jeni, wataalamu mara nyingi hutumia [[chati ya ukoo]] kuwakilisha urithi wa sifa.<ref name="griffiths2000sect229">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.229 |chapter=Human Genetics |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Chati hizi huonyesha urithi wa sifa katika mti wa nasaba. ===Maingiliano ya jeni mbalimbali=== [[File:Galton-height-regress.png|thumb|right|Urefu wa binadamu sifa changamano ya jeni. Data ya Francis Galton kutoka mwaka [[1889]] inaonyesha uhusiano kati ya urefu wa watoto kama kipengele cha urefu wa wastani wa mzazi. Wakati urefu wa watoto unapolinganishwa, tofauti zinazobaki huonyesha kuwa mazingira pia ni kipengele muhimu katika kuchangia sifa hii.]] Viumbe hai wana maelfu ya jeni, na katika viumbe wanaozaana kupitia ngono jeni hizi hujigawa bila kutegemeana. Hii ina maana kwamba urithi wa aleli ya rangi ya njano au kijani ya njegere haihusiani na urithi wa aleli za maua meupe au ya rangi ya zambarau. Jambo hili, linalojulikana kama "sheria ya pili Mendel" au "Sheria ya ugawaji huru", inamaanisha kwamba aleli za jeni tofauti huchanganywa kati ya wazazi ili kutengeneza watoto walio na michanganyiko mingi na tofauti. (Baadhi ya jeni huwa hazijigawi kivyake, hivyo kuonyesha uhusiano wa kijeni, mada ambayo imejadiliwa katika sehemu nyingine ya makala haya). Mara nyingi jeni tofauti zinaweza kuingiliana kwa njia ambayo inaathiri sifa sawa. Katika mmea wa 'Omphalodes Verna', kwa mfano, kuna jeni iliyo na aleli ambazo huamua rangi ya maua: buluu au majenta. Hata hivyo, jeni nyingine hudhibiti ikiwa maua yana rangi yoyote au ni meupe. Wakati mmea una nakala mbili za aleli nyeupe, maua yake huwa meupe-bila kujali kama jeni ya kwanza ina aleli za rangi ya buluu au majenta. Mwingiliano kati ya jeni huitwa [[epistasisi]], na jeni ya pili hukandamiza ile ya kwanza.<ref name="griffiths2000sect644">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.644 |chapter=Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Sifa nyingi si vipengele vya kipekee (k.m. maua ya rangi ya zambarau au meupe) lakini badala yake ni sifa zinazoendelea (k.m. urefu wa binadamu na rangi ya ngozi yake). Sifa hizi tata hutokana na jeni nyingi.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15931374 |doi=10.1172/JCI25421 |year=2005 |last1=Mayeux |first1=R |title=Mapping the new frontier: complex genetic disorders. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-investigation_2005-06_115_6/page/1404 |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=1404–7 |journal=The Journal of clinical investigation |pmc=1137013}}</ref> Ushawishi wa jeni hizi huingiliwa kati, kwa viwango tofauti, na mazingira ambayo kiumbe hicho kimepitia. Kiwango ambacho jeni za kiumbe huchangia sifa tata kinaitwa [[urithikaji]].<ref name="griffiths2000sect4009">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.4009 |chapter=Quantifying heritability |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kipimo cha urithikaji wa sifa hulingana katika mazingira yanayobadilika zaidi, mazingira yana athari kubwa kwenye tofauti ya jumla ya sifa husika. Kwa mfano, urefu wa binadamu ni [[sifa tata]] iliyo na urithikaji wa asilimia 89 nchini [[Marekani]]. Hata hivyo, huko Nigeria, ambako watu huwa na nafasi tofauti zaidi ya kupata [[lishe bora]] na huduma za [[afya]], urefu una urithikaji wa asilimia 62 tu.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801650 |pmid=11443503 |year=2001 |last1=Luke |first1=A |last2=Guo |last3=Adeyemo |last4=Wilks |last5=Forrester |last6=Lowe W |last7=Comuzzie |last8=Martin |last9=Zhu |title=Heritability of obesity-related traits among Nigerians, Jamaicans and US black people. |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1034–41 |journal=International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity |first2=X |first3=AA |first4=R |first5=T |first6=W |first7=AG |first8=LJ |first9=X}}</ref> ==Msingi wa kimolekuli wa urithi== ===DNA na kromosomu=== [[File:DNA chemical structure.svg|thumb|right|Muundo wa molekuli wa DNA. Misingi huungana kupitia mpangilio wa [[hidrojeni]] inayounganisha ncha.]] Msingi wa kimolekuli wa jeni ni deoksiribonyuklei asidi (DNA). DNA imeundwa na mlolongo wa nyukleotidi, ambazo ni za aina nne: [[adenini]] (A), [[sitosini]] (C), [[guanini]] (G), na [[thaimini]] (T). Maelezo ya jeni huwa katika mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hizi, na jeni huwa kama mfululizo wa mpangilio huo katika mnyororo wa DNA.<ref name="Pearson_2006">{{cite journal |pmid=16724031 |doi=10.1038/441398a |year=2006 |last1=Pearson |first1=H |title=Genetics: what is a gene? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398 |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=398–401 |journal=Nature}}</ref> Virusi tu vimeepuka kanuni hii: wakati mwingine virusi hutumia molekuli inayofanana na RNA badala ya DNA kama wenzo wake wa kijenetiki.<ref>{{cite book |title=Microbiology |url=https://archive.org/details/microbiology0001pres |last=Prescott |first=L |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. C. Brown Publishers |isbn=0697013723}}</ref> DNA kwa kawaida hupatikana kama molekuli yenye ncha mbili, zilizojikunja katika sura ya msokoto ulio na sehemu mbili. Kila nyukleotidi katika DNA huambatana na nyukleotidi inayoipendelea ya ncha mkabala: A huambatana na T, na C huambatana na G. Hivyo, katika hali yake ya ncha mbili, kila ncha ina maelezo yote muhimu kama inavyofaa, yasiyohitajika katika ncha iliyoambatana nayo. Muundo huu wa DNA ndio msingi halisi wa urithi: [[urudufishaji]] wa DNA hurudia tena maelezo kwa kugawanya ncha hizo na kutumia kila ncha kama kiolezo cha utengenezaji wa ncha//mwenzi mpya.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1523">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1523 |chapter=Mechanism of DNA Replication |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Jeni huwa zimepangwa kwa mstari kando ya minyororo mirefu ya mpangilio wa DNA, iitwayo [[kromosomu]]. Katika [[bakteria]], kila seli kwa kawaida ina kromosomu moja yenye umbo la mviringo, wakati viumbe [[eukaryota]] (ikiwa ni pamoja na mimea na wanyama) wana DNA ambazo zimepangwa katika mistari mingi ya kromosomu. Ncha hizo za DNA mara nyingi huwa ndefu sana; kwa mfano, kromosomu ndefu zaidi ya binadamu ina urefu wa kufikia jozi msingi milioni 247,000,000 .<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature04727 |pmid=16710414 |year=2006 |last1=Gregory |first1=SG |last2=Barlow |last3=Mclay |last4=Kaul |last5=Swarbreck |last6=Dunham |last7=Scott |last8=Howe |last9=Woodfine |title=The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-18_441_7091/page/n82 |volume=441 |issue=7091 |pages=315–21 |journal=Nature |first2=KF |first3=KE |first4=R |first5=D |first6=A |first7=CE |first8=KL |first9=K}}</ref> DNA ya kromosomu inahusishwa na protini za miundo zinazopanga, kuunganisha, na kudhibiti ufikiaji wa DNA, hivyo kutengeneza wenzo uitwao [[kromatini]]; katika viumbe vyenye seli changamano, kromatini kwa kawaida hujumuisha [[nyukleosomu]], makundi ya DNA yaliyozungushwa kwenye misingi ya protini za [[histoni]].<ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608 II.4.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608 DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber]</ref> Seti kamili ya nyenzo za urithi katika kiumbe (kwa kawaida mchanganyiko wa mipangilio ya DNA ya [[kromosomu]] zote) huitwa [[jenomu]]. Wakati viumbe vyenye seti moja ya kromosomu vina nakala moja tu ya kila kromosomu, wanyama wengi na mimea mingi wana seti mbili za kila kromosomu, hivyo wana nakala mbili za kila jeni.<ref name="griffiths2000sect484">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.484 |chapter=Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Aleli mbili za jeni zimewekwa kwenye sehemu zinazofanana za kromatidi za aina moja, kila aleli ikiwa imerithiwa kutoka kwa mzazi tofauti. Kuna upekee kwenye [[kromosomu ya jinsia]], kromosomu zilizo maalum katika wanyama zimetokea. Kromosomu hizo zinahusika katika uamuzi wa jinsia ya kiumbe.<ref name="griffiths2000sect222">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.222 |chapter=Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kwa binadamu na wanyama wengine, [[kromosomu Y]] ina jeni chache sana na huchochea ukuaji wa sifa za kijinsia za kiume, wakati [[kromosomu X]] inafanana na kromosomu nyingine na ina jeni nyingi zisizohusiana na uamuzi wa jinsia. Wanawake wana nakala mbili za kromosomu X, lakini wanaume wana kromosomu Y moja na kromosomu X moja tu; tofauti hii katika idadi ya nakala za kromosomu X husababisha ruwaza za urithi zisizo za kawaida za matatizo yanayohusiana na jinsia. ===Uzazi=== Wakati seli zinagawanyika, jenomu yote ya seli hizo hunakiliwa, na kila seli inayotokana na ugawanyikaji huo hurithi nakala moja. Utaratibu huo, uitwao [[mitosisi]], ndio namna rahisi zaidi ya uzazi na ndio msingi wa uzazi usiohusisha ngono. Uzazi usiohusisha ngono pia unaweza kutokea katika viumbe vyenye seli nyingi, hivyo kuzalisha watoto wanaorithi jenomu zao kutoka kwa mzazi mmoja. Watoto walio na jeni zinazofanana kabisa na za mzazi wao huitwa [[kloni]] (kiumbe kilichoumbwa na kimoja bila kujamiana.) Viumbe wenye seli changamano mara nyingi huzaana kupitia ngono na kupata watoto walio na mchanganyiko wa nyenzo za jeni zilizorithiwa kwa wazazi wawili tofauti. Mchakato wa uzazi kupitia ngono hubadilishana kati ya aina zilizo na nakala moja ya jenomu husika (haploidi) na nakala mbili (diploidi).<ref name="griffiths2000sect484"></ref> Seli zilizo na seti moja huungana na kuchanganya jeni kuunda kiini diploid na pea ya kromosomu. Viumbe wenye seti mbili za kromosomu hutengeneza seti moja ya kromosomu kwa kujiga, bila kurudufisha DNA zao, ili kuunda seli zake nyingine ambazo hurithi kila moja ya majozi ya kromosomu kinasibu. Wanyama wengi na mimea mingi huwa na seti mbili za kromosomu katika sehemu kubwa ya maisha yao, na aina zenye seti moja ya kromosomu zikipunguzwa hadi gameti zenye seli moja kama vile [[manii]] au [[ova]]. Ingawa [[bakteria]] huwa hazitumii njia ya uzazi unaohusisha ngono ya seti moja / mbili za kromosomu, zina njia nyingi za kupata maelezo mapya ya jeni. Baadhi ya bakteria zinaweza kuungana, na kuhamisha kipande kidogo cha mviringo cha DNA kwa bakteria nyingine.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1304">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1304 |chapter=Bacterial conjugation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Bakteria pia zinazeza kuchukua vipande ghafi vya DNA vinavyopatikana katika mazingira na kuyaunganisha katika jenomu zao, jambo linalojulikana kama mabadiliko.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1343">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1343 |chapter=Bacterial transformation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Taratibu hizi zinasababisha uhamishaji wa jeni wa mlalo, hivyo kupeleka vipande vya maelezo ya jeni kati ya viumbe ambavyo vinginevyo havihusiani. ===Uunganishaji-tena na uhusiano=== [[File:Morgan crossover 2 cropped.png|thumb|right|Mchoro wa Thomas Hunt Morgan wa 1916 wa uvukaji mara mbili kati ya kromosomu]] Hali ya kromosomu ya kuwa na seti mbili huruhusu jeni zenye kromosomu tofauti kujigawa kivyake wakati wa uzazi kupitia ngono, na kuungana tena ili kuunda mchanganyiko mpya wa jeni. Hata hivyo, jeni zilizoko kwenye kromosomu moja kinadharia haziwezi kuungana tena kamwe, isipokuwa ni mchakato wa [[uvukaji]] wa kromosomu. Wakati wa uvukaji, kromosomu hubadilishana mifululizo ya DNA, hivyo basi kufaulu kuchanganya aleli za jeni kati ya kromosomu.<ref name="griffiths2000sect929">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.929 |chapter=Nature of crossing-over |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Utaratibo huu wa uvukaji wa kromosomu kwa jumla hutokea wakati wa meiosisi, mfululizo wa mgawanyiko wa seli ambao huunda seli zenye seti mbili za kromosomu. Uwezekano wa uvukaji wa kromosomu kutokea kati ya sehemu mbili maalum kwenye kromosomu unahusiana na umbali kati ya sehemu hizo. Kwa umbali mrefu kwa njia isiyo na msingi, uwezekano wa uvukaji uko juu vya kutosha, hivi kwamba urithi wa jeni hauhusiani kwa njia inayofaa. Hata hivyo, kwa jeni ambazo zimekaribiana kwa pamoja, uwezekano wa uvukaji ulio chini unamaanisha kuwa jeni hizo zinaonyesha uhusiano wa kijeni: aleli za jeni hizo mbili zinaelekea kurithiwa kwa pamoja. Kiasi cha uhusiano kati ya mfululizo wa jeni kinaweza kuunganishwa ili kuunda ramani ya uhusiano wa kimstari ambayo huelezea kwa makisio mpangilio wa jeni kando ya kromosomu.<ref name="griffiths2000sect899">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.899 |chapter=Linkage maps |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> ==Udhihirishaji wa jeni== ===Msimbo-jeni=== [[File:Genetic code.svg|thumb|right|Msimbo jeni: DNA, kupitia mjumbe wa kati wa RNA, husimbia protini kwa misimbo ya aina tatu.]] Kwa jumla jeni huonyesha athari zake za kiutendaji kazi kupitia uzalishaji protini, ambazo ni molekuli changamano zinazohusika katika shughuli nyingi zinazofanyika katika seli. Protini ni mfululizo wa aminoasidi, na mpangilio wa DNA ya jeni (kupitia [[kiingiliakati]] cha RNA) hutumika kuzalisha mpangilio maalum wa protini. Utaratibu huo kuanza kwa uzalishaji wa molekuli ya RNA iliyo na mpangilio unaolingana na ule wa DNA ya jeni, mchakato unaoitwa [[unukuzi]] yaani kunakili. Kisha molekuli ya RNA inayotumika kama mjumbe hutumiwa kuzalisha mpangilio wa aminoasidi zinazofanana kupitia mchakato uitwao "kutafsiri". Kila kundi la nyukleotidi tatu kwenye mpangilio, unaoitwa [[codon]], hufanana na moja ya aminoasidi ishirini zilizo kwenye protini na zinazoweza kutokea; kufanana huku kunaitwa [[msimbo-jeni]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Biochemistry |author=Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND |edition=5th |year=2002 |publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=stryer.section.685 |chapter=I. 5. DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Genetic Information: Amino Acids Are Encoded by Groups of Three Bases Starting from a Fixed Point}}</ref> Mtiririko wa maelezo haufuati mwelekeo maalum: maelezo hupitishwa kutoka mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hadi kwenye mpangilio wa aminoasidi wa protini, lakini kamwe hauhamishwi kutoka protini na kurudi tena kwenye mpangilio wa DNA, jambo ambalo [[Francis Crick]] aliliita [[dogma kuu]] ya biolojia ya molekuli.<ref name="crick1970">{{cite journal |pmid=4913914 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/pdf/crick227.pdf |year=1970 |last1=Crick |first1=F |title=Central dogma of molecular biology. |volume=227 |issue=5258 |pages=561–3 |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/227561a0}}</ref> Mpangilio maalum wa aminoasidi husababisha umbo la pekee lenye pande tatu kwa protini husika, na miundo ya protini yenye pande tatu inahusiana na utendaji kazi wa protini hizo.<ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.388 I.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.388 Proteins: The Shape and Structure of Proteins]</ref><ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452 I.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452 Proteins: Protein Function]</ref> Nyingine ni molekuli zenye miundo sahili, kama nyuzi zinazoundwa na [[kolajeni]] za protini. Protini zinaweza kujifungilia kwa protini nyingine na [[molekuli sahili]], wakati mwingine zilifanya kazi kama [[Kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] kwa kuwezesha mmenyuko wa kemikali ndani ya molekuli zilizofungwa (bila kubadilisha muundo wa protini yenyewe). Muundo wa protini una nguvu; [[himoglobini]] ya protini hujikunja katika aina zilizo tofauti kidogo ikiwa inawezesha kukamatwa, kusafirishwa, na kutolewa kwa molekuli za oksijeni ndani ya damu ya [[mamalia]]. Tofauti moja ya nyukleotidi ndani ya DNA inaweza kusababisha mabadiliko katika mpangilio wa aminoasidi ya protini. Kwa kuwa miundo ya protini hutokana na mpangilio wa aminoasidi zake, baadhi ya mabadiliko yanaweza kubadili kwa ghafla tabia za protini kwa kuvuruga muundo au kubadilisha uso wa protini kwa njia ambayo inabadilisha mahusiano yake na protini nyingine na molekuli. Kwa mfano, [[anemia selimundu]] ni ugonjwa wa binadamu unaohusiana na jeni na ambao husababishwa na tofauti moja kwenye msingi ndani ya eneo la kusimba la sehemu ya β-globin la himoglobini, hivyo kusababisha badiliko la aminoasidi ambalo hubadilisha tabia halisi za himoglobini.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Does Sickle Cell Cause Disease? |url=http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/scd_background.html |date=11 Aprili 2002 |accessdate=23 Julai 2007 |publisher=Brigham and Women's Hospital: Information Center for Sickle Cell and Thalassemic Disorders}}</ref> Matoleo ya anemia selimundu hujitenga, huku yakijiweka kwa vituta vinavyounda nyuzi ambazo hupotosha umbo ya [[seli nyekundu]] za damu zinazobeba protini. Seli hizo zilizo na umbo la [[mundu]] haziwezi tena kupita vizuri katika mishipa ya damu, hivyo kuwa na tabia ya kuziba au kuharibu, na kusababisha matatizo ya kitabibu yanayohusiana na ugonjwa huu. Baadhi ya jeni hunakiliwa katika RNA lakini hazitafsiriwi na kuwa bidhaa za protini: molekuli kama hizo za RNA zinaitwa [[RNA zisizosimba]]. Katika kesi nyingine, bidhaa hizo hujikunja na kuwa miundo ambayo inashiriki katika kazi muhimu za seli (kwa mfano [[RNA za ribosomu]] na [[RNA hamishi]]). RNA zinaweza pia kuwa na athari za kudhibiti kupitia mahusiano ya [[uvyausaji]] na molekuli nyingine za RNA (k.m. [[mikroRNA]]). ===Maumbile dhidi ya malezi=== [[File:Niobe050905-Siamese Cat.jpeg|thumb|upright|Paka wa kabila la [[Siamese]] wana mabadiliko ambayo hutokana na [[joto]] katika uzalishaji wa [[pigmenti]].]] Ingawa jeni huwa na maelezo yote ambayo kiumbe hutumia ili kufanya kazi, mazingira huwa na mchango muhimu katika kuamua fenotipu ya mwisho, jambo ambalo mara nyingi hujulikana kama "maumbile dhidi ya malezi". Fenotipu ya viumbe hutegemea mahusiano ya jenetiki na mazingira. Mfano mmoja ni kesi ya mabadiliko yanayohusiana na [[joto-hisi]]. Mara nyingi, badiliko moja la aminoasidi katika mpangilio wa protini huwa halibadilishi tabia za protini hiyo na mwingiliano wake na molekuli nyingine, lakini huwa linavuruga muundo. Katika mazingira yenye kiwango cha juu cha [[Halijoto|joto]], ambapo molekuli zinasonga kwa kasi zaidi na kugongana, mambo haya husababisha protini kupoteza muundo wake na kushindwa kufanya kazi. Hata hivyo, katika mazingira yenye kiwango cha chini cha joto, muundo wa protini ni thabiti na huwa inafanya kazi kama kawaida. Aina hii ya mabadiliko huonekana katika rangi ya ngozi ya aina ya paka inayoitwa Siamese, ambapo mabadiliko katika kimeng'enya kinachohusika na utoaji rangi hukifanya kivurugike na kipoteze uwezo wa kufanya kazi katika viwango vya joto vya juu<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x |pmid=16573534 |year=2006 |last1=Imes |first1=DL |last2=Geary |last3=Grahn |last4=Lyons |title=Albinism in the domestic cat (Felis catus) is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation. |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=175–8 |journal=Animal genetics |first2=LA |first3=RA |first4=LA |pmc=1464423}}</ref>Protini hiyo huendelea kufanya kazi katika maeneo ya ngozi ambayo yana viwango vya joto vya chini (miguu, ma[[sikio]], [[mkia]], na [[uso]], hivyo paka huyu ana manyoya meusi katika sehemu hizo. Mazingira pia huwa na athari kubwa katika madhara ya ugonjwa wa binadamu unaohusiana na jeni wa [[feniketonuria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/phenylketonuria.html |title=MedlinePlus: Phenylketonuria |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=NIH: National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Mabadiliko yanayosababisha feniketonuria huvuruga uwezo wa mwili wa kuyeyusha aminoasidi [[fenilalanini]], na husababisha kukusanyika kwa [[sumu]] ya molekuli ya kati ambayo, kwa upande mwingine, husababisha [[dalili]] kali za [[ulemavu wa akili]] na mishtuko ya [[moyo]] zinazoendelea kuenea. Hata hivyo, kama mtu mwenye mabadiliko ya feniketonuria atafuata mwongozo kamili wa [[chakula]] ambao unaepuka aminoasidi hiyo, atakuwa na afya nzuri na ataendelea na maisha yake kama kawaida. Njia maarufu ya kupima kiasi cha athari ya mazingira na malezi ni kutazama kwa makini mapacha wanaofanana na wasiofanana au ndugu waliozaliwa kwa nyakati mbalimbali.{{Citation needed|date=Oktoba 2009}} Kwa sababu ndugu wanaofanana kabisa hutoka kwa [[zaigoti]] moja, nao huwa na jeni sawa. Kumbe ndugu wasiofanana wana jeni tofauti kama ilivyo kwa ndugu wa kawaida. Kwa kulinganisha mara ngapi mmojawapo wa mapacha ana tatizo sawa na mwenzake kati ya mapacha wanaofanana na wale wasiofanana, wanasayansi wanaweza kuona kama athari nyingi zinazotokana na mazingira au malezi. Mfano mmoja maarufu wa utafiti wa watoto waliozaliwa wakiwa zaidi ya wawili ni mapacha wanne wa Genain, waliokuwa wanafanana wote na kutambuliwa wana dhiki ileile.<ref name="Genain">{{cite book |title=The Genain quadruplets;a case study and theoretical analysis of heredity and environment in schizophrenia. |url=https://archive.org/details/genainquadruplet0000rose |last= Rosenthal |first=David |year= 1964 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn= B0000CM68F}}</ref> ===Usawazishaji wa jeni=== Jenomu ya kiumbe fulani huwa na maelfu ya jeni, lakini si jeni hizo zote zinahitajika kuhaja ya kuwa hai wakati wowote. Jeni hupatikana wakati inanakiliwa katika [[mRNA]] (na kutafsiriwa katika protini), na kuna njia nyingi za mkononi za kudhibiti usemi wa jeni vile protini ni zinazozalishwa tu wakati zinahitajika kwa seli. Vipengele vya kunakili ni [[protini rekebishi]] zinazojifunga na kuanza jeni, ama kukuza au kuzuia unakili wa jeni.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11823631 |doi=10.1126/science.1066355 |year=2002 |last1=Brivanlou |first1=AH |last2=Darnell Je |title=Signal transduction and the control of gene expression. |volume=295 |issue=5556 |pages=813–8 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.) |first2=JE}}</ref><ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269#1270 II.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269#1270 Control of Gene Expression – The Tryptophan Repressor Is a Simple Switch That Turns Genes On and Off in Bacteria]</ref> [[File:Zinc finger DNA complex.png|thumb|upright|left|Vipengele vya unakili hujifunga kwenye DNA, na kuathiri unakili wa jeni zinazohusishwa.]] Tofauti katika upatikanaji wa jeni hasa huonekana wazi ndani ya viumbe wenye seli nyingi, ambapo seli zote huwa na jenomu sawa lakini miundo na tabia tofauti sana kutokana na upatikanaji wa seti tofauti za jeni. Seli zote katika viumbe wenye seli nyingi hutoka kwa seli moja, na kugawanyika katika aina tofauti za seli hutokana na ishara za nje na ndani ya seli na kuanzisha ruwaza tofauti za upatikanaji wa jeni, polepole, ili kuunda tabia tofauti. Kwa kuwa hakuna jeni moja ambayo inaweza kutengeneza miundo ndani ya viumbe vilivyo na seli nyingi, ruwaza hizi hutokana na mahusiano changamano kati ya seli nyingi. Ndani ya [[Eukaryota|viumbe wenye seli zilizo na miundo changamano]] kuna sehemu za miundo za kromatini ambazo huathiri unakili wa jeni, mara nyingi kupitia marekebisho ya DNA na kromatini ambayo hurithiwa kwa njia thabiti na seli zinazotengenezwa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1089 |pmid=12610534 |year=2003 |last1=Jaenisch |first1=R |last2=Bird |title=Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. |volume=33 Suppl |pages=245–54 |journal=Nature genetics |first2=A}}</ref> Sehemu hizo zinaitwa "[[epijenetiki]]" kwa sababu zipo "juu" ya mpangilio wa DNA na huhifadhi urithi kutoka kizazi kimoja cha seli hadi kizazi kingine. Kwa sababu ya sehemu hizo epijenetiki, aina tofauti za seli zilizokuzwa ndani ya mazingira mamoja zinaweza kuhifadhi tabia tofauti sana. Ingawa sehemu za epijenetiki kwa jumla zina nguvu juu ya mkondo wa ukuaji, baadhi yake, kama suala la mabadiliko maalum ambapo aleli moja ya heterozigasi hubadilisha ile nyingine kabisa, lina urithi unaohusisha vizazi vingi na hupatikana kama mambo yasiyo ya kawaida kwa kanuni ya jumla ya DNA kama msingi wa urithi.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2007.02.007 |pmid=17320501 |year=2007 |last1=Chandler |first1=VL |title=Paramutation: from maize to mice. |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=641–5 |journal=Cell}}</ref> ==Mabadiliko ya jeni== ===Migeuko=== [[File:Gene-duplication.png|thumb|upright|Utoaji tena wa jeni huruhusu [[uanuwaishaji]] kwa kutoa urudufishaji: jeni moja inaweza kubadilika na kupoteza utendaji kazi wake wa awali bila kukidhuru kiumbe.]] Wakati wa mchakato wa urudufishaji wa DNA, mara kwa mara makosa hutokea katika [[upolimishaji]] wa ncha ya pili. Makosa hayo, yaitwayo mabadiliko, yanaweza kuwa na athari kwenye fenotipu ya kiumbe, hasa kama yatatokea katika mpangilio wa usimbaji wa protini, wa jeni. Viwango vya makosa kwa kawaida huwa chini sana (kosa 1 katika kila misingi milioni 10-100) kutokana na uwezo wa "[[usahihishaji prufu]]" wa polimerasi za DNA.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2706">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2706 |chapter=Spontaneous mutations |editor-first=William M.}}</ref><ref name="Kunkel">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7600158 |pmid=15057282 |year=2004 |last1=Freisinger |first1=E |last2=Grollman |last3=Miller |last4=Kisker |title=Lesion (in)tolerance reveals insights into DNA replication fidelity. |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=1494–505 |journal=The EMBO journal |first2=AP |first3=H |first4=C |pmc=391067}}</ref> (Bila usahihishaji prufu viwango vya makosa vingekuwa juu sana; kwa sababu virusi vingi hutegemea polimerasi za DNA na RNA, ambazo hazina uwezo wa kusahihisha prufu, hivyo huwa na viwango vya juu vya mabadiliko). Michakato ambayo huongeza kasi ya mabadiliko katika DNA huitwa [[mutajeniki]]: kemikali zinazohusika na mutajeniki huendeleza makosa katika urudufishaji wa DNA, mara nyingi kwa kuingilia muundo wa uambatanishaji-msingi, huku [[mnururisho]] wa UV ukichochea mabadiliko kwa kusababisha uharibifu kwa muundo wa DNA.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2727">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2727 |chapter=Induced mutations |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Uharibifu unaosababishwa na kemikali kwenye DNA pia hutokea kiasili, na seli hutumia utaratibu wa kutengeneza DNA ili kutengeneza sehemu zozote zilizounganishwa vibaya na kuvunjika katika DNA; hata hivyo, utengenezaji wakati mwingine hushindwa kurudisha DNA katika mpangilio wake asili. Katika viumbe vinavyotumia uvukaji wa kromosomu ili kubadilishana DNA na kuunganisha jeni tena, makosa katika mfungamano wakati wa meiosisi pia yanaweza kusababisha mabadiliko.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2844">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2844 |chapter=Chromosome Mutation I: Changes in Chromosome Structure: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Makosa katika uvukaji hasa yanaweza kutokea wakati mipangilio inayofanana inasababisha kromosomu zilizo pamoja kuchukua mfungamano ulio na makosa; jambo hili huwa linafanya baadhi ya maeneo katika jenomu kuwa na uwezo mkubwa wa kuathiriwa na mabadiliko kwa njia hiyo. Makosa hayo huunda mabadiliko makubwa kwenye muundo katika mpangilio wa DNA-urudufishaji, mageuzo au kufutwa kwa maeneo yote, au ubadilishaji kimakosa wa sehemu nzima kati ya kromosomu tofauti (jambo liitwalo [[ubadilishaji eneo]]). ===Uteuzi wa kimaumbile na mageuko=== Mabadiliko hubadilisha jenotipu ya kiumbe na mara kwa mara mabadiliko hayo husababisha fenotipu tofauti kuonekana. Mabadiliko mengi yana athari ndogo juu ya fenotipu, afya au uzima wa uzazi katika kiumbe. Mabadiliko ambayo huwa na athari kwa kawaida hufuta, lakini mara kwa mara baadhi ya mabadiliko yanaweza kuwa na faida. Utafiti katika [[nzi]] aina ya ''Drosophila melanogaster'' unapendekeza kwamba ikiwa mabadiliko yatabadilisha protini iliyozalishwa na jeni, karibu asilimia 70 ya mabadiliko hayo yatakuwa hatari, yaliyosalia yakiwa ama hayana madhara yoyote au yana manufaa madogo.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17409186 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701572104 |year=2007 |last1=Sawyer |first1=SA |last2=Parsch |last3=Zhang |last4=Hartl |title=Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila. |volume=104 |issue=16 |pages=6504–10 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=J |first3=Z |first4=DL |pmc=1871816}}</ref> [[File:Eukaryote tree.svg|thumb|left|Mti wa mageuko ya viumbe wenye seli nyingi, uliotengenezwa kwa kulinganisha jeni kadhaa zilizotoka moja kwa moja kwa jeni moja asilia]] Jenetikia wa idadi hutafiti usambazaji wa tofauti za kijeni katika watu na jinsi usambazaji huo unavyobadilika kadiri wakati unavyopita.<ref name="griffiths2000sect3842">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3842 |chapter=Variation and its modulation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Mabadiliko katika mara ambayo aleli inatokea katika idadi ya watu, wanyama na mimea hasa huathiriwa na [[uteuzi asili]], ambapo aleli fulani hutoa faida ya kiuteuzi au kiuzazi kwa kiumbe,<ref name="griffiths2000sect3886">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3886 |chapter=Selection |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> pamoja na mambo mengine kama vile [[mkondo wa jeni]], [[uteuzi bandia]] na uhamaji.<ref name="griffiths2000sect3906">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3906 |chapter=Random events |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kupita vizazi vingi, jenomu ya viumbe inaweza kubadilika kwa kiasi kikubwa, na hivyo kusababisha mageuko. Uteuzi kwa mabadiliko yaliyo na manufaa unaweza kusababisha spishi kugeuka na kuwa aina bora zinazoweza kuishi katika mazingira yake, mchakato uitwao marekebisho.<ref name="Darwin"> {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=1st |pages=1 |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 |isbn=0801413192}} . Mawazo ya hapo awali yaliyohusiana yalikubaliwa katika {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1861 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=3rd |pages=xiii |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 |nopp=true |isbn=0801413192}}</ref> Spishi mpya hutengenezwa kwa njia ya mchakato wa mageuko yanayosababisha kuwepo kwa spishi mpya, sanasana yanayosababishwa na utenganishaji wa kijiografia unaozuia idadi za wanyama na mimea kubadilishana jeni.<ref name="Gavrilets">{{cite journal |pmid=14628909 |doi=10.1554/02-727 |year=2003 |last1=Gavrilets |first1=S |title=Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=2197–215 |journal=Evolution; international journal of organic evolution}}</ref> Matumizi ya kanuni za kijeni katika utafiti wa biolojia na mageuko ya idadi ya wanyama na mimea yanajulikana kama usanisi wa kisasa. Kwa kulinganisha [[homolojia]] kati ya aina tofauti za jenomu za spishi inawezekana kuhesabu umbali wa mageuko baina ya spishi hizo na wakati ambapo zinaweza kuwa ziliachana (utaratibu huo unaitwa [[saa ya molekuli]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12175808 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02744-0 |year=2002 |last1=Wolf |first1=YI |last2=Rogozin |last3=Grishin |last4=Koonin |title=Genome trees and the tree of life. |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=472–9 |journal=Trends in genetics : TIG |first2=IB |first3=NV |first4=EV}}</ref> Ulinganishaji wa jeni kwa jumla hufikiriwa kuwa mbinu sahihi zaidi ya utambazi-sifa za uhusiano kati ya spishi kuliko ulinganifu wa tabia za kifenotipu. Mageuko ya umbali baina ya spishi yanaweza kutumika kutengenezea miti inayoonyesha mageuko; miti hiyo huwakilisha asili moja na kuachana kwa spishi kadiri muda unavyokwenda, ingawa haionyeshi uhamishaji wa nyenzo za jeni kati ya spishi zisizo na uhusiano (jambo linalojulikana kama uhamishaji jeni wa mlalo na ambao hutokea sana katika bakteria). ==Utafiti na teknolojia== ===Viumbe vielelezi na jenetikia=== [[File:Drosophila melanogaster - side (aka).jpg|thumb|right|[[Nzi-tunda]] wa kawaida (Drosophila melanogaster) ni kiumbe maarufu anayetumiwa kama mfano katika utafiti wa jeni.]] Ingawa wataalamu wa jeni mwanzoni walikuwa wakitafiti urithi katika aina mbalimbali za viumbe, watafiti walianza kufanya utafiti maalum wa jenetikia ya vikundi maalum vya viumbe. Ukweli kwamba utafiti mpana wa kiumbe maalum tayari ulikuwepo ulihimiza watafiti wapya kumchagua kiumbe huyo wamfanyie utafiti zaidi, na hatimaye viumbe kadhaa waliotumika kama mfano wakawa msingi wa tafiti nyingi za jeni.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html |title=The Use of Model Organisms in Instruction |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=University of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Outreach Research Modules |archivedate=2008-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313023531/http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html }}</ref> Mada zinazotafitiwa sana katika jenetikia wa viumbe ni pamoja na utafiti wa jeni kanuni na ushiriki wa jeni katika maendeleo na [[kansa]]. Kati ya sababu zilizozingatiwa katika uchaguzi wa viumbe kuna ufupi wa muda kati ya vizazi pamoja na uendeshaji rahisi wa jeni. Hizo zilifanya baadhi ya viumbe kuwa zana maarufu katika utafiti. Viumbe vilivyotumika sana kama mifano ni pamoja na bakteria inayopatikana kwenye tumbo ''Escherichia coli'', mmea wa ''Arabidopsis thaliana', [[chachu]] inayotumiwa katika [[ukokaji]] ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"), [[nematodi]] ''Caenorhabditis elegans', nzi-tunda wa kawaida ("Drosophila melanogaster"), na [[panya]] wa kawaida wa nyumbani ("Mus musculus"). ===Utafiti wa kimatibabu wa jenetikia=== Jenetikia ya kimatibabu hujaribu kuelewa jinsi tofauti katika jeni zinavyohusiana na afya na maradhi ya binadamu.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd&ref=sidebar| title=NCBI: Genes and Disease| publisher=NIH: National Center for Biotechnology Information| accessdate=15 Machi 2008}}</ref> Wakati wa kutafuta jeni ambayo haijulikani na ambayo inaweza kuwa imehusika na ugonjwa, kwa kawaida watafiti hutumia uhusiano katika jeni na chati za ukoo wa jeni ili kupata eneo kwenye jenomu linalohusiana na ugonjwa husika. Katika ngazi ya idadi ya wanyama na mimea, watafiti hutumia uchaguzi wa kinasibu wa Mendel kutafuta maeneo katika jenomu yanayohusishwa na ugonjwa, mbinu ambayo hasa ni muhimu kwa ajili ya sifa za jeni nyingi ambazo hazifafanuliwi wazi na jeni moja.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/ije/dyg070 |pmid=12689998 |year=2003 |last1=Davey Smith |first1=G |last2=Ebrahim |title='Mendelian randomization': can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2003-02_32_1/page/1 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |journal=International journal of epidemiology |first2=S}}</ref> Baada ya jeni inayoshukiwa kuhusika kupatikana, mara nyingi utafiti zaidi hufanyiwa kuhusu jeni inayofanana (inayoitwa jeni iliyotoka moja kwa moja katika jeni asilia) katika viumbe vinavyotumiwa kama mfano. Mbali na kutafitia magonjwa yanayohusiana na jeni, upatikanaji ulioongezeka wa mbinu za utambuzi wa aina ya jeni umesababisha kuwepo kwa taaluma ya [[famakojenetikia]] ili kutafiti jinsi aina ya jeni inavyoweza kuathiri matokeo ya madawa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm |title=Pharmacogenetics Fact Sheet |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=NIH: National Institute of General Medical Sciences |archivedate=2008-05-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512012316/http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm }}</ref> Watu hutofautiana katika uwezekano uliorithiwa wa kupatwa na kansa,<ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15510167</ref> na kansa ni ugonjwa unaohusiana na jeni.<ref>[154] ^ {{cite book| author=Strachan T, Read AP| title=Human Molecular Genetics 2| year=1999| publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc.| edition=second}} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.chapter.2342 Chapter 18: Cancer Genetics]</ref> Mchakato wa ukuaji wa kansa katika mwili ni mchanganyiko wa matukio. Mara kwa mara mabadiliko hutokea ndani ya seli katika mwili wakati zinajigawa. Ingawa mabadiliko hayo hayatarithiwa na mtoto yeyote, yanaweza kuathiri tabia ya seli, wakati mwingine yakizifanya zikue na kujigawanya mara nyingi zaidi. Kuna taratibu za kibiolojia ambazo hujaribu kusimamisha mchakato huo; ishara hutumwa kwa seli inayojigawa visivyo ambayo inachochea kifo cha seli, lakini wakati mwingine mabadiliko ziada hutokea ambayo huzifanya seli ziupuuze ujumbe huo. Mchakato wa ndani ya uteuzi asilia hutokea ndani ya mwili na hatimaye mabadiliko hujilimbikiza ndani ya seli na kukuza ukuaji wa seli hizo, hivyo kujenga vivimbe vyenye kansa ambavyo hukua na kushambulia [[tishu]] mbalimbali za mwili. ===Mbinu za utafiti=== DNA inaweza kutawaliwa kiufundi katika [[maabara]]. Vimeng'enya vya uzuiaji ni aina ya [[Kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] ambayo hutumiwa sana na mabyo huikata DNA kwa mpangilio maalum, hivyo kuzalisha vipande vinavyoweza kutabirika vya DNA.<ref> Lodish et al. (2000), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582 Chapter 7: 7.1.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582 DNA Cloning with Plasmid Vectors]</ref> Vipande vya DNA vinaweza kuonekana kupitia matumizi ya [[elektroforesisi]] ya jeli, ambayo hutenganisha vipande kwa kuzingatia urefu wake. Matumizi ya vimeng'enya ligation huruhusu vipande vya DNA kushikamana, na kwa nguvu ya DNA ligating pamoja kutoka vyanzo mbalimbali, watafiti wanaweza kujenga DNA recombinant. Mara nyingi zinazohusiana na iliyopita viumbe genetiskt, DNA recombinant ni kawaida kutumika katika mazingira ya-fupi mviringo DNA vipande plasmids na wachache jeni ya juu yao. Kwa kuingiza plazmidi katika bakteria na kukuza bakteria hizi kwenye [[sahani za aga]] (ili kutenga seli za bakteria zilizoumbwa bila kuhusisha kujamiana), watafiti wanaweza kukuza kipande cha DNA kilichoingizwa kupitia uumbaji usiohusisha kujamiana (mchakato unaojulikana kama uumbaji wa molekuli usiohusisha kujamiana). (Neno kukloni, yaani kuumba bila kuhusisha kujamiana, pia linaweza kurejelea utengenezaji wa viumbe kwa njia hii, kupitia mbinu mbalimbali.) [[File:Ecoli colonies.png|thumb|right|175px|Vikundi vya E. coli kwenye sahani ya aga, ni mfano wa utengenezaji wa seli bila kujamiana na mara nyingi hutumika katika utengenezaji wa aina hii wa molekuli.]] DNA pia inaweza kukuzwa kwa kutumia utaratibu uitwao maitikio ya mfululizo ya polimerasi (PCR).<ref> Lodish et al. (2000), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=PCR&amp;rid=mcb.section.1718 Chapter 7: 7.7.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=PCR&amp;rid=mcb.section.1718 Polymerase Chain Reaction: An Alternative to Cloning]</ref> Kwa kutumia mipangilio mifupi na maalum ya DNA, utaratibu wa PCR unaweza kutenga na kukuza kipeo eneo lengwa la DNA. Kwa sababu inaweza kukuza kutoka kiasi kidogo mno cha DNA, PCR mara nyingi pia hutumika kugundua kuwepo kwa mwandamano maalum DNA. ===Mpangilio wa DNA na jenomiki=== Mojawapo ya teknolojia za msingi zilizotengenezwa kuchunguza jenetikia, upangaji DNA huruhusu watafiti kuamua mpangilio wa nyukleotidi katika vipande vya DNA. Mpangilio maalum wa upangaji DNA uliobuniwa na [[Frederick Sanger]] na wenzake mwaka [[1977]], sasa hutumika mara kwa mara kupanga vipande vya DNA.<ref>{{cite book |author=Brown TA |title=Genomes 2 |edition=2nd |year=2002 |isbn=1 85996 228 9 |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6452 |chapter=Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.1. The Methodology for DNA Sequencing |publisher=Bios |location=Oxford}}</ref> Teknolojia hiyo imewawezesha watafiti kuchunguza mipangilio ya molekuli inayohusishwa na magonjwa mengi ya binadamu. Kutokana na kupungua kwa gharama ya upangaji, watafiti wamepanga jenomu za viumbe wengi, kwa kutumia zana za kuhesabu ili kuunganisha mipangilio ya vipande vingi tofauti (mchakato uitwao [[ukusanyaji jenomu]]).<ref>[159] ^ Brown (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481 Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.2.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481 Assembly of a Contiguous DNA Sequence]</ref> Teknolojia hizo zilitumika kupanga jenomu ya binadamu, na kusababisha kukamilika kwa Mradi wa Jenomu ya Binadamu mwaka [[2003]].<ref name="human_genome_project">{{cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml |title=Human Genome Project Information |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=Human Genome Project |archive-date=2008-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315062131/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Teknolojia mpya zinapunguza kwa kasi gharama ya upangaji wa DNA, huku watafiti wengi wakitumaini kupunguza gharama ya upangaji upya wa jenomu ya binadamu hadi [[dola]] elfu.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.311.5767.1544 |pmid=16543431 |year=2006 |last1=Service |first1=RF |title=Gene sequencing. The race for the $1000 genome. |volume=311 |issue=5767 |pages=1544–6 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> Kiasi kikubwa cha data ya mpangilio kinachoweza kupatikana kimesababisha taaluma ya [[jenomiki]], utafiti ambao hutumia zana za hesabu kutafuta na kuchunguza ruwaza katika jenomu kamili ya viumbe. Taaluma ya jenomiki pia inaweza kuchukuliwa kama tawi la taaluma ya [[bioinfomatiki]], ambayo hutumia mbinu za hesabu kuchambua seti kubwa za data ya biolojia. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Walter P |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |year=2002 |isbn=0-8153-3218-1 |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York}} * {{Rejea kitabu |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge0000unse_v1d3 |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |editor-first=William M.}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Hartl D, Jones E |title=Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes |url=https://archive.org/details/genetics00dani |edition=6th |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |year=2005 |isbn=0-7637-1511-5}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, and Darnell J |title=Molecular Cell Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00lodi |edition=4th |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3136-3 |publisher=Scientific American Books |location=New York}} * {{Rejea kitabu |editor1-first=Guenther |editor1-last=Witzany |title=Natural Genetic Engineering and Natural Genome Editing |year=2009|publisher=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |location=New York |isbn=1573317659}} ISBN 978-57331-765-8 [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.2009.1178.issue-1/issuetoc] [[Category:Jenetikia]] [[Category:Tiba]] fg1bx0bz1w296arou531i5qos06zzat 0 75982 1564447 1103782 2026-06-02T14:05:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564447 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:DeaconsingingExsultet2007.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Shemasi]] akiimba [[mbiu ya Pasaka]] ''[[Exultet]]'' karibu na mshumaa wa Pasaka.]] [[File:Paschal2008.jpg|thumb|Mishumaa mbalimbali ya Pasaka huko [[Uholanzi]].]] '''Mshumaa wa Pasaka''' (au '''Mshumaa mkuu''') ni [[mshumaa]] maalumu unaotumika katika [[liturujia]] ya [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali ya [[Ukristo wa magharibi]] kama [[kiwakilishi]] cha [[Yesu]] [[Ufufuko wa Yesu|mfufuka]]. Mshumaa mpya wa namna hiyo [[baraka|unabarikiwa]] na kuwashwa kila [[mwaka]] katika [[kesha]] la [[usiku wa Pasaka]], halafu unawashwa wakati wa maadhimisho mbalimbali, kama yale muhimu zaidi ya [[Kipindi cha Pasaka]] (hadi [[Pentekoste]]) na hata nje yake, kwa mfano wakati wa [[ubatizo]] na [[mazishi ya Kikristo]]. Unatakiwa kuwa mkubwa kuliko mishumaa ya kawaida na uweze kudumu hadi Pasaka ya mwaka unaofuata. Kwa kawaida unachorwa [[alama]] mbalimbali, hasa [[msalaba wa Yesu]] na [[herufi]] [[Alfabeti ya Kigiriki|za]] [[Kigiriki]] [[Alfa]] na [[Omega]], ambazo ni ya kwanza na ya mwisho katika [[alfabeti]] ya [[lugha]] [[Kiyunani|hiyo]] ya [[Agano Jipya]], na hivyo zinamaanisha kuwa [[Masiya|Kristo]] ni [[mwanzo]] ([[asili]]) na [[mwisho]] ([[lengo]]) wa [[ulimwengu]] wote. Baada ya kuwashwa kwenye [[moto wa Pasaka]], mshumaa huo unapelekwa kwa [[maandamano]] hadi karibu na [[mimbari]] au [[altare]], na wakati huo waamini wanawasha kwake mishumaa yao binafsi ili kumaanisha kwamba wameshirikishwa [[mwanga]] wa [[Kristo]] na kumfuata. ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.candlecarving.info The Candle Carving Site] {{CathEncy|wstitle=Paschal Candle}} {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Category:Liturujia]] 4s2ac2n6scys21pbf86a6cpjg5yb876 0 76995 1564490 1438203 2026-06-02T17:07:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564490 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Handicapped Accessible sign.svg|thumbnail|[[Alama]] ya [[jengo]] linalofaa kwa watu wanaotumia [[Kitimaguru|kiti cha magurudumu]].]] '''Ulemavu''' ni hali ya kuwa na hitilafu ya kudumu [[mwili]]ni au [[akili]]ni inayomzuia mtu kutekeleza [[shughuli]] zilizo kawaida katika [[maisha]] ya [[jamii]]. Unamwekea mtu mipaka asiweze kutekeleza shughuli fulani katika maisha yake, tofauti na watu wengine. ==Hitilafu na ulemavu== [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) limeunda mfumo wa kupanga alama za ulemavu. Hapa kuna tofauti kati ya *hitilafu ''(kwa [[Kiingereza]] impairment)'' kama kukosa uwezo wa kutumia [[kiungo]] cha mwili kama kawaida *ulemavu (''ing. disability)'' kama hitilafu inasababisha kukosa uwezo wa kutekeleza shughuli zinazotekelezwa na "watu wa kawaida". *hasara au kikwazo ''(ing. handicap)'' inayoweza kupatikana kwa mtu mwenye ulemavu akishindwa kutekeleza shughuli katika jamii. Kwa mfano, [[mtoto]] aliyeambukizwa [[ugonjwa wa kupooza]] ''(ing. cerebral palsy)'' anabaki na hitilafu ya viungo vya miguu: hawezi kuvikunja wala haiwezi kustahimili [[uzito]] wa mwili wake. Hitilafu hiyo inamzuia kutembea kwa njia ya kawaida. Kama [[Tiba|hatibiwi]], hitilafu inaweza kuongezeka kwa sababu [[misuli]] ya miguu inajikaza zaidi na zaidi. Kukosa uwezo wa kutembea ni ulemavu. Lakini kiwango chake kinaweza kupunguzwa kwa tiba na vifaa vya pekee. Akijifunza kutembea kwa kutumia vyuma vilivyofungwa kando ya miguu, vizuizi vya kutekeleza shughuli vinapungua sana. Kutegemeana na mazingira anapoishi ataona hasara ndogo au kubwa zaidi akitafuta njia yake katika maisha. [[Faili:Pieter Bruegel d. Ä. 024.jpg|thumb|250px|Vilema, [[picha]] ya [[Pieter Brueghel Mzee]], [[Uholanzi]], mnamo 1568.]] ==Ulemavu wa kimwili== Ulemavu wa kimwili unatokana na hitilafu yoyote inayoiwekea mipaka kazi ya kawaida ya viungo vya mwili kama vile [[mikono]] au miguu na sehemu nyingine za mwili ==Ulemavu wa milango ya fahamu== Hapo ni hasa hitilafu zinazohusu uwezo wa kuona au kusikia. Kuna pia watu wenye hitilafu za kunusa au kuonja. ==Ulemavu wa akili== Hitilafu mbalimbali katika [[ubongo]] na [[mfumo wa neva]] zinaweza kuonekana katika *kuchelewa kwa watoto kuketi, kutambaa, kutembea au kusema *matumizi ya [[lugha]] *matatizo ya kukumbuka *matatizo ya kujifunza kanuni za kijamii *matatizo ya kutambua na kuelewa matatizo na kutafuta [[suluhisho]] *uhaba wa uwezo wa kujitunza, kama kuvaa, kula na kukuta njia. Ulemavu wa kiakili unatokea kwa viwango tofauti sana. Mara nyingi hautambuliki hadi mtoto anapoingia [[shule]] na huko anachelewa kujifunza. Hata hapo ni lazima kutofautisha kama tatizo ni ulemavu wa akili au ulemavu wa kujifunza tu. Wengine wanaishia kiwango cha [[elimu]] kinacholingana na uwezo wa mtoto wa wastani mwenye miaka 9-12<ref>[http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0215/p1059.html Identification and Evaluation of Mental Retardation, American Family Physician, Feb 15, 2000]</ref> na wanaweza kujifunza [[kazi]] inayowawezesha kudumisha maisha yao wakiwa [[watu wazima]]. ==Haki za watu wenye ulemavu== [[Mwaka]] [[2006]] [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulianzisha [[Mkataba wa kimataifa kuhusu haki za watu wenye ulemavu]] (UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities = UNCRPD) kwa [[shabaha]] ya kulinda na kuboresha hali ya walemavu [[milioni]] 650 duniani. Hadi mwaka [[2015]] mataifa 159 yaliutia [[sahihi]] [[mkataba]] huo na 154 kati ya hayo yaliidhinisha hatua hiyo. Mataifa yaliyokubali mkataba huo yamepokea [[wajibu]] wa kuhakikisha [[haki]] sawa za elimu, [[ajira]], kumiliki [[mali]] na [[ndoa|kuoa]] sawa na watu wote. Ni [[marufuku]] kuwatumia bila [[kibali]] kwa [[majaribio ya kiganga]]. [[Taasisi]] na shirika mbalimbali zinafuatilia jinsi gani masharti hayo yanatekelezwa na [[serikali]] mbalimbali. Kwa mfano, katika [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] kuna ''United Disabled Persons of Kenya'' (UDPK) au ''Shirikisho la Vyama vya Watu Wenye Ulemavu'' [[Tanzania]]. Nchini Tanzania katiba ya [[1977]] ilitambua haki za watu wenye ulemavu na kukataza aina zote za [[ubaguzi]]. Mnamo mwaka wa 2004, [[Wizara ya kazi, Maendeleo ya Vijana na Michezo]] ilitoa [[Sera ya Taifa]] ya watu wenye ulemavu, inayosisitiza kujitolea kwa [[wizara]] hiyo katika kuhakikisha kwamba kuna haki sawa kwa watu wenye ulemavu. ==Michezo ya walemavu== [[Faili:Wheelchair basketball at the 2008 Summer Paralympics.jpg|250px|thumbnail|[[Mechi]] ya [[mpira wa kikapu]] kwenye [[Paralimpiki]] mwaka [[2008]]]] Kuna nchi nyingi ambako walemavu wana [[klabu]] za [[michezo]] au kuendesha michezo katika vitengo vya pekee vya klabu za kawaida. Kwa kawaida wanatekeleza michezo ya kawaida lakini kufuatana na kanuni zinazolingana na hitilafu zao. Kwenye ngazi ya kimataifa kuna mashindano makubwa ambayo ni hasa *Michezo ya paralimpiki (Paralympics) kwa walemavu wa mwili *Olimpiki za pekee (Special Olympics) kwa walemavu wa akili *Deaflympics kwa watu wasiosikia ==Marejeo== <references/> ==Kujisomea== * C. G. Mung'ong'o, Njozi iliyopotea, Tanzania Pub. House, 1980, ISBN 9976100205, 9789976100204 * {{cite conference |last1=Arditi |first1=A. |last2=Rosenthal |first2=B. |year=1998 |title=Developing an objective definition of visual impairment |conference=Vision '96: Proceedings of the International Low Vision Conference |pages=331–334 |location=Madrid, Spain: [[ONCE]] |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Burkhauser |first1=Richard V. |last2=Schmeiser |first2=Maximilian D.|last3=Weathers II |first3=Robert R.|date=Jan 2012 |title=The Importance of Anti-Discrimination and Workers' Compensation Laws on the Provision of Workplace Accommodations Following the Onset of a Disability |journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review |volume=65 |issue=1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Darling |first=Peter |date=Aug 2007 |title=Disabilities and the Workplace |journal=Business NH Magazine |volume=24 |issue=8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=DePoy |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Gilson |first2=Stephen French |year=2004 |title=Rethinking Disability: Principles for Professional and Social Change |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingdisabi0000depo |location=Pacific Grove, CA |publisher=Brooks Cole |isbn=978-0-534-54929-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Donovan |first=Rich |date=March 1, 2012 |title=The Global Economics of Disability |url=http://www.returnondisability.com/pdf-docs/The_Global_Economics_of_Disability_2012.pdf |publisher=Return on Disability |accessdate=August 11, 2012 |ref=harv |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913222254/http://www.returnondisability.com/pdf-docs/The_Global_Economics_of_Disability_2012.pdf |archivedate=2012-09-13 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ducy |first1=Elizabeth McAdams |last2=Stough |first2=Laura M. |last3=Clark |first3=M. Carolyn |year=2012 |title=Choosing Agency in the Midst of Vulnerability: Using Critical Disability Theory to Examine a Disaster Narrative |work=Critical Qualitative Research Reader |editor1-last=Steinberg |editor1-first=Shirley R. |editor2-last=Cannella |editor2-first=Gaile S. |location=New York |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4331-0688-0}} * {{cite journal |last=Miles |first=Albert S |year=1994 |title=Brown v. Board of Education and the American with Disabilities Act: Vistas of equal educational opportunities for African Americans |journal=Journal of Negro Education |volume=63 |issue=3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last1=Nikora |first1=Linda Waimari |last2=Karapu |first2=Rolinda |last3=Hickey |first3=Huhana |last4=Te Awekotuku |first4=Ngahuia |year=2004 |title=Disabled Maori and Disability Support Options |url=http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/460/1/content.pdf |publisher=Maori&nbsp;& Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato |accessdate=August 11, 2012 |ref=harv |archivedate=2020-05-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513220653/https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/460/content.pdf;jsessionid=CC679321B8E56B193727B2B489F9B94F?sequence=1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Stough |first=Laura M. |year=2009 |title=The Effects of Disaster on the Mental Health of Individuals With Disabilities |work=Mental Health and Disasters |editor1-last=Neria |editor1-first=Yuval |editor2-last=Galea |editor2-first=Sandro |editor3-last=Norris |editor3-first=Fran H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41282-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Yeo |first=Rebecca |year=2005 |title=Disability, poverty, and the new development agenda |publisher=Disability Knowledge and Research Programme |url=http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf |accessdate=June 19, 2013 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Albrecht |editor-first=Gary L. |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of disability |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0-7619-2565-1}} * {{cite book |last=Bowe |first=Frank |year=1978 |title=Handicapping America: Barriers to disabled people |url=https://archive.org/details/handicappingamer00bowe |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-010422-1}} * {{cite book |last=Charlton |first=James I. |title=Nothing about us without us : disability oppression and empowerment |year=2004 |publisher=Univ. of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif. [u.a.] |isbn=9780520224810 |edition=[3. Dr]}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Glenn |first=Eddie |year=1995 |title=African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview |url=http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/Us_Eu/ada_e/pres_com/pres-dd/glenn.html |encyclopedia=[http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/Us_Eu/ada_e/pres_com/pres-dd/glenn.html Disability and diversity: New leadership for a new era] |editor1-last=Walker |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Turner |editor2-first=K. A. |editor3-last=Haile-Michael |editor3-first=M.|editor4-last=Vincent |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=Miles |editor5-first=M. D. |location=Washington, DC |publisher=President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities and Howard University Research and Training Center for Access to Rehabilitation and Economic Opportunity}} * {{cite book |last=Johnstone |first=David |year=2001 |edition=2nd |title=An Introduction to Disability Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontodi0000john_k7w3 |location= |publisher=Fulton |isbn=978-1-85346-726-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Masala |first1=Carmelo |last2=Petretto |first2=Donatella Rita |year=2008 |title=Psicologia dell'Handicap e della Riabilitazione |trans_title=The Psychology of Handicap and Rehabilitation |language=Italian |location=Rome |publisher=Kappa |isbn=978-88-15-06226-0}} * {{cite book |last=Oliver |first=Michael |year=1997 |title=The Politics of Disablement |location=London |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-0-333-43293-8}} * {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Charlotte |year=2006 |title=Direct Payments and Personalisation of Care |url=https://archive.org/details/directpaymentspe0000unse |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Dunedin Academic Press |isbn=978-1-903765-62-3}} * {{cite book |last=Shakespeare |first=Tom |author2=with Anne Kerr |year=1999 |title=Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome |location=Cheltenham |publisher=New Clarion Press |isbn=978-1-873797-25-9}} * {{cite journal |last=Burch |first=Susan |date=July 2009 |title=(Extraordinary) Bodies of Knowledge: Recent Scholarship in American Disability History |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=23 |pages=29–34|issn=0882-228X |doi=10.1093/maghis/23.3.29 |issue=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Kaushik |first=R. |year=1999 |title=Access Denied: Can we overcome disabling attitudes |journal=Museum International |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=48–52 |publisher=UNESCO|issn=1468-0033 |doi=10.1111/1468-0033.00217}} * {{cite journal |last=Lansing |first=Michael J. |date=January 2009 |title='Salvaging the Man Power of America': Conservation, Manhood, and Disabled Veterans during World War I |pages=32–57 |journal=Environmental History |volume=14 |location= |publisher=|issn=1084-5453 |doi=10.1093/envhis/14.1.32}} * {{cite journal |last=Longmore |first=Paul |date=July 2009 |title=Making Disability an Essential Part of American History |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=23 |pages=11–15|isbn=|issn=0882-228X |doi=10.1093/maghis/23.3.11 |issue=3}} * {{cite journal | author = Masala C, Petretto DR | title = From disablement to enablement: conceptual models of disability in the 20th century | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_disability-and-rehabilitation_2008_30_17/page/n4 | journal = Disability and Rehabilitation | volume = 30 | issue = 17 | pages = 1233–1244 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18821191 | doi = 10.1080/09638280701602418 | issn = 0963-8288 }} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons cat|Disabled people}} *[http://shivyawata.or.tz/ Shirikisho la Vyama vya watu wenye ulemavu Tanzania SHIVYAWATA - Tanzania Federation of Disabled People’s Organizations] {{Wayback|url=http://shivyawata.or.tz/ |date=20151025010156 }} *[http://shivyawata.or.tz/surveys/download/Fact%20Sheet%20Tanzania%20_Swa.pdf Taarifa: Hali ya haki za watu wenye ulemavu Tanzania, imetolewa na SHIVYAWATA] {{Wayback|url=http://shivyawata.or.tz/surveys/download/Fact%20Sheet%20Tanzania%20_Swa.pdf |date=20160304224638 }} *[http://hakielimu.org/files/publications/document172Sauti_Elimu-22.pdf Walemavu wana haki ya kupata elimu, Hakielimu Sautielimu toleo 9-2009] {{Wayback|url=http://hakielimu.org/files/publications/document172Sauti_Elimu-22.pdf |date=20160306194202 }} *[http://www.unicef.org/tanzania/AdvocacyBrief-DISABILITY-SWA-WEB.pdf Watoto na Ulemavu - ajenda ya watoto, muhtasari wa utetezi watoto; UNICEF Tanzania] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unicef.org/tanzania/AdvocacyBrief-DISABILITY-SWA-WEB.pdf |date=20160304201659 }} *[http://kenya.thebeehive.org/content/29/703 Ishara za ulemavu wa masomo, beehive Kenya] {{Wayback|url=http://kenya.thebeehive.org/content/29/703 |date=20160412130111 }} *[http://chavita.or.tz/about-us/ Tovuti ya Chama cha Viziwi Tanzania CHIVITA - Tanzania Association of the Deaf] {{Wayback|url=http://chavita.or.tz/about-us/ |date=20150510221413 }} *[https://envaya.org/TUSPO/home Tovuti ya Tanzania Users and Survivors of Psychiatry Organisation TUSPO] {{Wayback|url=https://envaya.org/TUSPO/home |date=20160304200635 }} [[Jamii:Afya]] [[Jamii:Ulemavu]] [[Jamii:Ubaguzi]] k4ph0t3j8zvqgkzayb9flu4eex2byg1 0 79675 1564448 1520162 2026-06-02T14:10:18Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564448 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]).]] [[image:Manikarnika Ghat, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India (2011).jpg|thumb|300px|Kuchoma maiti huko [[Manikarnika Ghat]] ([[Uhindu]])]] [[image:Opening of the mouth ceremony (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|Kufungua [[Kinywa|mdomo]] ([[Misri ya Kale]]).]] [[image:Kotsuage.JPG|thumb|300px|''Kotsuage'' ([[Japan]]).]] [[File:Peasant Funeral.jpg|thumb|''Mazishi ya mkulima huko [[Connemara]], [[Ireland]]'', 1870]] '''Mazishi''' ni [[taratibu]] za kuheshimu na kuzika [[maiti]] ya mtu au mabaki yake. Taratibu hizo zinategemea [[dini]] na [[mila]] za wahusika, hivyo zinatofautiana sana<ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa Kiswahili, taz. Misale ya Waamini, toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Mara nyingi mazishi yanaendana na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kukumlilia pamoja na kufariji wafiwa. Mazishi ni ya zamani sana, maana yalikuwepo kabla ya ''Homo sapiens'' kutokea miaka 300,000 hivi iliyopita.<ref name=British>"When Burial Begins", ''British Archaeology'', issue 66, August 2002, found at [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba66/feat1.shtml British Archaeology website] {{Wayback|url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba66/feat1.shtml |date=20070602060232 }}. Accessed September 4, 2008.</ref><ref name=British /><ref>{{Rejea jarida|first=J. D. |last=Sommer |year=1999 |title=The Shanidar&nbsp;IV 'Flower Burial': a Re-evaluation of Neanderthal Burial Ritual |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=127–129 |issn=0959-7743 |doi=10.1017/S0959774300015249}}</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Mazishi ya Kikristo]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] 85bc9teuc14ffy7szdhq63yilgq2dqp 1564452 1564448 2026-06-02T14:25:10Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564452 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]).]] [[image:Manikarnika Ghat, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India (2011).jpg|thumb|300px|Kuchoma maiti huko [[Manikarnika Ghat]] ([[Uhindu]])]] [[image:Opening of the mouth ceremony (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|Kufungua [[Kinywa|mdomo]] ([[Misri ya Kale]]).]] [[image:Kotsuage.JPG|thumb|300px|''Kotsuage'' ([[Japan]]).]] [[File:Peasant Funeral.jpg|thumb|''Mazishi ya mkulima huko [[Connemara]], [[Ireland]]'', 1870]] '''Mazishi''' ni [[taratibu]] za kuheshimu na kuzika [[maiti]] ya mtu au mabaki yake. Taratibu hizo zinategemea [[dini]] na [[mila]] za wahusika, hivyo zinatofautiana sana<ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa Kiswahili, taz. Misale ya Waamini, toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Mara nyingi mazishi yanaendana na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kumlilia pamoja na [[faraja|kufariji]] wafiwa. Mazishi ni ya zamani sana, maana yalikuwepo kabla ya [[Binadamu|Homo sapiens]] kutokea miaka 300,000 hivi iliyopita.<ref name=British>"When Burial Begins", ''British Archaeology'', issue 66, August 2002, found at [http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba66/feat1.shtml British Archaeology website] {{Wayback|url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/BA/ba66/feat1.shtml |date=20070602060232 }}. Accessed September 4, 2008.</ref><ref name=British /><ref>{{Rejea jarida|first=J. D. |last=Sommer |year=1999 |title=The Shanidar&nbsp;IV 'Flower Burial': a Re-evaluation of Neanderthal Burial Ritual |journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=127–129 |issn=0959-7743 |doi=10.1017/S0959774300015249}}</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Mazishi ya Kikristo]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] d9jntdvvnomek86lbyn90mkq3y5wka5 0 86393 1564465 1510548 2026-06-02T16:24:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564465 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Herpes(PHIL 1573 lores).jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Tutuko]] {{Infobox disease | Image = Herpes(PHIL 1573 lores).jpg | Caption = [[Hepesi ya mdomo]] wa chini. | DiseasesDB = 5841 | DiseasesDB_mult = {{DiseasesDB2|33021}} | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|60||a|50}}, {{ICD10|B|00||b|00}}, {{ICD10|G|05|1|g|00}}, {{ICD10|P|35|2|p|35}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|054.0}}, {{ICD9|054.1}}, {{ICD9|054.2}}, {{ICD9|054.3}}, {{ICD9|771.2}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1006 | MeshID = D006561 }} <!-- Maelezo na dalili --> '''Tutuko''' (kutoka [[kitenzi]] "kututuka"; pia '''Hepesi simpleksi''' kutoka [[jina]] la [[Kiingereza]] lenye [[asili]] ya [[Kigiriki]] ἕρπης, ''herpes'', "unaoenea polepole" au "uliofichika") ni [[ugonjwa wa kuambukiza]] unaosababishwa na [[virusi vya hepesi simpleksi]].<ref name=CDC2014F/> [[Maambukizi]] yameainishwa kulingana na sehemu ya [[mwili]] iliyoambukizwa: * [[Hepesi ya mdomo]] hujumuisha [[uso]] au [[mdomo]]. Inaweza kusababisha [[malengelenge]] madogo katika vikundi yaitwayo vidonda baridi au malengelenge ya joto jingi au inaweza tu kusababisha [[maumivu]] ya [[koo]].<ref name=Bal2014/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mosby|title=Mosby's Medical Dictionary|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323112581|pages=836-837|edition=9|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=aW0zkZl0JgQC&pg=PA836}}</ref> * [[Hepesi ya viungo vya uzazi]] inaweza kuwa na [[dalili]] chache au kusababisha malengelenge ambayo hupasuka na kusababisha [[vidonda]] vidogo.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Hivyo kwa kawaida hupona kwa [[muda]] wa [[wiki]] [[mbili]] hadi [[nne]].<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Maumivu yanayowasha au yanayochoma yanaweza kutokea kabla ya malengelenge kutokea.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Hepesi huzunguka kati ya vipindi vya ugonjwa vilivyo na dalili vikifuatiwa na vipindi visivyo na dalili.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Kwa kawaida kipindi cha kwanza huwa kali zaidi na kinaweza kuhusishwa na [[joto]] jingi, maumivu ya [[misuli]], [[nodi ya limfu]] iliyovimba na maumivu ya [[kichwa]].<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Muda unavyosonga, vipindi vya ugonjwa vilivyo na dalili hupungua kwa mara unapotokea na ukali.<ref name=CDC2014F/> Matatizo mengine yanayosababishwa na hepesi simpleksi hujumuisha: [[paronikia ya hepesi]] inapohusisha [[vidole]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=IB|last2=Schwartz|first2=RA|title=Herpetic whitlow.|journal=Cutis|date=March 2007|volume=79|issue=3|pages=193-6|pmid=17674583}}</ref> [[hepesi ya macho]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rowe|first1=AM|last2=St Leger|first2=AJ|last3=Jeon|first3=S|last4=Dhaliwal|first4=DK|last5=Knickelbein|first5=JE|last6=Hendricks|first6=RL|title=Herpes keratitis.|journal=Progress in retinal and eye research|date=January 2013|volume=32|pages=88-101|pmid=22944008}}</ref> [[hepesi ya ubongo]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Steiner|first1=I|last2=Benninger|first2=F|title=Update on herpes virus infections of the nervous system.|journal=Current neurology and neuroscience reports|date=December 2013|volume=13|issue=12|pages=414|pmid=24142852}}</ref> na [[hepesi ya watoto wachanga]] inapoathiri [[mtoto]] mchanga, n.k.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stephenson-Famy|first1=A|last2=Gardella|first2=C|title=Herpes Simplex Virus Infection During Pregnancy.|journal=Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America|date=December 2014|volume=41|issue=4|pages=601-614|pmid=25454993}}</ref> == Kisababishi na utambuzi== Kuna aina mbili za [[virusi]] vya hepesi simpleksi: aina ya 1 (HSV-1) na aina ya 2 (HSV-2).<ref name=CDC2014F/> HSV-1 kwa kawaida zaidi husababisha maambukizi ya mdomo huku HSV-2 kwa kawaida zaidi ikisababisha maambukizi ya viungo vya uzazi.<ref name=Bal2014/> Husababishwa kwa kugusana moja kwa moja kwa [[Kiowevu|viowevu]] vya mwili au vidonda vya mtu aliyeambukizwa.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Kuenea bado kunaweza kutokea hata iwapo dalili hazipo.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Hepesi ya [[viungo vya uzazi]] imeainishwa kama maambukizi yanayoenezwa kupitia [[ngono]].<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Yanaweza kuenezwa kwa mtoto mchanga wakati wa kuzaliwa.<ref name=CDC2014F/> Baada ya kuambukizwa, maambukizi husafirishwa kupitia [[nyuroni]] inayopitisha [[hisia]] hadi kwa [[seli]] za [[neva]], pale ambapo virusi hukaa kwa maisha yote.<ref name=Bal2014>{{cite journal|last1=Balasubramaniam|first1=R|last2=Kuperstein|first2=AS|last3=Stoopler|first3=ET|title=Update on oral herpes virus infections.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_dental-clinics-of-north-america_2014-04_58_2/page/n13|journal=Dental clinics of North America|date=April 2014|volume=58|issue=2|pages=265-80|pmid=24655522}}</ref> Visababishi vya kujirudia vinaweza kujumuisha: [[kupungua kwa utenda kazi wa kingamwili]], mafadhaiko na kupatana na [[jua]].<ref name="Saratani">{{cite journal |author=Elad S |title=A systematic review of viral infections associated with oral involvement in cancer patients: a spotlight on Herpesviridea |journal=Support Care Cancer |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=993–1006 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20544224 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/g476114717852h80/ |doi=10.1007/s00520-010-0900-3 |author-separator=, |author2=Zadik Y |author3=Hewson I |display-authors=3 |last4=Hovan |first4=Allan |last5=Correa |first5=M. Elvira P. |last6=Logan |first6=Richard |last7=Elting |first7=Linda S. |last8=Spijkervet |first8=Fred K. L. |last9=Brennan |first9=Michael T. |access-date=2016-11-01 |archive-date=2019-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915113345/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00520-010-0900-3 |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915113345/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00520-010-0900-3 }}</ref><ref name=Bal2014/> Hepesi ya mdomo na ile ya viungo vya uzazi kwa kawaida hutambuliwa kwa kuzingatia dalili zilizodhihirika.<ref name=Bal2014/> Utambuzi unaweza kuthibitishwa na [[tabia ya virusi]] au [[DNA]] ya kutambua hepesi kwenye viowevu vinavyotoka katika malengelenge.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Kuchunguza [[damu]] ili kutambua [[kingamwili]] dhidi ya virusi kunaweza kuthibitisha maambukizi ya hapo awali lakini kutakuwa hasi katika maambukizi mapya.<ref name=CDC2014F/> == Kinga na tiba == Njia inayofaa zaidi ya kuzuia maambukizi ya viungo vya uzazi ni kwa kuzuia ngono kupitia [[uke]], mdomo, au [[unyeo]].<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Matumizi ya [[kondomu]] yanaweza kupunguza, lakini si kuondoa kabisa hatari.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> [[Dawa]] ya kila siku ya [[kudhibiti virusi]] inayonywewa na [[mtu]] aliyeambukizwa pia inaweza kuzuia kuenea.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Hadi sasa hakuna [[chanjo]] iliyopatikana.<!-- <ref name=CDC2014F/> --> Unapoambukizwa hakuna [[tiba]].<ref name=CDC2014F/> [[Paracetamol]] (acetaminophen) na topical lidocaine zinaweza kutumika ili kupunguza dalili.<ref name=Bal2014/> Matibabu kwa dawa za kudhibiti virusi kama vile [[asiklovia]] au [[valasiklovia]] yanaweza kupunguza ukali wa vipindi vinavyodhihirisha dalili.<ref name=CDC2014F/><ref name=Bal2014/> ==Uenezi == Viwango vya HSV 1 au HSV-2 ulimwenguni kote ni kati ya [[asilimia]] 60 na 95 kwa watu wazima.<ref name=Peds09/> HSV-1 kwa kawaida hupatikana utotoni.<ref name=CDC2014F>{{cite web|title=Genital Herpes - CDC Fact Sheet|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/STDFact-Herpes-detailed.htm|website=cdc.gov|accessdate=31 December 2014|date=December 8, 2014}}</ref> Viwango vya zote mbili huongezeka watu wanapozeeka.<ref name=Peds09/> Viwango vya HSV-1 huwa kati ya asilimia 70 na 80 katika watu ambao hali yao ya kijamii na kiuchumi ni ya chini na asilimia 40 hadi 60 kwa watu ambao hali yao ya jijamii na kiuchumi imeboreka.<ref name=Peds09>{{cite journal |author=Chayavichitsilp P, Buckwalter JV, Krakowski AC, Friedlander SF |title=Herpes simplex |journal=Pediatr Rev |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=119–29; quiz 130 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19339385 |doi=10.1542/pir.30-4-119 |url=}}</ref> Kadirio la watu milioni 536 ulimwenguni kote (asilimia 16 ya watu) walikuwa wameambukizwa HSV-2 kufikia 2003 huku viwango vya juu zaidi vikiwa wanawake na walio katika ulimwengu unaoendelea.<ref name=Looker2008>{{cite journal|last=Looker|first=KJ|author2=Garnett, GP |author3=Schmid, GP |title=An estimate of the global prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection.|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=October 2008|volume=86|issue=10|pages=805–12, A|pmid=18949218|pmc=2649511|doi=10.2471/blt.07.046128}}</ref> Watu wengi walio na HSV-2 hawatambui kuwa wameambukizwa.<ref name=CDC2014F/> ==Marejeo== <references/> {{mbegu-tiba}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya ngozi]] [[Jamii:Maradhi ya zinaa]] 599gu9uxvbzsbbjnis8yoez1exi8tnc 0 107977 1564461 1465082 2026-06-02T16:16:44Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564461 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tatizo la kutojizuia kurudiarudia tendo''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''obsessive-compulsive disorder'', [[kifupi]]: '''OCD'''<ref>Katika Kiingereza, kirai ''kuwa na hofu na kurudia kitu (obsessive-compulsive)'' mara nyingi hutumika kwa njia isiyo rasmi isiyohusika na Tatizo la kiakili linalomfanya mtu kuwa na hofu na kisha kurudia tabia fulani (OCD) kuelezea mtu ambaye mwangalifu sana katika mambo madogo madogo, [[Ukamilifu (saikolojia)|mkamilifu]], ametekwa fikra, au vinginevyo kufungwa kwa kitu au mtu. Taz. {{cite book|last1=Bynum|first1=W.F.|last2=Porter|first2=Roy|last3=Shepherd|first3=Michael|title=The anatomy of madness : essays in the history of psychiatry|date=1985|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-32382-6|pages=166–187|chapter=Obsessional Disorders: A Conceptual History. Terminological and Classificatory Issues.}}</ref>) ni [[tatizo la akili]] ambapo mtu huhisi haja ya kuangalia [[vitu]] mara kwa mara, kufuata utaratibu fulani mara kwa mara, au kuwa na mawazo yaleyale mara kwa mara.<ref name=NIH2015 /> Watu hao hawana uwezo wa kudhibiti ama mawazo au shughuli kwa zaidi ya kipindi kifupi. <ref name=NIH2015 /> Shughuli za kawaida ni kama vile [[kuosha mikono]], kuhesabu vitu, na kuangalia iwapo [[mlango]] umefungwa.<ref name=NIH2015 /> Wengine wanaweza kuwa na ugumu wa kutupa vitu nje.<ref name=NIH2015 /> Shughuli hizo hutokea kiasi kwamba [[maisha]] ya kila siku yanaathirika vibaya.<ref name=NIH2015>{{cite web|title=What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml|website=U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH)|author=The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)|date=January 2016|accessdate=24 July 2016|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723194024/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml|archivedate=23 July 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Hii mara nyingi hutokea zaidi ya saa moja kwa siku.<ref name=DSM5>{{cite book|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing|location=Washington|isbn=978-0-89042-555-8|pages=237–242|edition=5}}</ref> [[Watu wazima]] wengi hugundua kwamba tabia hizo hazina maana.<ref name=NIH2015 /> Hali hiyo inahusiana na [[mitetemo ya neva]] [[Uso|usoni]], [[tatizo la kuwa na wasiwasi kila mara]], na kuongezeka kwa hatari ya [[kujiua]].<ref name=DSM5 /><ref name=Ang2015>{{cite journal|last1=Angelakis|first1=I|last2=Gooding|first2=P|last3=Tarrier|first3=N|last4=Panagioti|first4=M|title=Suicidality in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|date=25 March 2015|volume=39|pages=1–15|pmid=25875222|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.03.002}}</ref> ==Chanzo== Chanzo hakijulikani<ref name=NIH2015 /> ila kuna visababishi fulani vya [[jenetikia]], hivyo [[pacha wanaofanana]] huathiriwa sana mara nyingi kuliko pacha wasiofanana.<ref name=DSM5 /> Vipengele vya hatari ni kama vile [[historia]] ya [[unyanyasaji wa mtoto]] au tukio linalosababisha mawazo mazito.<ref name=DSM5 /> Baadhi ya hali zimeshawekwa kwenye [[kumbukumbu]] kutokea kwa sababu ya [[maambukizi]].<ref name=DSM5 /> Utambuzi unategemea [[dalili]] na huhitaji kuondoa vyanzo vingine vinavyohusiana na [[dawa]] au [[tiba]].<ref name=DSM5 /> Vipimo vya viwango kama vile [[Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale]] (Y-BOCS) vinaweza kutumika ili kutathmini ukali wake.<ref name="Fenske_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fenske JN, Schwenk TL | title = Obsessive compulsive disorder: diagnosis and management | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 80 | issue = 3 | pages = 239–45 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19621834 | doi = | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0801/p239.html | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140512222223/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2009/0801/p239.html | archivedate = 12 May 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Matatizo mengine yaliyo na dalili sawa ni pamoja na tatizo la kuwa na wasiwasi kila mara, [[tatizo la kuwa na huzuni kali kwa muda mrefu]], [[tatizo la kula isivyo kawaida]], [[tatizo la kuwa na mtetemo wa neva usoni]], na tatizo la akili linalomfanya mtu kurudiarudia tabia fulani ya kibinafsi.<ref name=DSM5 /> ==Tiba== [[Matibabu]] yanajumuisha [[ushauri]], kama vile [[tiba ya tabia za utambuzi]] (CBT), na wakati mwingine [[dawa za kutibu huzuni]] kama vile kuchagua kizuizi cha ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (SSRIs) au dawa ya kutibu matatizo ya hofu, wasiwasi na huzuni (clomipramine).<ref name=NEJM2014 /><ref name=Ve2014 /> Tiba ya tabia za utambuzi (CBT) kwa tatizo hili (OCD) huhusisha kuongeza kuwekwa wazi kwa chanzo cha shida huku huruhusu tabia ya kujirudia kutotokea.<ref name=NEJM2014>{{cite journal | author = Grant JE | title = Clinical practice: Obsessive-compulsive disorder. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2014-08-14_371_7/page/646 | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 371 | issue = 7 | pages = 646–53 | date = 14 August 2014 | pmid = 25119610 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMcp1402176}}</ref> Huku dawa ya kutibu matatizo ya hofu, wasiwasi na huzuni (clomipramine) huonekana kufanya kazi sawa na kuchagua kizuizi cha ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (SSRIs), ina madhara mengi hivyo huachwa kwanza ili itumike kukihitajika tu.<ref name=NEJM2014 /> [[Dawa za kutibu magonjwa ya kisaikolojia zisizo za kawaida]] zinaweza kuwa muhimu zikitumika pamoja na SSRI katika hali za kukataa matibabu lakini pia zinahusishwa na hatari ya ongezeko la madhara.<ref name=Ve2014>{{cite journal |last=Veale |first= D|last2= Miles|first2=S |last3=Smallcombe |first3= N|last4=Ghezai |first4=H |last5=Goldacre |first5=B|last6=Hodsoll |first6=J |date=29 November 2014 |title=Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in SSRI treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. |journal=BMC Psychiatry|publisher= |volume= 14|issue= |pages=317 |doi=10.1186/s12888-014-0317-5 |pmid=25432131 |pmc=4262998}}</ref><ref name=Dec2010>{{cite journal |vauthors=Decloedt EH, Stein DJ | title = Current trends in drug treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder | journal = Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat | volume = 6 | issue = |pages = 233–42 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20520787 | pmc = 2877605 | doi = 10.2147/NDT.S3149}}</ref> Bila matibabu, hali hiyo mara nyingi hudumu kwa miongo.<ref name=DSM5 /> ==Uenezi== Tatizo hili huathiri karibu 2.3[[%]] ya watu kwa wakati fulani maishani mwao.<ref name=Good2014>{{cite journal|last1=Goodman|first1=WK|last2=Grice|first2=DE|last3=Lapidus|first3=KA|last4=Coffey|first4=BJ|title=Obsessive-compulsive disorder.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatric-clinics-of-north-america_2014-09_37_3/page/n14|journal=The Psychiatric clinics of North America|date=September 2014|volume=37|issue=3|pages=257–67|pmid=25150561|doi=10.1016/j.psc.2014.06.004}}</ref> Viwango katika mwaka fulani ni karibu 1.2%, na hutokea kote [[ulimwenguni]].<ref name=DSM5 /> Si kawaida kwa dalili kuanza baada ya [[umri]] wa miaka 35, na [[nusu]] ya watu huwa na matatizo kabla ya umri wa miaka 20.<ref name=NIH2015 /><ref name=DSM5 /> huku [[wanaume]] na [[wanawake]] huathiriwa kwa viwango sawa.<ref name=NIH2015 /> == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category}} *{{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Anxiety/Obsessive-Compulsive/}} *[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/obsessive-compulsive-disorder-ocd/index.shtml National Institute Of Mental Health] *[https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ocd/what-is-obsessive-compulsive-disorder American Psychiatric Association] *[http://www.div12.org/psychological-treatments/disorders/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/ APA Division 12 treatment page for obsessive-compulsive disorder] {{Wayback|url=http://www.div12.org/psychological-treatments/disorders/obsessive-compulsive-disorder/ |date=20200809202423 }} *{{cite book |author=Davis, Lennard J. |title=Obsession: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/obsessionhistory00davi_0 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-226-13782-7}} [[Category:Saikolojia| ]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] ccd0sazewwklnt21ovgla3gv5httir9 3 131903 1564526 1549580 2026-06-03T02:09:18Z MediaWiki message delivery 17311 /* Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 */ mjadala mpya 1564526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{karibu}}--'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:30, 19 Desemba 2020 (UTC) ==Kuhusu Uhariri== Habari ndugu Anuary Rajabu Hongera sana kwa jitihada zako za kuhariri katika Wikipedia ya Kiswahili, jaribu kupitia sana ukurasa wa mabadiliko ya karibuni ili kuweza kuona baadhi ya makala zako na namna zinavyoendelea kuboreshwa, na utumie maboresho hayo katika makala zako nyingine. Amani sana kwako. Idd ninga'''[[Mtumiaji:Idd ninga|Idd ninga]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Idd ninga|majadiliano]])''' 22:58, 23 Mei 2021 (UTC) ==Volkeno== Ndugu naona tunaingiliana kwenye makala kuhusu [[Chamko la volkeno]]. Sijamaliza bado. Ushauri ni: uangalie historia ya makala; kama imehaririwa dakika chache zilizopita, kuna uwezekano mhariri bado anaendelea.. Kwa hiyo heri kusibiri hadi kesho. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 20:05, 25 Mei 2021 (UTC) :Ooh Sawa kiongozi nimekuelwa Samahani kwa hilo, Nitafanya hivo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 22:17, 25 Mei 2021 (UTC) ==Jina la Mtu== Salamu Anuary Rajabu Unaweza kuangalia katika makala zako zenye majina ya watu na kuona baadhi ya mabadiliko hasa ya masahihisho ya jina, kwa kawaida unapoandika jina la mtu inafaa kabisa jina liandikwe kwa herufi kubwa badala ya ndogo, unaweza kuona namna majina ya makala zako yalivyobadilishwa, hongera kwa juhudi unazofanya, endelea kujifunza zaidi, [[Mtumiaji:Idd ninga|Idd ninga]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Idd ninga|majadiliano]]) == Nimekuzuia siku 3 == Ndugu, uliondoa vigezo vya umaarufu, vyanz na futa kutoka ukurasa wa [[Melody Mbassa]], bila maelezo yoyote. Hapa umeingilia katika kazi ya usimamizi wa wikipedia hii. Nimekuzuia sasa kwa siku 3, huwezi kuhariri kwa siku hizo. Unaweza kujieleza kwenye ukurasa huu hapa. Ukiweza kutaja sababu zinazoeleweka naweza kuondoa kizuizi.'''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 08:41, 28 Mei 2021 (UTC) Naomba kusamehewa,nilikua sijui kuhusu hilo lakini kwa kuwa kiongozi wangu ameweza kunielekeza kuhusu hilo, sitoweza kufanya hivo tena kwani mie sio mjuzi sana katika uhariri wa makala. Hivo nimeweza kujifunza. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 09:07, 28 Mei 2021 (UTC) :Asante kwa kujibu. Nimekufungua. Ila bado hujasema kwa nini uliondoa vigezo vile? '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 18:57, 28 Mei 2021 (UTC) == Can you help me correct an article? Thank you! == Hello, {{Ping|Anuary Rajabu}}! I wrote an article on Andrea Benetti, a well-known Italian artist https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Benetti_(artist). I used the automatic translator to make a draft https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mtumiaji:BarbaraLuciano13 . Could you help me correct the text and add the infobox with the photo at the beginning and the categories at the bottom? Unfortunately I don't know the language and I am not able to do it ... Thanks for what you can do, see you soon, --'''[[Mtumiaji:BarbaraLuciano13|BarbaraLuciano13]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:BarbaraLuciano13|majadiliano]])''' 09:11, 19 Juni 2021 (UTC) ==Marekebisho== Salamu Anuary, tazama katika makala hii hapa https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entisar_Elsaeed kuna sehemu umeandika kuwa Entisari ni mwanaharakati wa kutetea Wanawake, lakini katika makala hii ukasema kuwa Elsaeed na taasisi yake walilenga katika kuongeza unyanyasaji wa wanawake majumbani, nafikiri kuwa ulitaka kuandika kupunguza, sasa cha kufanya pitia makala yake ni kuifanyia marekebishom, tazama katika makala ya kiingereza nini kilichoandikwa,Amani sana'''[[Mtumiaji:Idd ninga|Idd ninga]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Idd ninga|majadiliano]])''' 18:34, 9 Machi 2022 (UTC) :sawa kiongozi nimeelewa nitafanya hivyo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 12:47, 10 Machi 2022 (UTC) ==Hongera== Anuary naona siku hizi unaleta michango mingi yenye thamani. Naona umeshika vizuri fomati ya wikipedia. Nakupa Hongera! '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 07:59, 16 Machi 2022 (UTC) :Asante sana. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 11:34, 16 Machi 2022 (UTC) ::Pamoja na pongezi, naomba uangalie makala zenyewe: kweli tunahitaji kutetea ushoga? Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 08:13, 29 Machi 2022 (UTC) :::Asante kwa kufanyia doria makala nyingi. Mimi nimezidiwa. Ila naomba uondoe tanbihi za Wikipedia ya Kiingereza na hasa jamii nyingi mno. Unakuta makala ya mwanamuziki wa Nigeria ina jamii:Sanaa ya Afrika! kama si Jamii:Afrika! Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 09:14, 4 Mei 2022 (UTC) ::::Asante sana, nitajitahidi kufanya hivyo. Amani iwe nasi sote. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 14:31, 4 Mei 2022 (UTC) == JAMII za Muziki Aziingiliani na michezo == Amani kwako ndugu, kuwa makini wakati unachagua jamii ya kuweka kwenye makala,acha kuunganisha jamii ya muziki na makala za mchezo wa Mpira wa miguu. '''[[Mtumiaji:Justine Msechu|Justine Msechu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Justine Msechu|majadiliano]])''' 19:41, 14 Mei 2022 (UTC) :Asante kwa ukumbusho nadhani ni suala la kujisahau tu katika ukopiji wa jamii wakati wa kuchapisha makala, hivo nitazipitia makala zangu zote ili kurekebisha makosa hayo. Amani iwe nasi sote. 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Feel free to [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2022/Contact Us|contact us]] if you need any assistance or further queries. Best wishes, [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2022|FNF 2022 International Team]] ::::Stay connected [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 07:50, 22 Mei 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf&oldid=23312270 --> == Reminder to provide information - Feminism and Folklore 2022 == Dear User The Google form to submit information of winners during the 2022 edition of Feminism and Folklore 2022 end on 10th of June 2022. Please be informed that you will loose your prize once the deadline for sending information ends. We humbly urge you to kindly fill the form using [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScK5HgvVaLph_r_afctwShUuYVtXNwaN24HUSEYnzUUho8d-Q/viewform?usp=sf_link this link] as soon as possible. Feel free to contact us on mail or talkpage if you have any difficulties. Thank you for understanding! Regards International Team Feminism and Folklore 2022 '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 12:38, 5 Juni 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf&oldid=23364696 --> == Mipira ya samaki == Salamu Anuary. Ukichangia makala unafuata mabadiliko katika makala haya na kusoma majadiliano yake? Niliweka maoni yangu na swali kwenye [[Majadiliano:Mipira ya samaki]] (angalia hapo chini). Bado ninangoja jibu lako. Mipira wa samaki ni tafsiri isiyofaa kwa "fish balls". Maana ya mpira kwanza ni "rubber", kwa hivyo ikiwa maana yake ni "ball" hiyo ball ni aina ya rubber au labda ya plastiki. Kwa ujumla, "food ball" ni tonge kwa Kiswahili, au kitonge ikiwa ni dogo. "Meat ball" ni kababu, kwa hivyo labda tutumie hii kwa "fish ball" pia. Mnapendelea neno gani? '''[[Mtumiaji:ChriKo|ChriKo]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:ChriKo|majadiliano]])''' 06:00, 22 Juni 2022 (UTC) :Asante sana Chriko kwa ukumbusho wako mzuri, hakika kweli Mipira ya samaki sio tafsiri thabiti ya "fish ball", hivyo katika kuchangia kwangu uhariri wa makala hiyo sikuweza kupitia huo ujumbe wako ulioacha. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 02:16, 23 Juni 2022 (UTC) == Tena jamii == Asante kwa kutekeleza masahihisho. Sasa mfano wa [[Alfred Dan Moussa]]. Umemweka kwa "Wanahabari wa Cote d'Ivoire" PIA "Watu wa Cote d'Ivoire". Hii ya pili ni bure. "Wanahabari wa Cote d'Ivoire" umeanzisha kama jamii mpya, sasa unahitaji kufungua ukurasa wake (bofya jina jekundu tu) na ndani yake unaandika (katika mabano mraba) "Watu wa Cote Cote d'Ivoire" halafu pia jamii husika ya wanahabari. Uitafute tu, utakuta jina tofauti kidogo "Jamii:Waandishi wa habari". '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 20:52, 26 Julai 2022 (UTC) :Ahsante sana kwa ukumbusho wako mzuri, lakini makala hii sikuianzisha mimi, hivo mie nimefanya masahihisho tu katika makala. :Pia katika suala la kuongeza, kupunguza na masahihisho ya jamii niliogopa kuingilia majukumu ndio maana niliacha kama nilivyokuta, kwani nafahamu hilo ni jukumu la mkabidhi. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 05:02, 27 Julai 2022 (UTC) ==[[Sage Steele]]== Ndugu, hongera kwa juhudi zako. Ila unapotaka kuchangia ukurasa fulani, usianze na moja. Kwa mfano huo hapo juu ulikata viungo na maandishi mazuri. Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 06:07, 31 Julai 2022 (UTC) :ukarasa huo ulikua hauna vyanzo na pia baadhi ya maudhui yalikua hayaendani na makala ya kiingereza, hivo ndio nilikua najaribu kuongeza vyanzo kwa kuanza kuandika upya, lakini baadhi ya vitu kama jamii na picha nimerejesha kama awali ilivyokua. :Unaweza kuupitia sasa hivi ukaona. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 06:16, 31 Julai 2022 (UTC) ::Sawasawa, ila kumbuka si lazima ukurasa wa Kiswahili ufanane na ule wa Kiingereza! Kwa mfano kwa Kiswahili nadhani hatusemi sana "mtangazaji mwanamke" bali ni "mwanamke mtangazaji" au "mtangazaji wa kike". Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 06:52, 31 Julai 2022 (UTC) :::Ahsante sana kwa kunipatia uelewa ambao nilikua sina hapo awali, hivo nitayafanyia kazi yote haya kuhakikisha kuwa makala zinakua bora zaidi. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 07:00, 31 Julai 2022 (UTC) ==Kukaribisha watumiaji wapya== Habari nimeona umefanya kazi sana kuwakaribisha waliojiandikisha, asante sana!! Ila sasa naona umeanza kukaribisha pia URL. Sitaki kukuzuia, ukiwa nba muda mwingi endelea tu. Ila tu faida yake si kubwa sana. Maana wengi wanaingia kwa [[URL]] tofautitofauti zinazoweza kubadilika. Hapo ni sababu kwa kawaida hatuifanyi. Ila ni chaguo lako. [[Maalum:Michango/2003:CE:6730:1F01:2C97:DBF6:8B7:A19|2003:CE:6730:1F01:2C97:DBF6:8B7:A19]] 12:47, 16 Agosti 2022 (UTC) ::Kumbe safari hii nilingia pia kwa URL fulani ! '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 12:49, 16 Agosti 2022 (UTC) :Asante sana kwa kunikumbusha na kunielekeza hapa nimeelewa. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 19:34, 16 Agosti 2022 (UTC) == Kuongeza jamii == Habari, naona umeongeza jamii kwenye makala zilizokosa jamii za maana (zote zilipangwa chini ya "amani" pekee, ambayo haisiaidii kitu. Ila umeweka "mbegu za watu" ambayo haisaidii vilevile (ningependa kuifuta lakini ziko nyingi mno tayari, heri tuache kuitumia). Maana kusudi la jamii ni kuainisha makala na kupanga makala ambazo mada zinafanana. Njia bora ni kuona kama makala iko kwenye enwiki na kuchagua jamii za huko; hii inahitaji muda kidogo maana unahitaji kupeleleza kwanza kama jamii iko kwa Kiswahili, halafu utaitumia, au unaanza jamii mpya. Kwa vyote tazama [[Msaada:Jamii]]. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 10:42, 20 Agosti 2022 (UTC) :Asante ndugu Kipala kwa kunielekeza kile ambacho nilikua sikifahamu hapo awali, lakini sasa nimefahamu hivyo sitofanya hivyo tena na nitajaribu kuzipitia makala zote ambazo niliziwekea jamii hiyo na wakati mwingine takua mdadisi kwanza kabla ya kuweka jamii husika. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 15:24, 20 Agosti 2022 (UTC) ::Asante kwa jibu zuri. Sitaki kukusumbua nafurahi kamba unajifunza haraka na kuboresha wikipedia yetu. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 19:24, 20 Agosti 2022 (UTC) :::Asante sana. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 19:29, 20 Agosti 2022 (UTC) ==Tafadhali uwe macho makala zilizotafsiriwa kwa kompyuta== Habari naona ulijitahidi kusahihisha makala kadhaa ambazo niliangalia baadaye na kuzipendekeza kwa ufutaji (k.v. [[Itifaki ya Mitandao ya Kijamii iliyosambazwa]], [[Ufahamu wa mazingira]]. Ukiona matini ni vigumu nashukuru ukihakikisha kama ni tafsiri ya kompyuta. Wengine kama Mwambashi901 hawaonyeshi interwiki; mara nyingi ni rahisi kutambua makala ya enwiki waliyojaribu kutafsri, kwa kumwaga jina la makala katika google translate (maana huko walichukua jina). Mimi hutumia google translate kutafsiri sehemu ya kwanza kutoka enwiki kwenda sw, halafu nalinganisha kwenye ukurasa wa word pande zote kandokando (natumia jeswali). Nikiona A) matini imepokelewa neno kwa neno kutoka google, na B) Kiswahili kina kasoro, makosa au hakieleweki, ninaamua kama naweza kuisahihisha (au kama ninapenda kutumia muda wangu kwa jambo hili) halafu C) ama ninasahihisha au D) ninabandika kigezo cha <nowiki>{{futa}}</nowiki> na kuandikisha makala katika orodha ya [[Wikipedia:Makala kwa ufutaji]] (kwa kubofya link yake), ambako mwingine ataiangalia na kuamua. Kwa jumla uone [[Msaada:Tafsiri_ya_kompyuta]]. Nitashukuru ukiweza kusaidia kutambua makala zenye lugha na tafsiri mbaya. Tumepata idadi kubwa ya makala kupitia google translate na tokeo lake ni kweli hatari kwa ajili ya wikipedia hiyo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 07:16, 8 Septemba 2022 (UTC) :Asante sana kwa maelekezo yako na nimekuelewa vizuri sana, hivyo kuanzia sasa tajitahidi niwe napitia vema makala hasa za watumiaji wapya ambao ndio wanaanza kachangia katika Wikipedia ya kiswahili na pia baadhi ya watumiaji wengine ambapo makala zao zinakua na dalili ya kutungwa na kompyuta na makosa mengine mbalimbali. :Lakini pia naomba kujua je, nikikutana na makala yenye dalili ya kutungwa na kompyuta nina ruhusiwa pia kuweka alama ya "Tafsiri ya Kompyuta" au hiyo inaruhusiwa kwa "Wakabidhi" tu? '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 12:03, 8 Septemba 2022 (UTC) ::ukiona dalili weka alama tu. Pia pendekezo la "futa". Maazimo ya baadaye yatachukuliwa na wakabidhi. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 12:20, 8 Septemba 2022 (UTC) :::Sawa asante sana nimeelewa nitajitahidi kuwa nafanya hivyo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 15:57, 8 Septemba 2022 (UTC) == Dead links == Habari, asante kwa kusafisha dead links. Kwa jumla si vibaya tukichungulia kama hiyo link imehamishwa kabla ya kufuta tu. Wakati mwingine inasadia kutafuta kwa google jina la makala inayotajwa . ---- Pamoja na hayo je umeshapiga kura ukurasa wa Jumuiya? '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 13:47, 9 Novemba 2022 (UTC) :Asante sana kwa kuniewesha kwani hapo awali nilijua hazina maana yoyote, sasa nimeelewa. Ndio kura nimeshapiga tayari kwenye ukurasa wa Jumuiya. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 13:57, 9 Novemba 2022 (UTC) ::Samahani kwa kuingilia majadiliano hayo, mimi pia najitahidi kuondoa dead links, kumbe ni afadhali tuziache? Amani kwenu! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 13:58, 11 Novemba 2022 (UTC) :::Bila ya samahani, hakika asante sana kwa kuchangia, kwa mujibu wa ndugu @[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ni afadhali tuziache au kabla ya kuifuta ni bora kuichungulia kwanza kama haijahamishwa '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 14:17, 11 Novemba 2022 (UTC) ::::Ushauri wangu ni: kama ziko bure, tuzifute tu. Lakini mimi naona mara kadhaa marejeo yaleyale yanapatikana kwa anwani tofauti, nikitafuta jina la faili katika google. Inachukua muda zaidi kuchungulia, kwa hiyo kila mmoja anapaswa kuamua mwenyewe. '''[[Mtumiaji:Kipala|Kipala]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Kipala|majadiliano]])''' 19:06, 11 Novemba 2022 (UTC) :::::Sawa sawa hapo nimeelewa na hata ndugu @[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] natumaini nayeye ameelewa labda kama analo la kuongezea. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 19:24, 11 Novemba 2022 (UTC) == Sending regards and few questions to ask... == Hello, if I may I will shift to Kiswahili. Ni kwamba asante kwa ukaribisho Mzuri kutoka juu na pia ya kuongeza asante hata kwa university wikimedians kwa kunipa nafasi ya kujiunga katika platform hii ya wikipedia... Niko ma swali, mona ni kwamba inakuaje kama nitahitaji kuweka picha na hio picha haipo kwenye platform yeyote ya wikipedia but only inapatikana kwenye mtandao mara nyingine kwenye tovuti kuu husina inayoshikiria hati miliki. Na pili nimeweza kuweka picha pamoja na taarifa kwa kiufupi kama inavoonekana kwenye makala za watu au makampuni. Ni hayo tu, Shukran sana na nitakua pamoja na nyie. Denis R. John [[Maalum:Michango/196.249.97.46|196.249.97.46]] 19:29, 27 Novemba 2022 (UTC) :Salaam ndugu, :Asante sana kwa swali lako zuri na karibu sana kwenye Wikipedia ya kiswahili, hivyo kwa mujibu wa taratibu za Wikipedia huzingatia sana faragha za mtu binafsi, kwahivyo huruhusiwi kuchukua picha ya kitu au mtu au media yeyote kutoka kwenye nyenzo zingine au mitandao ya kijamii na kuweza kuitumia kwenye makala za wikipedia bila ya ridhaa ya mmiliki husika. :Na ili kuweza kutumia picha husika kwenye makala za wikipedia, kwanza kabisa inakupasa kuipakia kwenye jukwaa la Wikimedia Commons kwa kuzingatia taratibu zote za faragha za mmiliki wa picha au media husika au kama picha au media hiyo uliipiga au kuandaa wewe mwenyewe pia bila ya kupitia huko kwenye nyenzo zingine au mitandao ya kijamii. :Asante,amani kwako. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 12:34, 30 Novemba 2022 (UTC) == Translations for Wikimania 2023 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Hi {{ROOTPAGENAME}}, You are receiving this notification because you have listed yourself as a volunteer for Wikimania 2023 either [[m:Wikimania 2023/Volunteers|on Meta]] or [[wikimania:2023:Volunteer|on Wikimania wiki]]. We already have a few pages related to Wikimania 2023 available for translation on Wikimania wiki. Your help with translating these pages in your languages would be highly appreciated. Currently the following pages are available for translation: *[[wikimania:2023:Contact]] *[[wikimania:2023:Expo space]] *[[wikimania:2023:Glossary]] *[[wikimania:2023:Ideas]] *[[wikimania:2023:Ideas/Globe]] *[[wikimania:2023:Organizers]] *[[wikimania:2023:Program]] *[[wikimania:2023:Travel]] *[[wikimania:2023:Updates]] *[[wikimania:2023:Volunteer]] *[[wikimania:2023:Volunteer signup]] *[[wikimania:2023:Wikimania]] *[[wikimania:Template:Wikimania 2023 header]] If you do not want to reiceive further notifications about pages related to Wikimania 2023, which are available for translation, you may remove your name from [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Wikimania 2023 translations|this list]]. Thanks for your help! --[[User:Ameisenigel|Ameisenigel]] ([[User talk:Ameisenigel|talk]]) <small>This message was delivered through [[<tvar name="mass-delivery">Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery</tvar>|Global message delivery]]</small> --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 14:14, 28 Desemba 2022 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Ameisenigel@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimania_2023_translations&oldid=24285311 --> == Translations for Wikimania 2023 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Hi {{ROOTPAGENAME}}, You are receiving this notification because you have listed yourself as a volunteer for Wikimania 2023 either [[m:Wikimania 2023/Volunteers|on Meta]] or [[wikimania:2023:Volunteer|on Wikimania wiki]] or because you have [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Wikimania 2023 translations|subscribed on Meta]]. We already have a few pages related to Wikimania 2023 available for translation on Wikimania wiki. Your help with translating the following pages in your languages would be highly appreciated: *[[wikimania:2023:Health]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarship Questions]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarships]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarships/FAQ]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarships/Samples]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarships/Travel Scholarship application]] *[[wikimania:2023:Tech Subcommittee]] *[[wikimania:2023:Tech Subcommittee/Request for Proposal]] *[[wikimania:2023:Visas]] If you do not want to reiceive further notifications about pages related to Wikimania 2023, which are available for translation, you may remove your name from [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Wikimania 2023 translations|this list]]. Thanks for your help! --[[User:Ameisenigel|Ameisenigel]] ([[User talk:Ameisenigel|talk]]) <small>This message was delivered through [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery|Global message delivery]]</small> --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 14:50, 22 Januari 2023 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Ameisenigel@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimania_2023_translations&oldid=24413464 --> :Habari '''[[Mtumiaji:SISTY MUSHISA|SISTY MUSHISA]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:SISTY MUSHISA|majadiliano]])''' 11:26, 17 Februari 2023 (UTC) == Translations for Wikimania 2023 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Hi {{ROOTPAGENAME}}, You are receiving this notification because you have listed yourself as a volunteer for Wikimania 2023 either [[m:Wikimania 2023/Volunteers|on Meta]] or [[wikimania:2023:Volunteer|on Wikimania wiki]] or because you have [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Wikimania 2023 translations|subscribed on Meta]]. Your help with translating the following pages on Wikimania wiki in your languages would be highly appreciated: *[[wikimania:2023:Attendees]] *[[wikimania:2023:Program Subcommittee]] *[[wikimania:2023:Program/FAQ]] *[[wikimania:2023:Program/Form Questions]] *[[wikimania:2023:Program/Submissions]] *[[wikimania:2023:Satellite events]] *[[wikimania:2023:Scholarship Subcommittee]] *[[wikimania:2023:Socialize]] *[[wikimania:2023:Travel Coordination]] If you do not want to reiceive further notifications about pages related to Wikimania 2023, which are available for translation, you may remove your name from [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Wikimania 2023 translations|this list]]. Thanks for your help! --[[User:Ameisenigel|Ameisenigel]] ([[User talk:Ameisenigel|talk]]) <small>This message was delivered through [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery|Global message delivery]]</small> --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 09:40, 4 Machi 2023 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Ameisenigel@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimania_2023_translations&oldid=24656834 --> ==Makala kuhusu Analog Pussy== Ndugu nmeona pitio lako katika makala hii https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Pussy,na ningependa kujua je kundi la muziki lenye kufanya kazi za muziki sindo kundi la wanamuziki?,ningependa kujua juu ya hilo ili makosa kama hayo yasijirudie. Amami sana '''[[Mtumiaji:Husseyn Issa|Husseyn Issa]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Husseyn Issa|majadiliano]])''' 19:33, 14 Aprili 2023 (UTC) :Yote ni sahihi lakini tukisema kundi la wanamuziki, hapo naona inakua inaleta maana nzuri zaidi kwa sababu inajumuisha muunganiko wa watu fulani kwenye kazi ya muziki, kuliko tukisema kundi la muziki (ambapo hapa mwingine anaweza kufafanua kama mjumuisho wa aina fulani za muziki n.k) '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 20:29, 14 Aprili 2023 (UTC) :Sawa sawa '''[[Mtumiaji:Husseyn Issa|Husseyn Issa]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Husseyn Issa|majadiliano]])''' 22:04, 14 Aprili 2023 (UTC) == Feminism and Folklore 2023 - Local prize winners == [[Faili:Feminism_and_Folklore_2023_logo.svg|center|frameless|550x550px]] :: <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"></div> ''{{int:please-translate}}'' Congratulations on your remarkable achievement of winning a local prize in the '''Feminism and Folklore 2023''' writing competition! We greatly appreciate your valuable contribution and the effort you put into documenting your local Folk culture and Women on Wikipedia. To ensure you receive your prize, please take a moment to complete the preferences form before the 1st of July 2023. You can access the form [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdWlxDwI6UgtPXPfjQTbVjgnAYUMSYqShA5kEe4P4N5zwxaEw/viewform?usp=sf_link by clicking here]. We kindly request you to submit the form before the deadline to avoid any potential disappointments. If you have any questions or require further assistance, please do not hesitate to contact us via talkpage or Email. We are more than happy to help. Best wishes, [[metawiki:Feminism and Folklore 2023|FNF 2023 International Team]] :::: Stay connected [[Faili:B&W_Facebook_icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[Faili:B&W_Twitter_icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] --'''[[Mtumiaji:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Tiven2240|majadiliano]])''' 13:30, 10 Juni 2023 (UTC) == Organizer Tools Office Hours & Event Discovery Project == ('''[[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Update 5/fr|Lire ce message en français]])'''; ('''[[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Update 5/es|Ver este mensaje en español]]'''); ('''[[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Update 5/sw|Angalia ujumbe huu kwa Kiswahili]]'''); ('''[[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Update 5/ar|إقرأ هذه الرسالة بالعربي]]''') <small> {{int:please-translate}} </small>. [[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team|The Campaigns team]] at the Wikimedia Foundation has some updates to share with you, which are: We invite you to attend our upcoming community office hours to learn about organizer tools, including the [[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Registration|Event registration tool]] (which has [[m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Registration#September 18, 2023: October office hours & upcoming features|new and upcoming features]]). '''The office hours are on the following dates, and you can join one or both of them:''' *'''Saturday, October 7 at 12:00 UTC''' ('''[[m:Event:Organizer Tools Office Hour 5/Session A|Register here]]''') **Languages available: Arabic, English, French, Swahili *'''Tuesday, October 10 at 18:00 UTC''' ('''[[m:Event:Organizer Tools Office Hour 5/Session B|Register here]]'''). **Languages available: Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Swahili '''We have launched a new project: [[m:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Event Discovery|Event Discovery]]'''. This project aims to make it easier for editors to learn about campaign events. '''We need your help to understand how you would like to discover events on the wikis, so that we can create a useful solution. Please share your feedback on our [[m:Talk:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Event Discovery|project talk page]]'''. ; Thank you, and we hope to see you at the upcoming office hours! [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 19:54, 24 Septemba 2023 (UTC) <small>You are receiving this message because you subscribed to this [[m:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Subscribers|list]]</small> <!-- Message sent by User:EUwandu-WMF@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Subscribers&oldid=25632558 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2024)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:Group photo - Edu Wiki conference 2023, Belgrade, Serbia.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Group photo of the 2023 EduWiki Conference in Belgrade, organized by Wikipedia & Education User Group]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 1|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 1}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;"> '''Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition''': [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_1#Affiliate_Recognition_and_Derecognition|Recognition of Cyprus, Botswana, Niger, and Telugu user groups]] '''Affiliate Activities Report''': [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_1#Affiliate_Activities_Report|Reports from Belgium, South African, and Ukrainian chapters]] '''AffCom Movement Contribution''': [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_1#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement with the new Affiliates Strategy and Movement Charter drafts]] '''AffCom Administration''': [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_1#AffCom_Administration|New AffCom members and advisors]] </div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 1|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 12:56, 18 Aprili 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=26293156 --> == Ukumbusho kuhusu kupiga kura sasa ili kuchagua washiriki wa U4C ya awamu ya kwanza == <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – vote reminder|Unaweza kupata ujumbe huu ukiwa umetafsiriwa katika lugha za ziada kwenye Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – vote reminder}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Ndugu Mwanawikimedia, Unapokea ujumbe huu kwa sababu hapo kabla uliwahi kushiriki katika mchakato wa UCoC. Huu ni ukumbusho kwamba kipindi cha kupiga kura kwa Kamati ya Kuratibu Mwongozo wa Kimataifa wa Mwenendo na Maadili (U4C) kitamalizika tarehe 9 Mei 2024. Soma maelezo kwenye [[Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024|ukurasa wa kupiga kura kwenye Meta- wiki]] ili kupata maelezo zaidi kuhusu upigaji kura na ustahiki wa mpiga kura. Kamati ya Kuratibu Mwongozo wa Kimataifa wa Mwenendo na Maadili (U4C) ni kikundi cha kimataifa kilichojitolea kutoa utekelezaji sawa na thabiti wa UCoC. Wanajamii walialikwa kutuma maombi yao kwa U4C. Kwa maelezo zaidi na majukumu ya U4C, tafadhali [[Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|pitia Mkataba wa U4C]]. Tafadhali washirikishe ujumbe wanajumuiya wenzako ili nao waweze kushiriki. Kwa niaba ya timu ya mradi wa UCoC,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 22:54, 2 Mei 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2024/Previous_voters_list_3&oldid=26721208 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Affiliations Committee News (April-June 2024)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:Wikimedia-Summit-2024-Friday-128.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom group photo at Wikimedia Summit 2024 in Berlin, Germany]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 2|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 2}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliates Strategy Updates: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#Affiliate Strategy Updates|Adoption of a new affiliate health criteria and changes to User Groups recognition process]] Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Madagascar, Senegal, Republic of Congo, and Namibia user groups]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Six active conflicts, no new reports for Q4]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at Wikimedia Summit and ESEAP Conference]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#AffCom_Administration|Officers elections and departing members]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_2#Upcoming AffCom Events|AffCom at Wikimania 2024]] </div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 1|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 15:30, 15 Julai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=27021225 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (July-September 2024)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:Wikimania 2024 - Lviv - Day 3 - AffCom meets community.webm|256px|right|thumb|AffCom session at Wikimania 2024]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 3|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 3}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliates Strategy Update: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#Affiliate Strategy Updates|Implementation status of a new affiliate health criteria and changes to User Groups recognition process]] Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Togo, Wayúu, and Singapore user groups]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at Wikimania]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Results of the officers elections]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#Upcoming AffCom Events|AffCom at WikiIndaba and a strategy meetup]] Other Movement News: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_3#Other_Movement_News|Regional conferences, mental health support, and new committee support inbox]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 1|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 15:55, 7 Oktoba 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=27273724 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (October-December 2024)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:Affiliations Committee 2024 05.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom at its Strategic Retreat in Frankfurt]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliates Strategy Update: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Strategy Updates|Notes from the 2024 AffCom strategic retreat]] Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|User group application pause lifted]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue4_#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at WikiIndaba]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_4#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Mari Avetisyan appointed new AffCom secretary]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 4|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 03:04, 5 Februari 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28060527 --> == Tungependa kusikia kuhusu uzoefu wako kuhusu Akaunti za Muda == <section begin="body"/> [[File:Temporary Accounts - first edit popup.png|thumb]] '''[https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_e2MNLeWJU89pNTo Utafiti huu hautachukua zaidi ya dakika 5 kukamilisha.]''' Timu ya Trust & Safety Product hivi karibuni iliunda [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|akaunti za muda]] zinapatikana kwenye miradi ya wiki 12. Kuna mipango ya kupanua hili kwa seti kubwa ya miradi ya wiki katika wiki na miezi ijayo, kisha kufuata mchakato wa kutekeleza kikamilifu baadaye mwaka huu. Ushiriki wako katika utafiti huu utakuwa na manufaa makubwa katika kutusaidia kuelewa jinsi Akaunti za Muda zinavyofanya kazi na kile tunachoweza kuboresha mbele. Sera ya faragha ya utafiti huu inaweza kuonwa [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Temp_Accounts_Minor_Pilots_Survey_Privacy_Statement|kupitia kiungo hiki]]. Kwa kumaliza utafiti huu, unakubali masharti yaliyoainishwa katika sera ya faragha. Asante!<section end="body"/> [[User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]] ([[User talk:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|<span class="signature-talk">majadiliano</span>]]) 02:50, 27 Februari 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SGrabarczuk (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:SGrabarczuk_(WMF)/sandbox/8&oldid=28315571 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2025)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:WMB meeting in Belo Horizonte in 2023 (day 02) 059.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Wikimedia Brasil, the latest chapter to be recognized by AffCom]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;"> Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Brasil and four user groups]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 5#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at Wikimedia+Libraries and Wikisource conferences]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Welcoming new AffCom voting and advisory members]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_5#Upcoming_AffCom_Events|AffCom at ESEAP Strategy Summit]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 5|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 01:30, 26 Aprili 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28324741 --> == Faulty editings == [https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Lazarus&diff=1148956&oldid=1143252 PURE VANDALISM] - no wikilinks inside reference parameters! [[Maalum:Michango/&#126;2025-52117|&#126;2025-52117]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:&#126;2025-52117|talk]]) 08:33, 4 Mei 2025 (UTC) :Dear 2025-52117, :Thank you for your reminder, and I appreciate your effort in reviewing the wiki pages. Just to clarify, the edits were made about four years ago, when I was still new to Wikipedia. At that time, I didn’t have much experience, so I may have made mistakes without realizing it. :In the meantime, I believe there is no need to use harsh language to criticize someone. Pointing out issues in a respectful manner would be more constructive. :Amani kwako '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 20:52, 4 Mei 2025 (UTC) ::@[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] Wakuongea kwa ustaarabu hao temp account? Utasubiri sana. Siwapendi hao temp kupita maelezo. Ni vile WMF imeamua lakini hapa kwetu wafungiwe tu. Wanatusumbua sana. [[User:Muddyb|<font color="blue"><sub>'''Muddyb'''</sub></font>]]<font face="Verdana">[[User talk:Muddyb|<font color="gray"><sup>'''Longa'''</sup></font>]]</font> 20:55, 4 Mei 2025 (UTC) :::Sorry for being so upset! Don't ask - Don't tell!, After UNJUST losing of several "InternetBuddy" accounts to itchy meta sexual abuse hunters, I resort only to temporary accounts, 75% of them are mine. [[Maalum:Michango/&#126;2025-52533|&#126;2025-52533]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:&#126;2025-52533|talk]]) 06:55, 5 Mei 2025 (UTC) :::[[Maalum:Michango/I_like_peace_and_quiet]], [[Maalum:Michango/I_like_quiet_and_peace]], [[Maalum:Michango/Norbilian]], [[Maalum:Michango/Nailibron]], and others, very same history, but at other times. [[Maalum:Michango/&#126;2025-52246|&#126;2025-52246]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:&#126;2025-52246|talk]]) 07:57, 5 Mei 2025 (UTC) ::::Naona kweli ni wasumbufu na wanatia kero kweli; kwetu huku hata wasiwepo tu. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 22:32, 5 Mei 2025 (UTC) :::::[https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polandi&diff=1414098&oldid=1414088 Real Annoyance]. [[Maalum:Michango/&#126;2025-53157|&#126;2025-53157]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:&#126;2025-53157|talk]]) 08:17, 6 Mei 2025 (UTC) ==[[Philip Mpango]]== Ndugu, kabla hujaanzisha makala uangalie kama ipo tayari ili uiongezee badala ya kufuta kazi ya wenzako. Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:25, 22 Julai 2025 (UTC) :Ni kweli kabisa hilo ni sahihi na wakati mwingine takua makini zaidi kwenye hilo. : Nilipata ushawishi wa kuandika makala hiyo wakati napitia makala ya [[Siasa ya Tanzania]] kipengere cha Makamu wa Rais Philip Mpango ilikua nyekundu baada ya kuwekewa kiungo cha ndani, Nimekuja kugundua makala ipo tayari kwa utofauti wa kichwa cha jina wakati nataka kuunganisha na viungo vya lugha zingine. :Katika kufanya tathmini nipunguze ipi nikaona iliyokuepo tayari ilikua ni fupi sana. :Na sijajua hii tofauti inakuepo vipi? Mfano makala iliyokuepo kwa jina la "Filip Isdor Mpango" lakini ilipowekewa kiungo cha ndani kwa jina la "Philip Mpango" peke yake haikuonesha muunganiko wa moja kwa moja kama ilivyo kwenye makala zingine nyingi. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 13:33, 22 Julai 2025 (UTC) ::Shida ni kwamba ulianzisha makala kwa kutegemea kipengele chekundu cha ukurasa uliokuwepo. Ungeanza mwenyewe kuandika jina yangetokea majina mengine ya kufanana, kama lile la makala ya awali. Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:16, 23 Julai 2025 (UTC) :::Ni kweli kabisa, Shukrani sana kwa kunikumbusha katika hilo. Wakati mwingine nitakua nafanya tafiti kabla ya kuandika hata kama makala ina kipengere chekundu, ili kuepusha muingiliano kama huo. :::Tuko pamoja Mzee Riccardo katika kuimarisha maudhui kwenye wikipedia yetu. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:45, 23 Julai 2025 (UTC) == [[Maalum:Michango/Ternera]] == Obvious behavior akin to SOVIET COMMISSAR, [[Maalum:Michango/~2025-32681-1]] was OK! [[Maalum:Michango/&#126;2025-33265-3|&#126;2025-33265-3]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:&#126;2025-33265-3|talk]]) 19:45, 4 Agosti 2025 (UTC) == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Affiliations Committee News (April-June 2025)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> [[File:MNL25 - day one 08.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom session at the ESEAP Strategy Summit 2025 in Manila, the Philippines]] <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Aotearoa New Zealand and Assamese Wikimedia Community User Group]] Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Affiliate Activities and Compliance Report|Activities reports around the world]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 6#AffCom_Movement_Contribution|AffCom engagement at the ESEAP Strategy Summit]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#AffCom_Administrative_Updates|Results of the AffCom officers election]] Upcoming AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_6#Upcoming_AffCom_Events|Meet AffCom at Wikimania]]</div> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 06:25, 5 Agosti 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=28820920 --> == Wito wa kupiga kura kwa ajili ya [[Mtumiaji:Justine Msechu]] - awe msimamizi wa kusano == Ndugu @[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]], unaombwa kupiga kura juu ya kumpatia uwezo wa ukabidhi/usimamizi wa kusano katika ukurasa wa [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi#Msimaizi wa KUSANO - Mtumiaji:Justine Msechu]]. [[User:Muddyb|<font color="blue"><sub>'''Muddyb'''</sub></font>]]<font face="Verdana">[[User talk:Muddyb|<font color="gray"><sup>'''Longa'''</sup></font>]]</font> 07:54, 7 Agosti 2025 (UTC) ==Grass Wonder== Ndugu, huyo alikuwa farasi, si mwanamichezo. Pole na amani kwako. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:44, 10 Agosti 2025 (UTC) :Asante kwa kuliona hilo, nilichanganya maudhui '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 15:23, 10 Agosti 2025 (UTC) ==Kimwali mmbaga== Ndugu, samahani tena, naona umekuwa mkali mno kwa mchangiaji huyo mwenye bidii. Hata wiki moja ilikuwa adhabu kubwa mno, sasa umerefusha hadi mwaka mzima! Naomba umfikirie upya. Makosa yake si makubwa vile! Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:58, 10 Agosti 2025 (UTC) :Huyu ndugu Kimwali mmbaga, ni kweli kabisa ni mchangiaji mzuri na mwenye bidii. Lakini hivi karibuni amechapisha makala nyingi, Katika kufanya doria kwenye makala nimepitia makala zake nimeona nyingi ni kama tafsiri ya kompyuta na hii ni kwa sababu kuna mashindano ya uandishi sijui?. Hivyo nikaanza na baadhi kuanza kufanya marekebisho. :Sasa katika hali ya kujenga na kuelimishana nikamuandikia ujumbe kwenye ukurasa wake wa [[Majadiliano_ya_mtumiaji:Kimwali_mmbaga|majadiliano]], kwani niliona bado anazidi kuchapisha makala nyingi zenye makosa yale yale. Nikatoa mfamo wa makosa yenyewe na kumuomba asifanye chapisho jipya lolote kwa muda ule ili kufanya marejeo na marekebisho katika makala alizochapisha kwanza. :Ndugu Kimwali alipuuza na kuendelea na machapisho yenye makosa yale yale. Hivyo kwa namna hiyo inakua inavunja moyo kwa wanaopitia kufanya marekebisho na wengine wanarudia makosa yale yale kuongeza mzigo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 16:06, 10 Agosti 2025 (UTC) == Kuomba kufunguliwa akaunti == Habari, Ninaomba kufunguliwa akaunti yangu na ninaahidi kutokutimia tafsiri ya kompyuta kutengeneza makala. '''[[Mtumiaji:Jolvin Joel|Jolvin Joel]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Jolvin Joel|majadiliano]])''' 10:04, 10 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) :Salaam ndugu, :Asante kwa ujumbe, na umepokelelewa. Kutumia programu za kusaidia tafsiri kama google translater na zingine nyingi sio kosa kwani inarahisisha kazi. Lakini programu hizo nyingi si kamilifu sana katika kutoa kiswahili kizuri, hivyo inahitaji jitahada za ziada katika kufanya marekebisho ya kiumbo ili kiswahili kiwe sawa sawa. :Pamoja katika kuijenga Wikipedia yetu, Sasa umefunguliwa. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:27, 10 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) == Kiswenglish == See [https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Utoaji_mimba_wa_kuchagua_jinsia&diff=1417305&oldid=1417303 this], thy revert is WRONG, this is SWAHILI not ENGLISH. '''[[Mtumiaji:Donna Wanyama|Donna Wanyama]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Donna Wanyama|majadiliano]])''' 17:34, 18 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) :Ni sahihi lakini kigezo hiko hakipo, hivyo [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kigezo:Reflist kigezo hiki kilichopo] ndio kinatumika kama kilivyo. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:06, 18 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) Always there was <nowiki>{{marejeo}}</nowiki> as alias for <nowiki>{{reflist}}</nowiki>. '''[[Mtumiaji:Donna Wanyama|Donna Wanyama]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Donna Wanyama|majadiliano]])''' 18:24, 18 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) :Sawa as long as ni back-end ikiwa <nowiki>{{marejeo}}</nowiki>, "<nowiki>{{reflist}}</nowiki>" au "<reference>" vyote vinafanya kazi bila kuhaathiri muundo wa makala, nadhani hakuna shida ndugu. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 20:18, 18 Oktoba 2025 (UTC) == Affiliations Committee News (July-December 2025) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:At Wikimania 2025 127.jpg|256px|right|thumb|AffCom at Wikimania 2025 in Nairobi, Kenya]]<br> <div style="column-count:1;">Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|Recognition of Wikimedia Georgia: recognized & announced September 2025]] Recognition Status Report: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#Recognition Status Report|Updates of affiliate applications]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom Conflict Intervention|Updates on conflict intervention cases]] AffCom Movement Contribution: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue 7#AffCom at WikiConference North America|AffCom at WikiConference North America]] AffCom Administration: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom and EDs Discuss Affiliate Ecosystem|AffCom and EDs Discuss Affiliate Ecosystem]] AffCom Events: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_7#AffCom Administrative Updates|AffCom at Wikimania]]</div> </div> Affiliations Committee News (July-December 2025) <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7|This newsletter is best translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 7|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]</div><section end="announcement-content" /> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:11, 13 January 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Buszmail@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=29907013 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 starts soon == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]] ::<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> ;Invitation to Organize Feminism and Folklore 2026 Dear Wikimedian, We thank you for taking an initiative to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]''' writing competition on your local Wikipedia. The international campaign will run from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and aims to improve coverage of feminism, women’s histories, gender-related topics, and folk culture across Wikipedia projects. ;About the Campaign '''Feminism and Folklore''' is a global writing initiative that complements the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026|Wiki Loves Folklore]]''' photography competition. While Wiki Loves Folklore focuses on visual documentation, this writing campaign addresses the '''gender gap on Wikipedia''' by improving encyclopedic content related to folk culture and marginalized voices. ;What Can Participants Write About? Communities can contribute by creating, expanding, or translating articles related to: * Folk festivals, rituals, and celebrations * Folk dances, music, and traditional performances * Women and queer figures in folklore * Women in mythology and oral traditions * Women warriors, witches, and witch-hunting narratives * Fairy tales, folk stories, and legends * Folk games, sports, and cultural practices Participants may work from curated article lists or generate new article suggestions using campaign tools. ;Checklist for Organizers Organizers are requested to complete the following steps to register their community: # Create a local project page on your wiki [[:m:Feminism and Folklore/Sample|(see sample)]] # Set up the campaign using the '''CampWiz''' tool # Prepare a local article list and clearly mention: #* Campaign timeline #* Local and international prizes # Request a site notice from local administrators [[:mr:Template:SN-FNF|(see sample)]] # Add your local project page and CampWiz link to the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta project page]]''' ;Campaign Tools The Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced tools to support organizers and participants: * '''Article List Generator by Topic''' – Helps identify articles available on English Wikipedia but missing in your local language Wikipedia. The tool allows customized filters and provides downloadable article lists in CSV and wikitable formats. * '''CampWiz''' – Enables communities to manage writing campaigns effectively, including jury-based evaluation. This will be the third year CampWiz is officially used for Feminism and Folklore. Both tools are now available for use in the campaign. '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ Click here to access the tools]''' ;Learn More & Get Support For detailed information about rules, timelines, and prizes, please visit the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 project page]]'''. If you have any questions or need assistance, feel free to reach out via: * '''[[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta talk page]]''' * Email us using details on the contact page. ;Join Us in upcoming office hours We look forward to your presence in the upcoming office hours where the community and the international Team can interact with each other and know more about the contest. resister yourself for the [[:m:Event:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026 Office Hours|office hours event]]. Thank you and all the best, '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 International Team]]''' ---- ''Stay connected:'' [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 13:30, 18 Januari 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=29948401 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers & Jury == Hello {{PAGENAME}}!, Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts! To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have: * Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]: * Started promoting the campaign within your community. * Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified. * Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community. === Internet & Childcare Support === Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''. '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]''' Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained. === Important Participation Guidelines === * Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers). * If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us. === Community Engagement === * Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign. * Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally. * In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''. Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊ Thank you for your collaboration! ''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.'' Feminism and Folklore International Team. –'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 05:17, 16 Februari 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30083330 --> ==Kufuta makala== Ndugu, naona unapenda sana kufuta makala badala ya kuzifanyia kazi. Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 05:29, 22 Machi 2026 (UTC) :Salaam Mzee Riccardo :Nafanya marekebisho sana, lakini makosa yanarudiwa yale yale na waandishi wale wale, baadhi ya makala zinakua mbaya zaidi na ni ndefu sana kiasi kwamba ni ngumu kuifanyia marekebisho, na mwadishi mwenyewe anakua ameitelekeza bila ya marekebisho yeyote. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 08:36, 22 Machi 2026 (UTC) == Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" style="padding: 1em 2em;"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> Dear Organizer, I hope this message finds you well. First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause. As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]]. Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed. Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful. Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon. Warm regards, [[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]] on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team <nowiki>#WeTogether</nowiki> </div></div> --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 11:57, 11 Aprili 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30391231 --> == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will be a week in between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 20:11, 28 Aprili 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30472482 --> == Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2026) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <!-- == Affiliations Committee News (January-March 2026) == --> <small>''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 8|You can find this newsletter translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 6}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]''</small> Quarterly newsletter sharing news and events about the work of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee]]. [[File:AffCom_and_GRDC_members_at_APP_meeting,_Lisbon_2026_01_(cropped).jpg|220px|right|thumb|AffCom and GRDC members at APP meeting, Lisbon, Portugal]] <div style="column-count:1;"> Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Affiliate Recognition and Derecognition|This past quarter, AffCom recognized no new Affiliates due to the pause in recognizing new affiliates.]] AffCom Conflict Intervention: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#AffCom Conflict Intervention|AffCom is currently addressing eight ongoing affiliate conflict cases received in previous quarters.]] Affiliate Recognition Pause Extension: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Affiliate Recognition Pause Extension|The Wikimedia Foundation, together with the AffCom, has extended the pause on new affiliate recognition until September 1, 2026.]] New Affiliate Model Development Efforts: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#New Affiliate Model Development Efforts|The Affiliations Committee held collaborative meetings with the Global Resource Distribution Committee (GRDC) to explore the development of a new affiliations model.]] Towards a Healthy Ecosystem of Wikimedia Organizations: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee/News/Issue_8#Towards a Healthy Ecosystem of Wikimedia Organizations: Updates on the Movement Organizations Pilot, GRDC, and AffCom|Two major pilot initiatives were launched to address long-standing questions about the roles of movement organizations and the future of resource allocation.]] <div class="hlist" style="margin-top:10px; font-size:100%; ">'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee/News/Issue 8|read this newsletter in full]]''' • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/Affiliations Committee/News|subscribe/unsubscribe]]</div><section end="announcement-content" /> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 03:50, 03 May 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Buszmail@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Affiliations_Committee/News&oldid=30057452 --> ==Uislamu== Ndugu, hongera kwa juhudi zako, ila nimeona ukurasa mpya kuhusu Mitume katika Uislamu wakati kulikuwa na nyingine kuhusu Mitume na Manabii katika Uislamu. Ni lazima zibaki mbili au zinaweza kuuunganishwa? Amani kwako! --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 14:21, 21 Mei 2026 (UTC) :Ni kweli mzee nimeona na kwa asilimia kubwa maudhui yanaendana, lakini ukurasa huo wa zamani naona kama umeelezea kwa ujumla katika dini zote japokuwa kichwa cha ukurasa kinaonekana [[Mitume na Manabii katika Uislamu]], na huu wa [[Mitume katika Uislamu]] umeelezea katika muktadha wa Uislamu pekee, nadhani tukiziacha hivyo vivyo sio mbaya sana, au kuonganisha zote kwa kuchanganua maudhui kwanza ili kuendana na kichwa cha ukurasa wenyewe. '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 17:39, 21 Mei 2026 (UTC) ::Asante kwa kunijibu. Najua huwezi kuwa Mwislamu ukikataa mitume na manabii walioishi kabla ya Muhammad. Kwa maana hiyo makala ya awali ilizungumzia watu wa dini nyingine. Kumbuka kwamba Uislamu unasema dini hiyo ilianza na Adamu, si na Muhammad. Hivyo hakuna namna ya kukwepa hao mitume na manabii wanaoheshimiwa na Wayahudi na Wakristo, eti ni wa dini nyingine! Amani kwako. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 12:44, 22 Mei 2026 (UTC) :::Mzee Riccardo umenukuu vibaya maelezo yangu, sijasema nakataa mitume wengine katika Uislamu, bali nilikua naelezea muktadha wa hizi makala mbili kwa kujibu ujumbe wako wa kwanza ambapo ulisema "''Ni lazima zibaki mbili au zinaweza kuuunganishwa?''" :::Katika majibu yangu ya awali, nilikuwa namaanisha kusikiliza na kuona wewe pia una mtazamo gani kuhusu kuziunganisha au kuziacha kama zilivyo. Ndiyo maana nikasema: ''“Nadhani tukiziacha hivyo hivyo si mbaya sana, au tukaziunganisha kwa kuchanganua maudhui kwanza ili yaendane na kichwa cha ukurasa wenyewe.”'' :::Maana yangu ilikuwa kwamba, kama tutaziacha basi kuwe na utofauti, ule ukurasa wa zamani labda ubaki kama “Mitume na Manabii”, huku huu mwingine ukibaki “Mitume katika Uislamu”. Au kama tutaunganisha, basi maudhui ya ukurasa huu mpya yaweze kuunganishwa katika ule wa zamani kwa namna ambayo yataendana na kuongeza uzito wa maudhui bila kupoteza muktadha wake. :::Halafu pia jambo ambalo sikulieleza katika maelezo yangu ya awali, na huenda likachangia kuonekana kama naleta utofauti wa kidini. Ukurasa huu mpya wa [[Mitume katika Uislamu]] niliuchapisha bila kujua kwamba ukurasa wa [[Mitume na Manabii katika Uislamu]] ulikuwa tayari upo kulingana na utofuti wa kimajina. Awali niliwaza kuufuta lakini niliona kama kuna utofauti kidogo kimaudhui. :::Lengo ni kufanya majadiliano ya kujenga, hasa ikiwa sote tuna dhamira moja ya kukuza maudhui yenye manufaa kwa jamii yetu ya leo na ya kesho. :::Amani tele mzee wangu. Nakusikiliza, tufanyaje sasa? '''[[Mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu|Anuary Rajabu]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Anuary Rajabu#top|majadiliano]])''' 14:48, 22 Mei 2026 (UTC) == Visual editor kwenye miradi ya wiki == Habari ndugu {{PAGENAME}}, Natumai u mzima. Naomba nafasi yako kidogo utupe mkono katika kuboresha mifumo yetu ya kiufundi hapa Swahili Wikipedia. Nimeanzisha ombi kule Phabricator ili watuwezeshe kutumia VisualEditor (Mhariri Unaoonekana) kwenye kurasa za miradi na kampeni zetu (`Wikipedia:Namespace`), jambo ambalo litatupunguzia sana mzigo wa kutumia Wiki markup ngumu wakati wa kuandaa warsha, mashindano, au majedwali ya miradi. Ili mafundi wa Wikimedia Foundation wawishe mfumo huu, wanahitaji kuona maridhiano na kura za wanajumuia wetu. Tafadhali naomba upitie hapa katika ukurasa wa Jumuiya kutoa kura yako ya Kuunga Mkono au maoni yako: 👉 [[Wikipedia:Jumuiya#Ombi la kuwezesha VisualEditor kwenye kurasa za mradi (Wikipedia Namespace)|Bofya hapa kushiriki na kupiga kura]] Mchango wako wa sekunde chache utasaidia sana kurahisisha kazi ya waratibu na wahariri wote wa jumuia yetu. Shukrani sana. [[User:Muddyb|<font color="blue">_'''Muddyb'''</font>]]<font face="Verdana">[[User talk:Muddyb|<font color="gray">^'''Longa'''</font>]]</font> 09:22, 24 Mei 2026 (UTC) == Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 == Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''. Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign. Best regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team''' --'''[[Mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:MediaWiki message delivery|majadiliano]])''' 02:09, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30627457 --> se0sbbssln7sz03nm2kd9xrqlb58mv0 0 133712 1564469 1161666 2026-06-02T16:33:40Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564469 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Etiyé Dimma Poulsen''' (amezaliwa mnamo mwaka [[1968]]) ni mtu wa [[Denmark]] anayejulikana kwa [[kazi]] yake ya [[sanaa]] za [[kauri]]. == Wasifu == Etiye alipokuwa na [[umri]] wa miaka sita, aliishi nchini [[Ethiopia]], akahamia [[Tanzania]] na kisha [[Kenya]] pamoja na wazazi wake waliomlea. Walikuwa wa [[Denmark]] na walirudisha familia huko wakati alipokuwa na miaka kumi na nne. Huko alisoma historia ya sanaa katika chuo na kufundisha sanaa katika programu anuwai za vijana. Hapo awali alilenga kuchora mandhari kwa kutumia mafuta kwenye turubai,<ref>{{cite web|title=Poulsen, Etiyé Dimma|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T096633|website=Oxford Art Online|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref>, Nia yake ya kuunda sanaa ya zamani ilichochea kuhamia [[Ufaransa]]<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|title=Etiye Dimma Poulson|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ceramics-monthly_2001-02_49_2/page/n21|journal=Ceramics Monthly|date=February 2001|volume=49|issue=2|page=20}}</ref> akiwa na miaka 23 na kuanza kufanya kazi za sanaa ya udongo.Kwa sasa anaishi na anafanya kazi katika studio huko ''Antwerp'', [[Ubelgiji]]. Msukumo wake unatoka kwa sanamu za jadi au mitindo ya kikabila lakini kwa hisia zake mwenyewe na kumbukumbu zilifanya kazi ndani yake.<ref name=":0" /> Kinachonidanganya ni tofauti tofauti za huduma za kibinadamu, Poulsen anasema. ''Aina zangu ni rahisi zaidi na zenye kiasi, ndivyo zinavyoonekana kuelezea zaidi. Ukichunguza sanamu kwa karibu, utashangaa kuona kwamba misemo kwenye nyuso imetengenezwa tu na mstari uliopasuka ambao hufuata jicho na michuruzi yake....Inaonekana kana kwamba ni kwa njia ya kutu na migandamo, tofauti --maisha -- huibuka.''<ref name=":0" /> == Mbinu == Poulsen anajulikana sana kwa kuunda sanamu za kauri za filiform. Mbinu yake inajumuisha kutumia safu nyembamba ya udongo kwenye matundu ya chuma ili kutoa, wakati wa kufyatua kazi, takwimu zilizochakaa zinazoonekana za zamani. Nyufa zinazotokea hutengeneza jicho au kasoro, na kuchangia katika sura za uso; kwa hivyo sifa zenye nguvu na nyororo hupatikana wakati huo huo."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Konjit|first1=Seyoum|title=Poulson, Etiye Dimma|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T096633|website=Oxford Art Online|publisher=Oxford University press}}</ref> Kazi za Poulsen ziko katika ukusanyaji wa Makumbusho ya Kitaifa ya Sanaa za [[Afrika]] huko [[Washington, DC]]. == Kazi == Tangu mwaka [[1990]], Poulsen alifanya maonyesho ya kibinafsi huko [[Denmark]], [[Ufaransa]], [[Marekani]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Cameroon]] na [[Uswizi]]. Halafu, kuanzia [[1992]], alianza kufanya maonyesho ya vikundi huko [[Uhispania]], ''Palma de Mallorca'', [[Ubelgiji]], [[marekani]], na [[Ufaransa]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Seyoum|first1=Konjit|title=Poulsen, Etiyé Dimma in Oxford Art Online|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T096633?|website=Oxford Art online|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=4 March 2016}}</ref> == Makusanyo ya Makumbusho == Jumba la kumbukumbu la Sanaa la ''Herbert F. Johnson'', [[marekani]], Mkusanyiko wa Sanaa ya Kisasa za [[Afrika]], [[Ujerumani]], Jumba la kumbukumbu la Kitaifa la Smithsonian la Sanaa za [[Afrika]], [[Washington]], Jumba la kumbukumbu la Newark, [[New Jersey]], Jumba la kumbukumbu la ''Hood,New Hampshire, La Piscine ''[[Roubaix ]], [[Ufaransa]] == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1968]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Denmark]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Denmark]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Denmark]] e1oazs8ak8movhxysu9cxggoa5ocvi0 0 144683 1564517 1528685 2026-06-02T20:29:59Z Stepro 3087 newer pic 1564517 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:2026-05-23 61. Karate-Europameisterschaften 2026 Frankfurt-Main STP 6162.jpg|alt=Picha ya Uğur Aktaş|thumb|Picha ya Uğur Aktaş]] '''Uğur Aktaş (karateka)'''. (amezaliwa [[10 Oktoba|Oktoba 10]], [[1995]]) ni [[bingwa]] wa [[Ulaya]] wa karateka ya [[Uturuki]] akishiriki katika kitengo cha kilo 84.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Karate News - Un Kata d'infos!|url=https://karate-news.net/|work=Karate News|accessdate=2021-12-04|language=fr-FR|archive-date=2021-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204145707/https://karate-news.net/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Alishinda moja ya medali za shaba katika hafla ya utoaji tuzo ya wanaume ya kilo zaidi ya 75 kwenye [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[2020]] iliyofanyika [[Tokyo]], [[Japani|Japan]].<ref>https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1111376/ganjzadeh-wins-hamedi-dq-karate-tokyo</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics - Athletes, Medals & Results|url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/tokyo-2020|work=Olympics.com|date=2018-04-23|accessdate=2021-12-04|language=en|author=IOC}}</ref> Yeye ni mwanachama wa [[Istanbul|İstanbu]]<nowiki/>l Büyükşehir Belediyesi S.K. Aktaş alihitimu katika Chuo Kikuu cha Istanbul Aydın na [[Shahada ya Awali|shahada]] ya [[Uhandisi|uhandis]]<nowiki/>i wa [[Umeme]][[Elektroniki|/Elektroniki]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=İstanbul Aydın Üniversitesi öğrencisi dünya karate şampiyonu oldu|url=https://www.iha.com.tr/haber-istanbul-aydin-universitesi-ogrencisi-dunya-karate-sampiyonu-oldu-517804/|work=İhlas Haber Ajansı|accessdate=2021-12-04|language=tr|author=iha.com.tr}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Uğur Aktaş karatedeki başarısını eğitimde de sürdürüyor|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/yasam/ugur-aktas-karatedeki-basarisini-egitimde-de-surduruyor/1325125|work=www.aa.com.tr|accessdate=2021-12-04}}</ref> Marejeo [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1995]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:USLWO]] 6lzmnt8fnadky15yvozrdz1dho9o01r 2 148335 1564456 1217929 2026-06-02T15:09:07Z ~2026-32851-69 89897 /* */ 1564456 wikitext text/x-wiki == Johanes Pascal Mutalemwa == '''Johanes''' '''Mutalemwa''' (born 6 June 1988, Bukoba Rural, Kagera, Tanzania) is a Tanzanian educator, advocate for childhood development, and the founder of the JPM Centres of Holistic Learning. He is recognized for his work in advancing the quality of early childhood education (ECE) and providing community-based family support services in Dar es Salaam and Morogoro. === Early Life and Education === Born in the Bukoba Rural District of the Kagera Region, Mutalemwa pursued his academic interests in pedagogy, eventually earning a Master of Arts in Early Childhood Education. His background includes professional experience teaching within both public and private institutional frameworks in Tanzania. === Professional Career === In his capacity as the founder of the '''JPM Centres of Holistic Learning''', Mutalemwa has established a model for integrating early childhood education with community outreach. Through these centers, he facilitates partnerships between educators, parents, guardians, and local government officials to raise awareness regarding the necessity of quality, rather than merely accessible, early childhood programming. Beyond his work at the centers, Mutalemwa provides specialized consultancy services, including: * '''Institutional Development:''' Advising individuals and organizations on the establishment and management of nursery schools. * '''Parenting Education:''' Delivering training programs focused on developmental support for first-time parents. * '''Language Acquisition:''' Providing instruction in English and Swahili. === Advocacy and Philosophy === Mutalemwa's advocacy is centered on the implementation of high-quality standards in early childhood education. He frequently emphasizes a collaborative approach to social progress, often citing the philosophy, "Alone, one walks fast; with company, one reaches far," to highlight his commitment to global partnerships and collective efforts in child welfare. He is an active subscriber and proponent of several international organizations focused on the well-being of children, including: * Childhood Education International * TheirWorld * Global Fund for Children * Save the children gefw22yoltsjwypk6l4eteewe7oz22f 0 187747 1564483 1527782 2026-06-02T16:55:19Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Ugonjwa wa vidonda vya utumbo mkubwa | synonym = | image = UC granularity.png | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = | caption = [[Kolonoskopia|Endoskopia]]picha ya utumbo mkubwa ulioathiriwa na ugonjwa wa vidonda vya utumbo mkubwa. Upande wa ndani wa utumbo mkubwa una vidoa na umepasuka. Ugonjwa wa kiwango cha wastani. | pronounce = | specialty = [[Gastroenterology]] | Dalili = Maumivu ya tumbo, kuhara kulikochanganyika na damu, kupungua kwa uzani, homa, upungufu wa damu[1] | onset = Kuanzia miaka 15–30 au > ya umri wa miaka 60[1] | duration = Ya muda mrefu<ref name=NIH2014/> | causes = Havijulikani<ref name=NIH2014/> | risks = | diagnosis = [[kolonoskopia]] pamija na [[biopsi ya tishu]]<ref name=NIH2014/> | differential = [[Ugonjwa wa kuhara (Dysentery)]], [[Ugonjwa wa Crohn]], [[uvimbe wa utumbo mpana kutokana na ukosefu wa mtiririko wa damu wa kutosha (ischemic colitis)]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Runge|first1=Marschall S.|last2=Greganti|first2=M. Andrew|title=Netter's Internal Medicine E-Book|date=2008|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9781437727722|page=428|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hiIPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA428|language=en|access-date=27 July 2020|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827171209/https://books.google.com/books?id=hiIPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA428|url-status=live}}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Kubadilisha lishe, utumiaji wa dawa, upasuaji<ref name=NIH2014/> | medication = [[Sulfasalazine]], [[mesalazine]], [[corticosteroids|steroidi]], [[dawa zinazozuia utendaji wa mfumo wa kinga]] kama vile [[azathioprine]], [[tiba ya kibiolojia]]<ref name=NIH2014/> | prognosis = | frequency = Hadi watu 5 kwa kila watu 1000<ref name=Molodecky>{{cite journal | vauthors = Molodecky NA, Soon IS, Rabi DM, Ghali WA, Ferris M, Chernoff G, Benchimol EI, Panaccione R, Ghosh S, Barkema HW, Kaplan GG | title = Increasing incidence and prevalence of the inflammatory bowel diseases with time, based on systematic review | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_2012-01_142_1/page/n85 | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 142 | issue = 1 | pages = 46–54.e42; quiz e30 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22001864 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2011.10.001 }}</ref> | deaths = watu 47,400 pamoja na ugonjwa wa Crohn (2015)<ref name=GBD2015De>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, etal | collaboration = GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators | title = Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 | journal = Lancet | volume = 388 | issue = 10053 | pages = 1459–1544 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27733281 | pmc = 5388903 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1 }}</ref> }} '''Ugonjwa wa vidonda vya utumbo mkubwa''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Ulcerative colitis,'' kifupi: ''UC'') ni hali ya muda mrefu ambayo husababisha kuvimba na vidonda kwenye [[Utumbo mpana|utumbo mkubwa]] na [[rektamu]].<ref name="NIH2014">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Ulcerative Colitis|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/ulcerative-colitis/Pages/facts.aspx|work=NIDDK|accessdate=3 August 2016|date=September 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728002512/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/ulcerative-colitis/Pages/facts.aspx|archivedate=28 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="BMJ2013">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Ford AC, Moayyedi P, Hanauer SB|title=Ulcerative colitis|journal=BMJ|volume=346|pages=f432|date=February 2013|pmid=23386404|doi=10.1136/bmj.f432}}</ref> Dalili kuu za ugonjwa uliopo ni maumivu ya tumbo na [[kuhara]] kulikochanganyika na [[damu]].<ref name="NIH2014" /> Kupungua kwa uzani, [[homa]], na [[anemia]] pia ni dalili.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Mara nyingi, dalili huanza polepole na zinaweza kuwa kati ya ndogo hadi kali.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Dalili hujitokeza mara kwa mara na vipindi vya kutokuwepo kwa dalili kati ya milipuko ya dalili.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Matatizo yanaweza kujumuisha kupanuka kwa utumbo mkubwa, kuvimba kwa jicho, viungo au ini na saratani ya utumbo mkubwa.<ref name="NIH2014" /><ref name="Wan2016">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Wanderås MH, Moum BA, Høivik ML, Hovde Ø|title=Predictive factors for a severe clinical course in ulcerative colitis: Results from population-based studies|journal=World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pharmacology and Therapeutics|volume=7|issue=2|pages=235–41|date=May 2016|pmid=27158539|pmc=4848246|doi=10.4292/wjgpt.v7.i2.235}}</ref> Kisababishi cha UC hakijulikani.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Nadharia zinahusisha kutofanya kazi kwa mfumo wa kinga, [[Jenetikia|jeni]], mabadiliko ya bakteria za kawaida za utumbo na mambo ya kimazingira.<ref name="NIH2014" /><ref name="Hir2015">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Akiho H, Yokoyama A, Abe S, Nakazono Y, Murakami M, Otsuka Y, Fukawa K, Esaki M, Niina Y, Ogino H|title=Promising biological therapies for ulcerative colitis: A review of the literature|journal=World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology|volume=6|issue=4|pages=219–27|date=November 2015|pmid=26600980|pmc=4644886|doi=10.4291/wjgp.v6.i4.219}}</ref> Viwango vya ugonjwa huu vinaonekana kuwa vyu juu zaidi kwenye nchi zilizostawi huku wengine wakipendekeza kuwa haya ni matokeo ya kuathiriwa kwa kiwango cha chini na maambukizo ya utumbo au kutokana na lishe na mtindo wa maisha wa mataifa ya Magharibi.<ref name="BMJ2013" /><ref name="NEJM2011">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Danese S, Fiocchi C|title=Ulcerative colitis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2011-11-03_365_18/page/1712|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=365|issue=18|pages=1713–25|date=November 2011|pmid=22047562|doi=10.1056/NEJMra1102942}}</ref> Kuondolewa kwa kidole cha tumbo katika umri mdogo kunaweza kuwa kinga.<ref name="NEJM2011" /> Utambuzi kwa kawaida hufanywa kupitia kolonoskopia pamoja na biopsi ya tishu.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Ni aina ya ugonjwa wa matumbo unaosababisha kuvimba (IBD) pamoja na ugonjwa wa Crohn na uvimbe mdogo wa utumbo mkubwa.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Mabadiliko ya lishe, kama vile kuendelea kuendelea kula lishe yenye kalori nyingi au lishe isiyo na laktosi, yanaweza kuboresha dalili.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Dawa kadhaa hutumiwa kutibu dalili na kusababisha na kudumisha hali ya kupungua kwa dalili, zikiwemo aminosalicylates kama mesalazine au sulfasalazine, steroidi, dawa zinazozuia utendaji wa mfumo wa kinga kama vile azathioprine na tiba ya kibiolojia.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Kuondolewa kwa utumbo mkubwa kupitia upasuaji kunaweza kuwa muhimu ikiwa ugonjwa umekithiri, haukubali matibabu au ikiwa matatizo kama vile saratani ya utumbo mkubwa yataibuka.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Kuondolewa kwa utumbo mkubwa na rektamu kwa ujumla huponya hali hiyo.<ref name="NIH2014" /><ref name="NEJM2011" /> Pamoja na ugonjwa wa Crohn, uliathiri takriban watu milioni 11.2 kufikia mwaka wa 2015.<ref name="GBD2015Pre">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Vos T, Allen C, Arora M, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Brown A, etal|title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1545–1602|date=October 2016|pmid=27733282|pmc=5055577|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6}}</ref> Kila mwaka, hujitokeza upya kwa mtu 1 hadi watu 20 kati ya watu 100,000 na watu 5 hadi 500 kati ya watu 100,000 huathiriwa.<ref name="BMJ2013" /><ref name="NEJM2011" /> Ugonjwa huu unaripotiwa zaidi katika Amerika ya Kaskazini na Ulaya kuliko maeneo mengine.<ref name="NEJM2011" /> Mara nyingi huanza kwa watu wenye umri wa miaka 15 hadi 30 au walio na umri wa zaidi ya miaka 60.<ref name="NIH2014" /> Wanaume na wanawake wanaonekana kuathiriwa kwa uwiano sawa.<ref name="BMJ2013" /> Pia umeripotiwa zaidi tangu miaka ya 1950.<ref name="BMJ2013" /><ref name="NEJM2011" /> Kwa pamoja, ugonjwa wa uvimbe wa utumbo mkubwa na ugonjwa wa Crohn huathiri watu wapatao milioni moja nchini Marekani.<ref name="Elsevier Health Sciences">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Adams|first=James G.|title=Emergency Medicine E-Book: Clinical Essentials (Expert Consult – Online)|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1455733941|page=304|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC&pg=PA304|language=en|df=dmy-all|access-date=27 July 2020|archive-date=16 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316062011/https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC&pg=PA304}}</ref> Kwa matibabu yanayofaa, hatari ya kifo inaonekana kuwa sawa na ile ya idadi ya watu kwa ujumla.<ref name="Wan2016" /> Maelezo ya kwanza ya ugonjwa wa vidonda vya utumbo mkubwa yalitokea karibia miaka ya 1850.<ref name="NEJM2011" /> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Magonjwa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] s13xay2mk9b4xr295i3cugaxyzdgidt 2 196481 1564520 1549177 2026-06-02T20:56:39Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 /* */ Fixed typo 1564520 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michael Alacoque''' '''Michael Alacoque''' (born 6 August 1995) is a Tanzanian entrepreneur, pharmacist, fashion model , and Creative Media personality Based in Tanzania. He is the founder of Swahili Urban House and NovaCare Pharmacy. His professional activities span healthcare, entrepreneurship , fashion , entertainment , and digital media , with a focus on business development , media production , and cultural storytelling. '''Early Life and Education''' Michael Alacoque was born on 6 August 1995 in Sumbawanga, Tanzania. He developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, healthcare, media, and the creative arts. His formative years were marked by a strong curiosity about business, communication, and innovation, interests that would later influence his professional career. Michael Alacoque pursued higher education in South Korea, where he studied Pharmaceutical Science at Seoul National University. During his academic training, he gained knowledge in pharmaceutical sciences, healthcare systems, research methodologies, and professional pharmacy practice. His international educational experience contributed to the development of a global perspective that later informed his entrepreneurial and creative pursuits. '''Career''' '''Healthcare and Entrepreneurship''' Following his education, Michael Alacoque became involved in healthcare and pharmaceutical services. He later founded NovaCare Pharmacy, a healthcare enterprise focused on pharmaceutical services and healthcare solutions. Through the company, he has promoted professional standards, accessibility, and innovation within the healthcare sector. In addition to healthcare, Michael Alacoque expanded his interests into media, business, and lifestyle industries. He founded Swahili Urban House, a media and lifestyle platform dedicated to entrepreneurship, entertainment, fashion, culture, and digital storytelling. The platform was established with the objective of highlighting contemporary African experiences while supporting emerging talent and creative expression. His entrepreneurial activities have included business development, brand building, content creation, and media initiatives. His work reflects an interest in combining commercial enterprise with cultural and creative engagement. '''Fashion and Modeling''' Michael Alacoque has also worked as a fashion model and has participated in creative and promotional projects within the fashion industry. His involvement in fashion reflects a broader interest in branding, personal image, and the role of fashion in cultural communication. Over the years, he has explored opportunities in fashion-related media, lifestyle content, and creative collaborations aimed at promoting African creativity and contemporary style. '''Business Interests''' Alacoque’s business interests include healthcare, media, fashion, branding, entertainment, digital content creation, and entrepreneurship. His work is characterized by a multidisciplinary approach that combines commercial strategy with creative innovation. He has advocated for the use of media and entrepreneurship as tools for economic development, cultural representation, and the promotion of African talent on international platforms. '''Personal Life''' Alacoque is based in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. His professional activities continue to focus on business development, healthcare initiatives, media production, and creative projects. He has stated his interest in building internationally recognized brands and contributing to the growth of Africa’s entrepreneurial and creative sectors. '''Legacy and Vision''' Michael Alacoque belongs to a generation of African entrepreneurs and creatives working across multiple industries. Through his involvement in healthcare, media, fashion, and entertainment, he has sought to create ventures that combine innovation, creativity, and business development. His long-term vision includes the expansion of his business interests, the development of media properties, and the promotion of African entrepreneurship and storytelling on a global scale. slc6xfj9n9q3v7qsog5l2aanaz6mcmy 2 204843 1564513 1547780 2026-06-02T20:10:12Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 /* */fixed typo 1564513 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, an experience that expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' Michael Alacoque a He has additionally expressed admiration for Margaret Mary Alacoque, whom he regards as a spiritual patron and inspiration. His adoption of the name “Alacoque” has been associated with his connection to Catholic spirituality and the legacy of the French saint. 9u1cq7v6lbw5fjelrzoialwa7dfhpjm 1564515 1564513 2026-06-02T20:24:34Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 /* */ Fixed typo 1564515 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. Although there is no known familial relationship between them, he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth-century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity—a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. As an entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and public figure, Michael strives to integrate his faith into every aspect of his work and service to society. He views his talents, opportunities, and achievements as gifts entrusted to him by God and seeks to use them responsibly for the benefit of others. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. jzcextx4kvn4wh4tj292tbjay4lm3b3 1564516 1564515 2026-06-02T20:26:38Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 /* */ Fixed typo 1564516 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. Although there is no known familial relationship between them, he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. As an entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and public figure, Michael strives to integrate his faith into every aspect of his work and service to society. He views his talents, opportunities, and achievements as gifts entrusted to him by God and seeks to use them responsibly for the benefit of others. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. p7v3wry9dyku8s8omrk00yke1s52h4w 1564518 1564516 2026-06-02T20:42:39Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 Fixed typo 1564518 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque '''( 마이클 알라코크 in Korean Hangul )''' is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. Although there is no known familial relationship between them, he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. As an entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and public figure, Michael strives to integrate his faith into every aspect of his work and service to society. He views his talents, opportunities, and achievements as gifts entrusted to him by God and seeks to use them responsibly for the benefit of others. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. 58xqejvgvr3ki5g5v3dvrhate46vl2h 1564519 1564518 2026-06-02T20:51:56Z Michael John Alacoque 58955 /* */ Fixed typo 1564519 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque '''( 마이클 알라코크 ~ in Korean Hangul )''' is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. Although there is no known familial relationship between them, he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. As an entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and public figure, Michael strives to integrate his faith into every aspect of his work and service to society. He views his talents, opportunities, and achievements as gifts entrusted to him by God and seeks to use them responsibly for the benefit of others. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. m0rzmvistu96zjg2b7hg3vg26bper73 1564523 1564519 2026-06-02T21:38:23Z ~2026-32875-11 89909 /Fixed typo 1564523 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque '''( 마이클 알라코크 ~ in Korean Hangul )''' is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, 1995, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. bevw6sjg8masr4ypbxzt26jsd6uyr3v 0 205106 1564496 1511141 2026-06-02T17:21:48Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Dora Marsden''' ([[5 Machi]] [[1882]] – [[13 Desemba]] [[1960]]) alikuwa [[mwanaharakati]] wa haki za wanawake wa [[Uingereza]], mhariri wa majarida ya fasihi, na [[mwanafalsafa]] wa lugha. Akianza kazi yake kama mwanaharakati katika [[Jumuiya]] ya [[Wanawake]] ya Kijamii na Kisiasa (WSPU), Marsden hatimaye alijitenga na shirika la wapigania haki za wanawake ili kuanzisha [[jarida]] ambalo lingetoa nafasi kwa sauti za kimudu pinga zaidi katika harakati hiyo. Umuhimu wake wa msingi upo katika michango yake kwa harakati ya haki za wanawake, ukosoaji wake wa WSPU ya Pankhursts, na ufeministi wake wa kimudu pinga, kupitia "''The Freewoman''." Wapo wanaodai pia ana umuhimu katika kuibuka kwa usasa wa kifasihi, wakati wengine wanathamini mchango wake katika uelewa wa Egoism.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.unionofegoists.com/authors/marsden/|title=Dora Marsden (1882–1960)|last=Blake|first=Trevor|date=7 February 2016|website=Union Of Egoists|issn=2639-5339|oclc=1055555533|language=en-US|access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref> == Maisha == Dora Marsden alizaliwa tarehe [[5 Machi]] [[1882]] kwa wazazi wa tabaka la wafanyakazi, Fred na Hannah, huko Marsden, Yorkshire. Matatizo ya kiuchumi katika Biashara ya Fred yalimlazimisha kuhamia [[Marekani]] mnamo [[1890]], akikaa [[Philadelphia]] na mtoto wake wa kwanza. Hannah alifanya kazi kama mshonaji ili kusaidia watoto wake waliobaki, ambayo iliacha familia ikiishi katika umaskini wakati Marsden alipokuwa mtoto. Miongoni mwa moja ya vizazi vya kwanza kufaidika na Sheria ya Elimu ya Msingi ya 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75), Marsden aliweza kuhudhuria shule akiwa mtoto licha ya hali yake ya umaskini. Alithibitisha kuwa mwanafunzi aliyefanikiwa, akifanya kazi kama mwalimu akiwa na umri wa miaka kumi na tatu kabla ya kupokea Scholarship ya Malkia akiwa na miaka kumi na nane, ambayo ilimudu wezesha kuhudhuria Chuo cha Owens huko Manchester (baadaye Chuo Kikuu cha Victoria cha [[Manchester]]). Mnamo [[1903]], Marsden alihitimu kutoka chuo na kufundisha shule kwa miaka kadhaa, hatimaye akawa mwalimu mkuu wa Kituo cha Mwalimu-Mwanafunzi cha Altrincham mnamo [[1908]].<ref name=ondb>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Garner | first = Les | title = Marsden, Dora (1882–1960) | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of National Biography]] | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | date = 23 September 2004 | doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/39090 | isbn = 9780198614128 | oclc = 4916064756 | url = https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-39090 | access-date =18 October 2022}}</ref> Mnamo Oktoba [[1909]], Marsden alikamatwa pamoja na wanachama wengine kadhaa wa Jumuiya ya [[Wanawake]] ya Kijamii na Kisiasa (WSPU) kwa kuvaa jezi kamili za kitaaluma na kukatiza hotuba ya chansela wa alma mater yao, wakidai amudu onge dhidi ya kulishwa kwa nguvu kwa wahitimu wa suffragist waliokuwa [[gerezani]] waliokuwa kwenye mgomo wa njaa. Miezi michache baadaye, aliingia kwa nguvu katika Southport Empire Theatre na akajinyanyua hadi kwenye kuba, ambapo alingoja kwa masaa 15 ili amudu kejeli [[Winston Churchill]], ambaye hivi karibuni angekuwa Waziri wa Mambo ya Ndani, alipokuwa akizungumza kwenye mkutano wa uchaguzi. Marsden alikamatwa pamoja na ujumbe kwa [[Bunge]] ambao uliripotiwa sana wakati huo.<ref name="spartacus">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://spartacus-educational.com/WmarsdenD.htm |last=Simkin |first=John |date=September 1997 |title=Dora Marsden |encyclopedia=[[Spartacus Educational]] |access-date=18 October 2022 |oclc=855163194}}</ref><ref name="Clarke, Bruce 1992">{{cite journal|last=Clarke|first=Bruce|title=Dora Marsden and Ezra Pound: "The New Freewoman" and "The Serious Artist"|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contemporary-literature_spring-1992_33_1/page/n98|journal=Contemporary Literature|issn=0010-7484|oclc=5361332857|jstor=1208375|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]|volume=33|issue=1|year=1992|pages=91–112|doi=10.2307/1208375 }}</ref> Kujitolea kwa Marsden kwa sababu hiyo kulimpatia nafasi ya kiutawala katika WSPU ya Christabel na Emmeline Pankhurst, ambayo aliacha nafasi yake ya ualimu mnamo 1909. Ingawa alikuwa amejitolea kwa harakati ya kifeministi ya mapema, kanuni za kinadharia za Marsden na tabia yake ya kujitegemea mara nyingi zilimletea mgogoro na uongozi wa WSPU, ambao walimudu ona kuwa mgumu kumudu simamia. Mnamo [[1911]], Marsden alikubaliana kwa pande zote na Pankhursts kujiuzulu wadhifa wake na WSPU. Akiwa amechukizwa na shirika hilo, lakini bado amejitolea kwa harakati ya wanawake, aliazimia kutafuta njia za kusaidia sauti mbadala zinazohusiana na sababu hiyo.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.unionofegoists.com/2018/08/01/in-front-of-the-party-was-miss-dora-marsden/|title=In Front of the Party was Miss Dora Marsden|last=Blake|first=Trevor|date=1 August 2018|website=Union Of Egoists|issn=2639-5339|oclc=1055555533|language=en-US|access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Cary Franklin 2002">{{cite journal|last=Franklin|first=Cary|year=2002|title=Marketing edwardian feminism: Dora Marsden, votes for women and the freewoman|journal=[[Women's History Review]]|volume=11|issue=4|pages=631–642|doi=10.1080/09612020200200341|s2cid=144243378 |issn=0961-2025|oclc=4901613189|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Scholes|first=Robert|year=2011|title=General Introduction to the Marsden Magazines|url=https://modjourn.org/general-introduction-to-the-marsden-magazines/|work=The Modernist Journals Project|publisher=[[Brown University]]|access-date=18 October 2022|oclc=52063516|quote=Given all these changes, it is not easy to sort out the relationships among these three journals. It is apparent, though, that Marsden wished the second to be clearly distinguished from the first [...] On the other hand, for the first three years of ''The Egoist'', the masthead of the third journal carried this statement about its connection to the second: "Formerly the ''NEW FREEWOMAN''." Thus it is clear that the editor wished to emphasize the break between the first two incarnations of the journal and the connection between the last two. Following this lead, we should be aware that these connections are real.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Delap|first=Lucy|title='Philosophical vacuity and political ineptitude': ''The Freewoman's'' critique of the suffrage movement|journal=[[Women's History Review]]|year=2002|volume=11|issue=4|pages=615|issn=0961-2025|oclc=4649354003|quote=This unease over the content of suffragist politics was combined with a dislike of the autocratic organisation of the suffrage societies, in particular the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU). ''Freewoman'' contributors believed that militant suffrage organisations demanded an obedience from their members that amounted to ‘servility’ and was fundamentally antagonistic to the ends of feminism.|doi=10.1080/09612020200200340|s2cid=143873959 |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Raymond|title=The Politics of Modernism|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofmodern0000will|url-access=registration|year=1989|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=0-86091-241-8|oclc=1289901764|pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofmodern0000will/page/54 54]–57}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=Bruce|title=Dora Marsden and Early Modernism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07mk2Lx6Y-gC|year=1996|publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]]|location=[[Ann Arbor]]|isbn=9780472106462|oclc=33101850|page=3|quote=Her ''Freewoman'' leaders already traced two doctrinal shifts—transitions from feminist to anarchist and from socialist to individualist idioms—directly connected to her support in the ''New Freewoman'' for literary innovation within a psychological practice of ‘egoistic investigation’}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Joannou|first=Maroula|title=The Angel of Freedom: Dora Marsden and the transformation of The Freewoman into The Egoist|journal=[[Women's History Review]]|issn=0961-2025|oclc=8314960056|year=2002|volume=11|issue=4|pages=595–612|quote=The key stages in her personal development, from New Woman to suffragette, from feminist to anarchist, taking in philosophical individualism and literary modernism en route, can only be understood in relation to the influential intellectual currents of her day.|doi=10.1080/09612020200200339|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Storch, Margret 1998">{{cite journal|last=Storch|first=Margaret|year=1998|title=Dora Marsden & Early Modernism|journal=English Literature in Transition|volume=41|issue=1|issn=0013-8339|oclc=4586279980|pages=91–94}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=Bruce|title=Dora Marsden and Early Modernism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07mk2Lx6Y-gC|year=1996|publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]]|location=[[Ann Arbor]]|isbn=9780472106462|oclc=33101850}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGjfOC8Y3sEC&q=Dora+Marsden+biography&pg=PA64|first=Gabriele|last=Griffin|title=Difference in View: Women and Modernism|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=1994|isbn=0748401342|oclc=29314327|access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1882]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1960]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] ph4pnp00np6xto2plqqa6fr0g0tt98s 14 205123 1564374 1409109 2026-06-02T12:42:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564374 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Jamii:watu wa Italia|S]] [[Jamii:wanasheria nchi kwa nchi|I]] 5wcgrou7zwp2nsj4xvwwf4oij5vq2vr 4 208508 1564476 1564311 2026-06-02T16:43:46Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1564476 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-02) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-02)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 677 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 749 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2856 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1111 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2015 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 504 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 306 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1086 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 494 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 492 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 285 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 771 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 239 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 857 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 451 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 244 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 156 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 390 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 264 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 256 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 438 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 182 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 289 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 510 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 260 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 231 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 149 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 186 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 167 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 286 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 290 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 135 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 420 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 218 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 7 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 150 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29652 || ↓ -10.9% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 172.4 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2856 || ↓ -6.5% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1111 || ↓ -8.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1086 || ↑ +8.3% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 857 || ↑ +72.8% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 771 || ↑ +86.7% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 749 || ↑ +12.3% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 677 || ↑ +9.2% |- | 8 || [[San Marino]] || 510 || ↑ +2450.0% |- | 9 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 504 || ↓ -0.4% |- | 10 || [[Urusi]] || 494 || ↑ +1.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} fy8gewku906d0cxzo9ukz27a9pesmlm 1564478 1564476 2026-06-02T16:46:15Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1564478 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-02) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-02)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 677 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 749 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2856 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1111 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2015 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 504 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 306 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1086 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 494 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 492 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 285 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 771 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 239 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 857 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 451 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 244 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 156 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 390 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 264 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 256 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 438 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 182 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 289 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 510 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 260 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 231 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 149 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 186 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 167 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 286 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 290 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 135 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 420 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 218 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 7 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 150 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29348 || ↓ -10.3% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 170.6 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2856 || ↓ -6.5% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1111 || ↓ -8.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1086 || ↑ +8.3% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 857 || ↑ +72.8% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 771 || ↑ +86.7% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 749 || ↑ +12.3% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 677 || ↑ +9.2% |- | 8 || [[San Marino]] || 510 || ↑ +2450.0% |- | 9 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 504 || ↓ -0.4% |- | 10 || [[Urusi]] || 494 || ↑ +1.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} op0s7qrl1wvye40kju11zd6fn8rhjo5 1564521 1564478 2026-06-02T20:56:50Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1564521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-02) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-02)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 690 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 749 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2856 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1111 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2059 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 504 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 306 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1086 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 494 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 492 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 285 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 771 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 239 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 857 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 451 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 244 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 156 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 357 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 390 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 264 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 256 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 438 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 182 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 289 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 510 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 260 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 231 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 149 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 186 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 167 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 286 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 290 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 135 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 420 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 218 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 7 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 150 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29348 || ↓ -10.3% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 170.6 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2856 || ↓ -6.5% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1111 || ↓ -8.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1086 || ↑ +8.3% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 857 || ↑ +72.8% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 771 || ↑ +86.7% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 749 || ↑ +12.3% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 677 || ↑ +9.2% |- | 8 || [[San Marino]] || 510 || ↑ +2450.0% |- | 9 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 504 || ↓ -0.4% |- | 10 || [[Urusi]] || 494 || ↑ +1.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} a43gefmmmef3hisbuaq4dsp06cv8nh2 1564522 1564521 2026-06-02T20:57:56Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1564522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-02) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-02)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 690 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 749 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2856 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1111 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2059 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 504 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 306 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1086 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 494 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 492 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 285 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 771 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 239 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 857 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 451 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 244 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 156 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 357 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 390 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 264 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 256 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 438 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 182 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 289 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 510 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 260 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 231 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 149 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 186 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 167 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 286 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 290 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 135 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 420 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 218 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 7 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 150 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 131 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 72 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29718 || ↓ -10.7% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 172.8 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2856 || ↓ -6.5% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1111 || ↓ -8.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1086 || ↑ +8.3% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 857 || ↑ +72.8% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 771 || ↑ +86.7% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 749 || ↑ +12.3% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 690 || ↑ +11.3% |- | 8 || [[San Marino]] || 510 || ↑ +2450.0% |- | 9 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 504 || ↓ -0.4% |- | 10 || [[Urusi]] || 494 || ↑ +1.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} 5xpsuegor5u029wliwpysu0uq3i3as5 1564528 1564522 2026-06-03T04:43:22Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1564528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-03) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-03)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 683 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 754 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2875 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1130 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2089 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 511 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1074 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 446 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 531 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 488 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 279 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 371 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 768 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 234 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 860 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 157 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 364 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 437 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 161 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 292 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 512 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 232 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 176 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 185 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 278 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 105 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 341 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 288 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 434 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 221 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 6 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 151 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 127 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 261 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 126 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 188 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 115 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29718 || ↓ -10.7% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 172.8 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2856 || ↓ -6.5% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1111 || ↓ -8.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1086 || ↑ +8.3% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 857 || ↑ +72.8% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 771 || ↑ +86.7% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 749 || ↑ +12.3% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 690 || ↑ +11.3% |- | 8 || [[San Marino]] || 510 || ↑ +2450.0% |- | 9 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 504 || ↓ -0.4% |- | 10 || [[Urusi]] || 494 || ↑ +1.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} gdycdo71o5afuh4fnsi12se909ep79m 1564529 1564528 2026-06-03T04:53:09Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1564529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-03) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-03)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 683 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 754 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2875 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1130 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2089 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 511 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1074 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 446 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 531 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 488 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 279 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 371 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 768 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 234 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 860 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 157 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 364 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 437 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 161 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 292 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 512 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 232 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 176 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 185 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 278 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 105 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 341 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 288 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 434 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 221 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 6 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 151 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 127 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 261 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 126 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 188 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 115 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 28698 || ↓ -11.4% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 166.8 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2875 || ↓ -5.7% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1130 || ↓ -5.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1074 || ↑ +10.5% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 860 || ↑ +71.0% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 768 || ↑ +85.5% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 754 || ↑ +12.9% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 683 || ↑ +8.4% |- | 8 || [[Urusi]] || 531 || ↑ +10.9% |- | 9 || [[San Marino]] || 512 || ↑ +2911.8% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 511 || ↑ +0.2% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} ruwsdqx91kel7rcy586ph6ie65wx7tr 1564581 1564529 2026-06-03T11:09:42Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1564581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-03) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-03)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 683 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 754 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2875 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1130 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2089 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 511 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1074 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 446 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 531 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 488 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 279 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 371 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 768 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 234 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 860 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 157 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 364 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 437 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 161 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 292 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 512 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 232 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 176 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 185 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 278 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 105 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 341 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 288 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 434 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 221 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 6 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 151 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 127 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 261 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 126 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 188 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 115 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 28698 || ↓ -11.4% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 166.8 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2875 || ↓ -5.7% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1130 || ↓ -5.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1074 || ↑ +10.5% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 860 || ↑ +71.0% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 768 || ↑ +85.5% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 754 || ↑ +12.9% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 683 || ↑ +8.4% |- | 8 || [[Urusi]] || 531 || ↑ +10.9% |- | 9 || [[San Marino]] || 512 || ↑ +2911.8% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 511 || ↑ +0.2% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} amrm8bd6rdmpm59xsny97zy2d8vwc6x 1564582 1564581 2026-06-03T11:12:26Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1564582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-06-03) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 59 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 74 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-06-03)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 683 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 754 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2875 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1130 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2089 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.09 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 511 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1074 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 446 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 531 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 488 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 279 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 371 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 768 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 234 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 860 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 447 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 157 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 158 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 187 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 364 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 437 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 91 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 161 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 292 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 512 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 140 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 81 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 97 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 232 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 176 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 185 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 278 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 105 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 341 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 288 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 106 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 434 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.45 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 221 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 6 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 117 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 151 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 127 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 153 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 261 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 88 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 78 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 126 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 129 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 188 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 83 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.01 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 115 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 10 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 51 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 11 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 60 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34919 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 29522 || ↓ -11.2% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.0 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 171.6 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2875 || ↓ -5.7% |- | 2 || [[Marekani]] || 1130 || ↓ -5.9% |- | 3 || [[Irani]] || 1074 || ↑ +10.5% |- | 4 || [[Uingereza]] || 860 || ↑ +71.0% |- | 5 || [[Ufaransa]] || 768 || ↑ +85.5% |- | 6 || [[Kenya]] || 754 || ↑ +12.9% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 683 || ↑ +8.4% |- | 8 || [[Urusi]] || 531 || ↑ +10.9% |- | 9 || [[San Marino]] || 512 || ↑ +2911.8% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 511 || ↑ +0.2% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 679 || 43.7% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 391 || 25.1% |- | 3 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 135 || 8.7% |- | 4 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 108 || 6.9% |- | 5 || [[User:Kozak2025|Kozak2025]] || 17 || 1.1% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 7 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.8% |- | 8 || [[User:Borisherman|Borisherman]] || 10 || 0.6% |- | 9 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 8 || 0.5% |- | 10 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.5% |- |} iyh0n58pkr5hxnc1y4xgwwf3skbv9f8 3 214320 1564514 1456558 2026-06-02T20:18:45Z Bestie loyer 82611 /* BESTIE LOYER */ mjadala mpya 1564514 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 07:15, 20 Septemba 2025 (UTC) == BESTIE LOYER == the person who lives in Nairobi Kenya and the King of Africa and East Africa '''[[Mtumiaji:Bestie loyer|Bestie loyer]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Bestie loyer#top|majadiliano]])''' 20:18, 2 Juni 2026 (UTC) 32sshhitydy1jdlrb71b6czkpz4gpai 0 224247 1564416 1492986 2026-06-02T13:22:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564416 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dino Buzzati-Traverso''' ([[16 Oktoba]] [[1906]] - [[28 Januari]] [[1972]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]] wa [[riwaya]], mwandishi wa hadithi fupi, [[mchoraji]] na [[Ushairi|mshairi]] wa [[Italia]], pia mwandishi wa habari wa ''Corriere della Sera''. Umaarufu wake duniani kote ulitokana zaidi na riwaya yake ''The Tartar Steppe'', ingawa pia alijulikana kwa makusanyo yake ya hadithi fupi yaliyopokewa vyema<ref>''Restless Nights – Selected Stories of Dino Buzzati'' (Introduction by [[Lawrence Venuti|L. Venuti]]) (North Point Press, 1983)</ref>. ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1906]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1972]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanaume wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wachoraji wa Italia]] 7ru8375rcz1wb6melxb9s4yiymjlj9f 0 224432 1564383 1493229 2026-06-02T12:50:56Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564383 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marina Colasanti''' ([[26 Septemba]] [[1937]] - [[28 Januari]] [[2025]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]], mtafsiri na [[mwandishi wa habari]] kutoka [[Italia]] na [[Brazil]]. Colasanti alichapisha zaidi ya vitabu 70 kati ya mwaka 1968 na 2017, ikiwa ni pamoja na kazi za mashairi, makusanyo ya hadithi fupi na fasihi ya watoto, na alishinda tuzo ya kifahari ya ''Prêmio Jabuti'' ya Brazil mara nyingi<ref>{{cite web |title=Arduíno Colasanti (1936-2014) - Pioneiro e galã do Cinema Nov |url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2014/02/1416804-arduino-colasanti-1936-2014-pioneiro-e-gala-do-cinema-novo.shtml|website=Folha de S. Paulo |access-date=2 February 2025 |language=Portuguese |date=24 February 2014}}</ref>. ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1937]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2025]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Brazil]] ocbhdcccdosgqekhutp3as8nppm5zri 0 229303 1564524 1507476 2026-06-02T23:23:11Z Ollin Masa 89330 File 1564524 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Vicente del Bosque - Teamchef Spain (03) edit1.jpg|thumb|Vicente del Bosque (2009)]] '''Vicente del Bosque González, Marquis wa kwanza wa Del Bosque''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[23 Desemba]], [[1950]]) ni [[kocha]] mstaafu wa [[mpira wa miguu]] kutoka [[Hispania]] na mchezaji wa zamani. Anachukuliwa kuwa mmoja wa makocha bora zaidi wa wakati wote.<ref>{{cite web|title=Greatest Managers, No. 11: Del Bosque|date=6 August 2013|url=http://www.espnfc.com/real-madrid/story/1511147/greatest-managersno-11-vicente-del-bosque|access-date=7 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.realmadrid.com/en/about-real-madrid/history/football-legends/vicente-del-bosque-gonzalez|title=Del Bosque|access-date=26 January 2016|work=Real Madrid Club de Fútbol}}</ref> ==Marejeo== <references /> {{mbegu-cheza-mpira}} {{BD|1950|}} [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Hispania]] fwaak8rg127k0tbxer759hf9la3ese8 0 230086 1564460 1508840 2026-06-02T16:15:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564460 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ruth Dorrit Yacoby''' ([[28 Aprili]] [[1952]] – [[5 Novemba]] [[2015]]) alikuwa mchoraji na mshairi wa Israeli. <ref name=levine>{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=Angela|title=Ruth Dorrit Yacoby: Woman Holding the Stream of Her Life|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_womans-art-journal_fall-2005-winter-2006_26_2/page/n41|journal=[[Woman's Art Journal]]|volume=26|number=2|date=2005|pages=38–43|doi=10.2307/3598097|jstor=3598097}}</ref> <ref name=jp>{{cite news|first=Angela|last=Levine|title=The woman of the thousand voices|url=https://www.jpost.com/Magazine/The-woman-of-the-thousand-voices-453207|date=5 May 2016|newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|access-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> <ref name=haaretz2012>{{cite news|title=רות דורית ועמרם יעקובי|trans-title=Ruth Dorrit and Amram Yacoby|first=Aviva|last=Lori|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|language=he|date=16 March 2012|archive-date=21 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521000916/http://www.haaretz.co.il/1.1663254|url=https://www.haaretz.co.il/1.1663254}}</ref> <ref name=haaretz2015>{{cite news|first=Shani|last=Litman|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=7 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527205542/http://www.haaretz.co.il/1.2770811|archive-date=27 May 2017|url=https://www.haaretz.co.il/1.2770811|language=he|title=מתה האמנית רות דורית יעקובי}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[jamii:waliozaliwa 1952]] [[jamii:waliofariki 2015]] [[jamii:wasanii wa Israeli]] n6wut0vzvvr3y15c75jjwtmmienkt6y 0 230299 1564387 1509387 2026-06-02T12:56:11Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564387 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rafaela Aponte-Diamant''' ni bilionea wa [[Italia]] na [[Israeli]] na mwanzilishi mwenza wa Kampuni ya Meli ya Mediterania (MSC), pamoja na mume wake, Gianluigi Aponte.<ref name="ForbesProfile">{{cite web |title=Rafaela Aponte-Diamant |url=https://www.forbes.com/profile/rafaela-aponte-diamant/ |website=[[Forbes]] |access-date=26 November 2024}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[jamii:waliozaliwa 1945]] [[jamii:watu walio hai]] [[jamii:wanawake wa Italia]] [[Jamii:wanawake wa Israeli]] 1mz7n489umrmgexjqtkn3f7epggdcei 0 230706 1564507 1510503 2026-06-02T19:14:06Z Olimasy 26935 1564507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{muundo}} '''''A Place for Myself''''' ni filamu fupi ya [[Rwanda]] iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2016. == Muktadha == Filamu hiyo ikiwa nchini Rwanda, inasimulia hadithi ya Elikia mwenye umri wa miaka 5 mwenye [[Zeruzeru|ualbino]], ambaye anatatizika kukabiliana na [[ubaguzi]] na unyanyapaa akiwa shule ya msingi. <ref>[https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/137741/Entertainment/rwandan-film-selected-for-toronto-black-film-festival Rwandan film selected for Toronto Black Film Festival - The New Times]</ref> Akiwa na mamake, wanapigana dhidi ya ubaguzi.<ref>[https://africanfilmny.org/films/a-place-for-myself/ A Place for Myself | African Film Festival, Inc.]</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Filamu za Rwanda]] [[Jamii:filamu za 2016]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] 9g8m1ey0ts21a9tjmaawo81avh21hp7 0 231587 1564457 1542942 2026-06-02T16:13:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564457 wikitext text/x-wiki '''María Sabina Magdalena García''' (22 Julai 1894 – 22 Novemba 1985)<ref name="SabinaRothenberg2003">{{cite book |last1=Sabina |first1=María |editor1-last=Rothenberg |editor1-first=Jerome |translator-last=Estrada |translator-first=Alvaro |title=María Sabina: Selections |date=2003 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23953-1 |page=3}}</ref> alikuwa mwanamke mwenye hekima (''sabia'') wa kabila la [[Wamazateki]]<ref name=":5">{{Rejea kitabu |last=Estrada |first=Álvaro |title=Vida de María Sabina La Sabia de los Hongos |publisher=Siglo Veintiuno Editores |year=1977 |isbn=978-968-23-1518-3 |pages=49 |language=es}}</ref> na mshairi<ref name=":2">{{Rejea tovuti |last=Aridjis |first=Chloe |date=30 March 2015 |title=On María Sabina, one of Mexico's greatest poets |url=[https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/maria-sabina-one-of-mexicos-greatest-poets](https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/maria-sabina-one-of-mexicos-greatest-poets) |access-date=28 May 2022 |website=Voices Magazine, British Council }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> aliyeishi katika [[Huautla de Jiménez]], mji uliopo katika eneo la [[Sierra Mazateca]] katika jimbo la [[Oaxaca]] kusini mwa [[Meksiko|Mexiko]].<ref name=":1">Sabina Rothenberg 2003, uk. x</ref> Sherehe zake za uponyaji za uyoga mtakatifu, zinazojulikana kama ''veladas'', zilitegemea matumizi ya uyoga wenye kiambato cha psilocybin, hasa ''[[Psilocybe caerulescens]]'', uyoga mtakatifu wenye umuhimu mkubwa kwa jamii ya Wamazateki.<ref name="Guzmán2008">{{cite journal |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gastón |title=Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-botany_2008-11_62_3/page/406 |journal=Economic Botany |date=2008 |volume=62 |issue=3 |page=406 |doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8}}</ref> Sherehe hizi zilichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa kueneza matumizi ya kitamaduni ya uyoga wa kiroho wa asili ya Mexiko miongoni mwa watu wa Magharibi, ingawa hilo halikuwa kusudio lake.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti |title=María Sabina |url=[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maria-Sabina](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maria-Sabina) |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=2026-05-05}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1894|1985}} [[Jamii:wanawake wa Meksiko]] g1q6ptogtc3n5chcizzzxyvqpi29m6q 0 232694 1564485 1545673 2026-06-02T16:58:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564485 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alex Avery''' ni mkurugenzi wa zamani wa utafiti na elimu katika Kituo cha Masuala ya Chakula Duniani (Center for Global Food Issues) kilicho chini ya Hudson Institute.<ref>{{ cite web|url=[http://www.cgfi.org/about/aavery_bio.htm](http://www.cgfi.org/about/aavery_bio.htm) |publisher=Center for global food issues |title=Alex Avery |access-date=9 Disemba 2007 |archive-url=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071014192920/http://cgfi.org/about/aavery_bio.htm](https://web.archive.org/web/20071014192920/http://cgfi.org/about/aavery_bio.htm) |archive-date=14 Oktoba 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Avery |first1=Alex |title=Frog-pocalypse Not: Amphibians And Atrazine |url=[https://www.hudson.org/research/11121-frog-pocalypse-not-amphibians-and-atrazine](https://www.hudson.org/research/11121-frog-pocalypse-not-amphibians-and-atrazine) |access-date=12 Septemba 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Akiwa katika taasisi hiyo, alifanya utafiti kuhusu athari za kimazingira za mifumo tofauti ya kilimo. Yeye ndiye mwandishi wa kitabu ''The Truth About Organic Foods'',<ref>{{ cite web | url =[http://www.tvrgroup.de/|](http://www.tvrgroup.de/|) publisher= TVR Group| title = Die Wahrheit uber Bio-Lebensmittel| language = German| access-date = 19 Desemba 2007 | archive-url= [https://web.archive.org/web/20071225022842/http://www.tvrgroup.de/|](https://web.archive.org/web/20071225022842/http://www.tvrgroup.de/|) archive-date= 25 Desemba 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref> ambacho kimeelezwa kuwa kitabu chenye utata<ref>{{cite journal|last=McHughen|first=Alan|date=May 5, 2007|title=Toppling the organic house of cards |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-biotechnology_2007-05_25_5/page/522|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=25|issue=5|pages=522–523|doi=10.1038/nbt0507-522|s2cid=38555109}}</ref> kutokana na ukosoaji wake dhidi ya harakati za chakula hai (organic food movement) na upinzani wake dhidi ya teknolojia ya kilimo cha kisasa (agricultural biotechnology). Avery anasema teknolojia hiyo inaweza kupunguza matumizi ya viuatilifu na kufanya kilimo kuwa rafiki zaidi kwa mazingira. Kitabu hicho kilichapishwa na Henderson Communications, kampuni ndogo ya ushauri wa kilimo biashara (agribusiness) na uchapishaji wa vitabu vinavyohusiana na kilimo. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} {{BD||}} [[Jamii:Wataalamu wa Marekani]] 347f9pcpi12z817e4bxnzw3o14wm7hy 0 233036 1564489 1545698 2026-06-02T17:06:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564489 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Amy Louise Daniels''' (26 Julai 1875 – 31 Januari 1965) alikuwa mtafiti wa lishe kutoka [[Marekani]] katika University of Iowa, aliyejulikana kwa kazi zake kuhusu lishe na afya, hasa kwa watoto. == Elimu na kazi == Daniels alizaliwa katika jimbo la Massachusetts tarehe 26 Julai 1875.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Women Who Made a Difference |url=[https://historicexhibits.lib.iastate.edu/Seeds/women.htm](https://historicexhibits.lib.iastate.edu/Seeds/women.htm) |access-date=1 Juni 2025 |website=Iowa State University }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Alipata shahada yake ya kwanza kutoka [[Columbia University]] mwaka 1906.<ref>{{Cite book |url=[https://dn790004.ca.archive.org/0/items/alumngraduates00yalerich/alumngraduates00yalerich.pdf](https://dn790004.ca.archive.org/0/items/alumngraduates00yalerich/alumngraduates00yalerich.pdf) |title=Alumnæ, Graduate School, Yale University, 1894–1920 |date=1920 |publisher=Yale University |pages=64–65 |language=en}}</ref> Mwaka 1912 alipata shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika biokemia kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Yale.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1912 |title=Doctorates Conferred by American Universities |journal=Science |volume=36 |issue=918 |pages=129–139 |doi=10.1126/science.36.918.129 |jstor=1638758 |pmid=17774453 |bibcode=1912Sci....36..129. |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Pia alisoma katika Massachusetts Institute of Technology<ref name=":0" /> na [[Harvard University]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=1966 |title=Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Nutrition |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_1966-09_90_1/page/100 |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=101–114 |doi=10.1093/jn/90.1.101 |issn=0022-3166}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=17 Januari 1959 |title=Women's Who's Who Lists Residents |url=[https://www.newspapers.com/article/iowa-city-press-citizen-womens-whos-wh/173588382/](https://www.newspapers.com/article/iowa-city-press-citizen-womens-whos-wh/173588382/) |access-date=1 Juni 2025 |work=Iowa City Press-Citizen |pages=5}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1875|1965}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] 2gamu7xnviuhcxbc68z0ui7mwtfdq2l 0 233363 1564500 1539576 2026-06-02T17:33:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564500 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Hazel Katherine Stiebeling''' (1896–1989) alikuwa [[Marekani|Mmarekani]] mtaalamu wa lishe<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Apron Strings and Kitchen Sinks |url=[https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/ipd/apronsandkitchens/exhibits/show/the-bureau-of-home-economics/last-chief?utm_source=chatgpt.com](https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/ipd/apronsandkitchens/exhibits/show/the-bureau-of-home-economics/last-chief?utm_source=chatgpt.com) |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=[www.nal.usda.gov](http://www.nal.usda.gov)}}</ref> ambaye alikuwa miongoni mwa waanzilishi wa programu za lishe za Idara ya Kilimo ya Marekani (USDA), ikiwa ni pamoja na uundaji wa viwango vya Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) vya [[vitamini]] na [[madini]].<ref name="Harper">{{Rejea jarida|last=Harper|first=Alfred E.|date=2003-11-01|title=Contributions of Women Scientists in the U.S. to the Development of Recommended Dietary Allowances|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|language=en|volume=133|issue=11|pages=3698–3702|issn=0022-3166|pmid=14608098|doi=10.1093/jn/133.11.3698|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Yost">{{cite book |chapter=Hazel K. Stiebeling |last1=Yost |first1=Edna |title=American Women of Science |date=1943 |publisher=Frederick A. Stokes Company |location=Philadelphia and New York}}</ref> Stiebeling alitoa mchango mkubwa katika uelewa wa muundo wa lishe, thamani ya lishe ya vyakula, miongozo ya lishe, na uundaji wa viwango vya lishe.<ref name="Harper" /><ref name="Dupont">{{cite journal |last1=Dupont |first1=Jacqueline L. |last2=Harper |first2=Alfred E. |title=Hazel Katherine Stiebeling (1896–1989) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_2002-10_60_10/page/342 |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=2002 |volume=60 |issue=10 |pages=342–348 |doi=10.1301/002966402320583415 |pmid=12392152 }}</ref> Miongoni mwa mapendekezo yake yalikuwa ni kunywa maziwa zaidi, kula matunda mabichi na mboga za majani za kijani. Pia alisaidia kuandaa mipango ya msaada wa dharura kusini mwa Marekani wakati wa matatizo ya kiuchumi ya Mdororo Mkuu wa Kiuchumi (Great Depression). Mwaka 1959, Stiebeling alikua mwanamke wa kwanza kutunukiwa tuzo ya President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service. Mwaka 1964, alitangazwa kuwa Distinguished Fellow wa American Society for Nutrition (DFASN). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1896|1989}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] nzw8rmuytr8uiczkznibbbivqfgdhun 0 233963 1564352 1540790 2026-06-02T12:06:14Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564352 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vanessa Cattoi''' (alizaliwa [[Rovereto]], 12 Julai 1980) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa [[Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia]] tangu mwaka 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=307716&idLegislatura=19|title=Cattoi Vanessa – Lega|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Cattoi alizaliwa katika mkoa unaojiendesha wa [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]. Yeye ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]]. Kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alipata uzoefu katika uongozi wa serikali za mitaa na utawala wa umma. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Baraza la Wawakilishi katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 na kufanikiwa kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2022. Katika bunge, amekuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Bajeti, Hazina na Mipango, akijikita zaidi katika masuala ya fedha na maendeleo ya maeneo ya milimani. Mnamo mwaka 2024, alianza pia kuhudumu kama mshauri wa manispaa (assessor) katika mji wa [[Ala, Trentino|Ala]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/vanessa-cattoi-1980-07-12|title=Vanessa Cattoi|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1980||Cattoi, Vanessa}} jqrolkjjm7iaxgakdp4rl4f8i6hvlpd 0 233965 1564353 1540796 2026-06-02T12:20:53Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564353 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ilaria Cavo''' (alizaliwa [[Genova]], 11 Oktoba 1973) ni mwanasiasa na mwandishi wa habari wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/deputati/elenco/19-308785|title=Ilaria Cavo|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alikuwa na wasifu mashuhuri kama mwandishi wa habari wa televisheni, akifanya kazi na vituo vikubwa kama Mediaset na Primocanale. Alijulikana sana kwa kuripoti matukio makubwa ya uhalifu na habari za uchunguzi nchini Italia. Mnamo mwaka 2015, aliingia kwenye siasa na kuteuliwa kuwa mshauri wa mkoa (assessor) katika mkoa wa [[Liguria]], akishughulikia masuala ya elimu, mafunzo, na utamaduni chini ya uongozi wa Giovanni Toti. Mnamo mwaka 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi kupitia muungano wa mrengo wa kulia. Tangu tarehe 23 Julai 2025, amekuwa akihudumu kama Rais wa Baraza la Kitaifa la chama cha [[Us Moderates|Noi Moderati]] (Sisi ni Wastani), akichukua nafasi ya Giovanni Toti.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.primocanale.it/politica/56766-genova-ilaria-cavo-succede-toti-eletta-presidente-consiglio-nazionale.html|title=Ilaria Cavo eletta presidente Consiglio nazionale di Noi Moderati|work=[[:it:Primocanale|Primocanale]]|date=23 Julai 2025|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa habari]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1973||Cavo, Ilaria}} cn0mo5dk6ah3b5eult0fvr7dc4a9vyl 0 233967 1564354 1540798 2026-06-02T12:22:51Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564354 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anna Gabriella Ceccatelli''' (anayejulikana kama '''Gabriella'''; 1 Desemba 1927 – 21 Februari 2001) alikuwa mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]]. == Wasifu == Alizaliwa mjini [[Prato]] na alikuwa mwanachama mashuhuri wa chama cha [[Demokrasia ya Kikristo]] (DC). Ceccatelli alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia kuanzia mwaka 1983 hadi 1992, akiwakilisha mkoa wa [[Lazio]]. Mbali na majukumu yake bungeni, alihudumu kama Katibu wa Jimbo (undersecretary) katika Wizara ya Mazingira katika serikali kadhaa kati ya mwaka 1987 na 1992. Alijulikana pia kwa harakati zake ndani ya vuguvugu la wanawake wa Kikristo nchini Italia, akihimiza ushiriki wa wanawake katika siasa na maamuzi ya kiserikali. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1927|2001|Ceccatelli, Anna Gabriella}} mo7bimggspx2yijw3d56gnt0cenx59o 0 233968 1564355 1540800 2026-06-02T12:23:37Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564355 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Matilde Celentano''' (alizaliwa [[Carbonia]], [[Sardinia]], 14 Oktoba 1959) ni daktari na mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama Meya wa Latina tangu mwezi Mei 2023. == Wasifu == Celentano amejenga maisha na wasifu wake mjini [[Latina]]. Kitaaluma yeye ni daktari bingwa wa upasuaji, akibobea katika masuala ya tiba ya viungo (physiatry). Kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi kwa miaka mingi katika sekta ya afya ya umma. Mwanachama wa chama cha [[Brothers of Italy|Fratelli d'Italia]] (FdI), Celentano alianza harakati zake za kisiasa kama diwani wa manispaa ya Latina mwaka 2016. Mnamo Mei 2023, aliandika historia kwa kuchaguliwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuwa Meya wa Latina, akishinda kwa kura nyingi katika duru ya kwanza kupitia muungano wa mrengo wa kulia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comune.latina.it/citta/il-sindaco/|title=Il Sindaco Matilde Celentano|publisher=Comune di Latina|language=it}}</ref> Uongozi wake unajikita katika kuboresha miundombinu ya mji, huduma za afya, na kurejesha hadhi ya mji wa Latina kama kitovu cha uchumi katika mkoa wa [[Lazio]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1959||Celentano, Matilde}} 3y8j0xmq56cliuvearoytfq3ypofrbs 0 233969 1564356 1540802 2026-06-02T12:24:19Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564356 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paola Maria Chiesa''' (alizaliwa [[Pavia]], 12 Septemba 1979) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Brothers of Italy|Fratelli d'Italia]] ambaye alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://laprovinciapavese.gelocal.it/pavia/cronaca/2022/09/27/news/paola-chiesa-eletta-alla-camera-mi-piacerebbe-occuparmi-della-difesa-1.41689550|title=Paola Chiesa eletta alla Camera: «Mi piacerebbe occuparmi della difesa»|work=[[La Provincia Pavese]]|date=27 September 2022|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma ana shahada ya fasihi ya kisasa na kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alifanya kazi kama mwalimu. Pia anajulikana kwa utaalamu wake na mapenzi yake kwenye masuala ya kijeshi na historia ya wanajeshi wa Italia (Alpini). Kwenye siasa za mitaa, alihudumu kama kiongozi wa kundi la chama cha Fratelli d'Italia katika baraza la mji wa Pavia hadi mwaka 2023, alipojiuzulu ili kuzingatia zaidi majukumu yake ya kitaifa bungeni.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://laprovinciapavese.gelocal.it/pavia/cronaca/2023/06/10/news/la_deputata_chiesa_pronta_a_lasciare_il_seggio_in_consiglio-12850389/|title=La deputata Chiesa pronta a lasciare il seggio in Consiglio|work=[[La Provincia Pavese]]|date=10 June 2023|language=it}}</ref> Katika Baraza la Wawakilishi, yeye ni mjumbe wa Kamati ya Ulinzi, ambapo amekuwa akishughulikia masuala yanayohusu majeshi na usalama wa nchi. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1979||Chiesa, Paola Maria}} gmq1dafum5vwve9391x5l6lr8x56g1s 0 233971 1564357 1540804 2026-06-02T12:26:03Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564357 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Monica Ciaburro''' (alizaliwa [[Cuneo]], [[Piemonte]], 12 Aprili 1970) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=307511&idLegislatura=19|title=Ciaburro Monica – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Ciaburro ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (FdI). Mbali na majukumu yake katika bunge la kitaifa, amekuwa akihudumu kama Meya wa mji wa [[Argentera]] tangu mwaka 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/monica-ciaburro-1970-04-12-2|title=Monica Ciaburro|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> Katika Baraza la Wawakilishi, amekuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Kilimo, ambapo anajulikana kwa kutetea maslahi ya maeneo ya milimani, uchumi wa vijijini, na sekta ya mifugo. Amekuwa mstari wa mbele katika kuandaa sera zinazolinda bidhaa za asili za Italia na kusaidia jamii ndogo ndogo za pembezoni kukabiliana na changamoto za kiuchumi. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1970||Ciaburro, Monica}} 219qdu2sk1lrwhmpe7dt4ksk5es9ygg 0 233972 1564358 1540806 2026-06-02T12:28:07Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564358 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anna Maria Cisint''' (alizaliwa [[Cormons]], 7 Oktoba 1963) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]] ambaye alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge wa Bunge la Ulaya]] katika Uchaguzi wa Bunge la Ulaya wa 2024 nchini Italia|uchaguzi wa mwaka 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.il-meridiano.it/notizie/politica/10236-elezioni-europee-2024-anna-maria-cisint-eletta-al-parlamento.html|title=Elezioni europee 2024: Anna Maria Cisint eletta al Parlamento|work=Il Meridiano|date=10 June 2024|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Cisint alijipatia umaarufu mkubwa kitaifa alipohudumu kama Meya wa [[Monfalcone]] kuanzia mwaka 2016 hadi 2024. Monfalcone ni mji wenye viwanda vikubwa vya meli, na wakati wa uongozi wake, alikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika siasa za mkoa wa [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]. Anajulikana kwa misimamo yake mikali na yenye utata kuhusu uhamiaji, hususan kuhusiana na jamii ya Waislamu mjini Monfalcone. Amekuwa akipinga kile anachokiita "uislamishaji" wa mji wake, hatua zilizojumuisha kufungwa kwa vituo vya utamaduni na maeneo ya sala, pamoja na kupiga marufuku uvaaji wa mavazi ya kidini (kama burkini) katika fukwe za umma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilfoglio.it/politica/2024/06/11/news/chi-e-anna-maria-cisint-l-ultima-dei-salviniani-6638903/|title=Chi è Anna Maria Cisint, l'ultima dei salviniani|work=[[Il Foglio]]|date=11 June 2024|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo Juni 2024, alijiuzulu nafasi ya umeya baada ya kuchaguliwa kuwakilisha Italia katika Bunge la Ulaya kupitia chama cha Lega kinachoongozwa na [[Matteo Salvini]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1963||Cisint, Anna Maria}} 7cl1ejvwicpfobk4zi5kg6t8ildppvt 0 233977 1564359 1540813 2026-06-02T12:29:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564359 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Margherita Cogo''' (alizaliwa [[Tione di Trento]], 2 Oktoba 1951) alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuwa Rais wa mkoa unaojiendesha wa [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]] nchini [[Italia]], na pia alikuwa Makamu wa Rais wa kwanza wa mkoa huo. == Wasifu == Kabla ya kuingia katika siasa za kikanda, alifanya kazi kama mwalimu na alihudumu kama Meya wa Tione di Trento kuanzia mwaka 1990 hadi 1998. Aliandika historia mwaka 1999 alipochaguliwa kuwa Rais wa mkoa wa Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol kupitia muungano wa mrengo wa kati na kushoto, nafasi aliyoishika hadi mwaka 2002. Baada ya kipindi chake cha urais, aliendelea kuhudumu katika serikali ya mkoa kama Makamu wa Rais na mshauri (assessor) anayeshughulikia masuala ya utamaduni. Anatambulika kwa mchango wake mkubwa katika kuimarisha mamlaka ya ndani ya mkoa (autonomy) na kukuza ushirikiano kati ya jamii zinazozungumza lugha tofauti mkoani humo. Cogo pia amekuwa mtetezi wa ushiriki wa wanawake katika nafasi za juu za maamuzi serikalini. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1951||Cogo, Margherita}} 25uxhyejy950hpnp2i0cqiru0v8q0y7 0 233979 1564360 1540816 2026-06-02T12:29:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* Marejeo */ 1564360 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Beatriz Colombo''' (alizaliwa 13 Machi 1978) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022 kupitia chama cha [[Brothers of Italy|Fratelli d'Italia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=308926&idLegislatura=19|title=Colombo Beatriz – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Colombo alizaliwa mjini [[Rimini]] na kuishi mjini [[Riccione]]. Kitaaluma, ana shahada ya uzamili katika saikolojia ya kazi na mashirika kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Urbino, na kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alifanya kazi kama wakala wa shughuli za kifedha.<ref name="Openpolis">{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/beatriz-colombo-1978-03-13|title=Beatriz Colombo|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa ndani ya chama cha Fratelli d'Italia tangu kuanzishwa kwake, akihudumu katika ngazi mbalimbali za mkoa wa [[Emilia-Romagna]]. Mnamo Juni 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa diwani wa manispaa ya Riccione. Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, alichaguliwa kuingia katika Baraza la Wawakilishi. Mnamo Mei 2023, alijiuzulu nafasi yake ya udiwani ili kuzingatia majukumu yake ya bunge la kitaifa, akifuata miongozo ya chama chake kuhusu kutoshikilia nyadhifa mbili kwa wakati mmoja.<ref name="Openpolis"/> Akiwa bungeni, amekuwa akihudumu katika Kamati ya Shughuli za Uzalishaji, Biashara, na Utalii, na pia amehusika katika kamati mbalimbali za uchunguzi wa bunge. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1978||Colombo, Beatriz}} 8bqx65zwrgn7paoktpsrp71ex8hn2gk 0 233981 1564361 1540820 2026-06-02T12:30:07Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564361 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Silvana Andreina Comaroli''' (alizaliwa [[Soncino]], [[Cremona]], 27 Machi 1967) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] na mwanachama wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]]. Amekuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2018, baada ya kuhudumu hapo awali kuanzia mwaka 2008 hadi 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=302764&idLegislatura=19|title=Comaroli Silvana Andreina – Lega|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kabla ya kujikita kikamilifu katika siasa za kitaifa, alijipatia uzoefu katika utawala wa serikali za mitaa katika eneo lake la asili. Katika kipindi cha kati ya mwaka 2013 na 2018, alihudumu kama mjumbe wa [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/leg/17/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00025531.htm|title=Silvana Andreina Comaroli|publisher= Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic |language=it}}</ref> Akiwa bungeni, Comaroli amekuwa mwanachama mahiri wa Kamati ya Bajeti, Hazina na Mipango. Anajulikana kwa utaalamu wake katika masuala ya fedha za umma na amekuwa msemaji wa chama chake katika mijadala inayohusu sheria za bajeti na usimamizi wa kodi. Pia amekuwa akitetea maslahi ya kiuchumi ya mkoa wa [[Lombardy]], hususan katika kusaidia biashara ndogo na za kati. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1967||Comaroli, Silvana Andreina}} qdecupflrnxmsd5jemqa9ngyz2lk8h2 0 233984 1564362 1549646 2026-06-02T12:31:28Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564362 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anna Paola Concia''' (alizaliwa [[Avezzano]], [[Abruzzo]], 4 Julai 1963) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] na mwanaharakati mashuhuri wa haki za [[LGBT nchini Italia|jamii ya LGBTQ+]]. == Wasifu == Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alihitimu masomo ya sayansi ya michezo na kufanya kazi kama mwalimu wa michezo na kocha wa mchezo wa tenisi. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990 akiwa mwanachama wa chama cha Kikomunisti (PCI) na baadaye kujiunga na Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia (PD). Mnamo mwaka 2008, aliandika historia kwa kuchaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia, akiwa mwanamke wa kwanza msagaji aliyejitokeza waziwazi (openly lesbian) kuchaguliwa katika bunge la Italia. Akiwa mbunge hadi mwaka 2013, alikuwa sauti kuu katika kupigania sheria dhidi ya chuki kwa watu wenye mwelekeo tofauti wa kijinsia (homophobia) na kutetea usawa wa kiraia. Mbali na bunge la kitaifa, Concia amehudumu kama mshauri wa mawaziri mbalimbali na pia kama mshauri (assessor) wa manispaa ya [[Florence]] anayeshughulikia utalii kuanzia mwaka 2017 hadi 2018. Tangu mwaka 2017, amekuwa akiratibu kamati ya maandalizi ya ''Fiera Didacta Italia'', moja ya maonyesho makubwa zaidi ya uvumbuzi katika elimu nchini Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.direfareinsegnare.education/didacta-italia-2026-intervista-with-anna-paola-concia/|title=Didacta Italia 2026, intervista con Anna Paola Concia|work=Dire, fare, insegnare|date=5 February 2026|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 2011, alifunga ndoa na Ricarda Trautmann mjini [[Frankfurt]], Ujerumani, tukio ambalo lilivutia hisia nyingi nchini Italia wakati huo kabla ya nchi hiyo kuhalalisha muungano wa kiraia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1963||Concia, Anna Paola}} tpw8axm5ryq48ogclvomgxanv7ydn0l 0 233986 1564363 1540827 2026-06-02T12:32:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564363 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Barbara Contini''' (alizaliwa [[Milano]], 22 Septemba 1961) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sen. Barbara CONTINI - cosa fa in parlamento - OpenParlamento|url=https://parlamento16.openpolis.it/parlamentare/barbara-contini/333055|access-date=2021-05-24|website=parlamento16.openpolis.it}}</ref> na afisa wa mashirika ya kimataifa, akiwa mtaalamu wa siasa za kimataifa na usalama. == Wasifu == Contini alipata umaarufu mkubwa kutokana na kazi yake katika maeneo yenye migogoro duniani. Mnamo mwaka 2004, aliteuliwa na utawala wa muda wa muungano (CPA) nchini [[Iraki]] kuhudumu kama mkuu wa mkoa wa [[Nasiriyah]], akawa mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo ya juu ya utawala katika mazingira ya vita nchini humo. Kabla ya hapo, alifanya kazi na [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] na mashirika mengine katika nchi kama [[Sudan]] (Darfur) na [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]]. Katika siasa za kitaifa, alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia mwaka 2008 kupitia chama cha People of Freedom (Italy)|Popolo della (PdL). Baadaye alijiunga na vuguvugu la ''Future and Freedom'' (FLI) lililoanzishwa na [[Gianfranco Fini]]. Katika kipindi chake cha useneta, alijikita zaidi katika masuala ya nje, ulinzi, na haki za binadamu. Kazi yake imetambuliwa kimataifa, na amepokea tuzo mbalimbali kwa ujasiri wake na mchango wake katika diplomasia na usimamizi wa migogoro ya kimataifa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1961||Contini, Barbara}} 0hiygas95ce8qt3hvxbwlyjdxyi3pmc 0 233988 1564364 1540829 2026-06-02T12:32:35Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564364 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Emanuela Corda''' (alizaliwa [[Cagliari]], 23 Novemba 1974) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2013 hadi 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/deputati/elenco/18-306031?tab=anagrafica|title=Emanuela Corda|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Corda alizaliwa katika kisiwa cha [[Sardinia]]. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa ndani ya chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mbunge katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2013 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Kuanzia mwaka 2019 hadi 2022, alihudumu kama Mwenyekiti wa Kamati ya Bunge ya Masuala ya Kikanda (Commissione parlamentare per le questioni regionali), nafasi muhimu inayoshughulikia uratibu kati ya serikali kuu na serikali za mikoa ya Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parlamento.it/leg/18/BGT/Schede/BicameraliStoriche/v3/4-00040.htm|title=Commissione parlamentare per le questioni regionali|publisher=[[Italian Parliament]]|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 2021, aliondoka kwenye kundi la bunge la Five Star Movement baada ya kutokubaliana na uamuzi wa chama hicho kuunga mkono serikali ya mseto ya [[Mario Draghi]]. Baadaye alijiunga na kundi la ''Alternativa'' (awali likijulikana kama L'Alternativa c'è). Corda amekuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa haki za kisiwa cha Sardinia, usalama wa kijeshi, na masuala ya kijamii. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1974||Corda, Emanuela}} ivc11ej6guq98mxolirytr9ajyt9m57 0 233990 1564365 1540832 2026-06-02T12:33:09Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564365 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Valentina Corneli''' (alizaliwa [[Giulianova]], 13 Machi 1986) ni mwanasiasa na mwanasheria. wa [[Italia]] == Wasifu == Corneli alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Abruzzo]]. Kitaaluma yeye ni mwanasheria na mtaalamu wa sheria za kikatiba, akiwa na shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika sheria za umma. Aliingia kwenye siasa kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) na alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018. Katika kipindi chake cha uongozi bungeni (2018–2022), alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya Masuala ya Kikatiba, Baraza la Rais, na Baraza la Mawaziri. Anajulikana kwa mchango wake katika mijadala inayohusu marekebisho ya sheria za uchaguzi na utawala wa umma nchini Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1986||Corneli, Valentina}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] ppwdrvqyu38ydzpsk6qtuov2u0kphfm 0 233993 1564366 1540835 2026-06-02T12:33:46Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564366 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Annalisa Corrado''' (alizaliwa [[Civitavecchia]], 8 Septemba 1973) ni mwanasiasa na mhandisi wa [[Italia]] wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia (PD) ambaye alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge wa [[Bunge la Ulaya]] katika Uchaguzi wa Bunge la Ulaya wa 2024 nchini Italia|uchaguzi wa mwaka 2024.<ref name="TRC">{{cite web|url=https://trcgiornale.it/annalisa-corrado-una-civitavecchiese-a-strasburgo/|title=Annalisa Corrado, una civitavecchiese a Strasburgo|work=TRC Giornale|date=26 June 2024|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma yeye ni mhandisi wa mazingira mwenye shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika masuala ya nishati. Ni mtaalamu aliyebobea katika masuala ya mabadiliko ya tabianchi, nishati mbadala, na uchumi wa mzunguko (circular economy). Kabla ya kujiunga na Chama cha Kidemokrasia, alifanya kazi kama msemaji mwenza wa chama cha [[Green Italia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rainews.it/articoli/2023/04/pd-elly-schlein-presenta-la-sua-segreteria-in-diretta-instagram-255e7a32-8dba-46d2-ac71-1e37a3805f90.html|title=Pd, Elly Schlein presenta la sua segreteria in diretta Instagram|work=RaiNews|date=7 April 2023|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 2023, aliteuliwa na katibu wa PD, [[Elly Schlein]], kuwa mkuu wa masuala ya mazingira na nishati ndani ya uongozi wa kitaifa wa chama hicho. Katika Bunge la Ulaya, Corrado ni mjumbe wa Kamati ya Mazingira, Afya ya Umma na Usalama wa Chakula. Anajulikana kwa harakati zake za kutetea haki za kimazingira (ecological transition) zinazoenda sambamba na haki za kijamii, akiamini kuwa mabadiliko ya kuelekea nishati safi lazima yawe jumuishi na yenye usawa kwa raia wote. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1973||Corrado, Annalisa}} [[Jamii:Wahandisi wa Italia]] eukz1qvvl25jnda0cglu3vlljbjqc3k 0 233999 1564367 1540842 2026-06-02T12:34:20Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564367 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Giulia Cosenza''' (alizaliwa [[Napoli]], 25 Januari 1968) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2022 kupitia chama cha [[Brothers of Italy|Fratelli d'Italia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/composizione/senatori/elenco-alfabetico/scheda-attivita?did=22910|title=Giulia Cosenza|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma ana shahada ya sheria na amefanya kazi kama mjasiriamali na meneja katika sekta ya mawasiliano na mahusiano ya umma. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa akiwa kijana ndani ya vuguvugu la ''Fronte della Gioventù'' na baadaye kujiunga na chama cha ''Alleanza Nazionale''. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia mwaka 2006 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2008, akihudumu hadi mwaka 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leg16.camera.it/29?shadow_deputato=301537&idpersona=301537|title=Cosenza Giulia – PDL|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> Baada ya kipindi cha kuwa nje ya bunge la kitaifa ambapo alijikita zaidi katika ujenzi wa chama cha Fratelli d'Italia, alirejea bungeni mwaka 2022, safari hii kama Seneta. Katika Baraza la Seneti, anahudumu kama Makamu wa Rais wa Kamati ya Kilimo, Utalii, na Uzalishaji wa Viwanda, akijikita zaidi katika kukuza bidhaa za "Made in Italy" na kulinda sekta ya chakula na kilimo nchini humo. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1968||Cosenza, Giulia}} ca0j91fx638iwc429rdz0izniiltfhk 0 234002 1564368 1540847 2026-06-02T12:35:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564368 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Jessica Costanzo''' (alizaliwa [[Torino]], 19 Januari 1984) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2022. == Wasifu == Costanzo alilelewa huko [[Caselle Torinese]]. Kitaaluma, ana shahada ya mawasiliano na amefanya kazi kama mtaalamu wa mahusiano ya umma na mawasiliano ya kampuni. Aliingia bungeni baada ya kuchaguliwa katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Akiwa bungeni, alihudumu katika Kamati ya Kazi ya Umma na Binafsi. Mnamo Februari 2021, alikuwa mmoja wa wabunge waliofukuzwa kwenye chama cha Five Star Movement baada ya kupiga kura dhidi ya serikali ya mseto ya [[Mario Draghi]]. Baada ya kufukuzwa, alijiunga na kundi la bunge la ''L'Alternativa c'è'' (baadaye likijulikana kama ''Alternativa''). Katika kipindi chake cha uongozi, amekuwa mtetezi wa masuala ya haki za wafanyakazi, usafiri wa anga, na maendeleo ya miundombinu katika mkoa wa [[Piedmont]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1984||Costanzo, Jessica}} at6xrgr5uv963fbppyaygqb16ob0s1k 0 234010 1564369 1540859 2026-06-02T12:35:43Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564369 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Beatrice Covassi''' (alizaliwa [[Firenze]], 1 Desemba 1968) ni mwanasiasa na mwanadiplomasia wa [[Italia Kusini|Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama mjumbe wa [[Bunge la Ulaya]] kupitia Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia (PD) kuanzia mwaka 2022 hadi 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Accueil {{!}} Beatrice COVASSI {{!}} Députés {{!}} Parlement européen |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/fr/240478/BEATRICE_COVASSI/home |access-date=3 January 2023 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=fr}}</ref> == Wasifu == Covassi alisomea sayansi ya siasa na mahusiano ya kimataifa katika chuo cha Cesare Alfieri mjini Florence na kuendelea na masomo ya uzamili katika Chuo cha Ulaya ([[College of Europe]]) mjini Bruges, Ubelgiji. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alikuwa na kazi ya muda mrefu na ya mafanikio ndani ya taasisi za [[Umoja wa Ulaya]]. Kuanzia mwaka 2016 hadi 2019, alihudumu kama Mkuu wa Uwakilishi wa [[Tume ya Ulaya]] nchini Italia. Pia amefanya kazi katika ofisi za Umoja wa Ulaya mjini [[Luxembourg]] na [[Washington, D.C.]], akijikita zaidi katika masuala ya uchumi wa kidijitali na sera za mawasiliano. Mnamo Desemba 2022, aliingia katika Bunge la Ulaya kuchukua nafasi ya [[David Sassoli]] aliyefariki dunia. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alikuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Viwanda, Utafiti na Nishati, na alijitolea sana katika masuala ya mabadiliko ya tabianchi na nishati mbadala. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1968||Covassi, Beatrice}} fsxob2pecc6n4rfhk4u3ohw6rz0ggqo 0 234011 1564370 1540860 2026-06-02T12:36:43Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564370 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Stefania Gabriella Anastasia Craxi''' (alizaliwa [[Milano]], 25 Oktoba 1960) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] na mwanachama wa chama cha mrengo wa kati na kulia cha [[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]]. Amekuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2018. == Wasifu == Craxi alizaliwa na Waziri Mkuu wa Italia, [[Bettino Craxi]]. Kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi kama mtayarishaji wa vipindi vya televisheni na mjasiriamali katika sekta ya mawasiliano. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia mwaka 2006 na kuhudumu hadi mwaka 2013. Wakati wa [[Serikali ya nne ya Berlusconi]] (2008–2011), aliteuliwa kuwa Katibu wa Jimbo (Undersecretary of State) katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Nje, nafasi iliyompa fursa ya kusimamia diplomasia ya Italia kimataifa. Mnamo mwaka 2018, alichaguliwa kuwa Seneta na tangu Mei 2022, anahudumu kama Rais wa Kamati ya Mambo ya Nje na Ulinzi ya Baraza la Seneti. Craxi pia ni mwanzilishi na Rais wa Taasisi ya Craxi (Fondazione Craxi), inayojikita katika utafiti wa kihistoria na siasa za kimataifa, akifanya kazi kubwa ya kuhifadhi kumbukumbu za kisiasa za baba yake na harakati za kisoshalisti nchini Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1960||Craxi, Stefania}} mchr0d5l9nlm9f9vip4bb3zo1v16gt6 0 234016 1564372 1540988 2026-06-02T12:38:48Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564372 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sara Cunial''' (alizaliwa [[Roma]], 8 Julai 1979) ni mwanasiasa na mwanaharakati wa [[Italia]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2022. == Wasifu == Cunial alikulia mkoani [[Veneto]]. Ana shahada ya kemia kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Padua na amefanya kazi katika sekta ya kilimo-hai (organic farming). Aliingia bungeni mwaka 2018 kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Hata hivyo, alifukuzwa chamani mnamo mwaka 2019 kutokana na kutofautiana na msimamo wa chama, hususan baada ya kukiita chama hicho kuwa "maiti inayotembea" na kukosoa sera zake za mazingira. Anajulikana zaidi kwa misimamo yake mikali dhidi ya chanjo (anti-vax), kupinga teknolojia ya 5G, na kupinga vizuizi vya kiafya vilivyowekwa wakati wa janga la [[UVIKO-19]]. Mnamo mwaka 2022, alianzisha na kuongoza orodha ya uchaguzi iitwayo ''Vita'' (Maisha), iliyojumuisha harakati mbalimbali zinazopinga kile alichokiita "dikteta wa kiafya".<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=No Vax, No 5G e No Paura: ecco Vita, la lista di Cunial contro la dittatura sanitaria |url=https://www.fanpage.it/politica/no-vax-no-5g-e-no-paura-ecco-vita-la-lista-di-cunial-contro-la-dittatura-sanitaria/ |access-date=2022-09-16 |website=Fanpage |language=it}}</ref> Hata hivyo, katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, chama chake hakikufikia kizingiti cha kura zinazohitajika na hivyo hakuchaguliwa tena. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1979||Cunial, Sara}} gud363j417cshdo7r9lzm6ochflgoma 0 234030 1564373 1541001 2026-06-02T12:39:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564373 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Valentina Cuppi''' (alizaliwa [[Bologna]], 19 Agosti 1983) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama Rais wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD) kuanzia mwezi Februari 2020 hadi Machi 2023. Tangu Juni 2019, anahudumu pia kama Meya wa [[Marzabotto]], mji ulioko karibu na [[Bologna]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://tg24.sky.it/politica/2020/02/22/valentina-cuppi-pd-chi-e.html |title=Valentina Cuppi nuova presidente del Pd: ecco chi è |publisher=Sky TG24 |language=it |date=22 February 2020}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma, ana shahada ya uzamili katika sayansi ya falsafa na amefanya kazi kama mwalimu wa historia na falsafa katika shule za sekondari. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa katika ngazi ya manispaa mjini Marzabotto, ambapo alihudumu kama diwani na kisha naibu meya kabla ya kuchaguliwa kuwa meya mwaka 2019. Marzabotto ni mji wenye historia muhimu nchini Italia kutokana na mauaji ya kinyama yaliyofanywa na Wanazi wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia, na Cuppi amekuwa mstari wa mbele kuhifadhi kumbukumbu za ukinzani dhidi ya ufashisti (anti-fascism). Mnamo tarehe 22 Februari 2020, kufuatia pendekezo la Katibu wa chama [[Nicola Zingaretti]], Cuppi alichaguliwa kwa kauli moja na mkutano mkuu wa kitaifa kuwa Rais wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia. Katika nafasi hiyo, alikuwa mwanamke wa tatu kushika wadhifa huo katika historia ya chama. Alimaliza muda wake wa urais wa chama mnamo Machi 2023, kufuatia kuchaguliwa kwa [[Elly Schlein]] kama Katibu Mkuu mpya na Stefano Bonaccini kama Rais mpya wa chama. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1983||Cuppi, Valentina}} brp53opuciw90r5mpq895oyscqwck5d 0 234031 1564392 1540882 2026-06-02T13:00:58Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564392 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Celeste D'Arrando''' (alizaliwa [[Torino]], [[Italia]], 23 Machi 1985) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kwa ajili ya Bunge la 18 la Jamhuri ya Italia. == Wasifu == D'Arrando alikulia katika mji wa [[Collegno]], mkoani [[Piemonte]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi katika sekta ya huduma za kijamii, akijikita zaidi katika kusaidia watu wenye ulemavu na wazee. Alijiunga na chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) na kuchaguliwa kuwa mbunge kupitia chama hicho. Akiwa bungeni kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2022, alikuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Kumi na Mbili ya Masuala ya Kijamii (XII Commissione Affari Sociali). Katika majukumu yake, alijikita sana katika kutetea haki za afya ya umma, kuboresha huduma za afya ya akili, na kupigania haki za walezi wa familia (caregivers). Ingawa aligombea tena katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022, hakuchaguliwa kurejea bungeni kutokana na matokeo ya jumla ya chama chake katika jimbo hilo. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1985||D'Arrando, Celeste}} r7k8xp4o6dexervqbbq5yps36tbbe4f 0 234037 1564393 1540919 2026-06-02T13:05:18Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564393 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fabiana Dadone''' (alizaliwa [[Cuneo]], 12 Februari 1984) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia ambaye alihudumu kama Waziri wa Sera za Vijana wa Italia katika [[Baraza la Mawaziri la Draghi]] kati ya mwaka 2021 na 2022. Kabla ya hapo, alihudumu kama Waziri wa Utawala wa Umma wa Italia katika Baraza la Mawaziri la Conte II kuanzia mwaka 2019 hadi 2021. == Wasifu == Dadone alizaliwa mkoani [[Piemonte]]. Kitaaluma, yeye ni mwanasheria aliyebobea katika sheria za kiraia na alihitimu masomo yake katika Chuo Kikuu cha Turin. Aliingia kwenye siasa kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) na alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia]] mwaka 2013 akiwa na umri wa miaka 29 pekee, na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Akiwa bungeni, alikuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Masuala ya Kikatiba na alijipatia sifa kwa misimamo yake kuhusu uwazi na maadili katika utumishi wa umma. Wakati wa uongozi wake kama Waziri wa Utawala wa Umma, alisimamia mchakato wa kuanzisha mfumo wa kufanya kazi kwa njia ya mtandao (smart working) katika sekta ya umma nchini Italia wakati wa janga la [[UVIKO-19]]. Baadaye, akiwa Waziri wa Sera za Vijana, alijikita katika kuimarisha kadi ya vijana ya kitaifa (Carta Giovani Nazionale) na kusaidia ajira kwa vijana. Mnamo mwaka 2022, aliteuliwa kuwa mmoja wa waratibu wa kitaifa wa chama cha Five Star Movement, akishughulikia masuala ya mafunzo ya kisiasa ya chama hicho. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1984||Dadone, Fabiana}} dio9qm1h5144em17d2erbnobhw677o5 0 234039 1564394 1540925 2026-06-02T13:07:25Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564394 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Manuela Dal Lago''' (alizaliwa [[Vicenza]], 10 Agosti 1946) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia na mwanachama wa chama cha [[Lega Nord]] (kupitia tawi lake la [[Liga Veneta]]).<ref>Agostini, Tiziana & Ianuale, Raffaella (1999) ''Serenissime: Viaggio nel Veneto Delle Donne'', Ediciclo, {{ISBN|88-85318-27-4}}, p. 30</ref> == Wasifu == Dal Lago alianza kazi yake ya kisiasa mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990. Alichaguliwa kuwa Rais wa [[wilaya ya Vicenza]] mnamo mwaka 1997 na kuhudumu katika nafasi hiyo kwa vipindi viwili hadi mwaka 2007. Uongozi wake ulijikita zaidi katika maendeleo ya miundombinu na kukuza uchumi wa eneo la Veneto. Mnamo mwaka 2008, alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati) katika Bunge la 16 la Jamhuri ya Italia. Akiwa bungeni, alihudumu kama Mwenyekiti wa Kamati ya Uzalishaji, Biashara, na Utalii. Alikuwa mshirika wa karibu wa [[Umberto Bossi]], mwanzilishi wa Lega Nord, na alishika nyadhifa mbalimbali za uongozi ndani ya chama hicho katika ngazi ya kitaifa na mkoa. Baada ya kumaliza muda wake bungeni mwaka 2013, amendelea kubaki kuwa mshauri muhimu wa kisiasa katika mkoa wake wa asili wa Vicenza. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1946||Dal Lago, Manuela}} rpxlv246s7ngyy2k2d33of1hgnhptyp 0 234042 1564395 1540931 2026-06-02T13:07:59Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564395 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Concetta Damante''' (alizaliwa [[Gela]], 5 Februari 1972) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/composizione/senatori/elenco-alfabetico/scheda-attivita?tab=datiAnag&did=36391|title=Concetta Damante|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Damante alizaliwa katika kisiwa cha [[Sicilia]]. Kitaaluma, anafanya kazi katika sekta ya utawala na uhasibu. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa ndani ya chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Kuanzia mwaka 2019 hadi 2022, alikuwa mjumbe wa Bunge la Mkoa wa Sicily (Assemblea Regionale Siciliana), ambapo alijishughulisha na masuala ya bajeti na mipango ya mkoa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/concetta-damante-1972-02-05|title=Concetta Damante|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa Seneta wa Jamhuri ya Italia. Katika Baraza la Seneti, anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya Bajeti na amekuwa akipigania maendeleo ya miundombinu na uchumi wa kusini mwa Italia, hususan katika eneo lake la asili la Sicily. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1972||Damante, Concetta}} deyqulse0p5smokftnmtb12uz4cgk69 0 234044 1564397 1540951 2026-06-02T13:09:37Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564397 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maria Angela Danzì''' (alizaliwa [[Librizzi]], [[Messina]], 5 Julai 1957) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama mjumbe wa [[Bunge la Ulaya]] kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) kuanzia mwaka 2022 hadi 2024.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Home {{!}} Maria Angela DANZÌ {{!}} Deputati {{!}} Parlamento Europeo |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/it/239258/MARIA+ANGELA_DANZI/home |access-date=2022-11-28 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Danzì alizaliwa [[Sicilia]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kitaifa na kimataifa, alikuwa na kazi mashuhuri katika utumishi wa umma nchini Italia, akihudumu kama Katibu Mkuu katika manispaa kadhaa muhimu, ukiwemo mji wa [[Genoa]] na mji wa [[Novara]]. Pia alishika nafasi za juu za usimamizi katika mkoa wa [[Lombardy]]. Mnamo Novemba 2022, aliingia katika Bunge la Ulaya kuchukua nafasi ya [[Eleonora Evi]] aliyekuwa amejiuzulu ili kujiunga na Bunge la Italia. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alikuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Mazingira, Afya ya Umma na Usalama wa Chakula, pamoja na Kamati ya Maendeleo ya Kikanda. Alijikita zaidi katika kutetea uwazi ndani ya utawala wa umma, ulinzi wa mazingira, na haki za raia. Kazi yake imejikita katika kuleta uzoefu wake wa muda mrefu wa usimamizi wa serikali za mitaa katika ngazi ya sera za Ulaya, akisisitiza umuhimu wa matumizi bora ya fedha za umma kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya kijani na kijamii. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1957||Danzi, Maria Angela}} f093c5mzfutzj1j6qmnbs8bc9trpcfb 0 234045 1564398 1540938 2026-06-02T13:10:19Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564398 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elisa De Berti''' (alizaliwa [[Bovolone]], 22 Oktoba 1974) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Veneto]], [[Italia]], anayefuata itikadi za kizalendo za Kiveneto. == Wasifu == De Berti ni mwanasheria kitaaluma, akiwa amehitimu shahada ya sheria katika Chuo Kikuu cha Verona. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa katika ngazi ya mtaa ambapo alihudumu kama Meya wa [[Isola Rizza]] kuanzia mwaka 2009 hadi 2015. Yeye ni mwanachama mashuhuri wa chama cha [[Lega Nord]] (kupitia tawi la [[Liga Veneta]]). Tangu mwaka 2015, amekuwa akihudumu katika serikali ya mkoa wa [[Veneto]] chini ya Rais [[Luca Zaia]]. Mnamo mwaka 2020, aliteuliwa kuwa Makamu wa Rais wa Mkoa wa Veneto, akisimamia pia masuala ya miundombinu, usafiri, na mawasiliano. Anajulikana kwa juhudi zake za kuboresha mtandao wa usafiri wa mkoa huo na kutetea uhuru mkubwa zaidi wa kiutawala kwa ajili ya Veneto. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1974||De Berti, Elisa}} t4nacmybt34bi2gb4m51565dtrozfdc 0 234046 1564399 1541192 2026-06-02T13:10:45Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564399 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elisabetta De Blasis''' (alizaliwa [[Avezzano]],30 Aprili 1974) ni mwanasiasa na daktari wa [[Italia]] ambaye amehudumu kama mjumbe wa [[Bunge la Ulaya]] tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{Rejea habari |title=Home {{!}} Elisabetta DE BLASIS {{!}} Deputati {{!}} Parlamento Europeo |language=it |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/it/239262/ELISABETTA_DE+BLASIS/home |access-date=2022-11-28}}</ref> == Wasifu == De Blasis alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Abruzzo]]. Kitaaluma yeye ni daktari bingwa wa magonjwa ya moyo (cardiologist), akifanya kazi katika hospitali mbalimbali nchini Italia kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa katika ngazi ya manispaa mjini [[L'Aquila]], ambapo alichaguliwa kuwa diwani wa mji huo mwaka 2017. Mnamo Novemba 2022, aliingia katika Bunge la Ulaya kuchukua nafasi iliyoachwa wazi na [[Andrea Caroppo]]. Katika maisha yake ya kisiasa, amepitia mabadiliko kadhaa ya vyama; alianza na chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]], kisha akajiunga na [[Brothers of Italy|Fratelli d'Italia]] mnamo 2023, na baadaye mnamo 2024 alihamia chama cha [[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]]. Katika Bunge la Ulaya, amekuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Mazingira, Afya ya Umma na Usalama wa Chakula, akitumia utaalamu wake wa kitabibu kuchangia katika sera za afya za Ulaya. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1974||De Blasis, Elisabetta}} 1k586200vo8h4gy80xpgn3w9v5d6ne3 0 234047 1564400 1540941 2026-06-02T13:11:25Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564400 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Danila De Lucia''' (alizaliwa [[Benevento]], 3 Desemba 1961) ni mwanasiasa na mwandishi wa habari wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2022. == Wasifu == De Lucia alizaliwa mkoani [[Campania]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi kwa muda mrefu kama mwandishi wa habari na mtaalamu wa mawasiliano, akijihusisha na masuala ya kitamaduni na kijamii katika eneo lake. Alichaguliwa kuwa seneta katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018. Akiwa bungeni, alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya Saba ya Elimu ya Umma na Urithi wa Kitamaduni. Katika nafasi hiyo, alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa ulinzi wa maktaba, makumbusho, na sekta ya sanaa nchini Italia. Pia alishika nafasi ya kiongozi wa kundi la Five Star Movement ndani ya kamati hiyo ya seneti. Mbali na majukumu ya kisheria, De Lucia amekuwa akijihusisha na harakati za kupinga ghasia dhidi ya wanawake na kukuza usawa wa kijinsia katika nyanja za kisiasa na kijamii. Muda wake bungeni ulimalizika mwaka 2022 kufuatia uchaguzi mkuu mpya. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1961||De Lucia, Danila}} exnosz2kibzezhkoqsnzjltippeaqim 0 234050 1564401 1548584 2026-06-02T13:12:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[De Simone]] hadi [[Titty De Simone]]: kutofautisha watu 1548584 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Caterina De Simone''', anayejulikana zaidi kama '''Titti De Simone''' (alizaliwa 15 Februari 1970), ni mwanasiasa na mwandishi wa habari wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika bunge la 14 na la 15 kuanzia mwaka 2001 hadi 2008 kupitia chama cha [[Communist Refoundation Party]] (''Rifondazione Comunista'').<ref name="parlamento" /><ref name="openpolis" /> == Wasifu == De Simone alizaliwa mjini [[Palermo]], [[Sicily]]. Kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alifanya kazi kama mwandishi wa habari na alikuwa mwanaharakati mashuhuri wa haki za binadamu. Alipochaguliwa katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2001, aliweka historia kwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza mbunge nchini Italia kutangaza waziwazi kuwa yeye ni msagaji (lesbian).<ref name="baroni" /> Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa haki za jamii ya [[LGBTQ+]], haki za wanawake, na masuala ya kijamii. Pia alihudumu kama Rais wa shirika la ''Arcilesbica'' kuanzia mwaka 1996 hadi 2002. Baada ya kumaliza muda wake bungeni, ameendelea kuwa na ushawishi katika siasa za mkoa wa Sicily, ambapo amehudumu kama mshauri wa kisiasa wa Rais wa mkoa wa [[Apulia]], akijikita katika masuala ya utamaduni na utekelezaji wa sera za kijamii. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="parlamento">{{cite web|url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/caterina-de-simone-19700215|title=Caterina De Simone|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it}}</ref> <ref name="openpolis">{{cite web|url=https://politici.openpolis.it/politico/titti-de-simone/2432|title=Titti De Simone|publisher=Openpolis|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref name="baroni">{{cite news|last=Baroni|first=Monica|title=Titti De Simone, la prima parlamentare lesbica: "La politica oggi ha paura"|url=https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2021/05/17/news/titti_de_simone_la_prima_parlamentare_lesbica_la_politica_oggi_ha_paura_-301438992/|work=La Repubblica|language=it|date=17 Mei 2021}}</ref> }} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1970||De Simone, Titti}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] pdxa50edx92hvpskgp86rtz791jxatl 1564403 1564401 2026-06-02T13:13:58Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564403 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Caterina De Simone''' (anajulikana zaidi kama '''Titti De Simone'''; alizaliwa [[Palermo]], 15 Februari 1970), ni mwanasiasa na mwandishi wa habari wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika bunge la 14 na la 15 kuanzia mwaka 2001 hadi 2008 kupitia chama cha [[Communist Refoundation Party]] (''Rifondazione Comunista'').<ref name="parlamento" /><ref name="openpolis" /> == Wasifu == De Simone alizaliwa [[Sicilia]]. Kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alifanya kazi kama mwandishi wa habari na alikuwa mwanaharakati mashuhuri wa haki za binadamu. Alipochaguliwa katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2001, aliweka historia kwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza mbungeni Italia kutangaza waziwazi kuwa yeye ni msagaji.<ref name="baroni" /> Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa jamii ya [[LGBTQ+]], haki za wanawake, na masuala ya kijamii. Pia alihudumu kama Rais wa shirika la ''Arcilesbica'' kuanzia mwaka 1996 hadi 2002. Baada ya kumaliza muda wake bungeni, ameendelea kuwa na ushawishi katika siasa za mkoa wa Sicilia, ambapo amehudumu kama mshauri wa kisiasa wa Rais wa mkoa wa [[Apulia]], akijikita katika masuala ya utamaduni na utekelezaji wa sera za kijamii. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="parlamento">{{cite web|url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/caterina-de-simone-19700215|title=Caterina De Simone|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it}}</ref> <ref name="openpolis">{{cite web|url=https://politici.openpolis.it/politico/titti-de-simone/2432|title=Titti De Simone|publisher=Openpolis|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref name="baroni">{{cite news|last=Baroni|first=Monica|title=Titti De Simone, la prima parlamentare lesbica: "La politica oggi ha paura"|url=https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2021/05/17/news/titti_de_simone_la_prima_parlamentare_lesbica_la_politica_oggi_ha_paura_-301438992/|work=La Repubblica|language=it|date=17 Mei 2021}}</ref> }} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1970||De Simone, Titti}} 3jvtqpbf0qvj4um8tviuhvnto9sncnw 1564404 1564403 2026-06-02T13:14:12Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Titty De Simone]] hadi [[Titti De Simone]]: usahihi wa jina 1564403 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Caterina De Simone''' (anajulikana zaidi kama '''Titti De Simone'''; alizaliwa [[Palermo]], 15 Februari 1970), ni mwanasiasa na mwandishi wa habari wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika bunge la 14 na la 15 kuanzia mwaka 2001 hadi 2008 kupitia chama cha [[Communist Refoundation Party]] (''Rifondazione Comunista'').<ref name="parlamento" /><ref name="openpolis" /> == Wasifu == De Simone alizaliwa [[Sicilia]]. Kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alifanya kazi kama mwandishi wa habari na alikuwa mwanaharakati mashuhuri wa haki za binadamu. Alipochaguliwa katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2001, aliweka historia kwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza mbungeni Italia kutangaza waziwazi kuwa yeye ni msagaji.<ref name="baroni" /> Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alikuwa mtetezi mkubwa wa jamii ya [[LGBTQ+]], haki za wanawake, na masuala ya kijamii. Pia alihudumu kama Rais wa shirika la ''Arcilesbica'' kuanzia mwaka 1996 hadi 2002. Baada ya kumaliza muda wake bungeni, ameendelea kuwa na ushawishi katika siasa za mkoa wa Sicilia, ambapo amehudumu kama mshauri wa kisiasa wa Rais wa mkoa wa [[Apulia]], akijikita katika masuala ya utamaduni na utekelezaji wa sera za kijamii. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="parlamento">{{cite web|url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/caterina-de-simone-19700215|title=Caterina De Simone|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it}}</ref> <ref name="openpolis">{{cite web|url=https://politici.openpolis.it/politico/titti-de-simone/2432|title=Titti De Simone|publisher=Openpolis|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> <ref name="baroni">{{cite news|last=Baroni|first=Monica|title=Titti De Simone, la prima parlamentare lesbica: "La politica oggi ha paura"|url=https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2021/05/17/news/titti_de_simone_la_prima_parlamentare_lesbica_la_politica_oggi_ha_paura_-301438992/|work=La Repubblica|language=it|date=17 Mei 2021}}</ref> }} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1970||De Simone, Titti}} 3jvtqpbf0qvj4um8tviuhvnto9sncnw 0 234074 1564406 1541026 2026-06-02T13:14:55Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564406 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Barbara Degani''' (alizaliwa [[Torino]], 11 Agosti 1966) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] kutoka mkoa wa [[Veneto]]. == Wasifu == Degani alijenga maisha yake ya kikazi na kisiasa mjini [[Padova]]. Alihitimu shahada ya sheria na kufanya kazi katika sekta ya utawala kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa. Degani alijizolea umaarufu alipochaguliwa kuwa Rais wa [[Mkoa wa Padua]] (Provincia di Padova) mnamo mwaka 2009, akiwakilisha chama cha ''The People of Freedom'' (Il Popolo della Libertà). Alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kushika wadhifa huo katika mkoa wa Padua, akihudumu hadi mwaka 2014. Kufuatia mafanikio yake katika ngazi ya mkoa, aliteuliwa kuwa Katibu wa Jimbo (Undersecretary of State) katika Wizara ya Mazingira na Ulinzi wa Maeneo na Bahari wakati wa serikali ya [[Matteo Renzi]] (2014) na baadaye katika serikali ya [[Paolo Gentiloni]]. Katika majukumu yake ya kitaifa, alijikita zaidi katika masuala ya elimu ya mazingira, maendeleo endelevu, na mikakati ya kupunguza athari za mabadiliko ya tabianchi. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1966||Degani, Barbara}} 2k99i0ayh7b80vb4bdfzg6y4mictmfn 0 234079 1564407 1541043 2026-06-02T13:15:19Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564407 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rossana Di Bello''' (28 Agosti 1956 – 10 Aprili 2021) alikuwa mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama Meya wa [[Taranto]] kuanzia mwaka 2000 hadi 2006. == Wasifu == Di Bello alizaliwa mjini [[Taranto]], katika mkoa wa [[Apulia]]. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990, akijiunga na chama cha [[Forza Italia]] kilichoanzishwa na [[Silvio Berlusconi]]. Mwaka 1995, aliteuliwa kuwa mshauri (assessor) wa mkoa wa Apulia anayeshughulikia masuala ya utalii na utamaduni. Mnamo mwaka 2000, aliweka historia kwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuchaguliwa kuwa Meya wa Taranto, na alichaguliwa tena kwa kipindi cha pili mwaka 2005. Hata hivyo, uongozi wake ulikumbwa na changamoto kubwa za kifedha zilizopelekea manispaa hiyo kutangaza kufilisika (dissesto finanziario) mwaka 2006, jambo lililomfanya ajiuzulu nafasi yake. Baada ya kuondoka madarakani, alikabiliana na mfululizo wa kesi za kisheria zinazohusiana na usimamizi wa jiji na masuala ya mazingira ya kiwanda cha chuma cha ILVA, ingawa katika kesi nyingi alikuja kuonekana hana hatia au mashtaka yalifutwa. Rossana Di Bello alifariki dunia tarehe 10 Aprili 2021 akiwa na umri wa miaka 64 kutokana na matatizo yaliyosababishwa na [[UVIKO-19]] wakati wa janga la dunia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1956|2021|Di Bello, Rossana}} tjtpzu8d8skzr7eeuvkeradhbm1drxb 0 234083 1564408 1541233 2026-06-02T13:15:51Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564408 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michaela Di Donna''' (alizaliwa [[Foggia]], 29 Septemba 1977) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati) kwa muda mfupi mwaka 2022.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=308741&idLegislatura=18|title=Michaela Di Donna: Legislature XVIII|website=Chamber of Deputies}}</ref> == Wasifu == Di Donna alizaliwa mkoani [[Apulia]]. Kitaaluma, alihitimu shahada ya uchumi na biashara na amekuwa akijihusisha na shughuli mbalimbali za ujasiriamali na ushauri wa kibiashara. Aliingia bungeni tarehe 13 Julai 2022, akichukua nafasi ya [[Elio Vito]] aliyejiuzulu.<ref>{{Rejea habari|url=https://www.foggiatoday.it/politica/camera-accoglie-dimissioni-elio-vito-entra-michaela-di-donna-foggia.html|title=Colpo di scena alla Camera: accolte le dimissioni di Elio Vito, scatta il seggio di Michaela Di Donna|website=Foggia Today|date=13 July 2022|access-date=6 August 2022}}</ref> Akiwa mwanachama wa chama cha [[Forza Italia]], alihudumu katika bunge la 18 la Jamhuri ya Italia hadi bunge hilo lilipovunjwa, na kumaliza muda wake rasmi tarehe 13 Oktoba 2022. Mbali na siasa za kitaifa, amekuwa na nafasi katika siasa za mtaa mjini Foggia na anajulikana pia kwa kuwa mmoja wa wanafamilia wa mwanasiasa mwingine mashuhuri wa mkoa huo, [[Franco Landella]], aliyekuwa meya wa Foggia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1977||Di Donna, Michaela}} 4dd08adj8g6fcn01g94l17tnypm0cqg 0 234086 1564410 1541256 2026-06-02T13:17:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564410 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rosa Maria Di Giorgi''' (alizaliwa [[Reggio Calabria]], 11 Agosti 1955) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia na mwanachama wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD). Amewahi kuhudumu kama Makamu wa Rais wa [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia]]. == Wasifu na kazi ya kisiasa == Kabla ya kujiunga na chama cha sasa, alikuwa mwanachama wa chama cha La Margherita kati ya mwaka 2002 na 2007. Kitaaluma, ni mtafiti mwandamizi katika Baraza la Kitaifa la Utafiti (CNR) nchini Italia. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013 kupitia tiketi ya Chama cha Kidemokrasia.<ref name="senato">{{Rejea tovuti |title=senato.it - Scheda di attività di Rosa Maria DI GIORGI - XVII Legislatura |url=https://www.senato.it/leg/17/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00029087.htm |access-date=2022-03-30 |website=www.senato.it |language=it}}</ref> Mnamo tarehe 22 Februari 2017, alichaguliwa kuwa Makamu wa Rais wa Seneti, akichukua nafasi ya [[Valeria Fedeli]].<ref name="camera">{{cite web |url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/rosa-maria-di-giorgi-19550811 |title=Rosa Maria Di Giorgi |publisher=Camera dei Deputati |language=it |access-date=2024-05-22}}</ref> Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018, alihamia Baraza la Wawakilishi (Camera dei Deputati) ambako aliendelea na majukumu yake ya kisheria hadi mwaka 2022. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1955||Di Giorgi, Rosa Maria}} 5sj2p11ivxhdgm5eol0axzn3uwnzcys 0 234090 1564411 1541074 2026-06-02T13:17:46Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564411 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Carmen Di Lauro''' (alizaliwa [[Vico Equense]], 24 Machi 1988) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=307210&idLegislatura=19|title=Di Lauro Carmen – M5S|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Di Lauro alizaliwa katika wilaya ya [[Napoli]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alijikita katika masuala ya mawasiliano na mahusiano ya umma. Yeye ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuingia bungeni katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 na alichaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2022. Tangu mwaka 2023, amekuwa akihudumu kama katibu wa kamati ya bunge inayoshughulikia masuala ya utoto na ujana.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/carmela-di-lauro-1988-03-24|title=Carmela Di Lauro|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> Katika shughuli zake za kibunge, amekuwa akijihusisha sana na ulinzi wa haki za watoto, elimu, na masuala ya mazingira. Amechangia katika mijadala inayolenga kuboresha ustawi wa jamii na kusaidia familia zenye kipato cha chini nchini Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1988||Di Lauro, Carmen}} 4kl4a9pk25k0hfh6gezjym4xhcpbbeq 0 234091 1564412 1541075 2026-06-02T13:18:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564412 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Grazia Di Maggio''' (alizaliwa [[Taranto]], 11 Novemba 1994) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] na mwanachama wa chama cha [[Brothers of Italy]] (Fratelli d'Italia). Tangu mwaka 2022, amekuwa mjumbe wa [[Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia]] (Camera dei Deputati).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?tipoAttivita=&tipoVisAtt=&shadow_deputato=308888&lettera=&idLegislatura=19&tipoPersona=|title=Di Maggio Grazia – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Di Maggio alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Apulia]], lakini alihamia [[Milano]] kwa ajili ya masomo na kazi. Alihitimu shahada ya sayansi ya siasa na mawasiliano. Safari yake ya kisiasa ilipata kasi mnamo mwaka 2021 alipogombea nafasi ya ujumbe wa [[Baraza la Jiji la Milan]] katika uchaguzi wa manispaa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/parlamento/grazia-maggio-pi-giovane-maggioranza-2133288.html|title=Grazia Di Maggio, chi è la più giovane della maggioranza|work=[[il Giornale]]|date=31 March 2023|language=it}}</ref> Ingawa hakuchaguliwa wakati huo, alionyesha uwezo mkubwa kama mwanasiasa kijana ndani ya chama chake. Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, alichaguliwa kuingia bungeni, na kuwa mmoja wa wabunge vijana zaidi katika bunge la 19 la Jamhuri ya Italia. Akiwa bungeni, amekuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya Utamaduni, Sayansi, na Elimu, ambapo amekuwa akijikita katika sera zinazohusu vijana, ajira, na fursa za elimu. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1994||Di Maggio, Grazia}} k4g4kwlg4rpu2zxdrtap48dkbnpyz61 0 234093 1564386 1541077 2026-06-02T12:55:30Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564386 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gisella Naturale''' (alizaliwa [[San Giovanni Rotondo]], 3 Juni 1969) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia ambaye amekuwa akihudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/composizione/senatori/elenco-alfabetico/scheda-attivita?tab=datiAnag&did=32673|title=Gisella Naturale|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Naturale alizaliwa katika wilaya ya [[Foggia]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi katika sekta ya kilimo na amekuwa mtaalamu wa masuala ya chakula na mazingira, jambo linaloakisiwa katika shughuli zake za bungeni. Yeye ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Alichaguliwa kuwa seneta kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 na alichaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2022. Tangu mwaka 2025, alifanya kazi kama Makamu Mwenyekiti wa Kamati ya Masuala ya [[Umoja wa Ulaya]] ndani ya Seneti.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/gisella-naturale-1969-06-03|title=Gisella Naturale|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it}}</ref> Katika kipindi chake bungeni, amejihusisha sana na Kamati ya Kilimo na Uzalishaji wa Chakula, ambapo amepigania haki za wakulima, ulinzi wa bidhaa za asili za Italia (Made in Italy), na kukuza kilimo endelevu kinachozingatia hifadhi ya mazingira. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1969||Naturale, Gisella}} 018memc2270uzizl23umlff5hx6xix9 0 234143 1564413 1548966 2026-06-02T13:19:42Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564413 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Iolanda Di Stasio''' (alizaliwa [[Aversa]], [[Caserta]], 24 Februari 1992) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati), aliyekuwa amechaguliwa kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018.<ref name="camera">{{cite web |url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/iolanda-di-stasio-19920224 |title=Iolanda Di Stasio - Portale Storico |publisher=Camera dei Deputati |language=it |access-date=2024-05-22}}</ref> == Wasifu na Kazi ya Kisiasa == Di Stasio alihitimu shahada ya sheria na kujiingiza kwenye harakati za kisiasa akiwa na umri mdogo. Mnamo mwaka 2022, kufuatia mgogoro wa ndani ya chama cha Five Star Movement na uamuzi wa [[Luigi Di Maio]] kujitenga, Di Stasio alikuwa miongoni mwa wabunge waliojiunga na chama kipya cha [[Together for the Future]] (''Insieme per il Futuro'').<ref name="split">{{cite news |last=Rai News |date=2022-06-22 |title=Di Maio lascia i 5Stelle: Insieme a lui 62 parlamentari |url=https://www.rainews.it/articoli/2022/06/di-maio-lascia-i-5stelle-uno-strappo-sofferto-ma-necessario-8515059d-6493-4318-8097-909772a5a54b.html |work=Rai News |language=it}}</ref> Akiwa bungeni, alifanya kazikama mjumbe wa Kamati ya Mambo ya Nje na Ushirikiano wa Kimataifa. Pia alikuwa Rais wa Kamati ya Kudumu ya Haki za Binadamu Duniani.<ref name="open">{{cite web |url=https://politici.openpolis.it/politico/iolanda-di-stasio/771891 |title=Iolanda Di Stasio |publisher=Openpolis |language=it |access-date=2024-05-22 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1992||Di Stasio, Iolanda}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] srfks9sx3rgbbh60d0ix17olq7dgeeb 0 234148 1564414 1541202 2026-06-02T13:20:15Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564414 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Federica Dieni''' (alizaliwa [[Reggio Calabria]], 6 Machi 1986) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye amekuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2013 kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S).<ref name="camera">{{Rejea tovuti|title=XVIII Legislatura - Deputati e Organi - Scheda deputato - DIENI Federica|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=306120&idLegislatura=18|access-date=2020-12-28|website=www.camera.it|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Dieni ana shahada ya sheria. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa na Five Star Movement tangu kuanzishwa kwa chama hicho, akijikita katika masuala ya utawala bora na uwazi. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, amehudumu katika nafasi muhimu, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuwa mjumbe na makamu wa rais wa COPASIR (Kamati ya Bunge ya Usalama wa Jamhuri), ambayo inasimamia idara za usalama na ujasusi nchini Italia.<ref name="true">{{Rejea tovuti |last=Passarin |first=Sara Greta |date=2022-04-20 |title=Chi è Federica Dieni, deputata M5S al Copasir |url=https://www.true-news.it/facts/chi-e-federica-dieni-deputata-m5s-al-copasir |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=True News. |language=it-IT}}</ref> Kama mwakilishi wa jiji la Reggio Calabria, amekuwa sauti dhabiti katika kutetea maslahi ya Kusini mwa Italia, akipigania maboresho ya miundombinu na kupambana na ufisadi. Mnamo mwaka 2022, kufuatia mgawanyiko ndani ya M5S, alijiunga na kikundi cha [[Together for the Future]] (''Insieme per il Futuro''). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1986||Dieni, Federica}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] 83hodf3y15to1sa987os8pn9myxko9v 0 234150 1564415 1541231 2026-06-02T13:20:46Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564415 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Federica Dieni''' (alizaliwa [[Reggio Calabria]], 6 Machi 1986) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye amekuwa mjumbe wa [[Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia]] tangu mwaka 2013 kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S).<ref name="camera">{{Rejea tovuti|title=XVIII Legislatura - Deputati e Organi - Scheda deputato - DIENI Federica|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=306120&idLegislatura=18|access-date=2020-12-28|website=www.camera.it|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Dieni alizaliwa ana shahada ya sheria. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa na Five Star Movement tangu kuanzishwa kwa chama hicho, akijikita katika masuala ya utawala bora na uwazi. Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, amehudumu katika nafasi muhimu, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuwa mjumbe na makamu wa rais wa COPASIR (Kamati ya Bunge ya Usalama wa Jamhuri), ambayo inasimamia idara za usalama na ujasusi nchini Italia.<ref name="true">{{Rejea tovuti |last=Passarin |first=Sara Greta |date=2022-04-20 |title=Chi è Federica Dieni, deputata M5S al Copasir |url=https://www.true-news.it/facts/chi-e-federica-dieni-deputata-m5s-al-copasir |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=True News. |language=it-IT}}</ref> Kama mwakilishi wa jiji la Reggio Calabria, amekuwa sauti dhabiti katika kutetea maslahi ya Kusini mwa Italia, akipigania maboresho ya miundombinu na kupambana na ufisadi. Mnamo mwaka 2022, kufuatia mgawanyiko ndani ya M5S, alijiunga na kikundi cha [[Together for the Future]] (''Insieme per il Futuro''). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1986||Dieni, Federica}} izp24rq8topk6dycwpo0mf1gco3k8ek 0 234190 1564445 1549321 2026-06-02T13:57:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564445 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Luisa Marelli Valazza''' (alizaliwa 1950) ni mpishi kutoka [[Italia]] ambaye mgahawa wake wa ''Al Sorriso'', uliopo katika manispaa ya Soriso mkoani [[Piemonte]], umetambuliwa katika Michelin Guide tangu mwaka 1982 ulipopata nyota yake ya kwanza ya Michelin. Nyota ya pili ilitolewa mwaka 1988 na ya tatu mwaka 1998.<ref name="msfd">{{cite web|url=[https://michelinstarfinedinings.wordpress.com/tag/al-sorriso/|title=Interview](https://michelinstarfinedinings.wordpress.com/tag/al-sorriso/|title=Interview) with 3 star Michelin Luisa Valazza|publisher=Michelin Star Fine Dinings|date=26 Oktoba 2011|accessdate=14 Oktoba 2019|language=}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1950|}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] 2tul8r69yk3395lfoxitzbppepgglz9 0 234206 1564384 1542637 2026-06-02T12:51:44Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564384 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lucia Pavin''' (alizaliwa 8 Agosti 1947) ni mpishi kutoka [[Italia]]. Anachukuliwa kuwa miongoni mwa wapishi wa kwanza kuleta mtindo wa Upishi wa kisasa wa Kifaransa nchini Italia na kuuchanganya na upishi Italia. == Kazi == Mnamo 1963, alianza kufanya kazi katika Restaurant Al Palazzino huko Galliera Veneta, mji mdogo katika Province of Padua, eneo la [[Veneto]], karibu maili 30 kaskazini-magharibi mwa [[Venezia]]. Katika miaka ya 1980 alihamia [[Ufaransa]] na kuwa mwanafunzi wa mpishi mashuhuri Roger Vergé. Baadaye alisoma katika École de Cuisine du Soleil huko Mougins kabla ya kurudi kufanya kazi tena katika Restaurant Al Palazzino. Mnamo 1982 alishinda tuzo ya kimataifa Dionisio dell’Ospitalità. Baadaye alifanya kazi na bwana wa upishi Gualtiero Marchesi. Mnamo 1994 alirejea Ufaransa katika shule ya Vergé ya École de Cuisine, ambapo alipata shahada ya pili ya ufundi wa upishiwa Kifaransa. Mnamo 1996 alishinda tuzo ya kimataifa ya upishi. Mnamo 2001, Luigi Veronelli, mmoja wa waandishi muhimu wa gastronomy nchini Italia, alimpa tuzo maalum iitwayo Il Sole kwa sahani ya Lucia ya ndege wa kanga aliyejazwa mimea na truffle.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.veronelli.com/rubriche/davvero-par-dessere-come-a-casa.html|title=Al Palazzino da Lucia: A Galliera Veneta come a casa|date=27 February 2012|accessdate=2026-05-13|archive-date=2019-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718043145/http://www.veronelli.com/rubriche/davvero-par-dessere-come-a-casa.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1947|}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pavin, Lucia}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] 3jrq8jem0kg6flcril2900yfdzsrvx7 0 234208 1564417 1549555 2026-06-02T13:22:56Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564417 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nicoletta Fabio''' (alizaliwa [[Siena]], 13 Machi 1961) ni mwanasiasa na mwanataaluma wa [[Italia]]ambaye anahudumu kama [[Meya]] wa Siena tangu mwaka 2023. Yeye ni mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo katika historia ya jiji hilo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comune.siena.it/amministrazione/il-sindaco|title=Il Sindaco Nicoletta Fabio|publisher=Comune di Siena|language=it|access-date=2024-05-22}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Wasifu == Fabio alizaliwa mkoani [[Toscana]]. Alihitimu shahada ya fasihi na amekuwa akifanya kazi kama mwalimu wa shule ya Sekondari. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alijulikana sana kwa ushiriki wake katika utamaduni wa jiji la Siena, akiwa amehudumu kama kiongozi (Rettore) wa shirika la ''Magistrato delle Contrade'', ambalo linasimamia mashindano maarufu ya farasi ya [[Palio di Siena]]. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Mnamo mwaka 2023, aligombea nafasi ya meya kama mgombea huru anayeungwa mkono na muungano wa mrengo wa kulia (Centre-right coalition), ukiwemo chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]], [[Lega Nord]], na [[Forza Italia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ansa.it/toscana/notizie/2023/05/29/nicoletta-fabio-e-la-nuova-sindaca-di-siena_854d9223-96e9-4e78-9943-7f7228801f9b.html|title=Nicoletta Fabio è la nuova sindaca di Siena|work=ANSA|date=29 May 2023|language=it}}</ref> Alishinda katika awamu ya pili ya uchaguzi (runoff) mnamo Mei 2023, akimshinda mgombea wa mrengo wa kushoto. Ushindi wake uliashiria mabadiliko ya kihistoria kwa Siena, si tu kwa kuwa mwanamke wa kwanza kuwa meya, bali pia kwa kuimarisha nafasi ya muungano wa mrengo wa kulia katika jiji hilo.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.corriere.it/politica/23_maggio_29/siena-risultati-ballottaggio-elezioni-comunali-2023-e69d763a-fe1f-11ed-83f5-6679f2250284.shtml|title=Elezioni comunali 2023, a Siena vince Nicoletta Fabio|work=Corriere della Sera|date=29 May 2023|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1961||Fabio, Nicoletta}} b2egx2ze4ur576u825iue1ndq89tjr1 0 234209 1564418 1541762 2026-06-02T13:23:35Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564418 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Monica Faenzi''' (alizaliwa [[Grosseto]], 21 Mei 1965) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama Meya wa [[Castiglione della Pescaia]] kuanzia mwaka 2001 hadi 2011 na kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati) kwa vipindi viwili (2008–2013 na 2013–2018).<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/monica-faenzi-19650521|title=Monica Faenzi|website=Chamber of Deputies|language=it|access-date=2024-05-22}}</ref> == Wasifu == Faenzi alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Toscana]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kitaifa, alijipatia umaarufu kupitia uongozi wake katika ngazi ya manispaa. Alichaguliwa kuwa Meya wa Castiglione della Pescaia kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 2001 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2006 kupitia muungano wa mrengo wa kulia. Katika kipindi chake, alijikita sana katika kukuza utalii na kuhifadhi mazingira ya pwani ya mji huo. Mnamo mwaka 2008, alichaguliwa kuingia bungeni kupitia chama cha [[The People of Freedom]] (Il Popolo della Libertà). Alichaguliwa tena katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013. Katika maisha yake ya kisiasa, amekuwa mwanachama wa vyama mbalimbali vya mrengo wa kulia, vikiwemo [[Forza Italia]] na baadaye kundi la ALA lililoongozwa na Denis Verdini. Mbali na kazi ya bunge, mwaka 2010 aligombea urais wa Mkoa wa Tuscany lakini alishindwa na [[Eugenio Giani]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.repubblica.it/static/speciale/2010/elezioni/regionali/toscana.html |title=Risultati Elezioni Regionali 2010 - Toscana |work=La Repubblica |language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1965||Faenzi, Monica}} 2dbwmfdeyfuc2e3x87o9c9ibwb08bw2 0 234210 1564419 1541329 2026-06-02T13:29:29Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564419 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Antonella Faggi''' (alizaliwa [[Lecco]], 20 Septemba 1961) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Meya]] wa Lecco kuanzia mwaka 2006 hadi 2009 na amekuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.senato.it/leg/18/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00032627.htm|title=Antonella Faggi|website=Italian Senate|language=it|access-date=2024-05-22}}</ref> == Wasifu == Faggi alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Lombardia]]. Kabla ya kujiingiza kwenye siasa za kitaifa, alifanya kazi katika sekta ya utawala na usimamizi. Yeye ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Lega Nord]] (sasa kinajulikana kama Lega). Alichaguliwa kuwa Meya wa Lecco mnamo mwaka 2006, akiwa mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo katika jiji hilo. Hata hivyo, uongozi wake ulikoma mapema mnamo mwaka 2009 baada ya baraza la mji kuvunjwa kufuatia kujiuzulu kwa madiwani wengi. Mnamo mwaka 2018, aligombea na kushinda nafasi ya useneta katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 akiwakilisha jimbo la Lecco.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://primalecco.it/politica/elezioni-politiche-2018-prime-proiezioni-senato/|title=Elezioni politiche 2018 nel Lecchese, dati definitivi: hanno vinto Butti e Faggi|work=Prima Lecco|date=5 March 2018|language=it|access-date=2021-01-31}}</ref> Akiwa bungeni, amekuwa akijihusisha na masuala ya miundombinu, bajeti, na usimamizi wa rasilimali za umma. Alichaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022 kuendelea na majukumu yake ya useneta katika bunge la 19 la Jamhuri ya Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1961||Faggi, Antonella}} 1p9jcd79fy59dfkntcf6w368lrzy7gf 0 234213 1564420 1541618 2026-06-02T13:30:07Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564420 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elena Fattori''' (alizaliwa [[Rimini]], 15 Juni 1966) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] na mwanasayansi ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2013 hadi 2022.<ref name="Wired.it">{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://www.wired.it/attualita/politica/2017/09/21/movimento-5-stelle-elena-fattori/ |title=Movimento 5 stelle, chi è la candidata premier (e biologa) Elena Fattori |last=Dotti |first=Gianluca |date=21 September 2017 |website=Wired.it |location=Italy |language=it-IT |access-date=June 29, 2018}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma yeye ni mwanabiolojia, akiwa amehitimu shahada ya sayansi ya biolojia na kupata shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika biolojia ya molekuli. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi kama mtafiti wa kisayansi katika sekta ya dawa. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alichaguliwa kuwa seneta kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013 kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Alichaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2018. Mnamo mwaka 2017, alikuwa mmoja wa wagombea katika kura za maoni za ndani ya chama cha M5S (primaries) za kumteua mgombea wa nafasi ya Waziri Mkuu.<ref name="Wired.it"/> Mnamo mwaka 2019, aliondolewa kwenye chama cha Five Star Movement baada ya kutofautiana na msimamo wa chama kuhusu sera za uhamiaji na usalama. Baadaye alijiunga na kikundi cha bunge cha Sinistra Italiana (Mrengo wa Kushoto wa Italia). Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alijulikana kwa kutetea sera zinazozingatia ushahidi wa kisayansi, hususan katika masuala ya afya na mazingira. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1966||Fattori, Elena}} [[Jamii:Wanabiolojia wa Italia]] bn745v6h1ol7zjwejdewfxu6pz9gqpm 0 234215 1564421 1550055 2026-06-02T13:30:48Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564421 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vittoria Ferdinandi''' [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic|OMRI]] (alizaliwa [[Perugia]], 4 Septemba 1986) ni mwanasiasa na mjasiriamali wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama [[Meya]] wa Perugia tangu mwaka 2024. Yeye ni mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo katika historia ya jiji hilo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comune.perugia.it/pagine/il-sindaco|title=Il Sindaco Vittoria Ferdinandi|publisher=Comune di Perugia|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Wasifu == Ferdinandi alihitimu shahada ya falsafa na baadaye shahada ya uzamili katika saikolojia ya kliniki. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alijipatia umaarufu kama mjasiriamali wa kijamii. Alianzisha mradi wa ''Numero Zero'', mkahawa unaofanya kazi na watu wenye matatizo ya afya ya akili ili kuwasaidia kujumuika katika jamii na kupata ajira. Kutokana na mchango wake mkubwa katika masuala ya kijamii, mnamo mwaka 2021, Rais [[Sergio Mattarella]] alimtunuku nishani ya ''Knight of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic'' (Cavaliere OMRI).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.quirinale.it/onorificenze/insigniti/366579|title=Ferdinandi Sig.ra Vittoria - Cavaliere Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana|publisher=Presidenza della Repubblica|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Kazi ya kisiasa == Mnamo mwaka 2024, aligombea nafasi ya meya wa Perugia kama mgombea huru anayeongoza muungano mpana wa mrengo wa kushoto na kati (campo largo), ukiwemo [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] na [[Five Star Movement]]. Katika uchaguzi wa manispaa wa mwezi Juni 2024, alishinda katika duru ya pili (runoff) kwa kupata takriban 52% ya kura, akimshinda mgombea wa mrengo wa kulia. Ushindi wake ulichukuliwa kama tukio la kihistoria kwa jiji la Perugia ambalo halijawahi kuwa na meya mwanamke tangu kuanzishwa kwake.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2024/06/24/news/vittoria_ferdinandi_sindaca_perugia-423285941/|title=Vittoria Ferdinandi è la nuova sindaca di Perugia: la prima donna nella storia della città|work=La Repubblica|date=24 June 2024|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1986||Ferdinandi, Vittoria}} o8nkazl7n6fnuq7eo2y0pzr9nsy3pns 0 234216 1564422 1541542 2026-06-02T13:31:24Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564422 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sara Ferrari''' (alizaliwa [[Rovereto]], 5 Januari 1971) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD) ambaye alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati) katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=308834&idpersona=308834&idlegislatura=19|title=Ferrari Sara – PD-IDP|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Ferrari alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kitaifa, alikuwa na kazi ndefu ya uongozi katika ngazi ya mkoa. Kuanzia mwaka 2008 hadi 2022, alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Mkoa wa Trentino (Consiglio della provincia autonoma di Trento). Katika kipindi hicho, alishika nyadhifa mbalimbali muhimu, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuwa mkuu wa idara ya elimu, vyuo vikuu, na sera za vijana (Assessore) mkoani humo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ildolomiti.it/politica/2024/europee-dobbiamo-aiutare-famiglie-e-imprese-nella-transizione-ecologica-sara-ferrari-candidata-per-il-pd-solo-una-ue-unita-puo-contare-nei-tavoli-di-pace|title=Europee, "Dobbiamo aiutare famiglie e imprese nella transizione ecologica" Sara Ferrari candidata per il Pd|work=il Dolomiti|date=2 Juni 2024|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Akiwa bungeni tangu mwaka 2022, amekuwa akijikita katika masuala ya usawa wa kijinsia, hifadhi ya jamii, na maendeleo ya mikoa yenye mamlaka ya ndani (autonomy). Mnamo mwaka 2024, aligombea pia nafasi katika [[Bunge la Ulaya]] kupitia tiketi ya Chama cha Kidemokrasia, akisisitiza umuhimu wa mazingira na amani duniani. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1971||Ferrari, Sara}} 61dqibc4qltr3rbbytdv1e3j80gdi8k 0 234217 1564423 1547907 2026-06-02T13:32:01Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564423 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wanda Ferro''' (alizaliwa [[Catanzaro]], 24 Machi 1968) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Brothers of Italy]] (Fratelli d'Italia) ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati). Tangu mwaka 2022, amekuwa akihudumu kama Naibu Waziri (Undersecretary) katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Ndani ya Italia. == Wasifu == Ferro alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Calabria]]. Alihitimu shahada ya fasihi na falsafa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Messina. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa tangu ujana wake ndani ya harakati za vijana wa mrengo wa kulia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Ferro ana uzoefu mkubwa katika uongozi wa serikali za mitaa na kitaifa: * **Rais wa Mkoa wa Catanzaro:** Alihudumu kama Rais wa [[Mkoa wa Catanzaro]] kuanzia mwaka 2008 hadi 2014, akiwa mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo katika mkoa huo. * **Uchaguzi wa Calabria 2014:** Alikuwa mgombea wa muungano wa mrengo wa kulia kwa ajili ya nafasi ya Rais wa Mkoa wa Calabria.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/elezioni-regionali-chi-la-candidata-del-centrodestra-wanda-ferro_4736/|title=Elezioni regionali: chi è la candidata del centrodestra Wanda Ferro|work=LaC News24|date=29 October 2014|language=it|accessdate=2026-05-13|archive-date=2024-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812133302/https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/elezioni-regionali-chi-la-candidata-del-centrodestra-wanda-ferro_4736/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * **Bunge la Italia:** Alichaguliwa bungeni kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 akiwakilisha jimbo la Vibo Valentia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strettoweb.com/2018/03/calabria-wanda-ferro-eletta-camera-deputati-vibo-valentia/668361/|title=Calabria: eletta alla Camera la candidata di Fratelli d'Italia Wanda Ferro|work=StrettoWeb|date=6 March 2018|language=it}}</ref> Alichaguliwa tena kwa kura nyingi katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/politiche-eletta-wanda-ferro-fdi-nel-collegio-uninominale-camera-catanzaro_160179/|title=Politiche, eletta Wanda Ferro (Fdi) nel collegio uninominale Camera Catanzaro|work=LaC News24|date=26 September 2022|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo tarehe 2 Novemba 2022, aliteuliwa kuwa Naibu Waziri katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Ndani chini ya serikali ya [[Giorgia Meloni]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilvibonese.it/politica/276303-ferro-sottosegretario-interno-fratelli-ditalia-vibo/|title=Wanda Ferro sottosegretario all'Interno, Fratelli d'Italia Vibo: «Giusto riconoscimento»|work=Il Vibonese|date=1 November 2022|language=it}}</ref> Katika nafasi hii, amekuwa akijishughulisha na masuala ya usalama wa raia na uratibu wa serikali za mitaa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1968||Ferro, Wanda}} sbthqy8rj901zljeva4adh3r5l16toy 0 234218 1564424 1541342 2026-06-02T13:33:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564424 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anna Finocchiaro Fidelbo''' (alizaliwa [[Modica]], 31 Machi 1955) ni mwanasiasa na mwanasheria wa [[Italia]]. Alikuwa kiongozi wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD) katika Baraza la Seneti la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2007 hadi 2013.<ref name=Senate>{{cite web|url=http://www.senatoripd.it/gw/producer/producer.aspx?t=/documenti/author.htm&auth=38 |title=Anna Finocchiaro |publisher=senatoripd.it |language=Italian |accessdate=2010-08-19 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928112447/http://www.senatoripd.it/gw/producer/producer.aspx?t=%2Fdocumenti%2Fauthor.htm&auth=38 |archivedate=2009-09-28 }}</ref> == Wasifu == Finocchiaro alizaliwa mkoani [[Sicilia]]. Alihitimu shahada ya sheria mwaka 1978 na kuanza kazi katika Benki ya Italia kabla ya kuwa hakimu (magistrate) mnamo mwaka 1982. Alihudumu kama mwendesha mashtaka wa umma mjini [[Catania]] kuanzia mwaka 1985 hadi 1987. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alianza safari yake ya kisiasa na Chama cha Kikomunisti cha Italia (PCI) na kuchaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia mwaka 1987. Katika kipindi chake kirefu cha utumishi wa umma, ameshika nyadhifa kadhaa za juu za uwaziri: * **Waziri wa Fursa Sawa:** Alihudumu katika baraza la mawaziri la [[Romano Prodi]] kuanzia mwaka 1996 hadi 1998.<ref name=Senate/> * **Waziri wa Uhusiano na Bunge:** Aliteuliwa na [[Paolo Gentiloni]] kushika nafasi hiyo kuanzia Desemba 2016 hadi Juni 2018. Mnamo mwaka 2008, aligombea nafasi ya Rais wa Mkoa wa Sicily lakini hakufanikiwa. Finocchiaro anachukuliwa kuwa mmoja wa wanawake wenye ushawishi mkubwa katika siasa za mrengo wa kushoto nchini Italia, akijulikana kwa utaalamu wake wa kisheria na uongozi thabiti bungeni. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1955||Finocchiaro, Anna}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] oqjeesdac1qd4dzztbbssvcl2asf600 0 234219 1564425 1548182 2026-06-02T13:33:30Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564425 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Barbara Floridia''' (alizaliwa [[Messina]], 5 Februari 1977) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia|Seneta]] tangu mwaka 2018. Yeye ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/leg/18/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00032634.htm|title=Scheda di attività di Barbara FLORIDIA - XVIII Legislatura|publisher=Senato della Repubblica|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Floridia alizaliwa mkoani [[Sicilia]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alikuwa mwalimu wa fasihi katika shule za upili, kazi ambayo imekuwa ikichochea harakati zake za kisiasa katika sekta ya elimu na mazingira. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Baraza la Seneti la Italia mnamo mwaka 2018. Katika serikali ya [[Mario Draghi]] (2021–2022), aliteuliwa kuwa Naibu Waziri (Undersecretary) katika Wizara ya Elimu, ambapo alisimamia miradi ya elimu ya mazingira na uendelevu (ReGeneration Scuola).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.orizzontescuola.it/barbara-floridia-sottosegretaria-allistruzione-la-biografia/|title=Barbara Floridia sottosegretaria all’Istruzione: la biografia|work=Orizzonte Scuola|language=it|date=24 February 2021}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 2023, alichaguliwa kuwa Rais wa Kamati ya Bunge ya Usimamizi wa Huduma za Utangazaji (RAI), nafasi muhimu inayohakikisha uwiano na haki katika vyombo vya habari vya umma nchini Italia.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/politica/2023/03/28/barbara-floridia-eletta-presidente-della-vigilanza-rai_81096053-9095-467f-9464-94c34a2e5572.html|title=Barbara Floridia eletta presidente della Vigilanza Rai|work=ANSA|date=28 March 2023|language=it}}</ref> Mbali na majukumu yake ya kibunge, Floridia anajulikana kama msemaji mahiri wa Five Star Movement katika masuala ya ikolojia na mageuzi ya elimu. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1977||Floridia, Barbara}} kvkvfphqnm2y2ffzdkpy1eukn1i902e 0 234290 1564426 1548741 2026-06-02T13:36:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564426 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Flora Frate''' (alizaliwa [[Napoli]], 3 Julai 1983) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye alikuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307409&idPersona=307409&idLegislatura=18|title=FRATE Flora - M5S|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kitaaluma yeye ni mwalimu na mtaalamu wa masuala ya kijamii na elimu. Kabla ya kuingia bungeni, alijikita katika utafiti na mafunzo ya kishule. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) katika jimbo la Campania. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya VII inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Utamaduni, Sayansi, na Elimu.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ilmattino.it/napoli/politica/flora_frate_espulsa_m5s-4960579.html|title=M5S espelle la deputata napoletana Flora Frate|work=Il Mattino|date=3 January 2020|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo Januari 2020, Frate aliondolewa (espelled) kwenye chama cha Five Star Movement baada ya kutokea kwa mfululizo wa kura ambazo hazikuendana na msimamo wa chama na mivutano kuhusu michango ya chama. Baadaye alijiunga na kikundi cha bunge cha "Azione" kinachoongozwa na Carlo Calenda na kisha kujiunga na "Italia Viva" ya Matteo Renzi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento18.openpolis.it/persone/flora-frate/227181|title=Flora Frate - Attività parlamentare|publisher=Openpolis|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Katika maisha yake bungeni, Frate alijulikana kwa kutetea haki za walimu, kuboresha miundombinu ya shule, na kukuza thamani ya elimu kama nyenzo ya mabadiliko ya kijamii. Hakuchaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1983||Frate, Flora}} 4vxcelh2l5a2wyaq97bd25v8f6rerkc 0 234293 1564427 1541466 2026-06-02T13:37:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564427 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Silvia Fregolent''' (alizaliwa [[Torino]], 25 Januari 1972) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/composizione/senatori/elenco-alfabetico/scheda-attivita?tab=datiAnag&did=29406|title=Silvia Fregolent|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Kabla ya hapo, alihudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia kuanzia mwaka 2013 hadi 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?tipoAttivita=&shadow_deputato=305569&idLegislatura=18|title=Fregolent Silvia – IV-IC'E'|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Fregolent alizaliwa mkoani [[Piemonte]]. Kitaaluma ni mwanasheria, akiwa amehitimu shahada ya sheria katika Chuo Kikuu cha Turin. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa na Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia (PD). Alichaguliwa bungeni kwa mara ya kwanza katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2013 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Mnamo mwaka 2019, alihama kutoka PD na kujiunga na chama kipya cha [[Italia Viva]] kilichoanzishwa na [[Matteo Renzi]]. Katika kipindi chake bungeni, amejikita sana katika masuala ya mazingira, miundombinu, na ulinzi wa raia dhidi ya majanga ya asili. Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa Seneta kupitia muungano wa ''Azion-Italia Viva'' (muungano wa kati). Tangu mwaka 2023, amekuwa akifanya kazi kama kiongozi wa kundi la bunge la Italia Viva katika Seneti, akiendelea kuwa mmoja wa washirika wa karibu wa Renzi katika siasa za kitaifa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.torinotoday.it/politica/elezioni-politiche-2022-risultati-eletti-torino.html|title=Elezioni 2022, Silvia Fregolent eletta al Senato|work=TorinoToday|language=it|date=26 September 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1972||Fregolent, Silvia}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] 96orgiqp5n1cghbinpwv0tepkn4hnf3 0 234294 1564428 1541467 2026-06-02T13:37:41Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564428 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maria Grazia Frijia''' (alizaliwa [[La Spezia]], 9 Agosti 1974) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (Brothers of Italy) ambaye anafanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=308870&idpersona=308870&idlegislatura=19|title=Frijia Maria Grazia – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Frijia alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Liguria]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kitaifa, alijikita katika uongozi wa serikali za mitaa katika mji wake wa nyumbani, akijishughulisha hususan na masuala ya utalii na maendeleo ya miji. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Frijia amekuwa na mfululizo wa nyadhifa muhimu katika ngazi ya manispaa na kitaifa: * **Uongozi wa Manispaa:** Amekuwa diwani katika mji wa La Spezia kwa muda mrefu. Tangu mwaka 2022, anahudumu kama **Naibu Meya wa La Spezia** (vicesindaco), akisimamia pia idara za utalii na kukuza mji.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento19.openpolis.it/persone/maria-grazia-frijia-1974-08-09|title=Maria Grazia Frijia|publisher=[[:it:Openpolis|Openpolis]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Bunge la Italia:** Alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022 kupitia chama cha Fratelli d'Italia. Bungeni, ni mjumbe wa Kamati ya IX inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Usafiri, Posta, na Mawasiliano. Anajulikana kwa jitihada zake za kukuza uchumi wa Liguria kupitia utalii endelevu na uboreshaji wa miundombinu ya usafiri wa baharini, ambayo ni muhimu kwa mji wa bandari wa La Spezia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1974||Frijia, Maria Grazia}} 5evzf7x9yfbx7n8k2hcfarrgfzdz4bw 0 234306 1564385 1541787 2026-06-02T12:52:55Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564385 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Nadia Santini''' ni mpishi kutoka [[Italia]], anayejulikana zaidi kwa mgahawa wake wa Dal Pescatore, uliopo Canneto sull'Oglio, Lombardia, ambao umekuwa na nyota tatu za Michelin tangu mwaka 1996.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Dal Pescatore – Runate - a MICHELIN Guide Restaurant|url=[https://guide.michelin.com/it/en/lombardia/runate/restaurant/dal-pescatore|access-date=2020-08-11|website=MICHELIN](https://guide.michelin.com/it/en/lombardia/runate/restaurant/dal-pescatore|access-date=2020-08-11|website=MICHELIN) Guide|language=en-IT}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] lpm06ljujf8auvz9icx4md8lyu19z2n 0 234308 1564429 1549399 2026-06-02T13:38:20Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564429 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maria Alessandra Gallone''' (alizaliwa [[Bergamo]], 2 Septemba 1966) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]] ambaye amefanya kazi kama [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia|Seneta]] katika vipindi viwili tofauti.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=senato.it - Scheda di attività di Maria Alessandra GALLONE - XVI Legislatura|url=http://www.senato.it/leg/16/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00026539.htm|access-date=2020-11-22|website=www.senato.it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Gallone alizaliwa mkoani [[Lombardia]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kitaifa, alijenga wasifu wake katika uongozi wa manispaa ya Bergamo, ambapo alihudumu kama diwani kwa takriban miaka 20. Kati ya mwaka 1999 na 2004, alifanya kazi kwa karibu sana na Meya wa Bergamo kama mkuu wa idara (Assessore) inayoshughulikia masuala ya elimu, utamaduni, na michezo. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Gallone amekuwa na nafasi muhimu katika Baraza la Seneti la Italia: * **Muhula wa Kwanza (2008–2013):** Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika bunge la XVI kupitia chama cha [[The People of Freedom (Italy)|Il Popolo della Libertà]]. * **Muhula wa Pili (2018–2022):** Alirejea Seneti katika bunge la XVIII, ambapo alichaguliwa kuwa msemaji wa kundi la Forza Italia katika Kamati ya Mazingira. Katika kazi yake ya kibunge, amejikita zaidi katika masuala ya hifadhi ya mazingira, elimu, na maendeleo ya miji. Mnamo mwaka 2022, aliteuliwa kuwa mshauri wa Waziri wa Vyuo Vikuu na Utafiti, akileta uzoefu wake wa miaka mingi katika sekta ya elimu ndani ya serikali ya kitaifa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bergamonews.it/2022/11/02/alessandra-gallone-consigliere-del-ministro-delluniversita-anna-maria-bernini/555890/|title=Alessandra Gallone consigliere del ministro dell’Università|work=BergamoNews|date=2 November 2022|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1966||Gallone, Maria Alessandra}} jps7xkfppbhgk7m6zcykmr3507lans1 0 234311 1564430 1550050 2026-06-02T13:38:49Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564430 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vannia Gava''' (alizaliwa [[Sacile]], 30 Juni 1974) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]]. Alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia na ni Naibu Waziri (Deputy Minister) katika Wizara ya Mazingira na Usalama wa Nishati (Italia)|Wizara ya Mazingira na Usalama wa Nishati.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=XVIII Legislatura - Deputati e Organi - Scheda deputato - GAVA Vannia |url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307138&idLegislatura=18 |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www.camera.it |language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Gava alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]. Alianza safari yake ya kisiasa katika ngazi ya manispaa mjini Sacile, ambapo alihudumu kama diwani na baadaye kama mkuu wa idara ya mazingira na mipango miji. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Gava amekuwa mmoja wa wataalamu wakuu wa chama cha Lega katika masuala ya mazingira na nishati: * **Bunge la Italia:** Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2022. * **Serikali ya Conte I:** Alifanya kazi kama Naibu Waziri (Undersecretary) wa Mazingira kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2019. * **Serikali ya Draghi:** Aliteuliwa tena kuwa Naibu Waziri katika Wizara ya Mpito wa Ikolojia mnamo Februari 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mite.gov.it/pagina/vannia-gava|title=Sottosegretario Vannia Gava|publisher=Ministero dell'Ambiente e della Sicurezza Energetica|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * **Serikali ya Meloni:** Tangu Novemba 2022, amepandishwa cheo na kuwa **Naibu Waziri kamili** (Vice Ministro) katika Wizara ya Mazingira na Usalama wa Nishati chini ya serikali ya [[Giorgia Meloni]]. Anajulikana kwa kusimamia sera zinazohusu usimamizi wa taka, uchumi wa mzunguko, na kuhimiza matumizi ya nishati ya nyuklia kama njia ya kupunguza uzalishaji wa kaboni nchini Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1974||Gava, Vannia}} nellj81rk3kts5wdpaxe5rc6zqwn87z 0 234315 1564431 1541820 2026-06-02T13:39:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564431 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Renate Gebhard''' (alizaliwa [[Brixen]] (Bressanone), 2 Mei 1977) ni mwanasheria na mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] kutoka chama cha [[South Tyrolean People's Party]] (SVP). Amekuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2013.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=XVII Legislatura - XVII Legislatura - Deputati e Organi - Scheda deputato - GEBHARD Renate|url=https://www.camera.it/leg17/29?shadow_deputato=305580&idLegislatura=17|access-date=2021-04-16|website=www.camera.it|language=it}}</ref> == Wasifu == Gebhard alizaliwa katika wilaya ya [[South Tyrol]]. Alisoma sheria katika Chuo Kikuu cha Innsbruck nchini Austria na baadaye katika Chuo Kikuu cha Padua nchini Italia. Kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi kama mwanasheria wa kujitegemea. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa katika ngazi ya manispaa mjini [[Latzfons]] na baadaye [[Klausen]]. Mnamo mwaka 2013, alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mbunge katika Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia akiwakilisha jimbo la Trentino-Alto Adige. Gebhard ni mwanachama wa chama cha SVP kinachotetea maslahi ya watu wanaozungumza Kijerumani na Kladini katika mkoa wa South Tyrol. Bungeni, amekuwa akijikita katika masuala yafuatayo: * **Haki za Jamii na Familia:** Amekuwa mtetezi wa sera zinazosaidia familia na usawa wa kijinsia. * **Mamlaka ya Ndani (Autonomy):** Kupigania na kulinda mamlaka maalum ya mkoa wa South Tyrol ndani ya mfumo wa kisheria wa Italia. * **Sheria:** Akiwa mwanasheria, amehudumu katika kamati za kisheria za bunge akishiriki katika utungaji wa sheria mbalimbali za kiraia. Mnamo mwaka 2022, alichaguliwa tena kwa muhula wa tatu bungeni, ambapo anahudumu kama kiongozi wa kikundi cha wabunge wa "Mixed Group" (Gruppo Misto) wanaowakilisha vyama vya walio wachache (minorities).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=305580&idLegislatura=19|title=GEBHARD Renate - SVP|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1977||Gebhard, Renate}} sztjg6rrmtnpcdtblg0ter3erle1xg3 0 234318 1564433 1541497 2026-06-02T13:41:10Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564433 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mariastella Gelmini''' (alizaliwa [[Leno]], [[Brescia]], 1 Julai 1973) ni mwanasiasa na mwanasheria wa [[Italia]] (aliyebobea katika Sheria ya Utawala). Alifanya kazi kama [[Waziri wa Elimu, Vyuo Vikuu na Utafiti (Italia)|Waziri wa Elimu]] katika baraza la mawaziri la [[Berlusconi IV]] kuanzia mwaka 2008 hadi 2011. Baadaye, alifanya kazi kama Waziri wa Masuala ya Kanda na Mamlaka ya Ndani katika serikali ya [[Mario Draghi]] kuanzia mwaka 2021 hadi 2022. == Wasifu == Gelmini alihitimu shahada ya sheria katika Chuo Kikuu cha Brescia na kufanya kazi kama wakili kabla ya kuingia kikamilifu kwenye siasa kupitia chama cha [[Forza Italia (1994)|Forza Italia]]. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Gelmini amekuwa mmoja wa wanawake wenye ushawishi mkubwa katika siasa za mrengo wa kulia nchini Italia: * **Mageuzi ya Gelmini (2008–2010):** Akiwa Waziri wa Elimu, alianzisha mageuzi makubwa ya mfumo wa shule na vyuo vikuu nchini Italia. Mageuzi haya (yaliyojulikana kama ''Riforma Gelmini'') yalijumuisha kurejeshwa kwa mfumo wa mwalimu mmoja katika shule za msingi, kutilia mkazo nidhamu, na kupunguza matumizi ya serikali katika sekta ya elimu.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.repubblica.it/2008/10/sezioni/scuola_e_universita/servizi/decreto-gelmini-3/scheda-riforma/scheda-riforma.html|title=Gelmini, la riforma della scuola: ecco cosa cambia|work=La Repubblica|date=29 October 2008|language=it}}</ref> * **Serikali ya Draghi (2021–2022):** Aliteuliwa kuwa Waziri wa Masuala ya Kanda, akisimamia uratibu kati ya serikali kuu na serikali za mikoa wakati wa kipindi cha kurejesha uchumi baada ya janga la COVID-19. Mnamo Julai 2022, baada ya kuanguka kwa serikali ya Draghi, Gelmini aliondoka katika chama cha Forza Italia baada ya miaka 25, akipinga uamuzi wa chama hicho kutoipigia kura ya imani serikali ya Draghi. Alijiunga na chama cha [[Azione]] kinachoongozwa na Carlo Calenda na kuchaguliwa kuwa Baraza la Seneti la Italia|Seneta katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.corriere.it/politica/22_luglio_20/gelmini-lascia-forza-italia-f79024f0-083f-11ed-b062-811c750e4171.shtml|title=Mariastella Gelmini lascia Forza Italia: "Non riconosco più il mio partito"|work=Corriere della Sera|date=20 July 2022|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1973||Gelmini, Mariastella}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] khxiexo3ww0hv47okvfqf9ongxfj4ri 0 234322 1564434 1549647 2026-06-02T13:41:37Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564434 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Paola Ghidoni''' (alizaliwa [[Montebelluna]], 8 Julai 1963) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]] ambaye amekuwa alifanya kazi kama mbunge wa Bunge la Ulaya tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Home {{!}} Paola GHIDONI {{!}} MEPs {{!}} European Parliament |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/239256/PAOLA_GHIDONI/home |access-date=2022-11-28 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> == Wasifu == Ghidoni alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Veneto]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa za kimataifa, alijikita katika taaluma ya uhasibu na ushauri wa kibiashara, akiwa na uzoefu wa miaka mingi katika kusaidia biashara ndogo na za kati nchini Italia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Mnamo Novemba 2022, Ghidoni alijiunga na Bunge la Ulaya kuchukua nafasi iliyoachwa wazi na Mara Bizzotto, ambaye alichaguliwa kuwa Seneta nchini Italia. Ghidoni ni mwanachama wa kikundi cha bunge cha ''Identity and Democracy'' (ID). Katika Bunge la Ulaya, anahudumu katika kamati zifuatazo: * **Kamati ya Kilimo na Maendeleo ya Vijijini (AGRI):** Ambapo anapigania maslahi ya wakulima wa Italia na ulinzi wa bidhaa za asili za mikoani. * **Kamati ya Haki za Wanawake na Usawa wa Kijinsia (FEMM):** Akijikita katika sera za kusaidia familia na ujasiriamali wa wanawake. Ghidoni anajulikana kwa msimamo wake wa kutetea uhuru wa kiuchumi wa mikoa na kupinga kanuni za Umoja wa Ulaya ambazo anaamini zinakandamiza uzalishaji wa ndani wa Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/treviso/paola_ghidoni_europarlamento_lega_treviso-7023193.html|title=Paola Ghidoni sbarca a Bruxelles: la commercialista trevigiana all'Europarlamento|work=Il Gazzettino|date=2 Novemba 2022|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1963||Ghidoni, Paola}} ho4ic5gy6dvyij20qduiaac5hpfqqsy 0 234430 1564376 1541756 2026-06-02T12:45:25Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564376 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Angela Ianaro''' (alizaliwa [[Benevento]], 26 Septemba 1967) ni mwanasiasa na mwanasayansi wa [[Italia]]. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika [[Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018]] kwa ajili ya bunge la XVIII la Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307133&idLegislatura=18|title=IANARO Angela - PD|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Taaluma == Ianaro alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Campania]]. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alijijengea jina kama mwanasayansi na mwanataaluma. Yeye ni Profesa wa [[Famajia]] (Pharmacology) katika Chuo Kikuu cha Naples Federico II. Utafiti wake wa kisayansi umejikita zaidi katika masuala ya uvimbe (inflammation), kinga ya mwili, na ugunduzi wa dawa mpya. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Ianaro alichaguliwa bungeni kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Hata hivyo, mnamo mwaka 2022, alihama chama na kujiunga na [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD). Wakati wa utumishi wake bungeni, alihudumu katika majukumu yafuatayo: * **Kamati ya Masuala ya Kijamii:** Alishiriki kikamilifu katika mijadala inayohusu afya ya jamii, hususan wakati wa janga la COVID-19. * **Utafiti na Sayansi:** Alikuwa msemaji muhimu katika masuala yanayohusu ufadhili wa utafiti wa kisayansi na maendeleo ya kiteknolojia nchini Italia. * **Tume ya Uchunguzi:** Alihudumu katika tume ya bunge ya uchunguzi kuhusu mauaji ya [[Ilaria Alpi]] na [[Miran Hrovatin]]. Baada ya kumaliza muda wake bungeni mnamo 2022, alirejea katika shughuli zake za kitaaluma na utafiti wa kisayansi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ntvtv.it/2022/03/17/la-deputata-angela-ianaro-lascia-il-m5s-e-passa-al-pd/|title=La deputata Angela Ianaro lascia il M5S e passa al PD|work=NTV TV|date=17 March 2022|language=it}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1967||Ianaro, Angela}} k54f3klwleupozncmvwwr3vt5jv02xu 0 234443 1564377 1549415 2026-06-02T12:45:52Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* Marejeo */ 1564377 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Marianna Iorio''' (alizaliwa 21 Julai 1985) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]]. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kwa ajili ya bunge la XVIII la Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307435&idLegislatura=18|title=IORIO Marianna - M5S|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Iorio alizaliwa mjini [[Maddaloni]], katika mkoa wa [[Caserta]]. Alihitimu shahada ya Uzamili katika Uchumi na Biashara katika Chuo Kikuu cha Naples Parthenope. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alifanya kazi katika sekta ya uhasibu na ushauri wa kibiashara. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Iorio alichaguliwa bungeni kupitia chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S). Wakati wa utumishi wake katika Baraza la Wawakilishi (2018–2022), alihudumu katika majukumu yafuatayo: * **Kamati ya Masuala ya Kijamii:** Alishiriki kikamilifu katika mijadala inayohusu ustawi wa jamii na mifumo ya hifadhi ya jamii. * **Kamati ya VI (Fedha):** Alihudumu kama mjumbe wa kamati hii, akijikita katika masuala ya kodi, bajeti, na usimamizi wa rasilimali za umma. Anajulikana kwa jitihada zake za kupigania uwazi katika matumizi ya serikali na kusaidia biashara ndogo na za kati katika mkoa wa Campania.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parlamento18.openpolis.it/persone/marianna-iorio/249117|title=Marianna Iorio - Attività parlamentare|publisher=Openpolis|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1985||Iorio, Marianna}} pyr5eadbnvpl7sls3gm9b4yh6u7nn6o 0 234446 1564389 1541874 2026-06-02T12:57:55Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564389 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gloria Saccani Jotti''' (alizaliwa [[Reggio Emilia]], 24 Oktoba 1960) ni mwanasiasa na profesa wa [[Italia]]. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kwa ajili ya bunge la XVIII.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307304&idLegislatura=18|title=SACCANI JOTTI Gloria - FI|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Taaluma == Saccani Jotti ni mtaalamu mbobezi na Profesa wa [[Patholojia]] ya Kliniki (Clinical Pathology) katika Chuo Kikuu cha Parma. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alijijengea wasifu mkubwa katika utafiti wa kisayansi na utibabu, hususan katika uchunguzi wa saratani. Pia amehudumu kama mjumbe wa bodi ya utawala ya shirika la AIFA (Wakala wa Dawa wa Italia), ambapo alichangia katika uratibu wa sera za usalama na udhibiti wa dawa nchini humo. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Saccani Jotti ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]]. Katika kazi yake ya kibunge: * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Alichaguliwa tena katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2022 (bunge la XIX). * **Kamati za Bunge:** Amekuwa mjumbe wa Kamati ya VII (Utamaduni, Sayansi, na Elimu). Kutokana na usuli wake wa kitabibu, amekuwa sauti muhimu katika mijadala inayohusu ufadhili wa utafiti wa afya, mageuzi ya elimu ya juu, na masuala ya kinga dhidi ya magonjwa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=307304&idLegislatura=19|title=SACCANI JOTTI Gloria - Forza Italia|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Anajulikana kwa jitihada zake za kuimarisha ushirikiano kati ya vyuo vikuu na sekta ya afya ili kuboresha huduma za utibabu nchini Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1960||Saccani Jotti, Gloria}} byvc78s4pye87kampuz9coj999d2jbn 0 234452 1564379 1541886 2026-06-02T12:47:57Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564379 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sara Kelany''' (alizaliwa [[Formia]], 8 Juni 1978) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (Brothers of Italy) ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?shadow_deputato=308904&idLegislatura=19|title=Kelany Sara – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Kelany alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Lazio]]. Baba yake ni raia wa [[Misri]] na mama yake ni raia wa Italia. Alihitimu shahada ya sheria na kufanya kazi kama wakili, akibobea katika masuala ya kisheria yanayohusu utawala na raia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Kelany amekuwa mmoja wa sauti muhimu za chama cha Fratelli d'Italia katika masuala ya sheria na uhamiaji: * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022. Bungeni, ni mjumbe wa Kamati ya I inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Katiba, Baraza la Mawaziri, na Masuala ya Ndani. * **Idara ya Uhamiaji:** Mnamo Agosti 2023, aliteuliwa kuwa mkuu wa kitaifa wa idara ya uhamiaji ya chama cha Fratelli d'Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.temporeale.info/143667/argomenti/politica/fratelli-ditalia-la-deputata-sara-kelany-nuova-responsabile-nazionale-del-dipartimento-immigrazione.html|title=Fratelli d'Italia, la deputata Sara Kelany nuova responsabile nazionale del dipartimento immigrazione|work=Temporeale Quotidiano|date=27 August 2023|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Katika nafasi hii, anahusika na kuratibu sera za chama kuhusu usimamizi wa mipaka na sheria za ukimbizi. Anajulikana kwa msimamo wake wa kutetea uhamiaji wa kisheria huku akisisitiza umuhimu wa usalama wa taifa na udhibiti mkali wa mipaka ya Italia. Pia ni mshauri wa karibu wa Waziri Mkuu [[Giorgia Meloni]] katika masuala ya kisheria ya kimataifa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1978||Kelany, Sara}} les9s63l5noiy94zgc7u1swgq71hpa4 0 234498 1564380 1542042 2026-06-02T12:48:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Patty L'Abbat]] hadi [[Patty L'Abbate]]: usahihi wa jina 1542042 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pasqua L'Abbate''' (alizaliwa 2 Mei 1966), anayejulikana zaidi kama '''Patty L'Abbate''', ni mwanasiasa na mtaalamu wa uchumi wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/deputati/elenco/19-307822|title=Patty L'Abbate|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Taaluma == L'Abbate alizaliwa mjini [[Polignano a Mare]], katika mkoa wa [[Apulia]]. Ni mtaalamu mbobezi wa uchumi wa ikolojia (ecological economics) na anashikilia shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika masuala ya rasilimali na mazingira. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alikuwa profesa na mtafiti akijikita katika [[uchumi wa mzunguko]] (circular economy) na upunguzaji wa nyayo za kaboni (carbon footprint). == Kazi ya kisiasa == L'Abbate ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) na amekuwa mshauri muhimu wa chama hicho katika masuala ya mazingira: * **Baraza la Seneti (2018–2022):** Alichaguliwa kuwa [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia|Seneta]] katika bunge la XVIII, ambapo alihudumu kama kiongozi wa kundi la M5S katika Kamati ya Mazingira.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/leg/18/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00032647.htm|title=Patty L'Abbate|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Baraza la Wawakilishi (2022–sasa):** Katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge. Kwa sasa, anahudumu kama Makamu wa Rais wa Kamati ya VIII (Mazingira, Ardhi, na Kazi za Umma). Anajulikana kimataifa kwa kazi yake ya kukuza mbinu za kisayansi katika utungaji wa sheria za mazingira, na amewakilisha Italia katika mikutano mbalimbali ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] kuhusu mabadiliko ya tabianchi (COP). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1966||L'Abbate, Patty}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] myc89nqa57bs9cofavfblvb9wjvdip5 1564382 1564380 2026-06-02T12:49:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564382 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Pasqua L'Abbate''' (anajulikana zaidi kama '''Patty L'Abbate'''; alizaliwa [[Polignano a Mare]], 2 Mei 1966) ni mwanasiasa na mtaalamu wa uchumi wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/deputati/elenco/19-307822|title=Patty L'Abbate|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Taaluma == L'Abbate alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Apulia]]. Ni mtaalamu mbobezi wa uchumi wa ikolojia (ecological economics) na anashikilia shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika masuala ya rasilimali na mazingira. Kabla ya kuingia kwenye siasa, alikuwa profesa na mtafiti akijikita katika [[uchumi wa mzunguko]] (circular economy) na upunguzaji wa nyayo za kaboni (carbon footprint). == Kazi ya kisiasa == L'Abbate ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Five Star Movement]] (M5S) na amekuwa mshauri muhimu wa chama hicho katika masuala ya mazingira: * **Baraza la Seneti (2018–2022):** Alichaguliwa kuwa [[Baraza la Seneti la Italia|Seneta]] katika bunge la XVIII, ambapo alihudumu kama kiongozi wa kundi la M5S katika Kamati ya Mazingira.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/leg/18/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00032647.htm|title=Patty L'Abbate|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Baraza la Wawakilishi (2022–sasa):** Katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022, alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge. Kwa sasa, anahudumu kama Makamu wa Rais wa Kamati ya VIII (Mazingira, Ardhi, na Kazi za Umma). Anajulikana kimataifa kwa kazi yake ya kukuza mbinu za kisayansi katika utungaji wa sheria za mazingira, na amewakilisha Italia katika mikutano mbalimbali ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] kuhusu mabadiliko ya tabianchi (COP). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1966||L'Abbate, Patty}} pcnea4oy7rd59pca5chiuv0s9vue2zv 0 234500 1564437 1542048 2026-06-02T13:44:41Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564437 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Francesca La Marca''' (alizaliwa [[Toronto]], [[Kanada]], 30 Oktoba 1975) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD) ambaye alifanya kazi kama Baraza la Seneti la Italia na Seneta anayewakilisha jimbo la nje la [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]] na [[Amerika ya Kati|ya Kati]] tangu mwaka 2022. == Wasifu == La Marca alizaliwa na wahamiaji Waitalia kutoka mikoa ya [[Campania]] na [[Sicilia]]. Ana uraia wa nchi mbili (Italia na Kanada). Alihitimu shahada ya uzamivu (PhD) katika lugha na fasihi ya Kifaransa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Toronto na amekuwa mhadhiri katika vyuo vikuu mbalimbali nchini [[Kanada]]. == Kazi ya kisiasa == La Marca amekuwa sauti muhimu kwa jamii za Waitaliano wanaoishi nje ya nchi (''Italics''): * **Baraza la Wawakilishi (2013–2022):** Alichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2013 kupitia jimbo la Amerika ya Kaskazini na Kati, na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2018. Alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza wa asili ya Kiitaliano na Kanada kuchaguliwa katika bunge la Italia. * **Baraza la Seneti (2022–sasa):** Katika uchaguzi mkuu wa mwaka 2022, aligombea na kushinda kiti cha Seneta kwa ajili ya jimbo hilohilo la nje.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/leg/19/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00029443.htm|title=Scheda di attività: Francesca LA MARCA|publisher=Senato della Repubblica|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Bungeni, amejikita katika kutetea: # Kurudishwa kwa uraia wa Italia kwa wale walioupoteza. # Kuimarisha mafunzo ya lugha na utamaduni wa Kiitaliano nje ya nchi. # Kuboresha huduma za kibalozi na kodi kwa raia wa Italia wanaoishi ughaibuni. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1975||La Marca, Francesca}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Kanada]] lzx02krjwvo6dhubv3yum8m7fc43szg 0 234501 1564438 1545825 2026-06-02T13:45:44Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564438 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Chiara La Porta''' (alizaliwa [[Prato]], 7 Juni 1991) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (Brothers of Italy). == Wasifu na Elimu == La Porta alizaliwa mkoani [[Toscana]] akiwa na asili ya mji wa Nicosia, [[Sicilia]] kupitia familia yake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telenicosia.it/elezioni-chiara-la-porta-di-origini-nicosiane-eletta-alla-camera-dei-deputati/|title=Elezioni. Chiara La Porta di origini nicosiane eletta alla Camera dei Deputati|work=TeleNicosia|date=3 October 2022|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Alihitimu shahada ya sheria, jambo lililomsaidia kujenga msingi wa harakati zake za kisiasa tangu ujana. == Kazi ya kisiasa == La Porta amekuwa kiongozi muhimu katika harakati za vijana za mrengo wa kulia nchini Italia: * **Uongozi wa Vijana:** Tangu mwaka 2017, alifanya kazi kama Makamu wa Rais wa ''Gioventù Nazionale'' (Vijana wa Kitaifa), ambalo ni tawi la vijana la chama cha Fratelli d'Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2017.gonews.it/2017/07/12/gioventu-nazionale-rinnova-propri-vertici-toscana-seconda-regione-piu-rappresentata/|title=Gioventù nazionale rinnova i propri vertici, Toscana seconda regione più rappresentata|work=Gonews.it|date=12 July 2017|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022 akiwa na umri wa miaka 31, alifanya kazi katika Kamati ya IV (Ulinzi) na baadaye Kamati ya VII (Utamaduni na Elimu). * **Baraza la Mkoa wa Tuscany (2025):** Katika uchaguzi wa mkoa wa mwaka 2025, aligombea nafasi ya mjumbe wa Baraza la Mkoa wa [[Tuscany]] katika jimbo la Prato. Alishinda kwa kupata kura 7,963. Kufuatia ushindi huo, alijiuzulu nafasi yake bungeni ili alifanya kazi katika ngazi ya mkoa, na nafasi yake bungeni ilichukuliwa na Irene Gori.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tvprato.it/2025/10/elezioni-anche-chiara-la-porta-entra-in-consiglio-regionale/|title=Elezioni, anche Chiara La Porta entra in consiglio regionale|date=14 October 2025|work=TV Prato|access-date=2026-05-13|archive-date=2025-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251112052334/https://www.tvprato.it/2025/10/elezioni-anche-chiara-la-porta-entra-in-consiglio-regionale/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.gonews.it/2025/10/14/chiara-la-porta-lascia-la-camera-per-il-consiglio-regionale/|title=Chiara La Porta lascia la Camera per il Consiglio regionale|date=14 October 2025|work=Gonews|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Anajulikana kwa msimamo wake wa kutetea maslahi ya vijana, ulinzi wa familia, na kuimarisha utambulisho wa kitaifa wa Italia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1991||La Porta, Chiara}} lrdpkvcd8v0v8dlhi9t1a6lbtqyzw46 0 234521 1564439 1542085 2026-06-02T13:46:37Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564439 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elisabetta Christiana Lancellotta''' (alizaliwa [[Isernia]], 2 Machi 1979) ni mwanasiasa na kiongozi wa michezo wa [[Italia]] ambaye alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg19/29?tipoAttivita=&tipoVisAtt=&shadow_deputato=308920&lettera=&idLegislatura=19|title=Lancellotta Elisabetta Christiana – FdI|publisher=[[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu == Lancellotta alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Molise]]. Ni binti wa Mario Lancellotta, ambaye alikuwa mwanasiasa mashuhuri na Rais wa Kamati ya Olimpiki ya Italia (CONI) katika mkoa wa Molise. Elisabetta alifuata nyayo za baba yake katika ulimwengu wa michezo na utumishi wa umma. == Kazi ya michezo na kisiasa == Lancellotta amekuwa na wasifu mchanganyiko katika uongozi wa michezo na serikali: * **Uongozi wa Michezo:** Amehudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Kitaifa la Kamati ya Olimpiki ya Italia (CONI) na amekuwa mratibu wa shughuli mbalimbali za michezo mkoani Molise, akihamasisha umuhimu wa michezo kwa vijana. * **Serikali ya Mitaa:** Kuanzia mwaka 2016 hadi 2023, alifanya kazi kama diwani wa manispaa ya [[Isernia]]. Alijiuzulu nafasi hiyo mnamo Julai 2023 ili kujikita zaidi katika majukumu yake ya kibunge kitaifa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.primonumero.it/2023/07/lonorevole-lancellotta-si-dimette-da-consigliera-comunale-di-isernia/1530785091/|title=L'onorevole Lancellotta si dimette da Consigliera comunale di Isernia|work=Primonumero|date=8 July 2023|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022 kupitia chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (Brothers of Italy). Bungeni, ni mjumbe wa Kamati ya XII (Masuala ya Kijamii) na Kamati ya Mafunzo ya Bunge. Anajulikana kwa kutetea uwekezaji katika miundombinu ya michezo na kukuza maslahi ya mkoa wa Molise katika ngazi ya kitaifa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1979||Lancellotta, Elisabetta Christiana}} [[Jamii:Wanamichezo wa Italia]] s9oh1f6ambm6p6pw46dsb9y0fbj2dm6 0 234526 1564440 1549377 2026-06-02T13:48:56Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564440 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Manuela Lanzarin''' (alizaliwa [[Bassano del Grappa]], 3 Juni 1971) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] kutoka mkoa wa [[Veneto]], anayewakilisha mrengo wa [[uzalendo]] wa Veneto. == Wasifu na Kazi ya Kisiasa == Lanzarin ni mwanachama wa muda mrefu wa chama cha [[Lega Nord]] (sasa ''Lega per Salvini Premier''). Amekuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika siasa za mkoa wa [[Veneto]] na kitaifa: * **Meya wa Rosà:** Alifanya kazi kama Meya wa mji wa [[Rosà]] kwa vipindi viwili mfululizo kuanzia mwaka 2002 hadi 2012. Uongozi wake ulijikita katika uimarishaji wa huduma za kijamii katika ngazi ya manispaa. * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2008, alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge katika Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati), ambapo alihudumu hadi mwaka 2013. Bungeni, alishiriki katika kamati zinazoshughulikia masuala ya kijamii na afya. * **Serikali ya Mkoa wa Veneto:** Tangu mwaka 2015, amekuwa sehemu ya serikali ya mkoa wa Veneto chini ya Rais [[Luca Zaia]]. Kwa sasa, alifanya kazi kama **Waziri wa Mkoa (Assessor) anayehusika na Afya, Huduma za Kijamii, na Mipango ya Kitendaji**. == Mchango wake wakati wa Janga la COVID-19 == Akiwa mkuu wa idara ya afya katika mkoa wa Veneto, Lanzarin alipata umaarufu wa kitaifa na kimataifa kwa usimamizi wake wakati wa janga la [[COVID-19]]. Alishirikiana kwa karibu na Rais Luca Zaia katika kuratibu upimaji wa wingi (mass testing) na mikakati ya kuzuia maambukizi, jambo ambalo liliufanya mkoa wa Veneto kuonekana kama mfano bora wa usimamizi wa afya nchini Italia. Anajulikana kwa msimamo wake wa kutetea mfumo wa afya uliogatuliwa na kuupa mkoa wa Veneto mamlaka makubwa zaidi ya kujiamulia (autonomy). ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Marejeo == * {{cite web |url=https://storia.camera.it/deputato/manuela-lanzarin-19710603 |title=Manuela Lanzarin - Portale Storico |publisher=Camera dei Deputati |language=it}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1971||Lanzarin, Manuela}} 98myc8e1km45q3cavdjlazzhzl3fof3 0 234531 1564446 1542098 2026-06-02T13:58:03Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564446 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maria Carmela Lanzetta''' (alizaliwa [[Monasterace]], 1 Machi 1955) ni mwanasiasa wa Italia |Italia wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia (PD), ambaye alifanya kazi kama Waziri wa Masuala ya Mikoa na Madaraka kuanzia tarehe 22 Februari 2014 hadi 30 Januari 2015 chini ya serikali ya [[Matteo Renzi]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Italy's PM-designate Matteo Renzi names new cabinet|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26298038|accessdate=2026-05-13|work=BBC News Europe|date=21 February 2014}}</ref> == Wasifu na Harakati == Lanzetta alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Calabria]]. Kitaaluma ni mfamasia. Alipata umaarufu wa kitaifa kutokana na ujasiri wake kama Meya wa Monasterace (2006–2013), ambapo alisimama imara dhidi ya vitisho vya kikundi cha kihalifu cha [['Ndrangheta]]. Mnamo mwaka 2011, gari lake lilichomwa moto na baadaye duka lake la dawa lilipigwa risasi, matukio yaliyopelekea kuungwa mkono na maelfu ya watu nchini Italia kama alama ya upinzani dhidi ya mafia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == * **Waziri wa Masuala ya Mikoa:** Mnamo mwaka 2014, Matteo Renzi alimteua kuwa waziri katika baraza lake la mawaziri. Alichaguliwa kama mwakilishi wa serikali za mitaa na alama ya uadilifu. * **Kujiuzulu:** Alijiuzulu nafasi yake ya uwaziri mnamo Januari 2015 kufuatia mzozo wa kisiasa mkoani kwake Calabria, ambapo alikataa kushirikiana na viongozi wa mkoa ambao aliamini walikuwa na mienendo isiyoendana na misingi yake ya kupambana na ufisadi. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1955||Lanzetta, Maria Carmela}} 4xj6bni8h4dhdybh4jp5gvsixmwyd6b 0 234536 1564441 1542104 2026-06-02T13:51:48Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564441 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Maria Carmela Lanzetta''' (alizaliwa [[Monasterace]], 1 Machi 1955) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa [[Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Italia)|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (PD), ambaye alifanya kazi kama Waziri wa Masuala ya Mikoa na Madaraka kuanzia tarehe 22 Februari 2014 hadi 30 Januari 2015 chini ya serikali ya [[Matteo Renzi]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Italy's PM-designate Matteo Renzi names new cabinet|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26298038|accessdate=2026-05-13|work=BBC News Europe|date=21 February 2014}}</ref> == Wasifu na Harakati == Lanzetta alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Calabria]]. Kitaaluma ni mfamasia. Alipata umaarufu wa kitaifa kutokana na ujasiri wake kama Meya wa Monasterace (2006–2013), ambapo alisimama imara dhidi ya vitisho vya kikundi cha kihalifu cha [['Ndrangheta]]. Mnamo mwaka 2011, gari lake lilichomwa moto na baadaye duka lake la dawa lilipigwa risasi, matukio yaliyopelekea kuungwa mkono na maelfu ya watu nchini Italia kama alama ya upinzani dhidi ya mafia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == * **Waziri wa Masuala ya Mikoa:** Mnamo mwaka 2014, Matteo Renzi alimteua kuwa waziri katika baraza lake la mawaziri. Alichaguliwa kama mwakilishi wa serikali za mitaa na alama ya uadilifu. * **Kujiuzulu:** Alijiuzulu nafasi yake ya uwaziri mnamo Januari 2015 kufuatia mzozo wa kisiasa mkoani kwake Calabria, ambapo alikataa kushirikiana na viongozi wa mkoa ambao aliamini walikuwa na mienendo isiyoendana na misingi yake ya kupambana na ufisadi. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1955||Lanzetta, Maria Carmela}} m1eff247hb968000wh42h7hvh44o8yd 0 234544 1564442 1542118 2026-06-02T13:54:24Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564442 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Giorgia Latini''' (alizaliwa [[Fabriano]], 18 Aprili 1980) ni mwanasiasa na mwanasheria wa [[Italia]]. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kwa ajili ya bunge la XVIII la Italia kupitia chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307498&idLegislatura=18|title=LATINI Giorgia - LEGA|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Elimu == Latini alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Marche]]. Alihitimu shahada ya sheria na kufanya kazi kama wakili kabla ya kujikita kikamilifu katika siasa. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Latini amekuwa na majukumu muhimu katika ngazi ya kitaifa na mkoa: * **Serikali ya Mitaa:** Alihudumu kama Assessor (Waziri wa Jiji) wa Utamaduni, Elimu, na Michezo katika manispaa ya [[Ascoli Piceno]], ambapo alijulikana kwa kukuza miradi ya kitamaduni na kurejesha majengo ya kihistoria. * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Baada ya kuchaguliwa bungeni mwaka 2018, alifanya kazi katika Kamati ya VII inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Utamaduni, Sayansi, na Elimu. * **Waziri wa Mkoa (2020–2022):** Mnamo mwaka 2020, aliteuliwa kuwa Waziri wa Mkoa wa Marche anayehusika na Elimu, Utamaduni, na Sera za Vijana. Alijiuzulu nafasi yake bungeni mnamo mwaka 2020 ili kujikita katika jukumu hili la mkoa, lakini alichaguliwa tena bungeni katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.regione.marche.it/Regione-Utile/Istituzione/La-Giunta/Giorgia-Latini|title=Giorgia Latini - Regione Marche|publisher=Regione Marche|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> Anajulikana kwa jitihada zake za kutambua lugha ya alama (LIS) nchini Italia na kukuza urithi wa kitamaduni wa mkoa wa Marche kupitia miradi ya kimataifa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1980||Latini, Giorgia}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] f2mef8bzu0c62jxaceulgkqg2hljr2l 0 234551 1564443 1542127 2026-06-02T13:55:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564443 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arianna Lazzarini''' (alizaliwa [[Monselice]], 6 Machi 1976) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Lega Nord|Lega]]. Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 kwa ajili ya bunge la XVIII la Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.camera.it/leg18/29?shadow_deputato=307455&idLegislatura=18|title=LAZZARINI Arianna - LEGA|publisher=Camera dei Deputati|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Elimu == Lazzarini alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Veneto]]. Alihitimu masomo yake katika fani ya sheria na kuanza kujishughulisha na siasa tangu akiwa mdogo ndani ya chama cha Lega Nord, akijikita zaidi katika masuala ya utawala wa mikoa. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Lazzarini amekuwa na wasifu mrefu katika uongozi wa mkoa wa Veneto na ngazi ya kitaifa: * **Serikali ya Mitaa na Mkoa:** Kabla ya kuchaguliwa bungeni, alifanya kazi kama Diwani wa Mkoa wa Veneto na pia alishika nyadhifa mbalimbali katika manispaa ya [[Pozzonovo]], ikiwemo nafasi ya Makamu wa Meya na baadaye Meya wa mji huo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/padova/arianna_lazzarini_deputata_leghista_pozzonovo-3591410.html|title=Arianna Lazzarini, la deputata leghista che non dimentica Pozzonovo|work=Il Gazzettino|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> * **Baraza la Wawakilishi:** Katika bunge la XVIII (2018–2022), alifanya kazi kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya XII inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Kijamii (Afya). Alichaguliwa tena katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022 (bunge la XIX), ambapo anaendelea kutetea sera za afya na ustawi wa jamii. Anajulikana kwa msimamo wake wa kutetea ugatuzi wa madaraka (autonomy) kwa mkoa wa Veneto na amekuwa akipigania uimarishaji wa huduma za afya vijijini. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1976||Lazzarini, Arianna}} [[Jamii:Wanasheria wa Italia]] r8gtjazgh7ibrszqj4maivct9aioe2h 0 234554 1564444 1542798 2026-06-02T13:55:56Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564444 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Elena Leonardi''' (alizaliwa [[Recanati]], 3 Mei 1975) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Seneti la Italia tangu mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senato.it/composizione/senatori/elenco-alfabetico/scheda-attivita?tab=datiAnag&did=36402|title=Elena Leonardi|publisher=[[Senate of the Republic (Italy)|Senate of the Republic]]|language=it|access-date=2026-05-13}}</ref> == Wasifu na Kazi ya Kisiasa == Leonardi alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Marche]]. Ni mwanachama wa chama cha [[Fratelli d'Italia]] (Brothers of Italy) na amekuwa mhusika mkuu katika siasa za mkoa wake kwa miaka mingi. === Ngazi ya Mkoa (2015–2022) === Kabla ya kujiunga na bunge la kitaifa, Leonardi alikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika serikali ya mkoa wa Marche: * **Baraza la Mkoa:** Alichaguliwa kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Kutunga Sheria la Marche (Assemblea Legislativa delle Marche) mwaka 2015 na kuchaguliwa tena mwaka 2020. * **Kamati ya Afya:** Alihudumu kama Rais wa Kamati ya Afya na Sera za Kijamii mkoani Marche. Alijiuzulu nafasi hii mnamo Oktoba 2022 baada ya kuchaguliwa kwenda Seneti.<ref>{{cite news|access-date=2026-05-13|date=2022-10-07|language=it|title=Elena Leonardi va in Senato, lascia la presidenza della Commissione Regionale Sanità|url=https://www.anconatoday.it/politica/elena-leonardi-senatrice-sanita-marche.html|newspaper=Ancona Today}}</ref> === Seneti ya Jamhuri === Katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2022, Leonardi alichaguliwa kuwa Seneta. Katika bunge la XIX, anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Kamati ya X inayoshughulikia Masuala ya Kijamii, Afya, Kazi, na Hifadhi ya Jamii. Pia, anashikilia nafasi ya mratibu wa kikanda (Regional Coordinator) wa chama cha Fratelli d'Italia mkoani Marche. Anajulikana kwa kutetea "Kielelezo cha Marche" (Modello Marche) katika siasa za kitaifa, akilenga kuleta mageuzi ya mfumo wa afya na kusaidia maeneo yaliyoathiriwa na matetemeko ya ardhi katikati mwa Italia.<ref>{{cite news|date=2022-08-23|language=it|title=Leonardi, i ricordi e l’ascesa «Il modelo Marche approda in Parlamento»|url=https://www.cronachemaceratesi.it/2022/08/23/leonardi-i-ricordi-e-lascesa-il-modello-marche-approda-in-parlamento/1669875/|newspaper=Cronache Maceratesi}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1975||Leonardi, Elena}} h3k310j7qzlwz8koxqivgly2u4d771t 0 234738 1564375 1548043 2026-06-02T12:43:46Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564375 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alexandra Huțu''' (alizaliwa 9 Septemba 1988) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Romania]] kupitia Chama cha Social Democratic (PSD). Tangu mwaka 2021, amekuwa mbunge katika Baraza la Manaibu akiwakilisha mkoa wa [[Botoșani]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Romania]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Romania]] {{BD|1988||Hutu, Alexandra}} 217oblys7l33ikr9usxku6jbt2qlvrn 0 234815 1564390 1548813 2026-06-02T12:58:44Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564390 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gianina Șerban''' (alizaliwa 15 Julai 1983) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Romania]] ambaye tangu mwaka 2020 amekuwa mbunge katika Baraza la Manaibu kupitia chama cha Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Romania]] {{BD|1983||Serban, Gianina}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Romania]] 3g1ix7w0ga4h5oezng9t2w6t9t5lemk 0 234857 1564391 1542701 2026-06-02T12:59:33Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564391 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Silvia Adriana Țicău''' (alizaliwa 14 Novemba 1970) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Romania]] na mwanachama wa zamani wa [[Bunge la Ulaya]] (MEP). Alifanya kazi bungeni Ulaya kuanzia tarehe 1 Januari 2007, kufuatia kujiunga kwa Romania katika [[Umoja wa Ulaya]], hadi mwaka 2014. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} == Viungo vya Nje == * [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/36281/SILVIA-ADRIANA_TICAU/history/7 Wasifu katika Bunge la Ulaya] {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Romania]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Romania]] {{BD|1970||Ticau, Silvia Adriana}} dsyym4pty1fm0fm2bv5wt7fe7g84l39 0 235830 1564371 1550659 2026-06-02T12:37:45Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564371 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cristina Campo''' (jina la kuzaliwa: '''Vittoria Maria Angelica Marcella Cristina Guerrini'''; [[Bologna]], [[29 Aprili]] [[1923]] – [[Roma]], [[10 Januari]] [[1977]]) alikuwa mwandishi, mshairi, na mtafsiri kutoka nchini [[Italia]]. Alichapisha kazi zake kwa kutumia majina ya siri ya '''Puccio Quaratesi''', '''Bernardo Trevisano''', '''Giusto Cabianca''', na '''Benedetto P. d'Angelo'''.<ref name="treccani">{{cite web |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/cristina-campo/ |title=Campo, Cristina katika Enciclopedia Treccani |publisher=Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana |language=it |access-date=16 Mei 2026}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} {{BD|1923|1977}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Washairi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] 7xnn5564vd07joa46czasr44e5lwxx3 0 236063 1564480 1545109 2026-06-02T16:46:46Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564480 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Carmen Bernos de Gasztold''' (9 Oktoba 1919 – 23 Septemba 1995<ref name=bnf>{{cite web |url=https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12051596z |title=Carmen Bernos de Gasztold (1919-1995) |work=BnF Data |publisher=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |date=6 May 2021 |access-date=7 August 2021}}</ref>) alikuwa mshairi kutoka nchini [[Ufaransa]] aliyeishi muda mrefu katika [[abasia]] ya [[Mmonaki|wamonaki]] [[Wabenedikto]].<ref name=kennedy>{{cite journal |jstor=20590001 |title=Review: The Poet in the Playpen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_poetry_1964-12_105_3/page/189 |first=X. J. |last=Kennedy |authorlink=X. J. Kennedy |journal=[[Poetry (magazine)|Poetry]] |volume=105 |number=3 |date=December 1964 |pages=190–193}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} {{BD|1919|1995}} [[Jamii:Washairi wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Wabenedikto]] olbdq6a4xfij06m6ju2ob6kvtkfcfkf 0 236236 1564493 1545448 2026-06-02T17:15:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564493 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Frank Harlan Lewis''' ([[Januari 8]], [[1919]] – [[Desemba 12]], [[2008]]) alikuwa [[mwanabotania]] na [[mwanabiolojia]] nchini [[Marekani]] aliyefanya kazi hasa na mimea ya [[jenasi]] ya Clarkia. Anajulikana zaidi kwa nadharia zake za "catastrophic selection" na "saltational speciation", ambazo zinahusiana kwa karibu na dhana za mageuzi ya quantum na mageuzi ya kwa mwingiliano.<ref name="Cates">{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Harlan|last2=Raven|first2=Peter H.|title=Rapid Evolution in Clarkia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_1958-09_12_3/page/319|journal=Evolution|date=1958|volume=12|issue=3|pages=319–336|doi=10.2307/2405854|jstor=2405854}}</ref><ref name="select">{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Harlan|title=Catastrophic Selection as a Factor in Speciation|journal=Evolution|date=1962|volume=16|issue=3|pages=257–271|doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1962.tb03218.x|s2cid=88311196|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="salt">{{cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Harlan|title=Speciation in Flowering Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1966-04-08_152_3719/page/166|journal=Science|date=1966|volume=152|issue=3719|pages=167–172|doi=10.1126/science.152.3719.167|pmid=17741624|bibcode=1966Sci...152..167L}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanasayansi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1919]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2008]] 2y2dcbpy4mwhalptncgs1i5qjk79uyl 0 236675 1564475 1546354 2026-06-02T16:43:20Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564475 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Katherine Esau''' ([[Aprili 3]], [[1898]] – [[Juni 4]], [[1997]]) alikuwa [[mwanabotania]] mwenye asili ya [[Ujerumani]] na uraia wa [[Marekani]] aliyesoma [[anatomia]] ya mimea na athari za virusi. Vitabu vyake ''Plant Anatomy'' ([[1953]], [[1965]], [[2006]]) na ''Anatomy of Seed Plants'' ([[1960]], [[1977]]) ni maandishi muhimu. Mwaka [[1989]], Esau alipokea National Medal of Science "Kwa kutambua huduma yake ya pekee kwa jumuiya ya wanabotania wa Marekani, na kwa ubora wa utafiti wake wa mwanzilishi, wa kimsingi na uliotumika, juu ya muundo na maendeleo ya mimea, ambayo imechukua zaidi ya miongo sita; kwa utendaji wake bora kama mwalimu, darasani na kupitia vitabu vyake; kwa kutia moyo na msukumo aliotoa kwa wanabotania wengi wachanga wenye kutamani; na kwa kuwa mfano maalum wa kuigwa kwa wanawake katika sayansi.",<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/4439344|jstor=4439344 |last1=Heiser Jr. |first1=Charles B. |author-link=Charles Bixler Heiser|title=Reviewed work: ''Anatomy of Seed Plants'', Katherine Esau |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-biology-teacher_1960-05_22_5/page/301|journal=The American Biology Teacher |year=1960 |volume=22 |issue=5 |page=301 }}</ref><ref name="Evert">{{cite book |last=Evert |first=Ray F. |date=1999 |title=Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences |location= Washington, DC |publisher= The National Academies Press |url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/esau-katherine.pdf |chapter=Katherine Esau 1898 – 1997 |pages=1–13 |volume=}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanasayansi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1898]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1997]] p1fk1pdcpdgx9mgzzxck3l01olm518y 0 237125 1564477 1547432 2026-06-02T16:45:53Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564477 wikitext text/x-wiki '''R. Begum''' ni mwanasiasa wa [[Bangladesh]] kutoka chama cha Awami League (Bangladesh Awami League) na alikuwa mbunge wa jimbo la Mymensingh-3. == Kazi == Begum alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge wa jimbo la Mymensingh-3 kama mgombea wa chama cha Bangladesh Awami League mnamo mwaka 1992, kupitia uchaguzi mdogo uliofanyika kufuatia kifo cha mbunge aliyekuwa madarakani, Nazrul Islam.<ref name="Hakim1994">{{cite journal |last=Hakim |first=Muhammad A. |date=August 1994 |title=The Mirpur Parliamentary by-Election in Bangladesh |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_1994-08_34_8/page/740 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=34 |issue=8 |page=741 |doi=10.2307/2645261 |jstor=2645261}}</ref><ref name="Akhter2001">{{cite book |last=Akhter |first=Muhammad Yeahia |year=2001 |title=Electoral Corruption in Bangladesh |publisher=Ashgate |page=243 |isbn=0-7546-1628-2}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} {{BD|1950||Begum, R.}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Bangladesh]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Bangladesh]] ha3omiemvqcejq5ylknhx8jjlgbgwd4 0 237569 1564388 1548433 2026-06-02T12:57:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564388 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Remo J. Saraceni''' (15 Januari 1935 – 3 Juni 2024) alikuwa mvumbuzi wa vinyago kutoka [[Italia]] na [[Marekani]]. Alijulikana zaidi kwa uvumbuzi wake wa Walking Piano, kifaa cha muziki cha sakafuni kinachotoa sauti kinapokanyagwa, ambacho kilitumika katika filamu ya mwaka 1988 ''Big '' iliyoigizwa na [[Tom Hanks]]. == Maisha na kazi == Saraceni alizaliwa katika Fossacesia, akiwa mtoto wa Giuseppe Saraceni, seremala wa viatu, na Filomena Carulli, mama wa nyumbani. Alisoma katika Taasisi ya Ufundi ya Milano, ambapo alihitimu shahada ya uzamili katika elektroniki mwaka 1958.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=[https://www.chestnuthilllocal.com/stories/local-rocket-scientist-became-piano-man-for-tom-hanks,11432|title=Local](https://www.chestnuthilllocal.com/stories/local-rocket-scientist-became-piano-man-for-tom-hanks,11432|title=Local) rocket scientist became 'Piano Man' for Tom Hanks|work=Chestnut Hill Local|first=Len|last=Lear|date=22 Juni 2018|access-date=19 Juni 2025}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{BD|1935|2024}} [[Jamii:Wavumbuzi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wavumbuzi wa Marekani]] 78tu98zadp4gjqj4145ebiq2gdrkyua 0 237697 1564474 1548649 2026-06-02T16:41:43Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564474 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Taqi Arani''' ; 5 Septemba 1903 &ndash; 4 Februari 1940) alikuwa profesa wa [[kemia]], mwanaharakati wa kisiasa wa mrengo wa kushoto wa Iran, na mwanadharia, pamoja na kuwa mwanzilishi na mhariri wa jarida la [[Umarx|Kimarxist]] la ''[[Donya (jarida)|Donya]]'' (''Dunia'').<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|last=Daryaee|first=Touraj|year=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=9780199732159|page=352}}</ref> Lengo kuu la jarida hilo lilikuwa ni kutambulisha Umarx (Marxism) kwa Wairani na kuweka msingi wa kuundwa kwa kundi la Kimarxist hapo baadaye.<ref name="mrg90">{{cite journal |author=M. Reza Ghods |date=October 1990 |title=The Iranian Communist Movement under Reza Shah |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-eastern-studies_1990-10_26_4/page/508 |journal=[[Middle Eastern Studies (journal)|Middle Eastern Studies]] |volume=26 |issue=4 |page=508 |jstor=4283395}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1903|1940}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] acy36ysj6cfvkhhgagkt41emdapctll 0 237703 1564492 1548530 2026-06-02T17:15:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564492 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Puku male and female (Zambia).jpg|thumb|Puku dume na jike katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Kafue, Zambia]] '''Puku''' (jina la kisayansi: '''''Kobus vardonii''''') ni aina ya [[swala]] mwenye umbo la makadirio ya wastani anayepatikana katika nyanda za nyasi zenye unyevunyevu na mabwawa huko kusini mwa [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]], [[Namibia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], na kwa wingi zaidi katika Vinamasi vya Okavango nchini [[Botswana]]. Karibu theluthi moja ya puku wote duniani wanaishi katika [[maeneo yaliyolindwa]], bustani za wanyama, na [[hifadhi za taifa]] kutokana na kupungua kwa maeneo yao ya asili ya kuishi.<ref name = conser /><ref name = status /> == Maelezo == Puku ana urefu wa takriban sentimita 80 kwenda juu hadi begani na ana uzito wa kati ya kilo 70 hadi 80. Mnyama huyu ana rangi ya kahawia inayofanana na mchanga, huku upande wa chini wa tumbo lake ukiwa na rangi ya kahawia iliyofifia kidogo. Manyoya yake ni magumu na ya kwaruza zaidi ikilinganishwa na swala wengine wenye ukubwa kama wake kama vile tohe wa kusini, lizwi, au swala pala, na pia ni makubwa kuliko yale ya paa ushi mdogo. Puku dume wana pembe zenye mikunjo ya mistari mifupi, zenye urefu wa sentimita 50, na zilizojipinda kama umbo la zeze.<ref name="SkinnerChimimba2005" /> == Sura ndogo == Kuna aina mbili (sura ndogo) za mnyama huyu: * Puku wa Senga (''Kobus vardonii senganus'') * Puku wa Kusini (''Kobus vardonii vardonii'') == Ikolojia na tabia == Puku wanapatikana karibu pekee katika nyanda za nyasi za mabwawa na maeneo ya madambo (mabonde yenye maji ya msimu), ambapo hula nyasi.<ref name = status /> Chakula chake kinaweza kubadilika kulingana na aina ya nyasi zinazopatikana katika eneo husika. Hakuna ushindani mkubwa wa kimaslahi wa chakula kati yao na wanyama wengine wa kundi la ng'ombe na swala ([[mamalia]]).<ref name="pukudiet"/> Mnyama huyu hupendelea kufanya shughuli zake nyakati za asubuhi na jioni. Anaposhtuliwa au kuona hatari, puku hutoa sauti ya mruzi mkali unaorudiarudia. Puku jike hukusanyika kwenye makundi madogo ya hadi wanyama 20. Wakati wa msimu wa mvua, makundi haya huungana pamoja kwa ajili ya kuongeza ulinzi na usalama, na kufikia hadi majike 50. Puku dume wanamiliki na kulinda maeneo yao binafsi, ambapo hujaribu kushawishi makundi ya majike kubaki ndani ya maeneo hayo kwa muda mrefu iwezekanavyo. Wakati wa msimu wa masika, kutokana na mafuriko makubwa kwenye makazi yao, wanahama kwenda maeneo ya miinuko ya juu na wakati wa kiangazi hurudi karibu na vyanzo vya maji.<ref name="Macdonald2006" /> == Picha == <gallery widths="250" heights="180"> File:Puku male and female (Zambia).jpg|Puku dume na jike (''Kobus vardonii''), katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Kafue, Zambia File:Puku female, South Luangwa.jpg|Puku jike wa aina ya ''K. v. senganus'' akiwa na mtoto wake, katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Luangwa Kusini, Zambia File:Puku Fawn Suckling Kafue Jul23 A7R 05264.jpg|Puku jike akinyonyesha mtoto wake, katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Kafue, Zambia File:Southern puku (Kobus vardonii vardonii) female.jpg|Puku jike wa kusini (''K. v. vardonii''), katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Chobe, Botswana File:Southern puku (Kobus vardonii vardonii) female head.jpg|Kichwa cha puku jike wa kusini (''K. v. vardonii''), katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Chobe, Botswana File:Southern puku (Kobus vardonii vardonii) fawn.jpg|Mtoto wa puku wa kusini (''K. v. vardonii''), katika Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Chobe, Botswana </gallery> == Marejeo == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name = conser>{{cite journal|last1=Jenkins|first1= Richard K.B|last2= Maliti|first2= Honori T.|last3= Corti|first3=Graham R.|date= April 2003|title= Conservation of the puku antelope in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania|journal= Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation|volume= 12|issue=4|pages= 787–797|doi=10.1023/A:1022426026881|s2cid= 22493056|issn=0960-3115}}</ref> <ref name = status>{{cite journal|last1=Rodgers|first1=W. A.|title=Status of puku (Kobus vardoni Livingstone) in Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-journal-of-ecology_1984-06_22_2/page/117|journal=African Journal of Ecology|volume=22|issue=2|year=1984|pages=117–125|issn=0141-6707|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1984.tb00685.x|bibcode=1984AfJEc..22..117R }}</ref> <ref name="SkinnerChimimba2005">{{cite book|last1=Skinner|first1=J. D. |last2=Chimimba|first2=Christian T. |title=The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqwEYkTDZf4C&pg=PA685|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84418-5|pages=685–}}</ref> <ref name="Macdonald2006">{{cite book|last=Macdonald|first=David Whyte |title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Mammals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JdwAQAACAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14069-8 }}</ref> <ref name="pukudiet">{{cite journal |last1=Rduch |first1=Vera |title=Diet of the Puku Antelope (Kobus Vardonii) and Dietary Overlap with Selected Other Bovids in Kasanka National Park, Zambia |journal=Mammal Research |date=2016 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=289–297 |doi=10.1007/s13364-016-0268-y |s2cid=15475378 }}</ref> }} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.sil.si.edu/imagegalaxy/imageGalaxy_enlarge.cfm?id_image=7832 Michoro ya puku ya mwaka 1881] {{Artiodactyla|R.2}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q273577}} [[Jamii:Swala mabwawa]] [[Jamii:Mamalia wa Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] [[Jamii:Mamalia wa Zambia]] [[Jamii:Mamalia wa Tanzania]] h54795gmdmh1yrqvteqw9fls4zweluy 0 237716 1564473 1548552 2026-06-02T16:41:14Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564473 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Abdolhossein Behnia''' (Kiajemi: عبدالحسین بهنیا), pia huandikwa kama Abdul Husain Behnia, alikuwa mwanasiasa wa [[Irani|Iran]] aliyepata kuhudumu kama [[Wizara ya Masuala ya Kiuchumi na Fedha (Iran)|Waziri wa Fedha]] mara kadhaa wakati wa utawala wa [[Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vali Nasr|title=Politics within the Late-Pahlavi State: The Ministry of Economy and Industrial Policy, 1963–69|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-middle-east-studies_2000-02_32_1/page/98|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|date=February 2000|volume=32|issue=1|page=99|jstor=259537}}</ref> Alihudumu katika baraza la mawaziri la Waziri Mkuu [[Ali Amini]] na baadaye la [[Asadollah Alam]] mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1960.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gholam Reza Afkhami|title=The Life and Times of the Shah |publisher=University of California Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-520-94216-5|location=Berkeley, CA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC&pg=PA318|page=318}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=با استعفای دولت ؛ کابینه جدید امروز به شاه معرفی شد|url=http://www.iichs.ir/News-6557/30-%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%85%D9%86-1341/?id=6557|publisher=Institute for Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies|access-date=3 September 2021|language=fa|archive-date=3 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903084712/http://www.iichs.ir/News-6557/30-%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%85%D9%86-1341/?id=6557|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD||}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] 4gqr559mx44luf5q1srta4xsmkmf65e 0 238067 1564464 1549231 2026-06-02T16:22:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564464 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Hossein Navab''' au ''Hossein Navvab'' (1897–1972) alikuwa mwanadiplomasia wa [[Iran]] alihudumu kwa muda mfupi kama waziri wa mambo ya nje mnamo mwaka 1952. == Kazi == Navab alikuwa mwanadiplomasia wa taaluma. Katika miaka ya 1930, alikuwa katibu wa pili katika [[Ubalozi wa Iran, London]].<ref>{{cite book |editor=Mortimer Epstein|title=The Statesman's Year-Book|year=1934|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=London|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230270633_55|isbn=978-0-230-27063-3|page=1200|chapter=Persia|doi=10.1057/9780230270633}}</ref> Alihudumu kama [[kaunsila jenerali]] (consul general) wa Iran mjini New York katika miaka ya 1940.<ref>{{cite web|author=Bretton Woods|title=Final Act|access-date=25 July 2013|work=Commission for Looted Art in Europe|url=http://www.lootedartcommission.com/bretton-woods}}</ref> Pia alikuwa balozi wa Iran nchini Uholanzi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Judgement of International Court of Justice|work=World Courts|access-date=25 July 2013 |url=http://www.worldcourts.com/icj/eng/decisions/1952.07.22_oil_co.htm}}</ref> Alihudumu kama waziri wa mambo ya nje katika [[Serikali za Mohammad Mosaddegh|baraza la pili la mawaziri]] la [[Waziri Mkuu wa Iran|Waziri Mkuu]] [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]] ambalo lilitangazwa mnamo tarehe 26 Julai 1952.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Developments of the Quarter: Comment and Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-east-journal_autumn-1952_6_4/page/459|journal=[[The Middle East Journal]]|date=Autumn 1952|volume=6 |issue=4|jstor=4322439|page=459}}</ref> Navab alijiuzulu wadhifa huo bila kutaja sababu yoyote mnamo tarehe 9 Oktoba 1952, na [[Hossein Fatemi]] alichukua nafasi yake.<ref>{{cite news|title=Iran planning envoy shift|date=13 October 1952|agency=[[United Press International]]|location=Tehran |access-date=25 July 2013|newspaper=[[Lewiston Morning Tribune]]|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=j7teAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zzAMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2982,3680884&dq=hossein+navab&hl=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1897|1972}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] fwil9kbfl49d6gobqzfiqaecx5nwbeu 0 238209 1564462 1549522 2026-06-02T16:18:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564462 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mansour Rouhani''' ( 1922 – 11 Aprili 1979) alikuwa mwanasiasa wa [[Iran]] alihudumu katika nafasi kadhaa za serikali wakati wa utawala wa Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Iran Announces Suit Against French Firm|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/07/18/archives/iran-announces-suit-against-french-firm.html|access-date=12 August 2021|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=18 July 1977}}</ref> Alikuwa mmoja wa wanasiasa walionyongwa baada ya [[Mapinduzi ya Iran]] mnamo mwaka 1979. == Wasifu == Baba yake Rouhani alikuwa mfuasi wa [[Imani ya Kibahá'í]] wakati mama yake alikuwa [[Muislamu]].<ref>{{cite web|title=To National Spiritual Assemblies|publisher=Bahai.org |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/messages/19791017_001/1#699143535|access-date=12 August 2021|date=17 October 1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Mina Yazdani|title=Towards a History of Iran's Baha'i Community During the Reign of Mohammad Reza Shah, 1941-1979|journal=Iran Namag|date=Spring 2017|volume=2|issue=1|page=85|url=https://encompass.eku.edu/fs_research/75/}}</ref> Mnamo tarehe 7 Machi 1964, Rouhani aliteuliwa kuwa waziri wa maji na nishati katika [[Serikali ya Hassan Ali Mansur|baraza la mawaziri]] lililoongozwa na [[Waziri Mkuu wa Iran|Waziri Mkuu]] [[Hassan Ali Mansur|Hasan Ali Mansour]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Chronology December 16, 1963 - March 15, 1964 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-east-journal_spring-1964_18_2/page/218 |journal=[[The Middle East Journal]]|year=1964|volume=18|issue=2|page=218|jstor=4323704}}</ref> Rouhani alihudumu katika wadhifa huo huo chini ya [[Serikali ya Amir-Abbas Hoveyda (1965–1967)|baraza la kwanza la mawaziri]] la Waziri Mkuu [[Amir-Abbas Hoveyda]] kuanzia tarehe 26 Januari 1965.<ref>{{cite book |editor=S. H. Steinberg|title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1966-67|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=London|year=2016|isbn=978-0-230-27095-4 |page=1136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DdfMDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1136}}</ref> Pia alihudumu kama waziri wa kilimo katika baraza lililofuata la Amir Abbas Hoveyda.<ref name=chr72/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kaveh Ehsani|title=Rural Society and Agricultural Development in Post-Revolution Iran: The First Two Decades|year=2006|volume=15|issue=1|doi=10.1080/10669920500515143|page=85|journal=Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies|s2cid=145536026}}</ref> Aliteuliwa tena katika wadhifa huo tarehe 13 Septemba 1971.<ref name=chr72>{{cite journal|year=1972|page=43 |volume=26|title=Chronology August 16, 1971-November 15, 1971|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-east-journal_winter-1972_26_1/page/43|journal=[[The Middle East Journal]]|issue=1|jstor=4324874}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1922|1979}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] ic70896wa214fnmceganj8t03e3jfd2 0 238989 1564470 1550834 2026-06-02T16:34:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564470 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Manal Yunis''' (alizaliwa mwaka 1929) alikuwa kiongozi wa harakati za wanawake nchini [[Iraki|Iraq]]. Alikuwa miongoni mwa viongozi mashuhuri wa chama cha [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region|Ba'ath]] wakati wa utawala wa [[Saddam Hussein]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Noga Efrati|title=Productive or Reproductive? The Roles of Iraqi Women during the Iraq-Iran War|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_middle-eastern-studies_1999-04_35_2/page/26|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|date=April 1999|volume=35|issue=2|pages=27–44|jstor=4284002 |doi=10.1080/00263209908701265}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1929||}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Iraq]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Iraq]] 6h2bo6erlonya6ougrl2uso8esfqjxw 0 239517 1564435 1555246 2026-06-02T13:42:03Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564435 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla''', Baron wa Carpiano (15 Aprili 1728 – 30 Julai 1800 huko Padua) alikuwa tabibu binafsi wa [[Kaizari Joseph II]] wa [[Dola Takatifu la Roma]] na mkurugenzi wa kwanza wa Josephinian Military Academy of Surgery mjini [[Vienna]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1930 |title=Academies: Academies of medicine and surgery |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |edition=14|volume=1|page=85 |language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1728|1800}} [[Jamii:Wanaume wa Italia]] [[Jamii:madaktari]] 7umh5jye9q89ou686mmwpdrsygkahr0 0 239667 1564436 1555239 2026-06-02T13:42:43Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564436 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Giovanni Battista Monteggia''' (8 Agosti 1762 – 17 Januari 1815) alikuwa mpasuaji wa [[Italia]].<ref>{{WhoNamedIt|doctor|1929}}</ref> Jeraha la aina ya Uvunjikaji wa Monteggia limepewa jina lake. == Wasifu == === Maisha ya awali === Giovanni Battista Monteggia alizaliwa huko Laveno, karibu na [[Ziwa Maggiore]], kaskazini mwa Italia. Wazazi wake walikuwa Gian Antonio Monteggia na Marianna Vegezzi. Alikuwa na kaka wawili wanaojulikana; mmoja alikuja kuwa padri na mwingine daktari. Baba yake alihusika katika ujenzi wa miundombinu (hasa barabara na mifereji ya maji), na ndiye aliyemwongoza Giovanni Battista, ambaye alitoka shule ya sekondari ya Pallanza, kuelekea katika taaluma ya tiba. Giovanni alidahiliwa katika shule ya upasuaji ya Ospedale Maggiore mjini Milan mwaka 1779. Mafunzo yake yalifanyika katika mazingira ya migogoro ya kiitikadi na kisiasa ya wakati wake, kati ya zama za mapinduzi na zile za Napoleon.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Cosmacini|first=Giampiero|title=Biografia della Ca' Granda. Uomini e idee dell'Ospedale Maggiore di Milano|year=2006|location=Roma|pages=102–104}}</ref> Hali ya kuwa daktari-mpasuaji ndiyo iliyomtambulisha Monteggia.<ref name=":0" /> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1762|1815}} [[Jamii:madaktari]] [[Jamii:Wanaume wa Italia]] bu2ewjludyft78n22bn1mbefkk8w87d 0 240031 1564378 1558948 2026-06-02T12:47:05Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564378 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Alessandra Joan Thiele'''<ref name="Aimi-2025">{{cite web |last=Aimi |first=Gianmarco |title=Joan Thiele: l'outsider |url=[https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/interviste-musica/joan-thiele-loutsider/963209/](https://www.rollingstone.it/musica/interviste-musica/joan-thiele-loutsider/963209/) |website=[[Rolling Stone Italia]] |access-date=6 February 2025 |language=it |date=6 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="Venezia-2025">{{cite web |last=Venezia |first=Annalia |title=Joan Thiele a Sanremo: «Non sono pronta alla super esposizione, spero di imparare la leggerezza» |url=[https://www.editorialedomani.it/idee/cultura/sanremo-2025-joan-thiele-intervista-eco-leggerezza-ssg2tzso](https://www.editorialedomani.it/idee/cultura/sanremo-2025-joan-thiele-intervista-eco-leggerezza-ssg2tzso) |website=[[Domani (gazeti)|Domani]] |access-date=27 February 2026 |language=it |date=9 February 2025}}</ref> (amezaliwa 21 Septemba 1991)<ref name="Laffranchi-2025">{{cite web |last=Laffranchi |first=Andrea |title=Joan Thiele: «Ho fatto fatica con il mio corpo e i giudizi degli altri. La canzone di Sanremo? Per mio fratello, e per tutti, contro la paura» |url=[https://www.corriere.it/sette/25_agosto_21/joan-thiele-intervista-ff9e7e36-451d-469d-86d0-bc92ceb25xlk.shtml](https://www.corriere.it/sette/25_agosto_21/joan-thiele-intervista-ff9e7e36-451d-469d-86d0-bc92ceb25xlk.shtml) |website=[[Corriere della Sera]] |access-date=23 February 2026 |language=it |date=21 August 2025}}</ref> ni mwimbaji na mtunzi wa nyimbo kutoka [[Italia]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki-Ulaya}} {{BD|1991|}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Waimbaji wa Italia]] aefm5sx6ktuae7y2xjeqyi3c4en67v2 0 240047 1564396 1558990 2026-06-02T13:08:55Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564396 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Daniele Archibugi''' (alizaliwa [[Roma]], [[Italia]], 17 Julai 1958)<ref>{{cite web |title=Daniele Archibugi CV |url=[http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/2017/11/Archibugi-CV-September-2017.pdf](http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/2017/11/Archibugi-CV-September-2017.pdf) |access-date=15 Februari 2022 |language=Italian}}</ref> ni mwananadharia wa Italia katika nyanja za uchumi na siasa. Amejishughulisha na utafiti kuhusu uchumi na sera za [[ubunifu]] na mabadiliko ya teknolojia, nadharia ya kisiasa ya mahusiano ya kimataifa, pamoja na [[utandawazi]] wa kisiasa na kiteknolojia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1958|}} [[Jamii:Wanauchumi wa Italia]] 1r1vdogg3kerw68434tui8lykirew5s 0 240136 1564491 1559185 2026-06-02T17:11:34Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564491 wikitext text/x-wiki ''''Francine "Penny" Patterson''' (amezaliwa tarehe 13 Februari 1947) ni mwanasaikolojia wa wanyama kutoka [[Marekani]]. Kuanzia mwaka 1972, alimfundisha sokwe mkubwa aina ya gorila aitwaye Koko mfumo uliorekebishwa wa Lugha ya Ishara ya Marekani (American Sign Language – ASL), ambao aliuita '''Lugha ya Ishara ya Gorila''' (Gorilla Sign Language, GSL). Patterson alidai kwamba Koko aliweza kujifunza na kutumia mamia ya ishara za lugha hiyo kuwasiliana na binadamu. Utafiti wake kuhusu Koko ulivutia umakini mkubwa wa vyombo vya habari na umma, na ulitumika kama msingi wa madai kwamba nyani wakubwa wanaweza kujifunza vipengele vya lugha ya binadamu. Hata hivyo, uhalali wa kisayansi wa madai ya Patterson kuhusu kiwango cha umahiri wa Koko katika lugha umepingwa kwa kiasi kikubwa na wataalamu wa isimu na nyanja nyingine za kitaaluma.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lingua Franca: Koko Is Dead, but the Myth of Her Linguistic Skills Lives On |url=[https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/koko-is-dead-but-the-myth-of-her-linguistic-skills-lives-on#selection-2503.139-2511.208](https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/koko-is-dead-but-the-myth-of-her-linguistic-skills-lives-on#selection-2503.139-2511.208) |date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=[https://archive.today/20231211182257/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/koko-is-dead-but-the-myth-of-her-linguistic-skills-lives-on#selection-2503.139-2511.208](https://archive.today/20231211182257/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/koko-is-dead-but-the-myth-of-her-linguistic-skills-lives-on#selection-2503.139-2511.208) |archive-date=2023-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Ben |year=1999 |title=Koko: Fact or Fiction? |journal=American Language Review |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=12–15 |issn=1092-6992}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea habari |last=Hu |first=Jane C. |date=20 August 2014 |title=What Do Talking Apes Really Tell Us? |url=[https://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/08/koko_kanzi_and_ape_language_research_criticism_of_working_conditions_and.html](https://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/08/koko_kanzi_and_ape_language_research_criticism_of_working_conditions_and.html) |work=Slate}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/j.2326-1951.1982.tb02120.x |title=Why Koko Can't Talk: The Ape's Still Fooling Most of the People, Most of the Time |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sciences_1982-12_22_9/page/8 |date=1982 |last1=Terrace |first1=Herbert S. |journal=The Sciences |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=8–10}}</ref> Wakosoaji wameeleza kuwa ushahidi uliotolewa hauonyeshi kwamba Koko alikuwa na uwezo wa lugha unaolingana na ule wa binadamu, bali kwamba aliweza kujifunza ishara na kuzitumia kwa kiwango fulani kupitia mafunzo na mazoea. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1947|}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 1ko322ifuwjx20tjhg4db3tibgt1aqm 0 240142 1564467 1559254 2026-06-02T16:27:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260602sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1564467 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Ian Fleming | picha = Ian Fleming c. 1958 (cropped).jpg | maelezo = Fleming mnamo 1958 | tarehe ya kuzaliwa = {{birth date|1908|5|28|df=yes}} | mahali pa kuzaliwa = [[Mayfair]], London, Uingereza | tarehe ya kufa = {{death date and age|1964|8|12|1908|5|28|df=yes}} | mahali alipofia = [[Canterbury]], Kent, Uingereza | kazi maarufu = {{plainlist| * ''[[James Bond]]'' series * ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' }} | ndoa = {{marriage|[[Ann Fleming (socialite)|Ann Charteris]]|24 March 1952}} | watoto = 1 | mama = [[Evelyn St. Croix Fleming]] | baba = [[Valentine Fleming]] | ndugu = [[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]] (kaka)<br />[[Amaryllis Fleming]] (dada wa kambo) }} '''Ian Lancaster Fleming''' (28 Mei 1908 – 12 Agosti 1964) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Uingereza]]. Anajulikana zaidi kwa mfululizo wake wa riwaya za kijasusi za [[James Bond]] zilizovuma baada ya [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia|Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]]. Fleming alitoka katika familia tajiri iliyokuwa na uhusiano na benki ya Robert Fleming & Co. Baba yake alikuwa Mbunge wa Henley kuanzia mwaka 1910 hadi kifo chake kwenye Mapambano ya Magharibi mnamo 1917 wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia. Alisoma katika shule za Eton, Sandhurst, na kwa muda mfupi katika Vyuo Vikuu vya Munich na Geneva kabla ya kujaribu kazi mbalimbali na hatimaye kuanza kuandika. Wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia, Fleming alifanya kazi katika Kitengo cha Ujasusi wa Wanamaji cha Uingereza. Alihusika katika kupanga "Oparesheni Goldeneye" pamoja na kusimamia vitengo viwili vya kijasusi: 30 Assault Unit na T-Force. Uzoefu wake wa kijeshi na kazi yake ya uandishi wa habari ulimpa misingi, maelezo ya kina, na uhalisia uliosaidia kutengeneza simulizi za riwaya zake za James Bond. Fleming aliandika riwaya yake ya kwanza ya Bond, ''[[Casino Royale (novel)|Casino Royale]]'', mnamo mwaka 1952 akiwa na umri wa miaka 44. Kitabu hicho kilipata mafanikio makubwa na kuchapishwa mara tatu mfululizo ili kukidhi mahitaji. Riwaya nyingine 11 za Bond na mikusanyiko miwili ya hadithi fupi zilifuata kati ya mwaka 1953 na 1966. Hadithi hizi zinamhusu [[James Bond (literary character)|James Bond]], afisa wa Idara ya Ujasusi wa Siri (MI6) anayejulikana pia kwa namba ya siri 007, na ambaye alikuwa Kamanda wa Jeshi la Wanamaji la Akiba. Vitabu vya Bond vimo kwenye orodha ya safu za vitabu vya kubuni vilivyouzwa zaidi duniani, vikiwa vimevuka nakala milioni 100. Fleming pia aliandika kitabu cha watoto kiitwacho ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' (1964). Mnamo 2008, gazeti la ''[[The Times]]'' lilimweka Fleming katika nafasi ya 14 kwenye orodha ya "Waandishi 50 Wakuu wa Uingereza tangu mwaka 1945". Fleming alimwoa Anne Charteris baada ya Anne kupewa talaka na mume wake wa kwanza, Esmond Harmsworth, kwa sababu ya uhusiano wake wa siri na mwandishi huyo. Walipata mtoto mmoja wa kiume aitwaye Caspar. Fleming alikuwa mnywaji mkubwa wa pombe na mvutaji wa sigara uliokithiri, mambo yaliyopelekea kifo chake kutokana na matatizo ya ugonjwa wa moyo mnamo 1964 akiwa na umri wa miaka 56. Vitabu vyake viwili vya James Bond vilichapishwa baada ya kifo chake. Tangu wakati huo, waandishi wengine wameendelea kuandika riwaya za Bond. Kazi ya Fleming imetumika kutengeneza filamu mara 27, huku muhusika mkuu akichezwa na waigizaji sita tofauti kwenye mfululizo rasmi wa filamu hizo. {{TOC limit}} == Maisha ya awali == === Kuzaliwa na familia === [[File:A link to James Bond - geograph.org.uk - 1255756.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right|alt=A discoloured brass plaque showing the names of those local men killed in the First World War|Kumbukumbu ya Vita ya Glenelg, inayonyesha jina la [[Valentine Fleming]], baba yake Ian]] Ian Lancaster Fleming alizaliwa tarehe 28 Mei 1908 huko Mayfair, [[London|London.]]<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /><ref>{{cite book |publisher=General Register Office |location=United Kingdom |title=England and Wales Civil Registration Indexes |date=1837–1915 |volume=1a |page=420a}}</ref> Mama yake alikuwa Evelyn "Eve" Fleming na baba yake alikuwa Valentine Fleming, aliyekuwa Mbunge wa Henley tangu 1910 hadi 1917.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti |title=Fleming, Ian Lancaster, (28 May 1908 – 12 Aug. 1964), writer |url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-56886 |access-date=3 March 2021 |website=Who's Who & Who Was Who |year=2007 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u56886 |isbn=978-0-19-954089-1}}</ref><ref name="Churchill Obit" /> Fleming alikuwa mjukuu wa mfanyabiashara wa Scotland, [[Robert Fleming (financier)|Robert Fleming]], aliyeanzisha benki ya Robert Fleming & Co.<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" />{{efn|Tangu mwaka 2000, Robert Fleming & Co imekuwa sehemu ya [[JPMorgan Chase]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Griffiths |first=Katherine |title=Abbey buys Fleming Premier for £106m |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=15 May 2001 |page=18 |location=London}}</ref>}} Mnamo 1914, kufuatia kuanza kwa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia, Valentine Fleming alijiunga na jeshi na kufikia cheo cha meja.<ref name="Churchill Obit" /> Aliuawa kwa mashambulizi ya mizinga ya Ujerumani huko Ufaransa tarehe 20 Mei 1917. [[Winston Churchill]] aliandika wasifu wa sifa (tanzia) uliosomwa kwenye gazeti la ''[[The Times]]''.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=12}} Kaka yake mkubwa, [[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]], alikuwa mwandishi wa safari na alioana na mwigizaji [[Celia Johnson]].<ref name="PF Obit (1971)" /> Peter alitumikia jeshi wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia katika oparesheni za siri huko Norway na Ugiriki.<ref name="PF Obit (1971)" /> Fleming alikuwa na wadogo wawili wa kiume, Richard na Michael, waliotumikia jeshi pia, ambapo Michael alifariki kutokana na majeraha ya vita mnamo Oktoba 1940 baada ya kukamatwa Normandy.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Casualty of War |url=https://www.ianfleming.com/timeline/michael-fleming-dies/ |website=ianfleming.com |date=16 August 2016 |access-date=22 January 2021}}</ref> Alikuwa na dada wa kambo upande wa mama aliyezaliwa nje ya ndoa, mpiga selo [[Amaryllis Fleming]] (1925–1999), ambaye baba yake alikuwa msanii [[Augustus John]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Fleming |first=Fergus |title=Amaryllis Fleming |department=Obiturary |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-amaryllis-fleming-1110720.html |access-date=4 December 2011 |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=5 August 1999 |location=London}}</ref> === Elimu na kazi za awali === Mnamo 1914 Fleming alihudhuria Shule ya Durnford huko Dorset ambako hakufurahia maisha kutokana na chakula kibaya na manyanyaso kutoka kwa wanafunzi wenzake.{{sfn|DelFattore|1989|p=86}} [[File:Eton College quadrangle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A building in the Tudor style with a courtyard in front|[[Eton College]], shule aliyosoma Fleming kuanzia 1921 hadi 1927]] Mwaka 1921 alijiunga na [[Eton College]]. Hakuwa na matokeo makubwa kitaaluma lakini aling'ara sana katika riadha na kushinda taji la mchezaji bora (Victor Ludorum) mara mbili kati ya 1925 na 1927.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=33}} Mtindo wake wa maisha ulimfanya agongane na mkuu wa bweni lake kwa sababu ya tabia zake, mafuta ya nywele, kumiliki gari, na mahusiano na wanawake.{{sfn| DelFattore |1989|p=86}} Aliondolewa Eton mapema na kupelekwa Chuo cha Kijeshi cha Sandhurst, lakini aliondoka huko mnamo 1927 bila kupata cheo baada ya kuambukizwa ugonjwa wa kisonono.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=33}} Mnamo 1927, mama yake alimhamisha katika shule binafsi huko Austria ili kujiandaa na kazi katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Nje.{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=45}} Baadaye alisoma kwa muda mfupi Munich na Geneva.<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /> Licha ya kufaulu mtihani wa kuingia Wizara ya Mambo ya Nje, hakupata nafasi ya kazi.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=46}} Mnamo Oktoba 1931, kupitia ushawishi wa mama yake, alipata kazi kama mwandishi wa habari katika shirika la habari la [[Reuters]].<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /> Mwaka 1933 alitumwa [[Moscow]] kuripoti kesi ya wahandisi sita Waingereza walioshitakiwa na serikali ya [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]].{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=46}} Alirudi London na kuacha uchumba wake na mpenzi wake Monique Panchaud baada ya mama yake kutishia kumnyima urithi wake.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=59}} Mnamo Oktoba 1933, aliingia kwenye masuala ya benki na udalali wa hisa lakini hakufanikiwa katika tasnia hizo.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=72}} Mwaka 1939, Fleming alianza uhusiano wa kimapenzi na Ann O'Neill, ambaye wakati huo alikuwa mke wa Baron O'Neill wa tatu.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=96}} == Mtindo na mfumo wa uandishi == Mwandishi Raymond Benson alibainisha kuwa vitabu vya Fleming vimegawanyika katika vipindi viwili. Vitabu vya kati ya 1953 na 1960 vililenga zaidi maendeleo ya wahusika na mazingira, wakati vile vya kati ya 1961 na 1966 vilibeba maelezo mengi zaidi ya picha na taswira.{{sfn|Benson|1988|pp=85, 31}} Vitabu vya mwanzo vilionyesha harakati za Vita Baridi dhidi ya shirika la Urusi la SMERSH, huku vile vya baadaye vikionyesha mapambano dhidi ya Ernst Stavro Blofeld na shirika la kigaidi la SPECTRE.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=49}} Fleming alieleza kuwa alikuwa akiandika kwa takriban saa tatu asubuhi na saa moja jioni, bila kusahihisha au kurudia kusoma alichokiandika kwa siku hiyo, mfumo uliomwezesha kuandika maneno 2,000 kwa siku.{{sfn|Faulks|Fleming|2009|p=320}} Alitumia mbinu ya kuacha maswali au matukio yenye utata mwishoni mwa kila sura (taharuki) ili kumfanya msomaji awe na hamu ya kuendelea na sura inayofuata kwa haraka.{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=85}} Pia alipenda kutumia majina ya bidhaa halisi zinazojulikana sokoni ili kuongeza uhalisia wa matukio ya kijasusi katika riwaya zake.{{sfn|Faulks|Fleming|2009|p=320}} == Mandhari kuu katika vitabu vyake == === Nafasi ya Uingereza Duniani === Vitabu vya Bond viliandikwa kipindi ambacho Dola ya Uingereza ilikuwa ikipoteza nguvu na makoloni yake duniani.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=3}} Kupitia muhusika wa James Bond, Fleming alitengeneza taswira ya kufikirika kwamba Uingereza bado ilikuwa na nguvu kubwa ya kijeshi na ujasusi duniani kuliko uhalisia ulivyokuwa. Katika riwaya ya ''You Only Live Twice'' (1964), Fleming anaonyesha wazi mtazamo huu kupitia mazungumzo kati ya Bond na mkuu wa usalama wa Japan, Tiger Tanaka, anayeilaumu Uingereza kwa kutupa himaya yake kwa mikono miwili.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=113}} === Athari za Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia === Mada ya madhara ya Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia ilijitokeza sana katika vitabu vyote. Fleming alitumia ushiriki wa wahusika katika vita hiyo kutofautisha wema na uovu; maadui wengi walionyeshwa kama maofisa wa zamani wa ngazi za juu wa Chama cha Nazi cha Ujerumani au Gestapo (kama vile Drax katika Moonraker na Hammerstein katika For Your Eyes Only), jambo lililoendana na jinsi jamii ya Uingereza ilivyokuwa ikiwatazama Wajerumani katika miaka ya 1950.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=20}} == Kazi zake == {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * '''Riwaya za James Bond''' ** [[Casino Royale (novel)|''Casino Royale'']] (1953) ** ''[[Live and Let Die (novel)|Live and Let Die]]'' (1954) ** [[Moonraker (novel)|''Moonraker'']] (1955) ** [[Diamonds Are Forever (novel)|''Diamonds Are Forever'']] (1956) ** [[From Russia, with Love (novel)|''From Russia, with Love'']] (1957) ** [[Dr. No (novel)|''Dr. No'']] (1958) ** [[Goldfinger (novel)|''Goldfinger'']] (1959) ** [[Thunderball (novel)|''Thunderball'']] (1961) ** [[The Spy Who Loved Me (novel)|''The Spy Who Loved Me'']] (1962) ** [[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (novel)|''On Her Majesty'']] (1963) ** [[You Only Live Twice (novel)|''You Only Live Twice'']] (1964) ** [[The Man with the Golden Gun (novel)|''The Man with the Golden Gun'']] (1965) {{col-break}} * '''Mikusanyiko ya Hadithi Fupi za Bond''' ** [[For Your Eyes Only (short story collection)|''For Your Eyes Only'']] (1960) ** ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]'' (1966) * '''Kazi Zingine''' ** ''[[The Diamond Smugglers]]'' (1957) ** ''[[Thrilling Cities]]'' (1963) ** ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' (1964) ** ''[[The Poppy Is Also a Flower]]'' (1966) {{col-end}} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}<ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |title=Fleming, Ian Lancaster (1908–1964) |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33168 |access-date=3 December 2011 |authorlink=Andrew Lycett |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/33168 |year=2004}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Duns |first=Jeremy |title=Gold Dust |journal=Kiss Kiss Bang Bang |date=Winter 2005 |issue=2 |pages=39–47 |author-link=Jeremy Duns |publisher=James Bond International Fan Club}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Churchill |first=Winston |title=Valentine Fleming. An appreciation |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=25 May 1917 |author-link=Winston Churchill |location=London |page=9}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Colonel Peter Fleming, Author and explorer |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=20 August 1971 |location=London |page=14}}</ref> <ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |title=Fleming, Ann Geraldine Mary {{bracket|other married names Ann Geraldine Mary O'Neill, Lady O'Neill; Ann Geraldine Mary Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere}} (1913–1981) |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/40227 |access-date=15 December 2011 |authorlink=Andrew Lycett |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/40227 |year=2004}} {{ODNBsub}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=James Bond, Ornithologist, 89; Fleming Adopted Name for 007 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/17/obituaries/james-bond-ornithologist-89-fleming-adopted-name-for-007.html |access-date=24 February 2013 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 February 1989 |location=New York}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite AV media |title=The Bond Correspondence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/pip/j9eoh/ |access-date=29 July 2012 |publisher=[[BBC Radio 4]] |date=24 May 2008}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=The great Bond cover up |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2008/may/07/1 |access-date=8 September 2011 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=8 May 2008 |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hellman |first=Geoffrey T. |title=Bond's Creator |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1962/04/21/1962_04_21_032_TNY_CARDS_000268062#ixzz1XRLtznvp |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |authorlink=Geoffrey T. Hellman |page=32 |date=21 April 1962}}<!-- {{subscription required}} – not. --> </ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=Bond&nbsp;– the real Bond |newspaper=[[The Times]] |page=36 |location=London |date=5 April 2008 |ref=none}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Cook |first=William |title=Novel man |newspaper=[[New Statesman]] |date=28 June 2004 |page=40}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Bergonzi |first=Bernard |title=The Case of Mr Fleming |journal=Twentieth Century |date=March 1958 |author-link=Bernard Bergonzi |page=221}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Johnson (writer) |title=Sex, Snobbery and Sadism |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/society/2007/02/1958-bond-fleming-girl-sex |journal=[[New Statesman]] |date=5 April 1958 |page=430}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=The Ian Fleming Collection of 19th–20th Century Source Material Concerning Western Civilization together with the Originals of the James Bond-007 Tales: a machine-readable transcription |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/fleming/ |work=Lilly Library Publications Online |date=7 May 2003 |publisher=[[Lilly Library]] |access-date=14 December 2011}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Sellers |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Sellers |title=The battle for the soul of Thunderball |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] |location=London |page=32 |date=30 December 2007}}</ref> <ref>{{cite video |year=1999 |contribution=Inside Dr. No Documentary |title=Dr. No (Ultimate Edition, 2006) |medium=DVD |publisher=[[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]]}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Mr. Ian Fleming |newspaper=[[The Times]] |location=London |date=13 August 1964 |page=12}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=Bottoms Up |newspaper=[[The Atlantic|The Atlantic Monthly]] |date=April 2006 |author-link=Christopher Hitchens |page=101}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Cork |first=John |author-link=John Cork |title=The man with the golden pen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bookseller_2002-09-20_5044/page/20 |journal=[[The Bookseller]] |date=20 September 2002 |issue=5044 |page=20 |issn=0006-7539}}</ref> }} == Vyanzo == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Amis |first=Kingsley |author-link=Kingsley Amis |title=The James Bond Dossier |year=1966 |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |location=London |oclc=752401390 |title-link=The James Bond Dossier}} * {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Tony |author-link=Tony Bennett (sociologist) |last2=Woollacott |first2=Janet |contribution=The Moments of Bond |editor-last=Lindner |editor-first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |year=2003 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last=Benson |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Benson |title=The James Bond Bedside Companion |year=1988 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Boxtree Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-85283-233-9 |title-link=The James Bond Bedside Companion}} * {{cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |title=The Politics of James Bond: From Fleming's Novel to the Big Screen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4-sFrU8Xw0C&q=Clarence%20Leiter&pg=PP1 |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-6240-9}} * {{cite book |last=Britton |first=Wesley Alan |title=Spy Television |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rl9nk8abyWcC&q=%22casino%20royale%22%20%22barry%20nelson%22&pg=PR4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |edition=2 |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-275-98163-1}} * {{cite book |last=Burgess |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Burgess |title=99 Novels. The Best in English Since 1939: A Personal Choice |year=1984 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Summit Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-671-52407-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/99novelsbestine00burg}} * {{cite book |last=Chancellor |first=Henry |title=James Bond: The Man and His World |year=2005 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7195-6815-2}} * {{cite book |last=DelFattore |first=Joan |author-link=Joan DelFattore |contribution=Ian Fleming |editor1-first=Bernard |editor1-last=Benstock |editor1-link=Bernard Benstock |editor2-first=Thomas |editor2-last=Staley |title=British Mystery and Thriller Writers Since 1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite00bern |url-access=registration |year=1989 |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Research]] |location=Detroit |isbn=978-0-7876-3072-0}} * {{cite book |last=Eco |first=Umberto |author-link=Umberto Eco |contribution=Narrative Structures in Fleming |editor-last=Lindner |editor-first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |year=2003 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Faulks |first1=Sebastian |last2=Fleming |first2=Ian |authorlink1=Sebastian Faulks |year=2009 |title=Devil May Care |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-103545-1 |title-link=Devil May Care (Faulks novel)}} * {{cite book |last=Fleming |first=Ian |title=Thrilling Cities |year=1963 |publisher=[[Jonathan Cape]] |location=London |title-link=Thrilling Cities}} * {{cite book |last=Fleming |first=Ian |title=Goldfinger |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102831-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Fleming |first1=Ian |last2=Welsh |first2=Louise |authorlink2=Louise Welsh |title=Live and Let Die |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102832-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Fleming |first1=Ian |last2=Higson |first2=Charlie |authorlink2=Charlie Higson |title=From Russia, with Love |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102829-3}} * {{cite book |last=Gant |first=Richard |author-link=Brian Freemantle |title=Ian Fleming: Man with the Golden Pen |publisher=Mayflower-Dell |year=1966 |location=London |oclc=487676374}} * {{cite book |last=Griswold |first=John |title=Ian Fleming's James Bond: Annotations And Chronologies for Ian Fleming's Bond Stories |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uariyzldrJwC&q=Ian%20Fleming's%20James%20Bond%3A%20Annotations%20And%20Chronologies%20For%20Ian%20Fleming's%20Bond%20Stories&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] |location=Bloomington, Indiana |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4259-3100-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Andy |last2=Simpson |authorlink1=Andy Lane |first2=Paul |year=2000 |title=The Bond Files: The Unofficial Guide to the World's Greatest Secret Agent |publisher=[[Virgin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0490-1}} * {{cite book |last=Lindner |first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9-1QY5boUsC&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last=Longden |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Longden |title=T-Force: The Race for Nazi War Secrets, 1945 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-84901-297-3}} * {{cite book |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Lycett |title=Ian Fleming |year=1996 |publisher=Phoenix |location=London |isbn=978-1-85799-783-5}} * {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=For Your Eyes Only |year=2008 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7475-9527-4}} * {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=Operation Mincemeat: The True Spy Story That Changed the Course of World War II |url=https://archive.org/details/operationminceme0000maci |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-4088-0921-1}} * {{cite book |last=MacLean |first=Rory |author-link=Rory MacLean |title=Gift of Time |year=2012 |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-84901-857-9}} * {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=John |author-link=John Pearson (author) |title=The Life of Ian Fleming: Creator of James Bond |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |location=London |year=1967}} * {{cite book |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=Lee |last2=Worrall |first2=Dave |title=The Essential Bond |year=1998 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Boxtree Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7522-2477-0}} * {{cite book |last=Rankin |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Rankin |title=Ian Fleming's Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII |year=2011 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-25062-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ianflemingscomma0000rank}} * {{cite book |last=Winn |first=Christopher |title=I Never Knew That About England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_q5B1szl1KcC&pg=PP1 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Random House]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-4481-4606-2}} {{Refend}} == Jisomee == * J.C. "The Agent's Secret." ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' no. 5946 (2017): 36. * Gilbert, Jon. (2023). "A Bibliography of Biographies of Ian Fleming." ''[[The Book Collector]]'' 72 no.4 (winter): 704–709. * Lett, Brian (2012). ''Ian Fleming and SOE's Operation Postmaster: The Top Secret Story Behind 007''. {{ISBN|978-1-5267-8751-4}} * Lycett, Andrew (2020). ''Ian Fleming: The Man Who Created James Bond''. Orion Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-1-4746-1797-0}}. * {{cite journal |author-last1=Moran |author-first1=Christopher R. |author-last2=McCrisken |author-first2=Trevor |title=The secret life of Ian Fleming: spies, lies and social ties |journal=[[Contemporary British History]] |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2018.1545579 |year=2019 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=336–356 |doi=10.1080/13619462.2018.1519431 |s2cid=150004633 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} * Muir, P. H.(1965). "Ian Fleming: A Personal Memoir." ''[[The Book Collector]]'' 14 no. 1 (Spring): 24–33. * {{cite book |last=Shakespeare |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Shakespeare |title=Ian Fleming: The Complete Man |year=2023 |publisher=Harvill Secker |isbn=978-1-78730-241-9 |ref=none}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Category:Ian Fleming|b=no|n=no|q=Ian Fleming|s=no|v=no|species=no|display=Ian Fleming}} * {{Official website|http://www.ianfleming.com/}} * {{IMDb name|id=0001220|name=Ian Fleming}} * {{FadedPage|id=Fleming, Ian|name=Ian Fleming|author=yes}} * {{UK National Archives ID}} * {{NPG name}} {{Ian Fleming|state=autocollapse}} {{James Bond books|state=autocollapse}} {{James Bond}} {{BD|1908|1964}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] f6u8gcsyhc3w5r2ybniy0ljvijti5tz 0 240202 1564504 1564312 2026-06-02T17:51:01Z Olimasy 26935 Protected "[[Irene Uchida]]" ([Kuhariri=Zuia watumiaji wapya au wale ambao hawajajisajilisha] (bila mwisho) [Kuhamisha=Zuia watumiaji wapya au wale ambao hawajajisajilisha] (bila mwisho)) 1564312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Wanataaluma | jina = Irene Ayako Uchida | picha = | maelezo_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = April 8, 1917 | mahali_pa_kuzaliwa = Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada | uraia = Canada | taasisi = University of British Columbia University of Toronto | idara = Jenetikia | cheo = Profesa/Mtafiti | elimu = Shahada ya uzamivu | shahada_ya_kwanza = fasihi ya Kiingereza mwaka 1946 | shahada_ya_pili = zoolojia 1951 | shahada_ya_uzamivu = Zoolojia | mada_ya_tasnifu = kromosomu katika nzi wa matunda. | mwaka_wa_uzamivu = 1951 | mshauri_wa_uzamivu = Dk. Bruce Chown | eneo_la_utafiti = matatizo ya vinasaba vya mapacha wenye ugonjwa wa moyo | michango_mashuhuri = mpango wa kwanza wa cytogenetics wa Kanada | machapisho = | tuzo = | tovuti = }} '''Irene Ayako Uchida''', OC (Aprili 8, 1917 - 30 Julai 2013) alikuwa mwanasayansi kutoka nchini [[Kanada]] na [[mtafiti]] wa Ugonjwa wa udumavu wa akili na maumbile (''[[Down syndrome]]'').<ref name="Uchida">https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/irene-uchida</ref> == Maisha ya Awali == Irene Uchida alizaliwa kwa jina la Ayako Uchida na wahamiaji wa Kijapani wa kizazi cha kwanza Sentaro na Shizuko Uchida. Familia hiyo iliishi katika mtaa wa wafanyikazi wa Vancouver ambao sasa unajulikana kama Hastings-Sunrise. Akiwa na umri mdogo, Uchida alifurahia muziki hasa kutumia na kupiga vyombo kama piano, chombo na violin. Mara nyingi alipiga vyombo hivo kanisani kwaajili ya kanisa lake liitwalo Japan United Church. Mwalimu wake wa muziki, akidai kuwa na shida ya kutamka jina lake, alianza kumuita Irene. Uchida alilipenda jina hilo na akalikubali kuwa lake. <ref name="Uchida" /> == Kuhusu Vita == Mnamo Novemba 1941, Irene Uchida alirudi nyumbani kwa meli ya mwisho kutoka Yokohama, Japan, hadi Kanada wakati wa Vita vya Kidunia vya pili. Muda mfupi baadaye, yeye na familia yake walikuwa miongoni mwa Wakanada 22,000 wa Japani ambao serikali ya shirikisho iliwahamisha kwa nguvu kwenye kambi za wafungwa. Familia hiyo ilitumwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Ziwa la Christina katika eneo la Kootenay la British Columbia. Mnamo 1942, Uchida na baba yake walihamishiwa Lemon Creek. Rafiki yake kutoka Vancouver, Hide Hyodo, alimshawishi kufungua shule kwa ajili ya wanafunzi wa mazoezi katika kambi za wakimbizi. Alichukua majukumu ya mkuu na mwalimu katika kambi ya Lemon Creek hadi 1944.<ref name="Uchida" /> == Elimu na Taaluma == Baada ya vita, Irene Uchida alibaki Kanada licha ya kuendelea kwa ubaguzi wa rangi dhidi ya Wajapani na kurudi kwa wanafamilia wengi huko Japani. Aliendelea na masomo yake katika Chuo Kikuu cha Toronto kwa ufadhili na a makao wa Kanisa la Muungano la Kanada. Uchida alihitimu shahada ya shajada ya kwanza katika fasihi ya Kiingereza mwaka 1946. Katika kipindi hiki cha maisha yake, alifanya kazi pia kama mshonaji ili kusaidia kujiendeleza shuleni. Uchida alipanga kufuata shahada ya uzamili katika kazi ya kijamii baada ya shahada yake. Hata hivyo, hali hiyo ilibadilika baada ya ushawishi wa Dk. Norma Ford Walker, ambaye alikuwa amemfundisha kozi ya utangulizi ya [[jenetikia]], kumtia moyo kuendelea na jenetikia. Alipata Ph.D (Shahada ya uzamivu) katika [[zoolojia]], mnamo mwaka 1951.<ref name="Uchida" /> == Kazi == Kuanzia 1951 hadi 1959, kama mshirika wa utafiti katika Hospitali ya Watoto Wagonjwa ya Toronto, Irene Uchida alianzisha moja ya rejista kubwa zaidi (database) huko Amerika Kaskazini. Aliitumia kutafiti matatizo ya vinasaba vya mapacha wenye ugonjwa wa moyo.<ref>https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/irene-uchida-world-renowned-leader-in-genetics-research/article14324306/</ref> Akitiwa moyo na Dk. Bruce Chown, daktari mashuhuri wa watoto, Uchida alifuata lengo lake la muda mrefu la kutengeneza maabara ya jenetiki huko Winnipeg, Manitoba. Mnamo 1959, kwa msaada wa Chown, alipata ruzuku ya mwaka mmoja ya Rockefeller Foundation kusoma katika Chuo Kikuu cha Wisconsin. Mwanzoni, Marekani ilikataa kuingia kwake nchini humo. Maafisa wa uhamiaji mpakani walimchukulia kama Mjapani licha ya kuzaliwa kwake Kanada. Idadi ya Wajapani kuingia nchini marekani ilikuwa kimejazwa kwa mwaka huo. Hatimaye, kwa msaada kutoka kwa rais wa chuo kikuu, alipata pasi maalum nakuingia nchini marekani. Kazi yake huko Wisconsin ililenga kromosomu katika nzi wa matunda. Mnamo 1960, Hospitali ya Watoto huko Winnipeg ilimwajiri kama mkurugenzi wake wa jenetiki ya matibabu. Huko, Uchida alitengeneza jaribio la kimatibabu la trisomy-18 (Edwards syndrome), na hivyo kuanzisha mpango wa kwanza wa cytogenetics wa Kanada.<ref name="Uchida" /> <ref>https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3791260/</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasayansi}} {{BD|1917|2013}} [[Jamii:mwanasayansi wa Kanada]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] 9nbth51c1w5hsi0gt5qg3dkzuaa659o 0 240223 1564381 2026-06-02T12:48:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Patty L'Abbat]] hadi [[Patty L'Abbate]]: usahihi wa jina 1564381 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Patty L'Abbate]] izyjps0372t6j8l1ijn2itwkaixd3ud 0 240224 1564402 2026-06-02T13:12:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[De Simone]] hadi [[Titty De Simone]]: kutofautisha watu 1564402 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Titty De Simone]] g8ixs9nnbmsgn7rs6tihgzsrc5j99ho 1564525 1564402 2026-06-02T23:59:28Z EmausBot 5566 Bot: Fixing double redirect from [[Titty De Simone]] to [[Titti De Simone]] 1564525 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Titti De Simone]] lowjt3ay9j94mbmyp67vq59zsd7xhtk 0 240225 1564405 2026-06-02T13:14:12Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Titty De Simone]] hadi [[Titti De Simone]]: usahihi wa jina 1564405 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Titti De Simone]] lowjt3ay9j94mbmyp67vq59zsd7xhtk 1728 240226 1564409 2026-06-02T13:16:20Z Anuary Rajabu 45588 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '<div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;"> [[File:Water for life - awc 2026.gif|AFRICA WIKI CHALLENGE 2026 BANNER|center|frameless|1400x1400px]] </div> <div style="width:400px; margin:auto; display:flex; justify-content:space-around; border-bottom:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center;"> <div style="flex:1; border-bottom:3px solid #005696; padding-bottom:5px;"> Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026|<span style="color:#333; font-size:14px; font-weight:...' 1564409 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;"> [[File:Water for life - awc 2026.gif|AFRICA WIKI CHALLENGE 2026 BANNER|center|frameless|1400x1400px]] </div> <div style="width:400px; margin:auto; display:flex; justify-content:space-around; border-bottom:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center;"> <div style="flex:1; border-bottom:3px solid #005696; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026|<span style="color:#333; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Kuhusu Tukio / About</span>]] </div> <div style="flex:1; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026/Makala|<span style="color:#777; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Makala / Articles List</span>]] </div> </div> '''Africa Wiki Challenge''' ni kampeni ya kuanzisha na kuboresha maudhui kuhusu Afrika kwenye miradi ya Wikimedia, kwa kuangazia masuala muhimu yanayohusu historia, maendeleo, mafanikio na changamoto za bara hili. Kwa mwaka 2026, nchini Tanzania kampeni hii itaangazia katika kuongeza na kuboresha maudhui kuhusu Tanzania na Afrika kwa ujumla, kwa mwongozo wa mada ya mwaka 2026 "Water for Life in Africa". Kupitia kampeni hii, washiriki watapata nafasi ya kuchangia kwa kuandika na kuboresha makala mbalimbali zinazoonyesha umuhimu wa rasilimali za maji, usimamizi wake na athari zake kwa jamii kupitia Wikipedia na miradi mingine. Lengo ni kupunguza pengo la maudhui ya Afrika mtandaoni na kukuza upatikanaji wa taarifa sahihi, huru na zinazotokana na mazingira ya ndani. ===''English''=== '''Africa Wiki Challenge''' is a campaign aimed at creating and improving content about Africa on Wikimedia projects. For the AWC 2026, Communities in Tanzania are joining this campaign by organizing a local editathon and contest aimed at increasing and enhancing content about Tanzania and Africa as a whole, under the theme: "Water for Life in Africa." Through this campaign, participants will have the opportunity to contribute by writing and improving articles that demonstrate the importance of water resources, their management, and their impact on society through Wikipedia and other sister projects. The goal is to reduce the content gap online and promote access to accurate, free, and locally-sourced information. == Dhamira ya 2026 / ''Theme'' == AWC 2026: '''WATER FOR LIFE IN AFRICA''' (''Sw'': '''Maji kwa Uhai barani Afrika''') == Lini? / ''When?''== '''25 Mei 2026''' - '''30 Juni 2026'''. == Malengo / ''Goals'' == * Kuboresha na kuongeza makala mpya walau 50 zinayohusu maji, usafi na mazingira kwenye Wikipedia ya Kiswahili. * Kuongeza idadi ya wahariri wapya walau 25% wanaochangia katika miradi ya Wikimedia. ===''English''=== *To create and improve articles at least 50 related to water, sanitation, and the environment on Swahili Wikipedia. *To recruit at least 25% of new editors to contribute to Wikimedia projects. [[Jamii:Editathons swwiki]] d9auuulfgzbyphwiwqz9rkii2uu3u1s 0 240227 1564432 2026-06-02T13:40:12Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Bressanone]] 1564432 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[Bressanone]] amsln4txtqxqkzkvucykk8g58arqtee 0 240228 1564449 2026-06-02T14:13:30Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '[[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]).]] '''Mazishi ya Kikristo''' ni [[taratibu]] za kuheshimu na kuzika [[maiti]] ya [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] (au mabaki yake) kwa kutegemea [[madhehebu]] na [[mila]] zake, hivyo zinatofautiana kiasi <ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa [[Kiswahili]], taz. [[Misale ya waamini]], toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Mara nyingi [[mazishi]] yanaendana na ...' 1564449 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]).]] '''Mazishi ya Kikristo''' ni [[taratibu]] za kuheshimu na kuzika [[maiti]] ya [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] (au mabaki yake) kwa kutegemea [[madhehebu]] na [[mila]] zake, hivyo zinatofautiana kiasi <ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa [[Kiswahili]], taz. [[Misale ya waamini]], toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Mara nyingi [[mazishi]] yanaendana na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kukumlilia pamoja na kufariji wafiwa. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Liturujia]] m7ho4hzkp7xa2i8hm2jhypi3ecwdho7 1564451 1564449 2026-06-02T14:23:09Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564451 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]).]] [[File:9691_-_Milano_-_S._Ambrogio_-_San_Vittore_in_Ciel_d'oro_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto_25-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|Mazishi ya [[karne ya 4]] huko [[Milano]], [[Italia]].]] '''Mazishi ya Kikristo''' ni [[taratibu]] za [[Heshima|kuheshimu]] na kuzika [[maiti]] ya [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] (au mabaki yake) kwa kutegemea [[madhehebu]] na [[mila]] zake, hivyo zinatofautiana kiasi <ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa [[Kiswahili]], taz. [[Misale ya waamini]], toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Kwa vyovyote yanatokeza [[imani]] katika [[ufufuko wa Yesu]] ulio limbuko la [[Kiyama|ufufuo wa wafu]] wote [[siku]] ya mwisho ya [[ulimwengu]]. Mara nyingi [[mazishi]] yanaendana na [[Wimbo|nyimbo]] na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kumlilia pamoja na [[faraja|kufariji]] wafiwa. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/death/death_talk.aspx Let's Talk About Death] by a Nun of the Orthodox Church * [https://singaporefuneralservice.sg/christian-funeral-services Christian Funeral Rituals] by Funeral Services Singapore {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Liturujia]] 74s0ddubswevbk398m7yuthybqc29y7 1564454 1564451 2026-06-02T14:41:18Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564454 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]), [[2005]].]] [[File:9691_-_Milano_-_S._Ambrogio_-_San_Vittore_in_Ciel_d'oro_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto_25-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|Mazishi ya [[karne ya 4]] huko [[Milano]], [[Italia]].]] [[File:Die_Beerdigung_Priesters_Alexander_Penkow.jpg|thumb|[[Jeneza]] la [[Upadri|padri]] [[Waorthodoksi|Mworthodoksi]] likibebwa na wenzake kwenda [[kaburi|kaburini]].]] '''Mazishi ya Kikristo''' ni [[taratibu]] za [[Heshima|kuheshimu]] na kuzika [[maiti]] ya [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] (au mabaki yake) kwa kutegemea [[madhehebu]] na [[mila]] zake, hivyo zinatofautiana kiasi <ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa [[Kiswahili]], taz. [[Misale ya waamini]], toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Kwa vyovyote yanatokeza [[imani]] katika [[ufufuko wa Yesu]] ulio limbuko la [[Kiyama|ufufuo wa wafu]] wote [[siku]] ya mwisho ya [[ulimwengu]]. Mara nyingi [[mazishi]] yanaendana na [[Wimbo|nyimbo]] na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kumlilia pamoja na [[faraja|kufariji]] wafiwa. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/death/death_talk.aspx Let's Talk About Death] by a Nun of the Orthodox Church * [https://singaporefuneralservice.sg/christian-funeral-services Christian Funeral Rituals] by Funeral Services Singapore {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Liturujia]] auotyx6d4kl0cgym9kkll2y5tmed2op 1564455 1564454 2026-06-02T14:45:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564455 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:9691_-_Milano_-_S._Ambrogio_-_San_Vittore_in_Ciel_d'oro_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall'Orto_25-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|Mazishi ya Kikristo ya [[karne ya 4]] huko [[Milano]], [[Italia]].]] [[image:JohnPaulII-funeral.jpg|thumb|300px|Mazishi ya [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]] ([[Kanisa Katoliki]]), [[2005]].]] [[File:A_Funeral_in_Alsike_(Gustaf_Cederström)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_18387.tif|thumb|left|Mazishi ya [[Walutheri|Kilutheri]] huko [[Uswidi]], [[1882]].]] [[File:Die_Beerdigung_Priesters_Alexander_Penkow.jpg|thumb|[[Jeneza]] la [[Upadri|padri]] [[Waorthodoksi|Mworthodoksi]] likibebwa na wenzake kwenda [[kaburi|kaburini]].]] '''Mazishi ya Kikristo''' ni [[taratibu]] za [[Heshima|kuheshimu]] na kuzika [[maiti]] ya [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] (au mabaki yake) kwa kutegemea [[madhehebu]] na [[mila]] zake, hivyo zinatofautiana kiasi <ref> Kwa taratibu za Kanisa Katoliki kwa [[Kiswahili]], taz. [[Misale ya waamini]], toleo la mwaka 2021, uk. 1562-1600</ref>. Kwa vyovyote yanatokeza [[imani]] katika [[ufufuko wa Yesu]] ulio limbuko la [[Kiyama|ufufuo wa wafu]] wote [[siku]] ya mwisho ya [[ulimwengu]]. Mara nyingi [[mazishi]] yanaendana na [[Wimbo|nyimbo]] na [[sala]] kwa ajili ya [[marehemu]]. Kama sivyo kuna kumkumbuka na kumlilia pamoja na [[faraja|kufariji]] wafiwa. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/death/death_talk.aspx Let's Talk About Death] by a Nun of the Orthodox Church * [https://singaporefuneralservice.sg/christian-funeral-services Christian Funeral Rituals] by Funeral Services Singapore {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Liturujia]] kl7akqfos877frknit67a37p66hb9if 14 240229 1564450 2026-06-02T14:15:17Z Husseyn Issa 44885 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika 'Kupitia kampeni hii, washiriki watapata nafasi ya kuchangia kwa kuandika na kuboresha makala mbalimbali zinazoonyesha umuhimu wa rasilimali za maji, usimamizi wake na athari zake kwa jamii kupitia Wikipedia na miradi mingine. Lengo ni kupunguza pengo la maudhui ya Afrika mtandaoni na kukuza upatikanaji wa taarifa sahihi, huru na zinazotokana na mazingira ya ndani.' 1564450 wikitext text/x-wiki Kupitia kampeni hii, washiriki watapata nafasi ya kuchangia kwa kuandika na kuboresha makala mbalimbali zinazoonyesha umuhimu wa rasilimali za maji, usimamizi wake na athari zake kwa jamii kupitia Wikipedia na miradi mingine. Lengo ni kupunguza pengo la maudhui ya Afrika mtandaoni na kukuza upatikanaji wa taarifa sahihi, huru na zinazotokana na mazingira ya ndani. jtrgp4dy2yz5xxam37s0vjbis62bjbq 1564453 1564450 2026-06-02T14:27:04Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564453 wikitext text/x-wiki Kupitia kampeni hii, washiriki watapata nafasi ya kuchangia kwa kuandika na kuboresha makala mbalimbali zinazoonyesha umuhimu wa rasilimali za maji, usimamizi wake na athari zake kwa jamii kupitia Wikipedia na miradi mingine. Lengo ni kupunguza pengo la maudhui ya Afrika mtandaoni na kukuza upatikanaji wa taarifa sahihi, huru na zinazotokana na mazingira ya ndani. [[Jamii:editathons swwiki]] 2qlsy81lif5nzo0rf6o7pcrskt7ropb 0 240230 1564497 2026-06-02T17:28:23Z Family 001 70423 Nimeanzisha makala mpya 1564497 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Mind Games''''' ni Filamu ya Kizimbabwe iliyoandikwa na kuongozwa na Charles Mawungwa<ref>{{Cite web|title=Filmmaker Mawunga celebrates ‘Mind Games’ success|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/filmmaker-mawunga-celebrates-mind-games-success/|date=2026-06-02|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> na kutayarishwa na Thandiwe N. Mawungwa. Ilitunukiwa tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya [[Zimbabwe]] katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Zimbabwe mwaka 2017, Filamu Bora ya Simulizi katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Calcutta mwaka 2017 na Uhariri Bora katika Tamasha la Filamu la Mabara Matano mnamo 2018. Waigizaji wakuu wa filamu hiyo ni Kevin Hanssen na Dax Jackson. == Marejeo == <references /> == Marejeo ya nje == [[imdbtitle:7227384|Mind Games (2017) - IMDb]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Zimbabwe]] er4kd0je2oibjggk8hgp25gsgvkzjpe 1564510 1564497 2026-06-02T19:47:59Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 1 template(s) replaced. 1564510 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Mind Games''''' ni Filamu ya Kizimbabwe iliyoandikwa na kuongozwa na Charles Mawungwa<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Filmmaker Mawunga celebrates ‘Mind Games’ success|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/filmmaker-mawunga-celebrates-mind-games-success/|date=2026-06-02|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> na kutayarishwa na Thandiwe N. Mawungwa. Ilitunukiwa tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya [[Zimbabwe]] katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Zimbabwe mwaka 2017, Filamu Bora ya Simulizi katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Calcutta mwaka 2017 na Uhariri Bora katika Tamasha la Filamu la Mabara Matano mnamo 2018. Waigizaji wakuu wa filamu hiyo ni Kevin Hanssen na Dax Jackson. == Marejeo == <references /> == Marejeo ya nje == [[imdbtitle:7227384|Mind Games (2017) - IMDb]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Zimbabwe]] 14m0gk98kkxmpg3cf7vo0mnmostjk8j 1564563 1564510 2026-06-03T10:20:23Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Mind Games (2017 film)]] hadi [[Mind Games]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1564510 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Mind Games''''' ni Filamu ya Kizimbabwe iliyoandikwa na kuongozwa na Charles Mawungwa<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Filmmaker Mawunga celebrates ‘Mind Games’ success|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/filmmaker-mawunga-celebrates-mind-games-success/|date=2026-06-02|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> na kutayarishwa na Thandiwe N. Mawungwa. Ilitunukiwa tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya [[Zimbabwe]] katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Zimbabwe mwaka 2017, Filamu Bora ya Simulizi katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Calcutta mwaka 2017 na Uhariri Bora katika Tamasha la Filamu la Mabara Matano mnamo 2018. Waigizaji wakuu wa filamu hiyo ni Kevin Hanssen na Dax Jackson. == Marejeo == <references /> == Marejeo ya nje == [[imdbtitle:7227384|Mind Games (2017) - IMDb]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Zimbabwe]] 14m0gk98kkxmpg3cf7vo0mnmostjk8j 1564565 1564563 2026-06-03T10:21:07Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564565 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''Mind Games''''' ni filamu ya [[Zimbabwe]] iliyoandikwa na kuongozwa na Charles Mawungwa<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Filmmaker Mawunga celebrates ‘Mind Games’ success|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/filmmaker-mawunga-celebrates-mind-games-success/|date=2026-06-02|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> na kutayarishwa na Thandiwe N. Mawungwa. Ilitunukiwa tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya [[Zimbabwe]] katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Zimbabwe mwaka 2017, Filamu Bora ya Simulizi katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la Calcutta mwaka 2017 na Uhariri Bora katika Tamasha la Filamu la Mabara Matano mnamo 2018. Waigizaji wakuu wa filamu hiyo ni Kevin Hanssen na Dax Jackson. == Marejeo == <references /> == Viungo vya nje == [[imdbtitle:7227384|Mind Games (2017) - IMDb]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Zimbabwe]] 96t4aq9jhk4ejxju9rxsxgorrd6gs1s 0 240231 1564505 2026-06-02T18:18:51Z Family 001 70423 Nimeanzisha makala mpya 1564505 wikitext text/x-wiki Hii ni orodha ya filamu ambazo nyingi ni za nchini Marekani zinazohusu wasichana weusi. Kundi hili la umri linaweza kuanzia watoto wadogo hadi wale wanaopitia kipindi cha ujana (balehe). Taswira hizi mara nyingi huitwa hadithi za makuzi. == kabla ya miaka ya 1980 == * ''Imitation of Life'' (1934) * ''Jemima & Johnny'' (1966) * ''Black Girl'' (1972)<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Castillo|first=Monica|title=From 'Jinn' To 'Just Another Girl On The I.R.T.': Black Girlhood On Film|date=2018-11-16|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/11/16/666948787/from-jinn-to-just-another-girl-on-the-i-r-t-black-girlhood-on-film|work=NPR|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Cooley High'' (1975) * ''Black Sister's Revenge'' (1976) * ''Sparkle'' (1976) * ''Cindy'' (1978) * ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' (1979) == 1980-1989 == * ''The Color Purple'' (1985)<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Finding Our Own Coming-Of-Age Narratives|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/bimadewunmi/black-girls-find-their-own-coming-of-age-narratives|work=BuzzFeed News|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Polly'' (1989)<ref name=":1" /> == 1990-1999 == * ''Flirting'' (1991)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Just Another Girl on the I.R.T.''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=The 11 Most Essential Movies That Showcase The Beauty And Nuance Of Black Girlhood On The Big Screen - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/the-11-most-essential-movies-that-showcase-the-beauty-and-nuance-of-black-girlhood-on-the-big-screen|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Shadow and Act Staff}}</ref> (1992) * ''Sarafina!'' (1992)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Crooklyn'' (1994)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Alma's Rainbow'' (1994)<ref>{{Cite web|title='Alma's Rainbow': Dr. Ayoka Chenzira Reflects On The Return Of Her Glittering Coming-Of-Age Film - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/almas-rainbow-dr-ayoka-chenzira-reflects-on-the-return-of-her-glittering-coming-of-age-film|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Aramide A. Tinubu}}</ref> * ''Girls Town'' (1996) * ''Eve’s Bayou'' (1997)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Cinderella'' (1997) * ''Drylongso'' <ref>{{Cite web|title=Drylongso: A Refuge of Their Own|url=https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/8236-drylongso-a-refuge-of-their-own|work=The Criterion Collection|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en}}</ref>(1998) * ''Ruby Bridges''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Essential Euzhan Palcy Movies to Watch|url=https://newsletter.oscars.org/what-to-watch/post/essential-euzhan-palcy-movies-to-watch|work=Academy|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> (1998) * ''Double Platinum'' (1999) * ''The Little Girl Who Sold the Sun'' (1999) * ''Selma, Lord, Selma'' (1999) == 2000-2009 == * ''Bring It On (2000)'' * ''The Color of Friendship'' (2000) * ''Love & Basketball'' (2000)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Our Song''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> (2000) * ''Seventeen Again'' (2000) * ''The Cheetah Girls'' (2003) * ''Love Don't Cost a Thing'' (2003) * ''The Proud Family Movie'' (2005) * ''Twitches'' (2005) * ''Akeelah and the Bee'' <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />(2006) * ''The Cheetah Girls 2'' (2006) * ''For One Night'' (2006) * ''Half Nelson'' <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.tz/books?id=GhcmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113&redir_esc=y|title=Carefree Black Girls: A Celebration of Black Women in Popular Culture|last=Blay|first=Zeba|date=2021-10-19|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|isbn=978-1-250-23157-4|language=en}}</ref>(2006) * ''Life Is Not A Fairy Tale: The Fantasia Barrino Story'' (2006) * ''College Road Trip'' (2008) * ''Rain''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rain (Lluvia)|url=https://www.screendaily.com/rain-lluvia/4040675.article|work=Screen|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Mike Goodridge}}</ref> (2008) * ''Precious''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> (2009) * ''The Princess and the Frog''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Where’s My Black Girlhood?: The Whitewashing of the Femme Boom|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/features/wheres-my-black-girlhood-the-whitewashing-of-the-femme-boom|work=www.rogerebert.com|date=2024-01-01|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> 2009 == 2010-2019 == * ''Pariah''(2011) * ''Yelling to the Sky'' (2011) * ''Beasts of the Southern Wild'' (2012) * ''Sparkle'' (2012) * ''Annie'' (2014) * ''Girlhood'' (2014) * ''The Gabby Douglas Story'' (2014) * ''The Fits'' (2015) * ''Home'' (2015) * ''A Girl Like Grace'' (2015) * ''Flowers'' (2016) * ''The Girl with All the Gifts'' (2016) * ''Queen of Katwe'' (2016) * ''Deidra & Laney Rob A Train'' (2017) * ''For Ahkeem'' (2017) * ''Everything, Everything'' (2017) * ''I Am Not a Witch'' (2017) == Miaka ya 2020 == * ''A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting'' (2020) * ''Cuties'' (2020) * ''Miss Juneteenth'' (2020) * ''Pillars'' (2020) * ''She Paradise'' (2020) * ''Selah and the Spades'' (2020) * ''Tahara'' (2020) * ''Upside-Down Magic'' (2020) * ''Beba'' (2021) * ''Black as Night'' (2021) * ''Respect'' (2021) * ''Sisters on Track'' (2021) * ''Anything's Possible (2022)'' * ''Darby and the Dead'' (2022) * ''Hawa'' (2022) * ''On The Come Up'' (2022) * ''The Silent Twins'' (2022) * ''Wendell & Wild'' (2022) * ''All Dirt Roads Taste of Salt'' (2023) * ''The Angry Black Girl and Her Monster'' (2023) * ''The Color Purple'' (2023) * ''Gray Matter'' (2023) * ''Girl'' (2023) * ''The Little Mermaid'' (2023) * ''Missing'' (2023) * ''Praise This'' (2023) * ''Wish'' (2023) * ''Dandelion'' (2024) * ''Suncoast'' (2024) * ''One of Them Days'' (2024) == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu nchi kwa nchi]] b185ubt58hkn222338ebb6r68u62jtw 1564506 1564505 2026-06-02T19:09:27Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 7 template(s) replaced. 1564506 wikitext text/x-wiki Hii ni orodha ya filamu ambazo nyingi ni za nchini Marekani zinazohusu wasichana weusi. Kundi hili la umri linaweza kuanzia watoto wadogo hadi wale wanaopitia kipindi cha ujana (balehe). Taswira hizi mara nyingi huitwa hadithi za makuzi. == kabla ya miaka ya 1980 == * ''Imitation of Life'' (1934) * ''Jemima & Johnny'' (1966) * ''Black Girl'' (1972)<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Castillo|first=Monica|title=From 'Jinn' To 'Just Another Girl On The I.R.T.': Black Girlhood On Film|date=2018-11-16|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/11/16/666948787/from-jinn-to-just-another-girl-on-the-i-r-t-black-girlhood-on-film|work=NPR|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Cooley High'' (1975) * ''Black Sister's Revenge'' (1976) * ''Sparkle'' (1976) * ''Cindy'' (1978) * ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' (1979) == 1980-1989 == * ''The Color Purple'' (1985)<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Finding Our Own Coming-Of-Age Narratives|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/bimadewunmi/black-girls-find-their-own-coming-of-age-narratives|work=BuzzFeed News|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Polly'' (1989)<ref name=":1" /> == 1990-1999 == * ''Flirting'' (1991)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Just Another Girl on the I.R.T.''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Rejea tovuti|title=The 11 Most Essential Movies That Showcase The Beauty And Nuance Of Black Girlhood On The Big Screen - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/the-11-most-essential-movies-that-showcase-the-beauty-and-nuance-of-black-girlhood-on-the-big-screen|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Shadow and Act Staff}}</ref> (1992) * ''Sarafina!'' (1992)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Crooklyn'' (1994)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Alma's Rainbow'' (1994)<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title='Alma's Rainbow': Dr. Ayoka Chenzira Reflects On The Return Of Her Glittering Coming-Of-Age Film - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/almas-rainbow-dr-ayoka-chenzira-reflects-on-the-return-of-her-glittering-coming-of-age-film|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Aramide A. Tinubu}}</ref> * ''Girls Town'' (1996) * ''Eve’s Bayou'' (1997)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Cinderella'' (1997) * ''Drylongso'' <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Drylongso: A Refuge of Their Own|url=https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/8236-drylongso-a-refuge-of-their-own|work=The Criterion Collection|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en}}</ref>(1998) * ''Ruby Bridges''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Essential Euzhan Palcy Movies to Watch|url=https://newsletter.oscars.org/what-to-watch/post/essential-euzhan-palcy-movies-to-watch|work=Academy|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> (1998) * ''Double Platinum'' (1999) * ''The Little Girl Who Sold the Sun'' (1999) * ''Selma, Lord, Selma'' (1999) == 2000-2009 == * ''Bring It On (2000)'' * ''The Color of Friendship'' (2000) * ''Love & Basketball'' (2000)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Our Song''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> (2000) * ''Seventeen Again'' (2000) * ''The Cheetah Girls'' (2003) * ''Love Don't Cost a Thing'' (2003) * ''The Proud Family Movie'' (2005) * ''Twitches'' (2005) * ''Akeelah and the Bee'' <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />(2006) * ''The Cheetah Girls 2'' (2006) * ''For One Night'' (2006) * ''Half Nelson'' <ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.co.tz/books?id=GhcmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113&redir_esc=y|title=Carefree Black Girls: A Celebration of Black Women in Popular Culture|last=Blay|first=Zeba|date=2021-10-19|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|isbn=978-1-250-23157-4|language=en}}</ref>(2006) * ''Life Is Not A Fairy Tale: The Fantasia Barrino Story'' (2006) * ''College Road Trip'' (2008) * ''Rain''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Rain (Lluvia)|url=https://www.screendaily.com/rain-lluvia/4040675.article|work=Screen|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Mike Goodridge}}</ref> (2008) * ''Precious''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> (2009) * ''The Princess and the Frog''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Where’s My Black Girlhood?: The Whitewashing of the Femme Boom|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/features/wheres-my-black-girlhood-the-whitewashing-of-the-femme-boom|work=www.rogerebert.com|date=2024-01-01|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> 2009 == 2010-2019 == * ''Pariah''(2011) * ''Yelling to the Sky'' (2011) * ''Beasts of the Southern Wild'' (2012) * ''Sparkle'' (2012) * ''Annie'' (2014) * ''Girlhood'' (2014) * ''The Gabby Douglas Story'' (2014) * ''The Fits'' (2015) * ''Home'' (2015) * ''A Girl Like Grace'' (2015) * ''Flowers'' (2016) * ''The Girl with All the Gifts'' (2016) * ''Queen of Katwe'' (2016) * ''Deidra & Laney Rob A Train'' (2017) * ''For Ahkeem'' (2017) * ''Everything, Everything'' (2017) * ''I Am Not a Witch'' (2017) == Miaka ya 2020 == * ''A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting'' (2020) * ''Cuties'' (2020) * ''Miss Juneteenth'' (2020) * ''Pillars'' (2020) * ''She Paradise'' (2020) * ''Selah and the Spades'' (2020) * ''Tahara'' (2020) * ''Upside-Down Magic'' (2020) * ''Beba'' (2021) * ''Black as Night'' (2021) * ''Respect'' (2021) * ''Sisters on Track'' (2021) * ''Anything's Possible (2022)'' * ''Darby and the Dead'' (2022) * ''Hawa'' (2022) * ''On The Come Up'' (2022) * ''The Silent Twins'' (2022) * ''Wendell & Wild'' (2022) * ''All Dirt Roads Taste of Salt'' (2023) * ''The Angry Black Girl and Her Monster'' (2023) * ''The Color Purple'' (2023) * ''Gray Matter'' (2023) * ''Girl'' (2023) * ''The Little Mermaid'' (2023) * ''Missing'' (2023) * ''Praise This'' (2023) * ''Wish'' (2023) * ''Dandelion'' (2024) * ''Suncoast'' (2024) * ''One of Them Days'' (2024) == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu nchi kwa nchi]] j1d4sisvd0572xdcki1x0rd9kv02n4h 1564566 1564506 2026-06-03T10:23:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[List of films about black girlhood]] hadi [[Orodha ya filamu kuhusu wasichana wenye asili ya Afrika]]: jina la Kiswahili 1564506 wikitext text/x-wiki Hii ni orodha ya filamu ambazo nyingi ni za nchini Marekani zinazohusu wasichana weusi. Kundi hili la umri linaweza kuanzia watoto wadogo hadi wale wanaopitia kipindi cha ujana (balehe). Taswira hizi mara nyingi huitwa hadithi za makuzi. == kabla ya miaka ya 1980 == * ''Imitation of Life'' (1934) * ''Jemima & Johnny'' (1966) * ''Black Girl'' (1972)<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Castillo|first=Monica|title=From 'Jinn' To 'Just Another Girl On The I.R.T.': Black Girlhood On Film|date=2018-11-16|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/11/16/666948787/from-jinn-to-just-another-girl-on-the-i-r-t-black-girlhood-on-film|work=NPR|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Cooley High'' (1975) * ''Black Sister's Revenge'' (1976) * ''Sparkle'' (1976) * ''Cindy'' (1978) * ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' (1979) == 1980-1989 == * ''The Color Purple'' (1985)<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Finding Our Own Coming-Of-Age Narratives|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/bimadewunmi/black-girls-find-their-own-coming-of-age-narratives|work=BuzzFeed News|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Polly'' (1989)<ref name=":1" /> == 1990-1999 == * ''Flirting'' (1991)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Just Another Girl on the I.R.T.''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Rejea tovuti|title=The 11 Most Essential Movies That Showcase The Beauty And Nuance Of Black Girlhood On The Big Screen - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/the-11-most-essential-movies-that-showcase-the-beauty-and-nuance-of-black-girlhood-on-the-big-screen|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Shadow and Act Staff}}</ref> (1992) * ''Sarafina!'' (1992)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Crooklyn'' (1994)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Alma's Rainbow'' (1994)<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title='Alma's Rainbow': Dr. Ayoka Chenzira Reflects On The Return Of Her Glittering Coming-Of-Age Film - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/almas-rainbow-dr-ayoka-chenzira-reflects-on-the-return-of-her-glittering-coming-of-age-film|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Aramide A. Tinubu}}</ref> * ''Girls Town'' (1996) * ''Eve’s Bayou'' (1997)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Cinderella'' (1997) * ''Drylongso'' <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Drylongso: A Refuge of Their Own|url=https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/8236-drylongso-a-refuge-of-their-own|work=The Criterion Collection|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en}}</ref>(1998) * ''Ruby Bridges''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Essential Euzhan Palcy Movies to Watch|url=https://newsletter.oscars.org/what-to-watch/post/essential-euzhan-palcy-movies-to-watch|work=Academy|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> (1998) * ''Double Platinum'' (1999) * ''The Little Girl Who Sold the Sun'' (1999) * ''Selma, Lord, Selma'' (1999) == 2000-2009 == * ''Bring It On (2000)'' * ''The Color of Friendship'' (2000) * ''Love & Basketball'' (2000)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Our Song''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> (2000) * ''Seventeen Again'' (2000) * ''The Cheetah Girls'' (2003) * ''Love Don't Cost a Thing'' (2003) * ''The Proud Family Movie'' (2005) * ''Twitches'' (2005) * ''Akeelah and the Bee'' <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />(2006) * ''The Cheetah Girls 2'' (2006) * ''For One Night'' (2006) * ''Half Nelson'' <ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.co.tz/books?id=GhcmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113&redir_esc=y|title=Carefree Black Girls: A Celebration of Black Women in Popular Culture|last=Blay|first=Zeba|date=2021-10-19|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|isbn=978-1-250-23157-4|language=en}}</ref>(2006) * ''Life Is Not A Fairy Tale: The Fantasia Barrino Story'' (2006) * ''College Road Trip'' (2008) * ''Rain''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Rain (Lluvia)|url=https://www.screendaily.com/rain-lluvia/4040675.article|work=Screen|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Mike Goodridge}}</ref> (2008) * ''Precious''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> (2009) * ''The Princess and the Frog''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Where’s My Black Girlhood?: The Whitewashing of the Femme Boom|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/features/wheres-my-black-girlhood-the-whitewashing-of-the-femme-boom|work=www.rogerebert.com|date=2024-01-01|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> 2009 == 2010-2019 == * ''Pariah''(2011) * ''Yelling to the Sky'' (2011) * ''Beasts of the Southern Wild'' (2012) * ''Sparkle'' (2012) * ''Annie'' (2014) * ''Girlhood'' (2014) * ''The Gabby Douglas Story'' (2014) * ''The Fits'' (2015) * ''Home'' (2015) * ''A Girl Like Grace'' (2015) * ''Flowers'' (2016) * ''The Girl with All the Gifts'' (2016) * ''Queen of Katwe'' (2016) * ''Deidra & Laney Rob A Train'' (2017) * ''For Ahkeem'' (2017) * ''Everything, Everything'' (2017) * ''I Am Not a Witch'' (2017) == Miaka ya 2020 == * ''A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting'' (2020) * ''Cuties'' (2020) * ''Miss Juneteenth'' (2020) * ''Pillars'' (2020) * ''She Paradise'' (2020) * ''Selah and the Spades'' (2020) * ''Tahara'' (2020) * ''Upside-Down Magic'' (2020) * ''Beba'' (2021) * ''Black as Night'' (2021) * ''Respect'' (2021) * ''Sisters on Track'' (2021) * ''Anything's Possible (2022)'' * ''Darby and the Dead'' (2022) * ''Hawa'' (2022) * ''On The Come Up'' (2022) * ''The Silent Twins'' (2022) * ''Wendell & Wild'' (2022) * ''All Dirt Roads Taste of Salt'' (2023) * ''The Angry Black Girl and Her Monster'' (2023) * ''The Color Purple'' (2023) * ''Gray Matter'' (2023) * ''Girl'' (2023) * ''The Little Mermaid'' (2023) * ''Missing'' (2023) * ''Praise This'' (2023) * ''Wish'' (2023) * ''Dandelion'' (2024) * ''Suncoast'' (2024) * ''One of Them Days'' (2024) == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu nchi kwa nchi]] j1d4sisvd0572xdcki1x0rd9kv02n4h 1564568 1564566 2026-06-03T10:26:00Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564568 wikitext text/x-wiki Hii ni '''orodha ya filamu kuhusu wasichana wenye asili ya Afrika''' inazo nyingi za nchini Marekani. Kundi la umri linaweza kuanzia watoto wadogo hadi wale wanaopitia kipindi cha ujana (balehe). Taswira hizi mara nyingi huitwa hadithi za makuzi. == Kabla ya miaka ya 1980 == * ''Imitation of Life'' (1934) * ''Jemima & Johnny'' (1966) * ''Black Girl'' (1972)<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Castillo|first=Monica|title=From 'Jinn' To 'Just Another Girl On The I.R.T.': Black Girlhood On Film|date=2018-11-16|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/11/16/666948787/from-jinn-to-just-another-girl-on-the-i-r-t-black-girlhood-on-film|work=NPR|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Cooley High'' (1975) * ''Black Sister's Revenge'' (1976) * ''Sparkle'' (1976) * ''Cindy'' (1978) * ''I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings'' (1979) == 1980-1989 == * ''The Color Purple'' (1985)<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=Finding Our Own Coming-Of-Age Narratives|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/bimadewunmi/black-girls-find-their-own-coming-of-age-narratives|work=BuzzFeed News|language=en|access-date=2026-06-02}}</ref> * ''Polly'' (1989)<ref name=":1" /> == 1990-1999 == * ''Flirting'' (1991)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Just Another Girl on the I.R.T.''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Rejea tovuti|title=The 11 Most Essential Movies That Showcase The Beauty And Nuance Of Black Girlhood On The Big Screen - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/the-11-most-essential-movies-that-showcase-the-beauty-and-nuance-of-black-girlhood-on-the-big-screen|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Shadow and Act Staff}}</ref> (1992) * ''Sarafina!'' (1992)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Crooklyn'' (1994)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Alma's Rainbow'' (1994)<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title='Alma's Rainbow': Dr. Ayoka Chenzira Reflects On The Return Of Her Glittering Coming-Of-Age Film - Blavity|url=https://blavity.com/entertainment/almas-rainbow-dr-ayoka-chenzira-reflects-on-the-return-of-her-glittering-coming-of-age-film|work=Blavity News & Entertainment|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Aramide A. Tinubu}}</ref> * ''Girls Town'' (1996) * ''Eve’s Bayou'' (1997)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> * ''Cinderella'' (1997) * ''Drylongso'' <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Drylongso: A Refuge of Their Own|url=https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/8236-drylongso-a-refuge-of-their-own|work=The Criterion Collection|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en}}</ref>(1998) * ''Ruby Bridges''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Essential Euzhan Palcy Movies to Watch|url=https://newsletter.oscars.org/what-to-watch/post/essential-euzhan-palcy-movies-to-watch|work=Academy|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences}}</ref> (1998) * ''Double Platinum'' (1999) * ''The Little Girl Who Sold the Sun'' (1999) * ''Selma, Lord, Selma'' (1999) == 2000-2009 == * ''Bring It On (2000)'' * ''The Color of Friendship'' (2000) * ''Love & Basketball'' (2000)<ref name=":1" /> * ''Our Song''<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> (2000) * ''Seventeen Again'' (2000) * ''The Cheetah Girls'' (2003) * ''Love Don't Cost a Thing'' (2003) * ''The Proud Family Movie'' (2005) * ''Twitches'' (2005) * ''Akeelah and the Bee'' <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />(2006) * ''The Cheetah Girls 2'' (2006) * ''For One Night'' (2006) * ''Half Nelson'' <ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.co.tz/books?id=GhcmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113&redir_esc=y|title=Carefree Black Girls: A Celebration of Black Women in Popular Culture|last=Blay|first=Zeba|date=2021-10-19|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|isbn=978-1-250-23157-4|language=en}}</ref>(2006) * ''Life Is Not A Fairy Tale: The Fantasia Barrino Story'' (2006) * ''College Road Trip'' (2008) * ''Rain''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Rain (Lluvia)|url=https://www.screendaily.com/rain-lluvia/4040675.article|work=Screen|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en|author=Mike Goodridge}}</ref> (2008) * ''Precious''<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> (2009) * ''The Princess and the Frog''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Where’s My Black Girlhood?: The Whitewashing of the Femme Boom|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/features/wheres-my-black-girlhood-the-whitewashing-of-the-femme-boom|work=www.rogerebert.com|date=2024-01-01|accessdate=2026-06-02|language=en-US}}</ref> 2009 == 2010-2019 == * ''Pariah''(2011) * ''Yelling to the Sky'' (2011) * ''Beasts of the Southern Wild'' (2012) * ''Sparkle'' (2012) * ''Annie'' (2014) * ''Girlhood'' (2014) * ''The Gabby Douglas Story'' (2014) * ''The Fits'' (2015) * ''Home'' (2015) * ''A Girl Like Grace'' (2015) * ''Flowers'' (2016) * ''The Girl with All the Gifts'' (2016) * ''Queen of Katwe'' (2016) * ''Deidra & Laney Rob A Train'' (2017) * ''For Ahkeem'' (2017) * ''Everything, Everything'' (2017) * ''I Am Not a Witch'' (2017) == Miaka ya 2020 == * ''A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting'' (2020) * ''Cuties'' (2020) * ''Miss Juneteenth'' (2020) * ''Pillars'' (2020) * ''She Paradise'' (2020) * ''Selah and the Spades'' (2020) * ''Tahara'' (2020) * ''Upside-Down Magic'' (2020) * ''Beba'' (2021) * ''Black as Night'' (2021) * ''Respect'' (2021) * ''Sisters on Track'' (2021) * ''Anything's Possible (2022)'' * ''Darby and the Dead'' (2022) * ''Hawa'' (2022) * ''On The Come Up'' (2022) * ''The Silent Twins'' (2022) * ''Wendell & Wild'' (2022) * ''All Dirt Roads Taste of Salt'' (2023) * ''The Angry Black Girl and Her Monster'' (2023) * ''The Color Purple'' (2023) * ''Gray Matter'' (2023) * ''Girl'' (2023) * ''The Little Mermaid'' (2023) * ''Missing'' (2023) * ''Praise This'' (2023) * ''Wish'' (2023) * ''Dandelion'' (2024) * ''Suncoast'' (2024) * ''One of Them Days'' (2024) == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:orodha]] egjhzcldd4v6d5q7o4dhpwzie2dmq2k 0 240232 1564508 2026-06-02T19:38:06Z Olimasy 26935 nimeanzisha makala 1564508 wikitext text/x-wiki Ofisi ya Mawasiliano (Ofcom) ndiyo mamlaka ya udhibiti na ushindani iliyoidhinishwa na serikali kwa tasnia ya utangazaji, intaneti, mawasiliano ya simu na posta nchini Uingereza. Ofcom ina mamlaka mbalimbali katika sekta za televisheni, redio, mawasiliano ya simu, intaneti na posta. Ina wajibu wa kisheria wa kuwakilisha maslahi ya wananchi na watumiaji kwa kuendeleza ushindani na kulinda umma dhidi ya nyenzo zinazodhuru au za kukera.<ref name ="Ofcom">https://web.archive.org/web/20140111014919/http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/right-of-free-expression/controls-on-broadcasting/ofcom.html</ref> == Historia == Mnamo tarehe 20 Juni 2001, Hotuba ya Malkia kwa Bunge la Uingereza ilitangaza kuundwa kwa Ofcom. Chombo kipya, ambacho kilipaswa kuchukua nafasi ya mamlaka kadhaa zilizopo, kilitungwa kama "mdhibiti mkuu" wa kusimamia njia za vyombo vya habari ambazo zilikuwa zikiungana kwa kasi kupitia upitishaji wa kidijitali. <ref name="Ofcom"/> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1398580.stm</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Sayansi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] 2hd5bbhnxzz7pi5oxsjref0pszqodet 1564509 1564508 2026-06-02T19:38:41Z Olimasy 26935 1564509 wikitext text/x-wiki Ofisi ya Mawasiliano (Ofcom) ndiyo mamlaka ya udhibiti na ushindani iliyoidhinishwa na serikali kwa tasnia ya utangazaji, intaneti, mawasiliano ya simu na posta nchini Uingereza. Ofcom ina mamlaka mbalimbali katika sekta za televisheni, redio, mawasiliano ya simu, intaneti na posta. Ina wajibu wa kisheria wa kuwakilisha maslahi ya wananchi na watumiaji kwa kuendeleza ushindani na kulinda umma dhidi ya nyenzo zinazodhuru au za kukera.<ref name ="Ofcom">https://web.archive.org/web/20140111014919/http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/right-of-free-expression/controls-on-broadcasting/ofcom.html</ref> == Historia == Mnamo tarehe 20 Juni 2001, Hotuba ya Malkia kwa Bunge la Uingereza ilitangaza kuundwa kwa Ofcom. Chombo kipya, ambacho kilipaswa kuchukua nafasi ya mamlaka kadhaa zilizopo, kilitungwa kama "mdhibiti mkuu" wa kusimamia njia za vyombo vya habari ambazo zilikuwa zikiungana kwa kasi kupitia upitishaji wa kidijitali. <ref name="Ofcom"/> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1398580.stm</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Sayansi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] fhjiyletgdwwscqspyayzlc4tgecmi1 1564569 1564509 2026-06-03T10:27:19Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564569 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ofisi ya Mawasiliano''' (kifupi: Ofcom) ndiyo mamlaka ya udhibiti na ushindani iliyoidhinishwa na serikali kwa tasnia ya utangazaji, intaneti, mawasiliano ya simu na posta nchini Uingereza. Ofcom ina mamlaka mbalimbali katika sekta za televisheni, redio, mawasiliano ya simu, intaneti na posta. Ina wajibu wa kisheria wa kuwakilisha maslahi ya wananchi na watumiaji kwa kuendeleza ushindani na kulinda umma dhidi ya nyenzo zinazodhuru au za kukera.<ref name ="Ofcom">https://web.archive.org/web/20140111014919/http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/right-of-free-expression/controls-on-broadcasting/ofcom.html</ref> == Historia == Mnamo tarehe 20 Juni 2001, Hotuba ya Malkia kwa Bunge la Uingereza ilitangaza kuundwa kwa Ofcom. Chombo kipya, ambacho kilipaswa kuchukua nafasi ya mamlaka kadhaa zilizopo, kilitungwa kama "mdhibiti mkuu" wa kusimamia njia za vyombo vya habari ambazo zilikuwa zikiungana kwa kasi kupitia upitishaji wa kidijitali. <ref name="Ofcom"/> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1398580.stm</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] 79imfoah44v287v0wt9cv1d7f4ubieq 1564570 1564569 2026-06-03T10:27:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564570 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ofisi ya Mawasiliano''' (kifupi: Ofcom) ndiyo mamlaka ya udhibiti na ushindani iliyoidhinishwa na serikali kwa tasnia ya utangazaji, intaneti, mawasiliano ya simu na posta nchini Uingereza. Ofcom ina mamlaka mbalimbali katika sekta za televisheni, redio, mawasiliano ya simu, intaneti na posta. Ina wajibu wa kisheria wa kuwakilisha maslahi ya wananchi na watumiaji kwa kuendeleza ushindani na kulinda umma dhidi ya nyenzo zinazodhuru au za kukera.<ref name ="Ofcom">https://web.archive.org/web/20140111014919/http://www.yourrights.org.uk/yourrights/right-of-free-expression/controls-on-broadcasting/ofcom.html</ref> == Historia == Mnamo tarehe 20 Juni 2001, Hotuba ya Malkia kwa Bunge la Uingereza ilitangaza kuundwa kwa Ofcom. Chombo kipya, ambacho kilipaswa kuchukua nafasi ya mamlaka kadhaa zilizopo, kilitungwa kama "mdhibiti mkuu" wa kusimamia njia za vyombo vya habari ambazo zilikuwa zikiungana kwa kasi kupitia upitishaji wa kidijitali. <ref name="Ofcom"/> <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1398580.stm</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Uingereza]] [[Jamii:kifupi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] kajg9umr58khqbt58z4cswihg1e69bi 0 240233 1564511 2026-06-02T19:55:03Z Olimasy 26935 Kuanzisha makala 1564511 wikitext text/x-wiki Wizara ya Nishati ya Shirikisho la Urusi ni, tangu 2008, wizara ya shirikisho ya Urusi inayohusika na sera ya nishati. Wizara hii iliundwa Mei 2008 kama sehemu ya kuundwa upya na serikali inayoingia ya Rais Dmitry Medvedev. Makao yake makuu yako huko Moscow. Wizara ya zamani ya Viwanda na Nishati iligeuzwa kuwa Wizara ya Viwanda, ambayo Waziri wake wa sasa ni Viktor Khristenko, ikipata jukumu la sera ya biashara kutoka kwa iliyokuwa Wizara ya Maendeleo ya Uchumi na Biashara, lakini ikapoteza jukumu la sera ya nishati, ambayo iligawanywa na kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati. Shirika la zamani la Shirikisho la Nishati (Rosenergo) pia liliunganishwa kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225335/http://commersant.com/p891024/r_1/Prime_Minister_Vladimir_Putin_government/</ref> == History == Mtangulizi wa Wizara katika serikali ya USSR alikuwa Wizara ya Nishati na Umeme (Minenergo). Wizara ya sasa bado inatumia kifupi cha enzi ya Soviet "Minenergo".<ref>http://government.ru/en/department/85/events/</ref> <ref>https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6730356</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Sayansi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] lry1ogss1v9xdzo4k0joj0c0ny6fu20 1564512 1564511 2026-06-02T19:56:23Z Olimasy 26935 1564512 wikitext text/x-wiki Wizara ya Nishati ya Shirikisho la Urusi ni, tangu 2008, wizara ya shirikisho ya Urusi inayohusika na sera ya nishati. Wizara hii iliundwa Mei 2008 kama sehemu ya kuundwa upya na serikali inayoingia ya Rais Dmitry Medvedev. Makao yake makuu yako huko Moscow. Wizara ya zamani ya Viwanda na Nishati iligeuzwa kuwa Wizara ya Viwanda, ambayo Waziri wake wa sasa ni Viktor Khristenko, ikipata jukumu la sera ya biashara kutoka kwa iliyokuwa Wizara ya Maendeleo ya Uchumi na Biashara, lakini ikapoteza jukumu la sera ya nishati, ambayo iligawanywa na kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati. Shirika la zamani la Shirikisho la Nishati (Rosenergo) pia liliunganishwa kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225335/http://commersant.com/p891024/r_1/Prime_Minister_Vladimir_Putin_government/</ref> == History == Mtangulizi wa Wizara katika serikali ya USSR alikuwa Wizara ya Nishati na Umeme (Minenergo). Wizara ya sasa bado inatumia kifupi cha enzi ya Soviet "Minenergo".<ref>http://government.ru/en/department/85/events/</ref> <ref>https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6730356</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Sayansi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] dr662ujh5dpvz2wyjiiqqw4zg5rjkr3 1564571 1564512 2026-06-03T10:28:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Ministry of Energy (Russia)]] hadi [[Wizara ya Nishati (Urusi)]]: jina la Kiswahili 1564512 wikitext text/x-wiki Wizara ya Nishati ya Shirikisho la Urusi ni, tangu 2008, wizara ya shirikisho ya Urusi inayohusika na sera ya nishati. Wizara hii iliundwa Mei 2008 kama sehemu ya kuundwa upya na serikali inayoingia ya Rais Dmitry Medvedev. Makao yake makuu yako huko Moscow. Wizara ya zamani ya Viwanda na Nishati iligeuzwa kuwa Wizara ya Viwanda, ambayo Waziri wake wa sasa ni Viktor Khristenko, ikipata jukumu la sera ya biashara kutoka kwa iliyokuwa Wizara ya Maendeleo ya Uchumi na Biashara, lakini ikapoteza jukumu la sera ya nishati, ambayo iligawanywa na kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati. Shirika la zamani la Shirikisho la Nishati (Rosenergo) pia liliunganishwa kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225335/http://commersant.com/p891024/r_1/Prime_Minister_Vladimir_Putin_government/</ref> == History == Mtangulizi wa Wizara katika serikali ya USSR alikuwa Wizara ya Nishati na Umeme (Minenergo). Wizara ya sasa bado inatumia kifupi cha enzi ya Soviet "Minenergo".<ref>http://government.ru/en/department/85/events/</ref> <ref>https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6730356</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Sayansi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] dr662ujh5dpvz2wyjiiqqw4zg5rjkr3 1564573 1564571 2026-06-03T10:30:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564573 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wizara ya Nishati ya Urusi''' ni [[wizara]] ya [[shirikisho]] la [[Urusi]] inayohusika na sera ya [[nishati]]. Wizara hii iliundwa Mei 2008 kama sehemu ya kuundwa upya na serikali inayoingia ya Rais Dmitry Medvedev. Makao yake makuu yako huko Moscow. Wizara ya zamani ya Viwanda na Nishati iligeuzwa kuwa Wizara ya Viwanda, ambayo Waziri wake wa sasa ni Viktor Khristenko, ikipata jukumu la sera ya biashara kutoka kwa iliyokuwa Wizara ya Maendeleo ya Uchumi na Biashara, lakini ikapoteza jukumu la sera ya nishati, ambayo iligawanywa na kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati. Shirika la zamani la Shirikisho la Nishati (Rosenergo) pia liliunganishwa kuwa Wizara mpya ya Nishati.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20110718225335/http://commersant.com/p891024/r_1/Prime_Minister_Vladimir_Putin_government/</ref> == Historia == Mtangulizi wa Wizara katika serikali ya [[Shirikisho la Jamhuri ya Kisovyiet ya Kijamii ya Kirusi|USSR]] alikuwa Wizara ya Nishati na Umeme (Minenergo). Wizara ya sasa bado inatumia kifupi cha enzi ya Soviet "Minenergo".<ref>http://government.ru/en/department/85/events/</ref> <ref>https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6730356</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-siasa}} [[Jamii:Urusi]] [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2026 in Tanzania]] eiipvph54cpu83hqeh4lgg2et4b3arm 0 240234 1564530 2026-06-03T05:12:57Z Family 001 70423 Nimeanzisha makala mpya 1564530 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mina Kiá''' (binti wa kazi mdogo) ni filamu fupi ya tamthilia ya mwaka 2017 kutoka Nchini [[Sao Tome na Principe|São Tomé na Príncipe]], ikiwa ni kazi ya kwanza kuongozwa na Katya Aragão. Inasimulia kuhusu magumu wanayokabiliana nayo wasichana nchini São Tomé. Filamu hii imemshirikisha Ana Pinheiro katika uhusika mkuu. Washiriki wengine ni pamoja na Ely Patrícia, Marilene Mandinga, Job do Mocho, na Djamila Costa. == Muhtasari wa matukio == Tónia ana ndoto ya kuwa [[Mwanahabari|mwandishi wa habari]]. Familia yake inamtuma kwenda kuishi na ndugu zake katika jiji kubwa. Ndugu hao wanamchukulia kama binti wa kazi za ndani, huku wakimnyanyasa na kumbaka. Wasichana wengine walio katika hali kama hiyo huacha shule na kupoteza kabisa mustakabali wao wa kitaaluma, lakini Tónia amedhamiria kuvumilia na kufanya ndoto zake zitimie. == Historia na Utayarishaji == Filamu hii ilitayarishwa kwa ufadhili wa fedha kutoka mpango wa Huduma ya Ulaya ya Maelekezo ya Nje kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya filamu barani Afrika na uendelezaji wa haki za kibinadamu.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Concurso de Curtas-Metragens PALOP-TL/UE: conheça os vencedores! {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/24644_pti|work=www.eeas.europa.eu|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Urekodiji wa filamu hii ulifanyika Porto Alegre na katika maeneo mbalimbali kwenye kisiwa cha São Tomé. Aragão alitengeneza filamu hii ili kuangazia changamoto zinazowakabili wasichana katika nchi yake, kufichua mwiko unaohusishwa na mada hiyo, na kuchochea utatuzi wa matatizo hayo kupitia elimu.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Mário Lopes – A mente Brilhante que está a mudar a visão dos Jovens São-tomenses|url=https://stpdigital.net/sociedade/mario-lopes-a-mente-brilhante-que-esta-a-mudar-a-visao-dos-jovens-sao-tomenses|work=STP Digital|date=2019-07-21|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT|author=Vivalda Prazeres}}</ref> Suala hili linatambulika kama tatizo kubwa nchini São Tomé na Príncipe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mina kiá e os estorvos dos paizinhos|url=https://www.telanon.info/suplemento/opiniao/2019/02/19/28686/mina-kia-e-os-estorvos-dos-paizinhos/|work=Téla Nón|date=2019-02-19|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT}}</ref> Aragão ameeleza kuwa ukatili na ubaguzi dhidi ya wasichana ndiyo sababu kuu zinazowafanya waache shule, na kwamba aliamua kwa makusudi kutomwonyesha mhusika wake mkuu, Tónia, akiacha masomo yake licha ya magumu makubwa aliyopitia. 'Nilihisi ni vyema kuonyesha ukombozi wa msichana mdogo kupitia elimu... Filamu hii inalenga kuibua mjadala kuhusu mada ambayo ni mwiko, na kuongeza uelewa kuhusu kinachoendelea, ili mtazamo wa jamii uweze kubadilika, na kuhimiza mapambano ya haki za wanawake na usawa wa kijinsia, mambo ambayo bado tuko mbali sana kuyafikia kwa sasa.<ref name=":0" /> == Kutolewa kwa Filamu == Filamu hii ilichaguliwa kuonyeshwa katika Matamasha mengi ya kimataifa ya filamu, hasa yale ya lugha ya Kireno, ikiwa ni pamoja na Kugoma – Jukwaa la Filamu la Msumbiji lililofanyika Maputo,<ref>[https://clubofmozambique.com/news/maputo-hosts-cinema-festival-from-portuguese-speaking-countries/ Page not found – Mozambique]</ref> Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la São Tomé na Príncipe, FESTIN, ambalo ni tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za lugha ya [[Kireno]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=São Jorge|url=http://www.cinemasaojorge.pt/agenda/mina-kia|work=cinemasaojorge.pt|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt}}</ref> tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za wanawake la Porto Femme,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Porto Femme – Festival Internacional de Cinema|url=https://portofemme.com/|work=PORTO FEMME|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en-US}}</ref> Tamasha la Filamu la Ulaya nchini [[Cabo Verde|Cape Verde]], na Wiki ya Filamu ya Afrika katika Nyumba ya [[Angola]] nchini [[Brazil]]. Katika maadhimisho ya miaka 29 ya Mkataba wa Haki za Mtoto, filamu hiyo ilionyeshwa kupitia ushirikiano wa uzalishaji kati ya Alliance Française na [[UNICEF]], mnamo Novemba 23, 2018, na pia ilirushwa hewani kupitia kituo cha televisheni cha kimataifa cha RTF mnamo Novemba 3, 2018. == Marejeo == <references /> == Marejeo ya nje == [https://www.facebook.com/minakia.themovie Mina Kiá | Facebook] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] ew5jbcwdfi6soyiffwmyyh1xyez1vgu 1564535 1564530 2026-06-03T07:45:02Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 5 template(s) replaced. 1564535 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mina Kiá''' (binti wa kazi mdogo) ni filamu fupi ya tamthilia ya mwaka 2017 kutoka Nchini [[Sao Tome na Principe|São Tomé na Príncipe]], ikiwa ni kazi ya kwanza kuongozwa na Katya Aragão. Inasimulia kuhusu magumu wanayokabiliana nayo wasichana nchini São Tomé. Filamu hii imemshirikisha Ana Pinheiro katika uhusika mkuu. Washiriki wengine ni pamoja na Ely Patrícia, Marilene Mandinga, Job do Mocho, na Djamila Costa. == Muhtasari wa matukio == Tónia ana ndoto ya kuwa [[Mwanahabari|mwandishi wa habari]]. Familia yake inamtuma kwenda kuishi na ndugu zake katika jiji kubwa. Ndugu hao wanamchukulia kama binti wa kazi za ndani, huku wakimnyanyasa na kumbaka. Wasichana wengine walio katika hali kama hiyo huacha shule na kupoteza kabisa mustakabali wao wa kitaaluma, lakini Tónia amedhamiria kuvumilia na kufanya ndoto zake zitimie. == Historia na Utayarishaji == Filamu hii ilitayarishwa kwa ufadhili wa fedha kutoka mpango wa Huduma ya Ulaya ya Maelekezo ya Nje kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya filamu barani Afrika na uendelezaji wa haki za kibinadamu.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Concurso de Curtas-Metragens PALOP-TL/UE: conheça os vencedores! {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/24644_pti|work=www.eeas.europa.eu|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Urekodiji wa filamu hii ulifanyika Porto Alegre na katika maeneo mbalimbali kwenye kisiwa cha São Tomé. Aragão alitengeneza filamu hii ili kuangazia changamoto zinazowakabili wasichana katika nchi yake, kufichua mwiko unaohusishwa na mada hiyo, na kuchochea utatuzi wa matatizo hayo kupitia elimu.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mário Lopes – A mente Brilhante que está a mudar a visão dos Jovens São-tomenses|url=https://stpdigital.net/sociedade/mario-lopes-a-mente-brilhante-que-esta-a-mudar-a-visao-dos-jovens-sao-tomenses|work=STP Digital|date=2019-07-21|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT|author=Vivalda Prazeres}}</ref> Suala hili linatambulika kama tatizo kubwa nchini São Tomé na Príncipe.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mina kiá e os estorvos dos paizinhos|url=https://www.telanon.info/suplemento/opiniao/2019/02/19/28686/mina-kia-e-os-estorvos-dos-paizinhos/|work=Téla Nón|date=2019-02-19|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT}}</ref> Aragão ameeleza kuwa ukatili na ubaguzi dhidi ya wasichana ndiyo sababu kuu zinazowafanya waache shule, na kwamba aliamua kwa makusudi kutomwonyesha mhusika wake mkuu, Tónia, akiacha masomo yake licha ya magumu makubwa aliyopitia. 'Nilihisi ni vyema kuonyesha ukombozi wa msichana mdogo kupitia elimu... Filamu hii inalenga kuibua mjadala kuhusu mada ambayo ni mwiko, na kuongeza uelewa kuhusu kinachoendelea, ili mtazamo wa jamii uweze kubadilika, na kuhimiza mapambano ya haki za wanawake na usawa wa kijinsia, mambo ambayo bado tuko mbali sana kuyafikia kwa sasa.<ref name=":0" /> == Kutolewa kwa Filamu == Filamu hii ilichaguliwa kuonyeshwa katika Matamasha mengi ya kimataifa ya filamu, hasa yale ya lugha ya Kireno, ikiwa ni pamoja na Kugoma – Jukwaa la Filamu la Msumbiji lililofanyika Maputo,<ref>[https://clubofmozambique.com/news/maputo-hosts-cinema-festival-from-portuguese-speaking-countries/ Page not found – Mozambique]</ref> Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la São Tomé na Príncipe, FESTIN, ambalo ni tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za lugha ya [[Kireno]],<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=São Jorge|url=http://www.cinemasaojorge.pt/agenda/mina-kia|work=cinemasaojorge.pt|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt}}</ref> tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za wanawake la Porto Femme,<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Porto Femme – Festival Internacional de Cinema|url=https://portofemme.com/|work=PORTO FEMME|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en-US}}</ref> Tamasha la Filamu la Ulaya nchini [[Cabo Verde|Cape Verde]], na Wiki ya Filamu ya Afrika katika Nyumba ya [[Angola]] nchini [[Brazil]]. Katika maadhimisho ya miaka 29 ya Mkataba wa Haki za Mtoto, filamu hiyo ilionyeshwa kupitia ushirikiano wa uzalishaji kati ya Alliance Française na [[UNICEF]], mnamo Novemba 23, 2018, na pia ilirushwa hewani kupitia kituo cha televisheni cha kimataifa cha RTF mnamo Novemba 3, 2018. == Marejeo == <references /> == Marejeo ya nje == [https://www.facebook.com/minakia.themovie Mina Kiá | Facebook] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] fhleyo87q0gcmmq7udomdnna4w8adcv 1564574 1564535 2026-06-03T10:33:51Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564574 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mina Kiá''' (binti wa kazi mdogo) ni filamu fupi ya tamthilia ya mwaka 2017 kutoka nchini [[Sao Tome na Principe]], ikiwa ni kazi ya kwanza kuongozwa na Katya Aragão. Inasimulia kuhusu magumu wanayokabiliana nayo wasichana nchini São Tomé. Filamu hii imemshirikisha Ana Pinheiro katika uhusika mkuu. Washiriki wengine ni pamoja na Ely Patrícia, Marilene Mandinga, Job do Mocho, na Djamila Costa. == Muhtasari wa matukio == Tónia ana ndoto ya kuwa [[Mwanahabari|mwandishi wa habari]]. Familia yake inamtuma kwenda kuishi na ndugu zake katika jiji kubwa. Ndugu hao wanamchukulia kama binti wa kazi za ndani, huku wakimnyanyasa na kumbaka. Wasichana wengine walio katika hali kama hiyo huacha shule na kupoteza kabisa mustakabali wao wa kitaaluma, lakini Tónia amedhamiria kuvumilia na kufanya ndoto zake zitimie. == Historia na Utayarishaji == Filamu hii ilitayarishwa kwa ufadhili wa fedha kutoka mpango wa Huduma ya Ulaya ya Maelekezo ya Nje kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya filamu barani Afrika na uendelezaji wa haki za kibinadamu.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Concurso de Curtas-Metragens PALOP-TL/UE: conheça os vencedores! {{!}} EEAS|url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/node/24644_pti|work=www.eeas.europa.eu|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Urekodiji wa filamu hii ulifanyika Porto Alegre na katika maeneo mbalimbali kwenye kisiwa cha São Tomé. Aragão alitengeneza filamu hii ili kuangazia changamoto zinazowakabili wasichana katika nchi yake, kufichua mwiko unaohusishwa na mada hiyo, na kuchochea utatuzi wa matatizo hayo kupitia elimu.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mário Lopes – A mente Brilhante que está a mudar a visão dos Jovens São-tomenses|url=https://stpdigital.net/sociedade/mario-lopes-a-mente-brilhante-que-esta-a-mudar-a-visao-dos-jovens-sao-tomenses|work=STP Digital|date=2019-07-21|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT|author=Vivalda Prazeres}}</ref> Suala hili linatambulika kama tatizo kubwa nchini São Tomé na Príncipe.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mina kiá e os estorvos dos paizinhos|url=https://www.telanon.info/suplemento/opiniao/2019/02/19/28686/mina-kia-e-os-estorvos-dos-paizinhos/|work=Téla Nón|date=2019-02-19|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt-PT}}</ref> Aragão ameeleza kuwa ukatili na ubaguzi dhidi ya wasichana ndiyo sababu kuu zinazowafanya waache shule, na kwamba aliamua kwa makusudi kutomwonyesha mhusika wake mkuu, Tónia, akiacha masomo yake licha ya magumu makubwa aliyopitia. 'Nilihisi ni vyema kuonyesha ukombozi wa msichana mdogo kupitia elimu... Filamu hii inalenga kuibua mjadala kuhusu mada ambayo ni mwiko, na kuongeza uelewa kuhusu kinachoendelea, ili mtazamo wa jamii uweze kubadilika, na kuhimiza mapambano ya haki za wanawake na usawa wa kijinsia, mambo ambayo bado tuko mbali sana kuyafikia kwa sasa.<ref name=":0" /> == Kutolewa kwa Filamu == Filamu hii ilichaguliwa kuonyeshwa katika Matamasha mengi ya kimataifa ya filamu, hasa yale ya lugha ya Kireno, ikiwa ni pamoja na Kugoma – Jukwaa la Filamu la Msumbiji lililofanyika Maputo,<ref>[https://clubofmozambique.com/news/maputo-hosts-cinema-festival-from-portuguese-speaking-countries/ Page not found – Mozambique]</ref> Tamasha la Kimataifa la Filamu la São Tomé na Príncipe, FESTIN, ambalo ni tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za lugha ya [[Kireno]],<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=São Jorge|url=http://www.cinemasaojorge.pt/agenda/mina-kia|work=cinemasaojorge.pt|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=pt}}</ref> tamasha la kimataifa la filamu za wanawake la Porto Femme,<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Porto Femme – Festival Internacional de Cinema|url=https://portofemme.com/|work=PORTO FEMME|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en-US}}</ref> Tamasha la Filamu la Ulaya nchini [[Cabo Verde|Cape Verde]], na Wiki ya Filamu ya Afrika katika Nyumba ya [[Angola]] nchini [[Brazil]]. Katika maadhimisho ya miaka 29 ya Mkataba wa Haki za Mtoto, filamu hiyo ilionyeshwa kupitia ushirikiano wa uzalishaji kati ya Alliance Française na [[UNICEF]], mnamo Novemba 23, 2018, na pia ilirushwa hewani kupitia kituo cha televisheni cha kimataifa cha RTF mnamo Novemba 3, 2018. == Marejeo == <references /> == Viungo vya nje == *[https://www.facebook.com/minakia.themovie Mina Kiá | Facebook] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Sao Tome na Principe]] fkr0dykjbmnnh6d0x8g758w3ww8l7kc 0 240235 1564531 2026-06-03T05:39:07Z Family 001 70423 Nimeanzisha makala mpya 1564531 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Liyana''' ni filamu ya makala ya [[Eswatini]] ya mwaka 2017 iliyoongozwa na kutayarishwa na Aaron Kopp na Amanda Kopp, ikifuatilia kikundi cha watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapounda hadithi inayotokana na uzoefu wa maisha yao wenyewe. Baada ya kuzinduliwa katika Tamasha la Filamu la LA mwaka 2017, filamu hii ilitolewa rasmi nchini [[Marekani]] mnamo Oktoba 10, 2018. Ilipokea maoni chanya sana na kushinda tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya Makala katika tamasha hilo la LAFF la mwaka 2017, pamoja na tuzo nyingine nyingi za matamasha mbalimbali. == Muhtasari == Liyana inafuatilia idadi fulani ya watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapokuwa wanatunga hadithi chini ya uongozi wa mwandishi na mwanaharakati wa [[Afrika Kusini]], Gcina Mhlope. Simulizi yao inamwangazia msichana mdogo wa kubuni, Liyana, anapoanza safari ya kuwaokoa wadogo zake mapacha waliotekwa nyara akiwa na dume lake la ng'ombe kipenzi, na anafanikiwa kushinda changamoto mbalimbali njiani. Wakati watoto hao wakiwa wanasuka hadithi yao, filamu hiyo ya makala ya maisha halisi inachanganywa na matukio ya katuni yanayoonyesha matukio ya safari ya Liyana. == Mapokezi == Katika tovuti ya kukusanya mapitio ya filamu ya Rotten Tomatoes, filamu hii ina kiasi cha idhini cha 10% kulingana na mapitio 41, na wastani wa alama 8.3/10.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Liyana {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/liyana|work=www.rottentomatoes.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Kwenye tovuti ya Metacritic, filamu hii ina wastani wa alama zilizopimwa wa 80 kati ya 100, kulingana na wakosoaji 10, jambo linaloashiria 'mapitio mazuri kwa ujumla'.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Liyana Reviews - Metacritic|url=https://www.metacritic.com/movie/liyana/|work=www.metacritic.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha ya Kiingereza]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] dz88q51370kgoufwk1fx1qibq5v1cs0 1564533 1564531 2026-06-03T07:09:15Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 2 template(s) replaced. 1564533 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Liyana''' ni filamu ya makala ya [[Eswatini]] ya mwaka 2017 iliyoongozwa na kutayarishwa na Aaron Kopp na Amanda Kopp, ikifuatilia kikundi cha watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapounda hadithi inayotokana na uzoefu wa maisha yao wenyewe. Baada ya kuzinduliwa katika Tamasha la Filamu la LA mwaka 2017, filamu hii ilitolewa rasmi nchini [[Marekani]] mnamo Oktoba 10, 2018. Ilipokea maoni chanya sana na kushinda tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya Makala katika tamasha hilo la LAFF la mwaka 2017, pamoja na tuzo nyingine nyingi za matamasha mbalimbali. == Muhtasari == Liyana inafuatilia idadi fulani ya watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapokuwa wanatunga hadithi chini ya uongozi wa mwandishi na mwanaharakati wa [[Afrika Kusini]], Gcina Mhlope. Simulizi yao inamwangazia msichana mdogo wa kubuni, Liyana, anapoanza safari ya kuwaokoa wadogo zake mapacha waliotekwa nyara akiwa na dume lake la ng'ombe kipenzi, na anafanikiwa kushinda changamoto mbalimbali njiani. Wakati watoto hao wakiwa wanasuka hadithi yao, filamu hiyo ya makala ya maisha halisi inachanganywa na matukio ya katuni yanayoonyesha matukio ya safari ya Liyana. == Mapokezi == Katika tovuti ya kukusanya mapitio ya filamu ya Rotten Tomatoes, filamu hii ina kiasi cha idhini cha 10% kulingana na mapitio 41, na wastani wa alama 8.3/10.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/liyana|work=www.rottentomatoes.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Kwenye tovuti ya Metacritic, filamu hii ina wastani wa alama zilizopimwa wa 80 kati ya 100, kulingana na wakosoaji 10, jambo linaloashiria 'mapitio mazuri kwa ujumla'.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana Reviews - Metacritic|url=https://www.metacritic.com/movie/liyana/|work=www.metacritic.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha ya Kiingereza]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] 9ckgl365x1ldvl94qk6eiz53ccup6yi 1564575 1564533 2026-06-03T10:34:22Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Liyana (film)]] hadi [[Liyana]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1564533 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Liyana''' ni filamu ya makala ya [[Eswatini]] ya mwaka 2017 iliyoongozwa na kutayarishwa na Aaron Kopp na Amanda Kopp, ikifuatilia kikundi cha watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapounda hadithi inayotokana na uzoefu wa maisha yao wenyewe. Baada ya kuzinduliwa katika Tamasha la Filamu la LA mwaka 2017, filamu hii ilitolewa rasmi nchini [[Marekani]] mnamo Oktoba 10, 2018. Ilipokea maoni chanya sana na kushinda tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya Makala katika tamasha hilo la LAFF la mwaka 2017, pamoja na tuzo nyingine nyingi za matamasha mbalimbali. == Muhtasari == Liyana inafuatilia idadi fulani ya watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapokuwa wanatunga hadithi chini ya uongozi wa mwandishi na mwanaharakati wa [[Afrika Kusini]], Gcina Mhlope. Simulizi yao inamwangazia msichana mdogo wa kubuni, Liyana, anapoanza safari ya kuwaokoa wadogo zake mapacha waliotekwa nyara akiwa na dume lake la ng'ombe kipenzi, na anafanikiwa kushinda changamoto mbalimbali njiani. Wakati watoto hao wakiwa wanasuka hadithi yao, filamu hiyo ya makala ya maisha halisi inachanganywa na matukio ya katuni yanayoonyesha matukio ya safari ya Liyana. == Mapokezi == Katika tovuti ya kukusanya mapitio ya filamu ya Rotten Tomatoes, filamu hii ina kiasi cha idhini cha 10% kulingana na mapitio 41, na wastani wa alama 8.3/10.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/liyana|work=www.rottentomatoes.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Kwenye tovuti ya Metacritic, filamu hii ina wastani wa alama zilizopimwa wa 80 kati ya 100, kulingana na wakosoaji 10, jambo linaloashiria 'mapitio mazuri kwa ujumla'.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana Reviews - Metacritic|url=https://www.metacritic.com/movie/liyana/|work=www.metacritic.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha ya Kiingereza]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] 9ckgl365x1ldvl94qk6eiz53ccup6yi 1564577 1564575 2026-06-03T10:34:47Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564577 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Liyana''' ni filamu ya makala ya [[Eswatini]] ya mwaka 2017 iliyoongozwa na kutayarishwa na Aaron Kopp na Amanda Kopp, ikifuatilia kikundi cha watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapounda hadithi inayotokana na uzoefu wa maisha yao wenyewe. Baada ya kuzinduliwa katika Tamasha la Filamu la LA mwaka 2017, filamu hii ilitolewa rasmi nchini [[Marekani]] mnamo Oktoba 10, 2018. Ilipokea maoni chanya sana na kushinda tuzo ya Filamu Bora ya Makala katika tamasha hilo la LAFF la mwaka 2017, pamoja na tuzo nyingine nyingi za matamasha mbalimbali. == Muhtasari == Liyana inafuatilia idadi fulani ya watoto yatima wa Eswatini wanapokuwa wanatunga hadithi chini ya uongozi wa mwandishi na mwanaharakati wa [[Afrika Kusini]], Gcina Mhlope. Simulizi yao inamwangazia msichana mdogo wa kubuni, Liyana, anapoanza safari ya kuwaokoa wadogo zake mapacha waliotekwa nyara akiwa na dume lake la ng'ombe kipenzi, na anafanikiwa kushinda changamoto mbalimbali njiani. Wakati watoto hao wakiwa wanasuka hadithi yao, filamu hiyo ya makala ya maisha halisi inachanganywa na matukio ya katuni yanayoonyesha matukio ya safari ya Liyana. == Mapokezi == Katika tovuti ya kukusanya mapitio ya filamu ya Rotten Tomatoes, filamu hii ina kiasi cha idhini cha 10% kulingana na mapitio 41, na wastani wa alama 8.3/10.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/liyana|work=www.rottentomatoes.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> Kwenye tovuti ya Metacritic, filamu hii ina wastani wa alama zilizopimwa wa 80 kati ya 100, kulingana na wakosoaji 10, jambo linaloashiria 'mapitio mazuri kwa ujumla'.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Liyana Reviews - Metacritic|url=https://www.metacritic.com/movie/liyana/|work=www.metacritic.com|accessdate=2026-06-03|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu kwa lugha ya Kiingereza]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Eswatini]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2017]] m28reuciviz601lvxj3o8nluzvs8fb9 0 240236 1564532 2026-06-03T07:07:20Z Family 001 70423 nimmeanzisha makala mpya 1564532 wikitext text/x-wiki '''A Love Like This''' ni tamthilia ya kimapenzi ya mwaka 2016 iliyoongozwa na Chandran Rutnam. Filamu hii, ambayo ilirekodiwa nchini [[Shelisheli]], ilikuwa matunda ya kwanza ya taasisi ya Africa Film Factory, iliyoanzishwa mwaka 2014 ili kukuza ushirikiano wa utengenezaji wa filamu nchini Shelisheli.<ref>{{Citation|last=M3 Web - http://m3web.bg|title=Telling African stories in paradise – Seychelles film industry gets big boost with Africa Film Factory|url=http://www.seychellesnewsagency.com/articles/927/Telling+African+stories+in+paradise++Seychelles+film+industry+gets+big+boost+with+Africa+Film+Factory|access-date=2026-06-03}}</ref> Wadau wengine walioshiriki katika utayarishaji wa filamu hiyo ni pamoja na Chama cha Utangazaji cha Kusini mwa Afrika,<ref>{{Citation|last=M3 Web - http://m3web.bg|title=‘A Love Like This’ -- movie shot in Seychelles premieres in local cinema|url=http://www.seychellesnewsagency.com/articles/5566/A+Love+Like+This+--+movie+shot+in+Seychelles+premieres+in+local+cinema|access-date=2026-06-03}}</ref> Shirika la Utangazaji la Shelisheli, High Street Riviera, kampuni ya Chandran Rutnam ya Film Location Services, na Golden Effects Pictures.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New film shot in Seychelles sure to capture millions of hearts and minds -Archive -Seychelles Nation|url=https://www.nation.sc/archive/242757/new-film-shot-in-seychelles-sure-to-capture-millions-of-hearts-and-minds|work=www.nation.sc|accessdate=2026-06-03}}</ref> Filamu ya 'A Love Like This', iliyoshirikisha waigizaji Gabriel Afolayan, Shoki Mokgapa, na Camila Estico, ilizinduliwa rasmi huko Mahé, Shelisheli mnamo Julai 2016. == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2016]] [[Jamii:Filamu]] [[Jamii:Waongozaji filamu]] 9emyyanr6ghpkmyxh0wkrfdhhms65ay 1564578 1564532 2026-06-03T10:35:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1564578 wikitext text/x-wiki '''A Love Like This''' ni tamthilia ya kimapenzi ya mwaka 2016 iliyoongozwa na Chandran Rutnam. Filamu hii, ambayo ilirekodiwa nchini [[Shelisheli]], ilikuwa matunda ya kwanza ya taasisi ya Africa Film Factory, iliyoanzishwa mwaka 2014 ili kukuza ushirikiano wa utengenezaji wa filamu nchini Shelisheli.<ref>{{Citation|last=M3 Web - http://m3web.bg|title=Telling African stories in paradise – Seychelles film industry gets big boost with Africa Film Factory|url=http://www.seychellesnewsagency.com/articles/927/Telling+African+stories+in+paradise++Seychelles+film+industry+gets+big+boost+with+Africa+Film+Factory|access-date=2026-06-03}}</ref> Wadau wengine walioshiriki katika utayarishaji wa filamu hiyo ni pamoja na Chama cha Utangazaji cha Kusini mwa Afrika,<ref>{{Citation|last=M3 Web - http://m3web.bg|title=‘A Love Like This’ -- movie shot in Seychelles premieres in local cinema|url=http://www.seychellesnewsagency.com/articles/5566/A+Love+Like+This+--+movie+shot+in+Seychelles+premieres+in+local+cinema|access-date=2026-06-03}}</ref> Shirika la Utangazaji la Shelisheli, High Street Riviera, kampuni ya Chandran Rutnam ya Film Location Services, na Golden Effects Pictures.<ref>{{Cite web|title=New film shot in Seychelles sure to capture millions of hearts and minds -Archive -Seychelles Nation|url=https://www.nation.sc/archive/242757/new-film-shot-in-seychelles-sure-to-capture-millions-of-hearts-and-minds|work=www.nation.sc|accessdate=2026-06-03}}</ref> Filamu ya 'A Love Like This', iliyoshirikisha waigizaji Gabriel Afolayan, Shoki Mokgapa, na Camila Estico, ilizinduliwa rasmi huko Mahé, Shelisheli mnamo Julai 2016. == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2016]] [[Jamii:Filamu za Shelisheli]] ehjgejt87jxldk13red5il75tubin4h 1728 240237 1564534 2026-06-03T07:43:10Z Anuary Rajabu 45588 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '=== AWC 2026: Target List of Missing and Improveable Articles === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! No. !! Makala !! Link (en:Wikipedia) !! Hali |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 1. Major African Lakes & Rivers (Mito na Maziwa ya Afrika) |- | 1 || [[Ziwa Victoria]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria Lake Victoria] || Boresha |- | 2 || [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wi...' 1564534 wikitext text/x-wiki === AWC 2026: Target List of Missing and Improveable Articles === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! No. !! Makala !! Link (en:Wikipedia) !! Hali |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 1. Major African Lakes & Rivers (Mito na Maziwa ya Afrika) |- | 1 || [[Ziwa Victoria]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria Lake Victoria] || Boresha |- | 2 || [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika] || Boresha |- | 3 || [[Ziwa Nyasa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Malawi Lake Malawi] || Boresha |- | 4 || [[Ziwa Turkana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Turkana Lake Turkana] || Boresha |- | 5 || [[Ziwa Albert]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Albert Lake Albert] || Anzisha |- | 6 || [[Ziwa Edward]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Edward Lake Edward] || Boresha |- | 7 || [[Ziwa Kivu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kivu Lake Kivu] || Boresha |- | 8 || [[Ziwa Rukwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Rukwa Lake Rukwa] || Boresha |- | 9 || [[Ziwa Natron]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Natron Lake Natron] || Boresha |- | 10 || [[Ziwa Manyara]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Manyara Lake Manyara] || Boresha |- | 11 || [[Ziwa Eyasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Eyasi Lake Eyasi] || Boresha |- | 12 || [[Ziwa Naivasha]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Naivasha Lake Naivasha] || Boresha |- | 13 || [[Ziwa Baringo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baringo Lake Baringo] || Boresha |- | 14 || [[Ziwa Chad]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad Lake Chad] || Boresha |- | 15 || [[Ziwa Mweru]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Mweru Lake Mweru] || Boresha |- | 16 || [[Ziwa Kariba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kariba Lake Kariba] || Anzisha |- | 17 || [[Mto Nile]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile Nile River] || Boresha |- | 18 || [[Mto Nile mweupe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile White Nile] || Anzisha |- | 19 || [[Mto Nile bluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Nile Blue Nile] || Anzisha |- | 20 || [[Mto Kagera]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagera_River Kagera River] || Boresha |- | 21 || [[Mto Rufiji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufiji_River Rufiji River] || Boresha |- | 22 || [[Mto Ruvuma]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruvuma_River Ruvuma River] || Boresha |- | 23 || [[Mto Tana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_(Kenya Tana River] || Boresha |- | 24 || [[Mto Athi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athi-Galana-Sabaki_River Athi River] || Boresha |- | 25 || [[Mto Jubba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubba_River Jubba River] || Boresha |- | 26 || [[Mto Shebelle]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebelle_River Shebelle River] || Boresha |- | 27 || [[Mto Congo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_River Congo River] || Boresha |- | 28 || [[Mto Ubangi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi_River Ubangi River] || Boresha |- | 29 || [[Mto Kasai]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_River Kasai River] || Boresha |- | 30 || [[Mto Chari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chari_River Chari River] || Boresha |- | 31 || [[Mto Logone]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logone_River Logone River] || Anzisha |- | 32 || [[Mto Niger]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River Niger River] || Boresha |- | 33 || [[Mto Senegal]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_River Senegal River] || Boresha |- | 34 || [[Mto Gambia]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambia_River Gambia River] || Boresha |- | 35 || [[Mto Volta]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_River Volta River] || Boresha |- | 36 || [[Mto Benue]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_River Benue River] || Boresha |- | 37 || [[Mto Zambezi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezi Zambezi River] || Boresha |- | 38 || [[Mto Limpopo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpopo_River Limpopo River] || Boresha |- | 39 || [[Mto Orange]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_River Orange River] || Boresha |- | 40 || [[Mto Okavango]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okavango_River Okavango River] || Boresha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 2. Natural Water Sources & Geography (Vyanzo vya Maji na Jiografia) |- | 41 || [[Mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River River] || Boresha |- | 42 || [[Ziwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake Lake] || Boresha |- | 43 || [[Bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean Ocean] || Boresha |- | 44 || [[Chemchemi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrology Spring] || Boresha |- | 45 || [[Chemchemi joto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring Hot spring] || Anzisha |- | 46 || [[Maporomoko ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall Waterfall] || Boresha |- | 47 || [[Bonde la mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin Drainage basin] || Anzisha |- | 48 || [[Delta ya mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta River delta] || Boresha |- | 49 || [[Mdomo wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_mouth River mouth] || Anzisha |- | 50 || [[Maji ya ardhini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater Groundwater] || Anzisha |- | 51 || [[Ghuba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay Bay / Gulf] || Boresha |- | 52 || [[Mlango wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait Strait] || Boresha |- | 53 || [[Miamba ya matumbawe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef Coral reef] || Anzisha |- | 54 || [[Fukwe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach Beach] || Anzisha |- | 55 || [[Kinamasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp Swamp] || Anzisha |- | 56 || [[Rasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula Peninsula] || Boresha |- | 57 || [[Msitu wa mikoko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove Mangrove forest] || Anzisha |- | 58 || [[Ziwa la Bonde la Ufa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_valley_lake Rift valley lake] || Anzisha |- | 59 || [[Mto wa barafu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier Glacier] || Boresha |- | 60 || [[Uwanda wa mafuriko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodplain Floodplain] || Anzisha |- | 61 || [[Koo la mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyon Canyon] || Anzisha |- | 62 || [[Mto wa chini ya ardhi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_river Subterranean river] || Anzisha |- | 63 || [[Laguni ya pwani]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon Lagoon] || Anzisha |- | 64 || [[Eneo la visiwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago Archipelago] || Anzisha |- | 65 || [[Bwawa la pembeni]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbow_lake Oxbow lake] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 3. Science & Hydrology (Sayansi na Haidrolojia) |- | 66 || [[Haidrolojia]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology Hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 67 || [[Mzunguko wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle Water cycle] || Anzisha |- | 68 || [[Ubora wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality Water quality] || Anzisha |- | 69 || [[Usafishaji wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification Water purification] || Anzisha |- | 70 || [[Usafishaji wa chumvi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination Desalination] || Anzisha |- | 71 || [[Ikolojia ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecology Aquatic ecology] || Anzisha |- | 72 || [[Uvukizi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation Evaporation] || Boresha |- | 73 || [[Uhandisi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering Hydraulic engineering] || Anzisha |- | 74 || [[Haidrololojia ya mjini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_hydrology Urban hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 75 || [[Mbinu za kisasa za usafi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation Sanitation] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 4. Infrastructure & Engineering (Miundombinu na Uhandisi) |- | 76 || [[Miundombinu ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_network Water infrastructure] || Anzisha |- | 77 || [[Bwawa la kutengenezwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam Dam / Reservoir] || Boresha |- | 78 || [[Mtambo wa kusafisha maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment Water treatment plant] || Anzisha |- | 79 || [[Mfereji wa umwagiliaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal Canal] || Boresha |- | 80 || [[Kilimo cha umwagiliaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation Irrigation farming] || Boresha |- | 81 || [[Mnara wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower Water tower] || Boresha |- | 82 || [[Uchimbaji wa visima virefu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borehole Borehole drilling] || Boresha |- | 83 || [[Mfumo wa majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewerage Sewerage system] || Boresha |- | 84 || [[Shimo la majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tank Septic tank] || Boresha |- | 85 || [[Miundombinu ya kijani]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure Green infrastructure] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 5. Environment & Policy (Mazingira na Sera) |- | 86 || [[Uhifadhi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation Water conservation] || Boresha |- | 87 || [[Upungufu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity Water scarcity] || Boresha |- | 88 || [[Uchafuzi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution Water pollution] || Boresha |- | 89 || [[Mabadiliko ya tabianchi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change Climate change] || Boresha |- | 90 || [[Usawa wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level Sea level] || Boresha |- | 91 || [[Haki ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation Water rights] || Anzisha |- | 92 || [[Sharia ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_law Water law] || Anzisha |- | 93 || [[Mamlaka ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_regulated_utility Water authority] || Anzisha |- | 94 || [[Uchumi wa bluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_economy Blue economy] || Anzisha |- | 95 || [[Sera ya taifa ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_policy Water policy] || Anzisha |- | 96 || [[Mkataba wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_politics River treaty] || Anzisha |- | 97 || [[Uendelevu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_sustainability Water sustainability] || Anzisha |- | 98 || [[Uchumi wa mzunguko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy Circular economy] || Boresha |- | 99 || [[Upatikanaji wa maji safi na salama]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply Safe water access] || Anzisha |- | 100 || [[Usimamizi wa mito inayovuka mipaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transboundary_river Transboundary river management] || Anzisha |} gotsjduqd2ts7773xvt612u7dol47ni 1564536 1564534 2026-06-03T07:45:25Z Anuary Rajabu 45588 1564536 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;"> [[File:Water for life - awc 2026.gif|AFRICA WIKI CHALLENGE 2026 BANNER|center|frameless|1400x1400px]] </div> <div style="width:400px; margin:auto; display:flex; justify-content:space-around; border-bottom:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center;"> <div style="flex:1; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026|<span style="color:#777; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Kuhusu Tukio</span>]] </div> <div style="flex:1; border-bottom:3px solid #005696; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026/Makala|<span style="color:#333; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Makala</span>]] </div> </div> <div style="text-align: center;"> === AWC 2026: Target List of Missing and Improveable Articles === </div> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! No. !! Makala !! Link (en:Wikipedia) !! Hali |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 1. Major African Lakes & Rivers (Mito na Maziwa ya Afrika) |- | 1 || [[Ziwa Victoria]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria Lake Victoria] || Boresha |- | 2 || [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika] || Boresha |- | 3 || [[Ziwa Nyasa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Malawi Lake Malawi] || Boresha |- | 4 || [[Ziwa Turkana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Turkana Lake Turkana] || Boresha |- | 5 || [[Ziwa Albert]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Albert Lake Albert] || Anzisha |- | 6 || [[Ziwa Edward]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Edward Lake Edward] || Boresha |- | 7 || [[Ziwa Kivu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kivu Lake Kivu] || Boresha |- | 8 || [[Ziwa Rukwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Rukwa Lake Rukwa] || Boresha |- | 9 || [[Ziwa Natron]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Natron Lake Natron] || Boresha |- | 10 || [[Ziwa Manyara]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Manyara Lake Manyara] || Boresha |- | 11 || [[Ziwa Eyasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Eyasi Lake Eyasi] || Boresha |- | 12 || [[Ziwa Naivasha]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Naivasha Lake Naivasha] || Boresha |- | 13 || [[Ziwa Baringo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baringo Lake Baringo] || Boresha |- | 14 || [[Ziwa Chad]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad Lake Chad] || Boresha |- | 15 || [[Ziwa Mweru]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Mweru Lake Mweru] || Boresha |- | 16 || [[Ziwa Kariba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kariba Lake Kariba] || Anzisha |- | 17 || [[Mto Nile]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile Nile River] || Boresha |- | 18 || [[Mto Nile mweupe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile White Nile] || Anzisha |- | 19 || [[Mto Nile bluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Nile Blue Nile] || Anzisha |- | 20 || [[Mto Kagera]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagera_River Kagera River] || Boresha |- | 21 || [[Mto Rufiji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufiji_River Rufiji River] || Boresha |- | 22 || [[Mto Ruvuma]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruvuma_River Ruvuma River] || Boresha |- | 23 || [[Mto Tana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_(Kenya Tana River] || Boresha |- | 24 || [[Mto Athi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athi-Galana-Sabaki_River Athi River] || Boresha |- | 25 || [[Mto Jubba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubba_River Jubba River] || Boresha |- | 26 || [[Mto Shebelle]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebelle_River Shebelle River] || Boresha |- | 27 || [[Mto Congo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_River Congo River] || Boresha |- | 28 || [[Mto Ubangi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi_River Ubangi River] || Boresha |- | 29 || [[Mto Kasai]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_River Kasai River] || Boresha |- | 30 || [[Mto Chari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chari_River Chari River] || Boresha |- | 31 || [[Mto Logone]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logone_River Logone River] || Anzisha |- | 32 || [[Mto Niger]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River Niger River] || Boresha |- | 33 || [[Mto Senegal]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_River Senegal River] || Boresha |- | 34 || [[Mto Gambia]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambia_River Gambia River] || Boresha |- | 35 || [[Mto Volta]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_River Volta River] || Boresha |- | 36 || [[Mto Benue]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_River Benue River] || Boresha |- | 37 || [[Mto Zambezi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezi Zambezi River] || Boresha |- | 38 || [[Mto Limpopo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpopo_River Limpopo River] || Boresha |- | 39 || [[Mto Orange]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_River Orange River] || Boresha |- | 40 || [[Mto Okavango]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okavango_River Okavango River] || Boresha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 2. Natural Water Sources & Geography (Vyanzo vya Maji na Jiografia) |- | 41 || [[Mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River River] || Boresha |- | 42 || [[Ziwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake Lake] || Boresha |- | 43 || [[Bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean Ocean] || Boresha |- | 44 || [[Chemchemi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrology Spring] || Boresha |- | 45 || [[Chemchemi joto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring Hot spring] || Anzisha |- | 46 || [[Maporomoko ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall Waterfall] || Boresha |- | 47 || [[Bonde la mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin Drainage basin] || Anzisha |- | 48 || [[Delta ya mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta River delta] || Boresha |- | 49 || [[Mdomo wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_mouth River mouth] || Anzisha |- | 50 || [[Maji ya ardhini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater Groundwater] || Anzisha |- | 51 || [[Ghuba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay Bay / Gulf] || Boresha |- | 52 || [[Mlango wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait Strait] || Boresha |- | 53 || [[Miamba ya matumbawe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef Coral reef] || Anzisha |- | 54 || [[Fukwe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach Beach] || Anzisha |- | 55 || [[Kinamasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp Swamp] || Anzisha |- | 56 || [[Rasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula Peninsula] || Boresha |- | 57 || [[Msitu wa mikoko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove Mangrove forest] || Anzisha |- | 58 || [[Ziwa la Bonde la Ufa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_valley_lake Rift valley lake] || Anzisha |- | 59 || [[Mto wa barafu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier Glacier] || Boresha |- | 60 || [[Uwanda wa mafuriko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodplain Floodplain] || Anzisha |- | 61 || [[Koo la mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyon Canyon] || Anzisha |- | 62 || [[Mto wa chini ya ardhi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_river Subterranean river] || Anzisha |- | 63 || [[Laguni ya pwani]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon Lagoon] || Anzisha |- | 64 || [[Eneo la visiwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago Archipelago] || Anzisha |- | 65 || [[Bwawa la pembeni]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbow_lake Oxbow lake] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 3. Science & Hydrology (Sayansi na Haidrolojia) |- | 66 || [[Haidrolojia]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology Hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 67 || [[Mzunguko wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle Water cycle] || Anzisha |- | 68 || [[Ubora wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality Water quality] || Anzisha |- | 69 || [[Usafishaji wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification Water purification] || Anzisha |- | 70 || [[Usafishaji wa chumvi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination Desalination] || Anzisha |- | 71 || [[Ikolojia ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecology Aquatic ecology] || Anzisha |- | 72 || [[Uvukizi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation Evaporation] || Boresha |- | 73 || [[Uhandisi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering Hydraulic engineering] || Anzisha |- | 74 || [[Haidrololojia ya mjini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_hydrology Urban hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 75 || [[Mbinu za kisasa za usafi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation Sanitation] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 4. Infrastructure & Engineering (Miundombinu na Uhandisi) |- | 76 || [[Miundombinu ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_network Water infrastructure] || Anzisha |- | 77 || [[Bwawa la kutengenezwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam Dam / Reservoir] || Boresha |- | 78 || [[Mtambo wa kusafisha maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment Water treatment plant] || Anzisha |- | 79 || [[Mfereji wa umwagiliaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal Canal] || Boresha |- | 80 || [[Kilimo cha umwagiliaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation Irrigation farming] || Boresha |- | 81 || [[Mnara wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower Water tower] || Boresha |- | 82 || [[Uchimbaji wa visima virefu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borehole Borehole drilling] || Boresha |- | 83 || [[Mfumo wa majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewerage Sewerage system] || Boresha |- | 84 || [[Shimo la majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tank Septic tank] || Boresha |- | 85 || [[Miundombinu ya kijani]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure Green infrastructure] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 5. Environment & Policy (Mazingira na Sera) |- | 86 || [[Uhifadhi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation Water conservation] || Boresha |- | 87 || [[Upungufu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity Water scarcity] || Boresha |- | 88 || [[Uchafuzi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution Water pollution] || Boresha |- | 89 || [[Mabadiliko ya tabianchi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change Climate change] || Boresha |- | 90 || [[Usawa wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level Sea level] || Boresha |- | 91 || [[Haki ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation Water rights] || Anzisha |- | 92 || [[Sharia ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_law Water law] || Anzisha |- | 93 || [[Mamlaka ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_regulated_utility Water authority] || Anzisha |- | 94 || [[Uchumi wa bluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_economy Blue economy] || Anzisha |- | 95 || [[Sera ya taifa ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_policy Water policy] || Anzisha |- | 96 || [[Mkataba wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_politics River treaty] || Anzisha |- | 97 || [[Uendelevu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_sustainability Water sustainability] || Anzisha |- | 98 || [[Uchumi wa mzunguko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy Circular economy] || Boresha |- | 99 || [[Upatikanaji wa maji safi na salama]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply Safe water access] || Anzisha |- | 100 || [[Usimamizi wa mito inayovuka mipaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transboundary_river Transboundary river management] || Anzisha |} sqh8oftyu354mtenscijcxpu48fgek8 1564580 1564536 2026-06-03T11:05:57Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* AWC 2026: Target List of Missing and Improveable Articles */ 1564580 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;"> [[File:Water for life - awc 2026.gif|AFRICA WIKI CHALLENGE 2026 BANNER|center|frameless|1400x1400px]] </div> <div style="width:400px; margin:auto; display:flex; justify-content:space-around; border-bottom:1px solid #ddd; text-align:center;"> <div style="flex:1; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026|<span style="color:#777; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Kuhusu Tukio</span>]] </div> <div style="flex:1; border-bottom:3px solid #005696; padding-bottom:5px;"> [[Event:Africa Wiki Challenge 2026/Makala|<span style="color:#333; font-size:14px; font-weight:bold;">Makala</span>]] </div> </div> <div style="text-align: center;"> === AWC 2026: Target List of Missing and Improveable Articles === </div> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" ! No. !! Makala !! Link (en:Wikipedia) !! Hali |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 1. Major African Lakes & Rivers (Mito na Maziwa ya Afrika) |- | 1 || [[Ziwa Victoria]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Victoria Lake Victoria] || Boresha |- | 2 || [[Ziwa Tanganyika]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika] || Boresha |- | 3 || [[Ziwa Nyasa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Malawi Lake Malawi] || Boresha |- | 4 || [[Ziwa Turkana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Turkana Lake Turkana] || Boresha |- | 5 || [[Ziwa Albert (Afrika)]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Albert Lake Albert] || Boresha |- | 6 || [[Ziwa Edward]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Edward Lake Edward] || Boresha |- | 7 || [[Ziwa Kivu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kivu Lake Kivu] || Boresha |- | 8 || [[Ziwa Rukwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Rukwa Lake Rukwa] || Boresha |- | 9 || [[Ziwa Natron]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Natron Lake Natron] || Boresha |- | 10 || [[Ziwa Manyara]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Manyara Lake Manyara] || Boresha |- | 11 || [[Ziwa Eyasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Eyasi Lake Eyasi] || Boresha |- | 12 || [[Ziwa Naivasha]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Naivasha Lake Naivasha] || Boresha |- | 13 || [[Ziwa Baringo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baringo Lake Baringo] || Boresha |- | 14 || [[Ziwa Chad]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad Lake Chad] || Boresha |- | 15 || [[Ziwa Mweru]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Mweru Lake Mweru] || Boresha |- | 16 || [[Ziwa Kariba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kariba Lake Kariba] || Anzisha |- | 17 || [[Mto Nile]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile Nile River] || Boresha |- | 18 || [[Nile Nyeupe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile White Nile] || Boresha |- | 19 || [[Nile ya buluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Nile Blue Nile] || Boresha |- | 20 || [[Mto Kagera]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagera_River Kagera River] || Boresha |- | 21 || [[Mto Rufiji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufiji_River Rufiji River] || Boresha |- | 22 || [[Mto Ruvuma]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruvuma_River Ruvuma River] || Boresha |- | 23 || [[Mto Tana]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_(Kenya Tana River] || Boresha |- | 24 || [[Mto Athi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athi-Galana-Sabaki_River Athi River] || Boresha |- | 25 || [[Mto Jubba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubba_River Jubba River] || Boresha |- | 26 || [[Mto Shebelle]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebelle_River Shebelle River] || Boresha |- | 27 || [[Mto Congo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congo_River Congo River] || Boresha |- | 28 || [[Mto Ubangi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubangi_River Ubangi River] || Boresha |- | 29 || [[Mto Kasai]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasai_River Kasai River] || Boresha |- | 30 || [[Mto Chari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chari_River Chari River] || Boresha |- | 31 || [[Mto Logone]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logone_River Logone River] || Anzisha |- | 32 || [[Mto Niger]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River Niger River] || Boresha |- | 33 || [[Mto Senegal]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_River Senegal River] || Boresha |- | 34 || [[Mto Gambia]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambia_River Gambia River] || Boresha |- | 35 || [[Mto Volta]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_River Volta River] || Boresha |- | 36 || [[Mto Benue]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_River Benue River] || Boresha |- | 37 || [[Mto Zambezi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezi Zambezi River] || Boresha |- | 38 || [[Mto Limpopo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpopo_River Limpopo River] || Boresha |- | 39 || [[Mto Orange]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_River Orange River] || Boresha |- | 40 || [[Mto Okavango]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okavango_River Okavango River] || Boresha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 2. Natural Water Sources & Geography (Vyanzo vya Maji na Jiografia) |- | 41 || [[Mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River River] || Boresha |- | 42 || [[Ziwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake Lake] || Boresha |- | 43 || [[Bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean Ocean] || Boresha |- | 44 || [[Chemchemi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrology Spring] || Boresha |- | 45 || [[Chemchemi joto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring Hot spring] || Anzisha |- | 46 || [[Maporomoko ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall Waterfall] || Boresha |- | 47 || [[Beseni]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin Drainage basin] || Boresha |- | 48 || [[Delta ya mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta River delta] || Boresha |- | 49 || [[Mdomo wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_mouth River mouth] || Anzisha |- | 50 || [[Maji ya ardhini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater Groundwater] || Anzisha |- | 51 || [[Ghuba]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay Bay / Gulf] || Boresha |- | 52 || [[Mlango wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait Strait] || Boresha |- | 53 || [[Mwamba tumbawe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef Coral reef] || Boresha |- | 54 || [[Fukwe]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach Beach] || Anzisha |- | 55 || [[Kinamasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swamp Swamp] || Anzisha |- | 56 || [[Rasi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula Peninsula] || Boresha |- | 57 || [[Kapa (pwani)]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove Mangrove forest] || Boresha |- | 58 || [[Ziwa la Bonde la Ufa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_valley_lake Rift valley lake] || Anzisha |- | 59 || [[Mto wa barafu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier Glacier] || Boresha |- | 60 || [[Uwanda wa mafuriko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floodplain Floodplain] || Anzisha |- | 61 || [[Koo la mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyon Canyon] || Anzisha |- | 62 || [[Mto wa chini ya ardhi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_river Subterranean river] || Anzisha |- | 63 || [[Wangwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon Lagoon] || Boresha |- | 64 || [[Funguvisiwa]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago Archipelago] || Boresha |- | 65 || [[Bwawa la pembeni]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbow_lake Oxbow lake] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 3. Science & Hydrology (Sayansi na Haidrolojia) |- | 66 || [[Elimumaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology Hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 67 || [[Dura ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle Water cycle] || Boresha |- | 68 || [[Ubora wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality Water quality] || Anzisha |- | 69 || [[Usafishaji wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification Water purification] || Anzisha |- | 70 || [[Uondoaji wa chumvi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desalination Desalination] || Anzisha |- | 71 || [[Ikolojia ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecology Aquatic ecology] || Anzisha |- | 72 || [[Uvukizi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation Evaporation] || Boresha |- | 73 || [[Uhandisi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering Hydraulic engineering] || Anzisha |- | 74 || [[Hidrololojia ya mjini]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_hydrology Urban hydrology] || Anzisha |- | 75 || [[Usafi wa mazingira]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation Sanitation] || Boresha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 4. Infrastructure & Engineering (Miundombinu na Uhandisi) |- | 76 || [[Miundombinu ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_network Water infrastructure] || Anzisha |- | 77 || [[Lambo]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam Dam / Reservoir] || Boresha |- | 78 || [[Mtambo wa kusafisha maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment Water treatment plant] || Anzisha |- | 79 || [[Mfereji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal Canal] || Boresha |- | 80 || [[Umwagiliaji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation Irrigation farming] || Boresha |- | 81 || [[Mnara wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower Water tower] || Boresha |- | 82 || [[Uchimbaji wa visima virefu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borehole Borehole drilling] || Boresha |- | 83 || [[Mfumo wa majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewerage Sewerage system] || Boresha |- | 84 || [[Shimo la majitaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tank Septic tank] || Boresha |- | 85 || [[Miundombinu ya kijani]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure Green infrastructure] || Anzisha |- ! colspan="4" style="background:#f2f2f2;" | 5. Environment & Policy (Mazingira na Sera) |- | 86 || [[Uhifadhi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation Water conservation] || Boresha |- | 87 || [[Upungufu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity Water scarcity] || Boresha |- | 88 || [[Uchafuzi wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution Water pollution] || Boresha |- | 89 || [[Mabadiliko ya tabianchi]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change Climate change] || Boresha |- | 90 || [[Usawa wa bahari]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level Sea level] || Boresha |- | 91 || [[Haki ya kuwa na maji na mazingira salama]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation Water rights] || Boresha |- | 92 || [[Sheria za maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_law Water law] || Anzisha |- | 93 || [[Mamlaka ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_regulated_utility Water authority] || Anzisha |- | 94 || [[Uchumi wa buluu]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_economy Blue economy] || Boresha |- | 95 || [[Sera ya maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_policy Water policy] || Anzisha |- | 96 || [[Mkataba wa mto]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_politics River treaty] || Anzisha |- | 97 || [[Uendelevu wa maji]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_sustainability Water sustainability] || Anzisha |- | 98 || [[Uchumi wa mzunguko]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy Circular economy] || Boresha |- | 99 || [[Upatikanaji wa maji salama]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply Safe water access] || Anzisha |- | 100 || [[Usimamizi wa mito inayovuka mipaka]] || [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transboundary_river Transboundary river management] || Anzisha |} 5yyv5t7rjwuz0s9km2j1lit2i50qizp 2 240238 1564537 2026-06-03T08:48:48Z Ibrahimgabrielofficial 89920 /* */ Creating my user page 1564537 wikitext text/x-wiki Ibrahimgabrielofficial e1q3mwbe4wmfb5hrwg97flunkkfshzh 3 240239 1564538 2026-06-03T09:18:50Z Ibrahimgabrielofficial 89920 /* */ Created user talk page 1564538 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Ibrahim Gabriel. I am a Tanzanian gospel music artist. I released the gospel song "Kusudi la Mungu". I am interested in music and technology. cmkots60h72g08gyol3vs4mxh16eo8z 1564541 1564538 2026-06-03T09:48:33Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564541 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == My name is Ibrahim Gabriel. I am a Tanzanian gospel music artist. I released the gospel song "Kusudi la Mungu". I am interested in music and technology.<div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) b6xf5xe3ircy909dva3nv822dpcek7o 3 240240 1564539 2026-06-03T09:48:13Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564539 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) osfq86m6zxtew1q571l82t1ghuzesv8 3 240241 1564540 2026-06-03T09:48:23Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564540 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) osfq86m6zxtew1q571l82t1ghuzesv8 3 240242 1564542 2026-06-03T09:48:43Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564542 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) osfq86m6zxtew1q571l82t1ghuzesv8 3 240243 1564543 2026-06-03T09:48:53Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564543 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) osfq86m6zxtew1q571l82t1ghuzesv8 3 240244 1564544 2026-06-03T09:49:03Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564544 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240245 1564545 2026-06-03T09:49:13Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564545 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240246 1564546 2026-06-03T09:49:23Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564546 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240247 1564547 2026-06-03T09:49:33Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564547 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240248 1564548 2026-06-03T09:49:43Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564548 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240249 1564549 2026-06-03T09:49:53Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564549 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) rjidpxg8t92sdtnc3gsj91xfy2robcj 3 240250 1564550 2026-06-03T09:50:03Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564550 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240251 1564551 2026-06-03T09:50:13Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564551 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240252 1564552 2026-06-03T09:50:23Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564552 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240253 1564553 2026-06-03T09:50:33Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564553 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240254 1564554 2026-06-03T09:50:43Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564554 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240255 1564555 2026-06-03T09:50:53Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564555 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) hqo4u46a5gshiqnwqooix5crvb6a81f 3 240256 1564556 2026-06-03T09:51:03Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564556 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240257 1564557 2026-06-03T09:51:13Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564557 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240258 1564558 2026-06-03T09:51:23Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564558 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240259 1564559 2026-06-03T09:51:33Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564559 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240260 1564560 2026-06-03T09:51:43Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564560 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240261 1564561 2026-06-03T09:51:53Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564561 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:51, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) h0y9llsr98tkjvbd5l9q0drkxrw4d7a 3 240262 1564562 2026-06-03T09:52:03Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1564562 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:52, 3 Juni 2026 (UTC) sx54usy8qdj9ye1jzqwwg0d3klrf9dk 0 240263 1564564 2026-06-03T10:20:23Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Mind Games (2017 film)]] hadi [[Mind Games]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1564564 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Mind Games]] s9va6k07oe3u7e79hzeaafnjssynv40 0 240264 1564567 2026-06-03T10:23:54Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[List of films about black girlhood]] hadi [[Orodha ya filamu kuhusu wasichana wenye asili ya Afrika]]: jina la Kiswahili 1564567 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Orodha ya filamu kuhusu wasichana wenye asili ya Afrika]] k3a1adlzmoplzfxcm9t6rjadcu7huxo 0 240265 1564572 2026-06-03T10:28:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Ministry of Energy (Russia)]] hadi [[Wizara ya Nishati (Urusi)]]: jina la Kiswahili 1564572 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Wizara ya Nishati (Urusi)]] 6y1fa7b0y7q5lqxea8jvg3p55k8ixsl 0 240266 1564576 2026-06-03T10:34:22Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Liyana (film)]] hadi [[Liyana]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1564576 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Liyana]] amwvr4kymwdaoqqcnul07jo7qa2c009